drinking water treatment and disinfection

Water Quality of Drinking Water Resources

and Formation of Disinfection by-products

Prof Dr. Mohamed I. Badawy

1

Egyptian-German Workshop on Sustainable

Water Technologies

(SusWaTec Workshop) 18.-20th February 2013 - Cairo, Egypt

National Research Centre, Water Pollution Research Department

Dokki, Cairo, Egypt

e-mail: [email protected]

SusWaTec Workshop 19 February 2013

Contents

2

Challenges in water Quality.

Disinfection By-Products (DBPs) in Four Drinking Water

Treatment Plant in Greater Cairo.

Minimization of the formation of DBPs.


Objectives

Evaluation of River Nile water

quality.

Impacts of the water quality.

The formation of Disinfection by-

products. Emphasis on chlorine

DBPs.

Minimization of the formation of

disinfection by-products

Water Supply

19 February 2013 SusWaTec Workshop 4

The River Nile forms the main water resource of Egypt. According to Sudan agreement a stable 55.5 billion m3/yr. was allocated to Egypt, which represents 95 % of all renewable water resources.

Ground Water: Four different groundwater aquifers: the Nile Aquifer, the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer, the Moghra Aquifer and the Coastal Aquifer. Each resource has its limitations on use. These limitations relate to quantity, quality, location, time, and cost of development. The maximum renewable amount of ground water is around 7.5 BCM.

Average rainfall in Egypt is estimated at 18 mm or 1.8 billion m³ per year. Furthermore.

Non-conventional water resources include agricultural drainage water, desalinization of brackish groundwater and/or seawater, and treated municipal wastewater. The total amount of such indirect reuse is estimated to be about 12,6 BCM/year.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groundwater

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquifer

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rainfall

Water Demand


Various demands for freshwater are exerting excessive pressure on the available water supply.

The agricultural sector (including fisheries) is the highest freshwater consumer, utilizing about 86% of the available supplies.

The domestic and industrial sectors consume 7% and 8% of the total natural supplies.

It is now evident that non-conventional water sources of freshwater are necessary to meet the current and future freshwater demand.

Population growth and per capita water

share in Egypt (m3/year)


It is worth mentioning that the availability of renewable water resources in Egypt has dropped from 1500 m3/capita/year in 1966 to 700 m3/capita/year in 2010.

Today, the per capita water availability of less than 700 m3 per year in Egypt is already below the water poverty line of 1,000 m3 per capita a year, accepted by the World Bank

Furthermore, it is forecasted that in 2025 the population will reach 95 million, which would mean a per capita share of only 600 m³ per year

2- Source of Water Pollution

7 SusWaTec Workshop 19 February 2013

2.1. Wastewater

discharges

Nile River from Aswan to

Delta Barrage receives

wastewater discharge from

124 point sources, of which

67 are agricultural drains

and the remainder is

industrial and domestic

sources.


2.2 -Industrial Waste Water

9

Egyptian industry uses 7.6 Bm3/yr of water.

The River Nile supplies 65% of the industrial water needs and

receives more than 57% of its effluents.

12 % treat their wastes a complete scientific treatment, 14 %

partially treat their wastes and the 74 % don't treat them at all.

Food industries contribute to 45% of total effluent discharge

and to 67% of the total BOD load introduced. However, the

chemical industry is responsible for more than 60% of the

heavy metal discharges


2.3-Agricultural drainage water

10

The agricultural drainage of the southern part of Egypt returns directly to the Nile River where it is mixed with the Nile fresh water. The total amount of such indirect reuse is estimated to be about 4.07 BCM/year.

In the Delta region the amount of agricultural drainage water reuse officially was estimated to be around 4.27 BCM/year, in addition to about 0.3 BCM/year lifted to surface water (Rossetta branch) from west delta drains. Additional unofficial reuse done by farmers themselves has been estimated to be around 2.8 BCM/year.

The remaining drainage water is discharged to the sea and the northern lakes via drainage pump stations. The total amount of drainage water that was pumped to the sea has been estimated to be 12.41 BCM/year.


2.4-Domestic Wastewater

11

The amount of collected wastewater is about 6.5 BCM /Yr

3.65 BCM /Yr

(Treated)

20 % Primary

(0.73BCM)

80% Secondry

(2.92 BCM)

2.85 BCM /Yr

(not Treated)

(5 % of Nile Share)


Activated Sludge Treatment Plant


Other biological treatment techniques

Oxidation Pond Aerated Lagoons


3- Impact of Wastewater Discharge

14

The constituents of concern in domestic and municipal wastewater are pathogens, parasites, nutrients, oxygen demanding compounds and suspended solids.

High levels of toxic substances in industrial wastewater have been reported such as heavy metals & organic micro-pollutants.

Trace micro-pollutants are mainly attached to suspended material, most of it accumulates in the sludge. Improper sludge disposal and/or reuse may lead to contamination of surface and ground water.


3- Impact of Wastewater Discharge (Cont.)

15

Increased salinity due to agricultural drainage reuse.

Drainage return flow to the Nile result into an increase in

salinity of the water from 130 mg/l at Aswan (far

upstream) to 250 mg/l near the delta barrage.

Organic and inorganic pollution associated with disposal

of untreated or partially treated industrial effluents into

water ways (mainly drains) at specific locations and hot

spots.

Pollution resulting from agrochemicals and pesticides.


3- Impact of Wastewater Discharge (Cont.)

16

Formation of chlorine DBPs in treated water

Chlorination is one of the most widely used disinfection processes in water treatment plants in Egypt to ensure a safe drinking water.

The Nile River supplies about 97 % of the annual renewable drinking water resources in Egypt. One of the major quality problems facing the use of surface water for drinking purposes is the formation of carcinogenic compounds such as DBPs due to the reaction of NOM with chlorine during drinking water treatment processes.

Numerous treated water samples collected from various locations in Egypt have shown high THM and HAA levels.


4- DBPs Precursors and DBPs

Levels in DWTPs in Greater Cairo

A Case Study


Introduction

18

This study is a joint research project between NRC, Egypt and

University of South Carolina, USA, aims to:

Develop an efficient treatment scheme for drinking water containing

NOM and reduction of formation of DBPs (THMs and HAAs).

To achieve this task different treatment schemes were investigated

consisting of enhanced coagulation, sedimentation, disinfection by

using chlorine dioxide, ozone, filtration by sand filter, and/or GAC.


Introduction (Cont.)


Intake Screening Pre-

chlortination

Coagulation Flocculation Sedimentation

Sand filtration

Post-chlorinatin

Distribution

Disinfection of water

during treatment

process

Disinfection of

water during

distribution

•Raw water should have low concentrations of all contaminants.

•Exhibit minimal variability from day to day.

•By avoiding the contamination of water resource, water treatment becomes easier, less expensive and more quality.

Introduction (Cont.)


NOM

Cl2

DBPs

THMs

• CHCl3

• CHCl2Br

• CHClBr2

• CHBr3

HAAs

• MCAA

• DCAA

• TCAA

• MBAA

• DBAA

Several studies reported that these

compounds have been related to:

• occurrence of cancer,

• growth retardation, spontaneous

abortion,

• and congenital cardiac defects

Factors affecting DBPs formation:

pH,

temperature,

dissolved organic carbon (DOC),

bromide concentrations,

and operational factors (chlorine dose,

contact time).

Experimental


Monitoring program was conducted in 4 drinking water treatment plants which are located in Giza and Cairo Governorates.

El-Dahab Island and Embaba DWTPs were selected in Giza Governorate.

In Cairo Governorate, Mostorod and Fostat DWTPs were chosen.

Several samples were collected from each treatment step including inlet, after clarifier, after sedimentation, and finally from plant outlet

Parameters related to DBPs formations

Physico chemical parameters related

to DBPS formation such as Turbidity,

pH, residual CL2, conductivity,

Alkalinity and Color(at ּ455ג ).

TOC& DOC which give an

indication on the natural organic

matter (NOM).

UV254 and specific Ultraviolet

absorption at 254 nm (SUVA254), an

indicator of carbon aromaticity in

water and hydophlocity of NOM.

Parameter TOC

DOC

UV254

SUVA

254

THMs

HAAs

Algae

Sample

Intake

Clarifier

Filter

Outlet

Locations Cairo

Mostorod DWTP

Fostat DWTP

Giza

El-Dahab Island DWTP

Embaba DWTP.


Results

23

• Average NOM contents in raw waters were 5.14, 4.43, 4.24 and 3.28 mgC/L with an average UVA254 of 0.1, 0.0947, 0.0948, 0.069 and 0.066 L/mg-M at Embaba, El-Dahab Island, Fostat and Mostorod DWTPs, respectively.

• In parallel, SUVA254 values in all DWTPs were also in the low to medium range (1.62 - 2.54 L/mg-M)

• This indicates that NOM in raw waters is of low molecular weight with hydrophobic and aromatic characteristics.


Parameters Unit Range Average

PH - 7.55 - 7.35 7.45

Turbidity NTU 6.5 - 52.5 28.77

Color mg/l Pt- Co 13 - 41 20.56

Conductivity µS/cm 406 - 1003 569.25

Alkalinity mg/l CaCO3 128.4 - 193.6 149.77

DOC Mg /L 2.73 - 3.66 3.22

TOC mg/L 3.20 - 5.11 4.30

UV254 1/cm 0.05 - 0.14 0.08

SUVA254 1/mg*m 1.75 - 3.72 2.36

Seasonal variation of raw water quality

Seasonal Variations of surrogate Parameters

25

pH did not display seasonal variation and remains constant around 7.5.

Both turbidity and UV absorbance showed strong seasonal variation since The turbidity values increased in summer52 NTU

and 6.5NTU in spring season respectively.

While in winter and autumn there were no significant change in its value.

TOC increased moderately in spring season to reach 5.11mgC/l.

Maximum true color (455 nm) was observed in winter season (41 Pt/Co).

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Jan

Feb

Marc

h

April

May

June

July

Augst

Sept

Oct

Nov

Dec

DOC TOC

SUV UV × 10


DWTP Performance efficiency

26

The obtained results indicated that the DWTS are not very effective in removal of total organic carbon (TOC), especially DOC removal was about 9 %.

The conductivity of the water samples slightly increased through the treatment stages .

PH of the collected samples was nearly constant within the treatment steps.

Alkalinity of the collected

samples was decreased through the treatment steps by 20.47%.

95,9 89,7

20,5 22

9

84

40

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Rem

oval P

erc

ent

%


Results

27

• To assess the Efficiency of DWTPs, samples were collected

from the treatment stages. The parameters related to DBPs formations were analyzed in each sample.

• Current treatment processes were found to be effective in the removal of suspended solids as turbidity values reduced by 90.06%, 87.25%, 90.73% and 87.86% in Embaba, El-Dahab Island, Fostat and Mostorod DWTPs, respectively.

• The conductivity removals were 25.91, 15.90, 1.79 and 8.25% for Embaba, El-Dahab Island, Fostat and Mostorod DWTPs, respectively.

• In general, the studied DWTPs were relatively not very effective in removal of total organic carbon (TOC) since the removal percentages of DOC in Embaba, El-Dahab Island, Fostat and Mostorod DWTPs were 32.41, 22.35, 22.64, 14.63%, respectively.

• The DOC removal might be due to reaction between chlorine used in disinfection and DOC and/or adsorption on sand filter. The low DOC percent removal indicates that water after passing through settling basins and filters was still loaded with organic matter.

• Consequently, the latter compounds would contribute to increase the levels of THMs as the retention time is extended during the water treatment processes.


% Removal of algae in the studied DWTPs

28

Percentage of algal removal ranged between 77.7 to 84.8% of the total algae count of raw water samples as an average value between 4 different water treatment plants.

After sand filtration composition of algae was further changed. and diatoms represent the highest ratio in the outlet water.

It is indicated the abilities of diatoms algae to pass through the sand filter due to their spindle structure and their small size.

After ClarifierAfter Filtration

Final Outlet0

1020304050

60

70

80

90

100

After Clarifier After Filtration Final Outlet


Efficiency of DWTPs in Bacteria Removal


The studied DWTPs showed high efficiency for the removal of bacteria from raw water.

The reduction in total bacterial count mostly occurs after prechlorination process (70-88%). The remaining counts removed after post-chlorination at the DWTPs outlets.

Total Coliform, Fecal Coliform and Fecal Streptococci were absent in all samples after clarification.

Determination of Optimal Treatment Processes for

Natural Organic Matter Removal and Disinfection By-

Product Formation Reduction

Mohamed I. Badawya, Tarek A. Gad-Allaha,⇑, Mohamed E.M. Alia , Yeoman Yoon

a Water Pollution Research Department, National Research Centre, P.O. Box 12311, Dokki, Cairo, Egypt b Department of Civil/Environmental Engineering, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29201, USA


Factors Affecting DBP Formation

Water quality - TOC - Temperature - pH - Bromide

Point of disinfection Time

- Alkalinity - Turbidity - Other components

Disinfectant used - Chlorine - Chloramine - Chlorine dioxide

- Ozone

Effect of TOC and UV254

NOM + Cl2 → THMs + HAAs + other DBPs.

TOC is one of the most widely used measures for quantifying the amount of NOM in water.

DOC represented the relative amount of precursor material

UV254 has been widely used to predict (DOC) in water or its reactivity in forming disinfection by-products.

The results show that a higher available TOC or UV254 will provide more DBPs.

SUVAs and DBPS formation

The SUVA reflects the hydrophobic fraction of organic matter.

Waters with a low humic acid fraction have SUVAs less than 3

L/mg m, while waters with a high humic acid fraction have SUVAs

between 3 and 5 L/mg m.

The obtained results showed the SUVA is less than 3 L/mgm,

therefore the effect of the coagulant dosage may be negligible

and relatively low removal percentages and high levels of DBPs

formation were obtained.

Effect of Contact Time


• Cl2 reacts very fast to produce reasonable amounts of THMs and HAAs within short time (30 min); the subsequent increase is slightly slow.

• The increase in THMs and HAAs concentration with time is due to more contact between Cl2 and NOM present in water.

• It is interesting to note that the extent of formation varies from one compound to another.

• THMs • CHCl3: (i.e., 76%) within 100 min . • CHBr2Cl: 14% within 100 min • CHBr3 : 20% within 100 min • CHBrCl2 : the most affected, 55% increase in 100

min. • HAAs

• MCAA: 79.64 µg/L 98.87 i.e. 16.5 % within 90 min

• DCAA and TCAA: 26, and 25 %, respectively in the same time intervals.

• Brominated acetic acid compounds were not detected.

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140H

AA

s (µ

g/L

)

Time (min)

MCAA DCAA TCAA(b)

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

Co

nce

ntr

tio

n (

µg/

L)

Time (min)

CHCl3 CHClBr2 CHCl2Br CHBr3(a)

Effect of pH

35

increasing pH from 5 to 8.5 has

significant effect on the formation of

DBPs

Maximum yields of THMs pH 7.

Maximum yields of HAAs pH 8.

At high pH values: decomposition of

many halogenated DBPs occurs and

the concentration of DBPs decreased.

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

4 6 8 10

Co

nce

ntr

tio

n (

µg/

L)

pH (-)

CHCl3 CHCl2Br CHClBr2 CHBr3(a)


0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

4 5 6 7 8 9 10

HA

As

(µg/L

)

pH (-)

MCAA DCAA TCAA(b)

Effect of initial Cl2 dose

36

• In general, as chlorine dose is increased, THMs and HAAs yield attains higher values. However, THMs formation was not directly proportional to the applied chlorine dose.

• The DOC in real surface waters is a contribution of different organic compounds and some substances are not THM precursors. and/or that chlorination yields several halogenated organics other than THMs.

• Among the four THMs, CHCl3 was the dominant species and occupied over 69 % of the total THMs concentration (TTHM).

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

0 5 10 15

Co

ncen

trti

on

(µ

g/L

)

Initial Cl2 dose (mg/L)


0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

0 2 4 6

Co

ncen

trti

on

(µ

g/L

)

Initial Cl2 dose (mg/L)

MCAA DCAA TCAA(b)

Effect of Chlorine dose on (a) THMs and (b) HAAs formation


Effect of bromide ion

37

In the formation of THMs, with the Br− content increasing, the content of

DCBM, DBCM and TBM increase.

In general, TBM concentration increases slightly with increasing bromide ion

concentration. But, a slight decrease in TTHM with higher Br− dosage.

The results show that in the compositions of DBPs, with the increasing Br−

concentration, the component of chlorine decreased gradually, and the

component of bromine increased.


Effect of initial TOC concentration

38

• THMs • Chloroform is the most affected compound • Other compounds were slightly affected by TOC value.

• HAAs

• MCAA concentration increased by 20 %. • DCAA and TCAA concentration increased by 49 and 40 %, respectively.

TOC : 10 mg/L 15 mg/L

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

0 4 8 12 16

Co

ncen

trti

on

(µ

g/L

)

TOC (mgC/L)


0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

HA

As

(µg/

L)

TOC (mgC/L)

MCAA DCAA TCAA(b)

Effect of initial TOC concentration on (a) THMs and (b) HAAs formation


DOC fractions and their contribution in

DBPs formation

39

For understanding of the correlation between DOC fractions and DBPs formation, a series of

bench scale experiments were conducted.

Raw water sample was collected from Nile River and then fractionated.

Finally, each fraction was chlorinated with 5 mg/L Cl2 for one hour.

the DBPs formation for the hydrophilic species was usually higher than that of hydrophobic

species.

This indicated that the hydrophilic fraction was a more reactive precursor for THMs than the

hydrophobic fraction.

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

Raw HPL HPO TPL

Co

ncen

trati

on

(u

g/L

)

CHCl3 CHCl2Br CHClBr2 CHBr3

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

Raw HPL HPO TPL

Co

ncen

trati

on

(u

g/L

)

MCAA DCAA TCAAMBAA BCAA DBAA

Contribution of DOC fractions in DBPs formations, (a) THMs and (b) HAAs


Disinfection by-products (DBP)

levels


(DBP)formation

41

The concentration found to

increase through the processes

about 27% of THMs formed in

flash mix process (the point of

chlorine addition).

While 43% of THMs occurs in

slow mix unit and reach to 72% of

their value through sedimentation

and 75% through filtration.

After the post chlorine is added

THMs increased with about 25%

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

% T

HM

s R

em

oval


Disinfection by-products (DBP) levels after

the storage tank

42

THMs and HAAs are the most important groups of DBPs.

The average concentrations of TTHMs were 64.38, 43.94, 52.41 and 51.72 µg/L in water samples collected from the outlet of Embaba, El-Dahab Island, Fostat and Mostorod DWTPs, respectively, which still less than the Egyptian standards for Drinking Water Quality (100 µg/L).

While the corresponding average concentrations of HAAs were 57.64, 54.79, 36.38 and 61.52 µg/L for Embaba, El-Dahab Island, Fostat and Mostorod DWTPs, respectively.

The average concentration of studied HAAs was on the margin of the maximum contaminant level of 60 μg/L


TTHMs for Summer Event in Nasr City Tap Water

Smith and El Deen (2009)


The monthly change of THMs


A relative decrease in

concentration of THMs was

noticed during January to

March.

The levels of THMs

increased started from March

until May.

TOC increased moderately in

the same period to reach

5.2mgC/l.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul.

Co

ncen

trati

on

(µ

g/L

)

CHCl3 CHCl2Br CHClBr2 CHBr3 TTHM

(a)

Minimization of the formation of

disinfection by-products

Mohamedy. Badawy a, Tarek A. Gad-Allah a, ,Mohamed.M. Alia, Yeoman Yoonb

a Water Pollution Research Department, National Research Centre, P.O. Box 12311, Dokki, Cairo, Egypt b Department of Civil/Environmental Engineering, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29201, USA


OVERVIEW

46

Ozone Destruction

Gas Feed

System

Ozone

Generator

Influent

Effluent

Atmosphere

Ozone Gas

Ozone

Quench

(Option)

Off-Gas


Technologies for the reduction of DBP

formation

47

Enhanced coagulation

Granular activated carbon

Membrane filtration

Alternate disinfectants

Chlorine dioxide

Ozone


Additional Treatment for DBPs Control

48

Sorption

Powder activated carbon (PAC)

Granular activated carbon (GAC)

Synthetic resins

Oxidation/reduction

Ozone

Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs)

Ozone/hydrogen peroxide

Ozone/UV radiation


Enhanced coagulation

49

The coagulation process was optimized by the selection of coagulants and

coagulant aid rather than by adjusting the pH value because it is expensive to

adjust the pH to acidic conditions where the source water has high alkalinity of

150 to 200 mg/L.

Sedimentation

Filtration

Raw water Flocculation


Ozonation

Benefits Problems

50

Adequate disinfection

Reduction of chlorine or

chloramine dosage

Reduction of some DBPs:

THMs, HAAs, and HANs

Very small THM formation

when applied with

chloramine

Increase of some DBPs: chloropicrin, chlorinated hydrate and CNCl

Reduction with bromide ion resulting in brominated DBPs

Increase in biodegradable organic matter

Need for identification of DBPs


Treatment trains used in bench scale

experiments

51

Cl2 gas coagulation Rapid Sand

Filter Cl2 gas

ClO2 gas Enhanced

coagulation Rapid Sand

Filter Cl2 gas

ClO2 gas Enhanced

coagulation GAC Filter Cl2 gas

O3 gas Enhanced

coagulation Rapid Sand

Filter Cl2 gas

O3 gas Enhanced

coagulation GAC Filter Cl2 gas


Optimization of Coagulation-flocculation

process

52

AP: Anionic polymer. NP: Nonionic polymer. CP: Cationic polymer


Effect of coagulant aid on the treatment of

drinking water


Comparison among different treatment

trains

54

Chlorine dioxide reduces the DBPs

formation of about 70 to 79.6% for THMs

and 70 to 76.4 for HAAS with respect to

the chlorine disinfection.

Comparison between Train #1 and Trains

#1*, #3 and #3* indicated that much

stronger DOC removal was achieved by

pre-ozonation prior to coagulation and

filtration by using sand filter or GAC

filter.

This Figure clearly indicate that the

effluent from trains #3 and #3* reduced

the DOC values by 64 and 70 %,

respectively.

In addition, ozonation induced increase

in DOC removal on coagulation

processes.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Train # 1 Train #1* Train #2 Train #2* Train #3 Train #3*

UVA254 DOC THMs HAAs

Train 1 [enhanced coagulation by CP and sand filtration];

Train 1* [enhanced coagulation by CP and GAC filtration];

Train 2 [disinfection by ClO2, enhanced coagulation by CP and

sand filtration];

Train 2* [disinfection by ClO2, enhanced coagulation by CP and

GAC filtration];

Train 3 [disinfection by O3, enhanced coagulation by CP and sand

filtration];

Train 3* [disinfection by O3, enhanced coagulation by CP and GAC

filtration].


Conclusion

55

The studied DWTPs were relatively not very effective in removal of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) since the removal percentages of DOC ranged between 15 and 32 mg/l.

The concentrations of THMs in the studied drinking water treatment plants were all below the Egyptian standards for Drinking Water Quality (100 µg/L).

The average concentrations of studied HAAs in water DWTPs exceeded the maximum contaminant level of 60 μg/L.


Conclusion (Cont.)

56

Chlorine dioxide is strong oxidizing agent and reduces the DBPs formation of about 70 to 79.6% for THMs and 70 to 76.4 for HAAS with respect to the chlorine disinfection.

However chlorine dioxide represents a potential source of risk for human health due to the introduction of inorganic by-products such as chlorite (ClO2

-) and chlorate (ClO3-) ions.

2ClO2 + 2OH- = H2O + ClO3- (Chlorate) + ClO2

-(Chlorite)

Using pre-ozonation/enhanced coagulation/activated carbon filtration treatment train appears to be the most effective method for reducing DBPs precursors and DBPS in drinking water treatment.


Recommendations & Action


What should be taken to achieve the water

situation?

59

Applying Integrated Water Resources Management approach

through developing governmental and non-governmental

Institutions as well as enforcement of laws and legislations .

Allocating different conventional and non-conventional water

resources (agricultural drainage and wastewater reuse, sea

water and brackish water desalination, rain harvesting, flash

flood harvesting).


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:View_from_Cairo_Tower_31march2007.jpg

What should be taken to achieve the water

situation? (Cont.)

60

Irrigation improvement and changing crop patterns.

Cooperation with the Nile Basin countries

Supporting and enhancing the private sector role in water

management

Pollution abatement as well as preserving water resources


The Nile River supplies about 97 % of the annual Drinking water

resources in Egypt.

The domestic sectors consumes 7bcm3/year of the total fresh water

supplies.

Raw water should have low concentrations of all contaminants and exhibit minimal variability from day to day.

By avoiding the contamination of water resource, water treatment becomes easier, less expensive and more reliable.

Drinking Water Resource and Demand


drinking water treatment and disinfection

Documents