HISTORY OF GENDER WID AND GAD

CONTENDING THEORIES/APPROACHES OF GENDER

The origins of WID, “Women in Development”

WID perspective was developed by American liberal feminists. “WID” was the name of a

women’s caucus formed by the Society for International Development (SID/WID); part of a

deliberate strategy to bring gender issues to the attention of policy-makers

Important role also played by the UN Commission on the Status of Women (> UN Decade for

Women 1976-85) (see Tinker 1990)

Emphasis on strategies that would minimize discrimination against women and their

disadvantaged economic position. This approach was closely linked to and represented a

modification of the modernisation paradigm: concern that the benefits of modernisation should

be for women as well as men

The solutions to women’s problems were generally envisaged as “technological fixes” of one

kind or another. Focus on the better integration of women into existing development initiatives.

Typical WID projects were income-generating activities with social and welfare components

added (cf. Moser’s (1989; 1993) refined typology of WID approaches: welfare, gender equality,

anti-poverty, efficiency, and empowerment)

• Policy and Analytic Approaches

• Welfare: Focus on poor women, mainly in the roles of wife and mother. This was the

only approach during colonial periods, and was favoured by many missionaries.

• Equity: Focus on equality between women and men and fair distribution of benefits of

development

• Anti-poverty: Women targeted as the poorest of the poor, with emphasis on income-

generating activities and access to productive resources such as training and micro-

finance.

• Efficiency: Emphasis on need for women’s participation for success, effectiveness of

development; assumes increased economic participation will result in increased equity.

They are most likely to be useful when advocacy for the advancement of women is based

on the more effective use of all factors of production, and/or desire for stronger and more

sustainable project results. This is the approach currently most favoured by development

agencies

• Empowerment: Focus on increasing women’s capacity to analyze their own situation and

determine their own life choices and societal directions. likely to be most useful where a

human development and rights-based approach to development predominates, or is

desired.

Criticism of WID

By the mid-late 1970s it was becoming clear that women had often fared worse under

modernisation and the development efforts of the past decade. WID focused on integration and

advocacy for greater participation. It didn’t question why women’s position was often declining

and what the sources and nature of women’s subordination and oppression were. It was often

ahistorical and shared in many of the weaknesses of the modernisation paradigm. WID also

tended to focus on women as producers and ignore or minimise their reproductive role.

WID and WAD

One source of these criticisms was the emerging neo-Marxism of the time. Just as the

modernisation paradigm was attacked by dependency theorists, so WID was criticised by neo-

Marxist feminists espousing an approach sometimes referred to as WAD, “Women and

Development” (Beneria and Sen 1982; Rathgeber 1990)

Neo-Marxist feminists focused on analysing women’s subordination within the structures of

international dependency and class inequality (e.g. Young et al. 1981; Maria Mies, Patriarchy

and Accumulation on a World Scale,1986)

But their analyses and prescriptions shared in many of the shortcomings of WID. Given that

both sexes are seen to be disadvantaged in neo-Marxist accounts, insufficient attention was paid

to the special features of women’s situation, e.g. the role of ideology of patriarchy; the

importance of the labour invested by women in household reproduction and maintenance (cf.

Kabeer 1994). And there wasn’t much difference between WID and WAD-influenced

development strategies, at least not as far a women were concerned. Both reflected Western

biases and assumptions (cf. Barbara Rogers, The Domestication of Women, 1980)

The origins of GAD, “Gender and Development”

GAD emerged in the 1980s with roots in socialist feminism and feminist anthropology.

Focus on the social relations of gender, identifying the social construction of production and

reproduction as the basis of women’s oppression. Combines an analysis of the impact of

patriarchy with some aspects of a neo-Marxism:

How are women’s and men’s roles and expectations constructed and assigned?

Why are women systematically assigned inferior roles? How can they be empowered?

GENDER RELATIONS replace ‘WOMEN’ as the main category of analysis. Men are potential

allies.

Kate Young, ‘Gender and Development’, 1992 (in Visvanathan et al. 1997): overview of the

differences between WID and GAD. These include:

GAD focuses on gender relations rather than women per se

GAD views women as active rather than passive agents of development, though they

may be unaware of the roots of their subordination

GAD starts from a holistic perspective, the totality of social organisation, and economic

and political life (vs a focus on particular aspects of women’s lives, e.g. economic

production)

GAD stresses the need for women’s self-organisation to increase their political power

within the economic system (vs WID which emphasises the formation of productive

groups and access to cash income as group members or individuals)

GAD is less optimistic about the role of the market as a distributor of benefits to women

but places equal emphasis on the role of the state in promoting women’s emancipation

• Gender and Development Approach

GAD Features:

• GAD rejects the public/private dichotomy .

• It gives special attention to oppression of women in the family by entering the so called

`private sphere’

• It emphasizes the state’s duty to provide social services in promoting women’s

emancipation.

• Women seen as agents of change rather than as passive recipients of development

assistance.

• Stresses the need for women to organize themselves for a more effective political voice.

• Recognizes that patriarchy operates within and across classes to oppress women

• Focuses on strengthening women’s legal rights, including the reform of inheritance and

land laws.

• It talks in terms of upsetting the existing power relations in society between men and

women.

GAD in practice

“The GAD approach does not easily lend itself to integration into ongoing development

strategies and programs. It demands a degree of commitment to structural change and power

shifts that is unlikely to be found either in national or international agencies” (Rathgeber 1990:

495) Rathgeber found that most projects for women still had their origins in the WID

perspective. Has this changed? (cf. Rathgeber in Marchand and Parpart 1995; also Goetz 1997

on the gendering of development organisations)

Shortcomings of GAD

Critiques from the South

Some of the sharpest criticism of GAD and its precursors has come from women in the South,

arguing that they reflect the preoccupations and assumptions of Western feminists. ‘Third

World’ women are ‘homogenised’ and treated as ‘victims’ of their own cultures, negating their

agency. These critics argue instead that their subordination is a consequence of colonial and

post-colonial exploitation rather than the cultural construction of gender in their own societies

(Sen and Grown 1987)

CONTENDING THEORIES/APPROACHES OF GENDER

Feminist Theories

Feminism is the organized movement which promotes equality for men and women in political,

economic and social spheres. Feminists believe that women are oppressed simple due to their sex based on the dominant ideology of patriarchy.

All variants of feminist theory tend to share three major assumptions: gender is a social construction that oppresses women more than men; patriarchy (the male domination of social

institutions) shapes these constructions; women’s experiential knowledge best helps us to envision a future non-sexist society. These shared premises shape a double agenda: the task of

critique (attacking gender stereotypes) and the task of construction sometimes called feminist praxis (constructing new models). Feminist theory focuses particularly on women’s experiences of sexuality, work and the family, and so inevitably challenges traditional frameworks of

knowledge and puts in question many assumptions of the social sciences, such as universalism

Patriarchy is the system which oppresses women through it's social, economic and political institutions. Throughout history men have had greater power in both the public and private

spheres. To maintain this power, men have created boundaries and obstacles for women, thus making it harder for women to hold power. There is an unequal access to power. Patriarchy also includes the oppression of minorities and homosexuals.

Feminism ideology can take many different forms. In the 1970's, women started developing a

theory which helped to explain their oppression. Pockets of resistance began to organize and challenge patriarchy. By the 1980's, however, feminists started disagreeing on particular issues

linked to feminism. What was once one theory, began to branch out into many theories that focused on different feminist issues. Today, there are as many definitions of feminism as there are feminists. Each definition of feminism depends on a number of factors including ones own

beliefs, history and culture.

Basic Theoretical Questions

i. What is the situation and what are the experiences of women in society? ii. What does the world look like from the point of view of women?

iii. How can the world be made better, not just for women, but for all disadvantaged or oppressed people?

Tendencies within Feminism: these are somewhat artificial classifications that attempt to

describe patterns of thought and approaches among feminists.

Types of Feminist Theory

1. Theories of Difference

1. Difference due to roles or in interaction 2. Structural Oppression (Institutional) Theories

1. Socialist feminism

2. Intersectionality theories 3. Theories of Inequality:

1. Liberal feminism 2. Marxist feminism

4. Theories of Gender Oppression

1. Psychoanalytical feminism 2. Radical feminism

3. Third-Wave feminism

Radical feminism

Radical Feminists: maximize male/female difference but stress disparities in power, especially male dominance (alternate name—“dominance feminists”); focus on sexuality and sexual relations as key to patriarchal oppression; seek to use law to help women “take control of their

own bodies”

Radical feminism promotes the basis for many of the ideas of feminism. They usually clash with the ideals of the liberal feminist, because radical feminists believe that society must be

changed at its core in order to dissolve patriarchy, not just through acts of legislat ion. Unfortunately, this type of feminism also attracts a lot of negative media attention creating a backlash of feminism. Radical feminists believe that the domination of women is the oldest and

worst kind of oppression in the world. They believe this because it spans across the world oppressing women of different races, ethnicities, classes and cultures. Radical feminists want to

free both men and women from the rigid gender roles that society has imposed upon them. It is this sex-gender system that has created oppression and radical feminist's mission is to overthrow this system by any possible means. Sometimes radical feminists believe that they must rage a

war against men, patriarchy, and the gender system which confines them to rigid social roles. They completely reject these roles, all aspects of patriarchy, and in some cases, they reject men

as well.

Radical feminists emphasize their difference from men. They form groups that exclude males completely. This type of feminist highlights the importance of individual feelings, experiences

and relationships. Radical feminists have divided into two groups with very different views.

Radical-Libertarian Feminism

Radical-Libertarian feminists believe that femininity and reproduction limit women's capacity to contribute to society. Women should essentially be androgynous. Radical-Libertarian feminists

like to violate sexual norms and believe that women should control every aspect of their sexuality. They also advocate artificial means of reproduction so that less time is devoted to

pregnancy and more time is devoted to worthwhile things. They are strong promoters of abortion, contraceptives and other forms of birth control.

Radical-Cultural Feminism

Cultural Feminists: maximize male/female difference; stress the positive value of women's

“different voice” and emphasize the importance of incorporating this into the legal system; seek to recover and revalue women's culture, especially maternal values

Radical-Cultural feminist views are dramatically different from Radical-Libertarian feminists

views. The Radical-Cultural feminists believe that women should encompass their femininity because it is better than masculinity. Mary Daly advocates finding the “wild female within”. This type of radical feminist sees sex and penetration as male dominated. They see a link between sex,

female subordination, porn, rape and abuse. These must be eliminated, according to Cultural-Radical feminists. Yet another opposing view is that reproduction is the source of power for

women. They believe that men are jealous of women, and that they try to control reproduction through means of technology.

Radical feminism

OTHER NAMES:

Women's liberation

Gender politics

NATURE:

Feminism implies a radical ideology in favour of liberation of women from traditional role-

playing. As a movement encompassing a wide range of views of varying degrees of militancy, it

may tend to lack cohesiveness and may be extremist in certain tactics and, by denigrating the

virtues traditionally held to be worthy of respect in women, may reduce rather than increase

internal self-worth of those whose liberation it is attempting to assist. It may increase family

breakdown and child-neglect, make conflict rather than cooperation the norm in situations

involving members of both sexes, and possibly lead to discrimination against men. Women in

developing countries are sceptical of ways in which the feminist agenda has been

"mainstreamed" and thereby neutralized.

INCIDENCE:

Feminist groups of women strive to rid themselves of whatever it is that creates an oppressive

environment for them--a task they have not the slightest opportunity of achieving as groups of

women outside the men, children and institutions who maintain the oppression.

CLAIM:

The original meaning of feminism is the belief in equal rights for women, such as the right to

vote, to equal pay for equal work and equal opportunities in education. An evolutionary change

in the status of women in this direction is long overdue in many parts of the world. If the status

quo was such that everybody was equal and women and men were allowed to select their own

roles, there would be no feminist movement.

COUNTER CLAIM:

1. Like Marxism, feminism is parasitic on the development of modernity. As such it is an

exploitation of the impatience of less able women who wish to make a fast leap into a future of

free and easy equality. All that matters to such people is that they want it now, and all problems

are theorized away as prejudice, stereotyping, and the resistance of the "malestream". As with

Marxism, there is a curious backward-looking element (such as the campaign to label all men as

rapists) which may prove to be as destructive of the opportunities of Western women as Marxism

has been of the countries it dominated.

2. In many ways, feminism has ignored and distorted the status of black communities. When

education, family planning, and other social reform issues are seen as 'women's issues', it

undermines the interest that black men (as well as other men) have in them.

3. Many aspects of the feminist movement go far beyond equality and are concerned rather with

power and rights, grasped so militantly that other members of society suffer a kind of

persecution. Men have become, on the feminist agenda, the scapegoats fro the social and

personal problems of women, while feminists have induced in men a sense of guilt and even

hopelessness. In addition, by denigrating home-making and motherhood as jobs without pay or

status and by denouncing voluntary work as exploitation, feminists have caused women to

forsake a worthwhile and fulfilling world, based in home and community, for the workplace and

the "rat-race".

4. Feminism is bad for your health. Assertive women are more prone to heart attacks than meek

women.

Liberal Feminism:

Liberal Feminists: focus on individual rights and autonomy; minimize male/female difference;

emphasize equality of opportunity and promote strategies that tear down barriers; seek to extend

to women the individual rights gained by men

Liberal feminism was most popular in the 1950's and 1960's when many civil rights movements were taking place. The main view of liberal feminists are that all people are created equal by God

and deserve equal rights. These types of feminists believe that oppression exists because of the way in which men and women are socialized, which supports patriarchy and keeps men in power

positions. Liberal feminists believe that women have the same mental capacity as their male counterparts and should be given the same opportunities in political, economic and social spheres. Women should have the right to choose, not have their life chosen for them because of

their sex. Essentially, women must be like men.

Liberal feminists create and support acts of legislation that remove the barriers for women. These acts of legislation demand equal opportunities and rights for women, including equal

access to jobs and equal pay. Liberal feminists believe that removing these barriers directly challenges the ideologies of patriarchy, as well as liberates women.

Liberal feminists are responsible for many important acts of legislation that have greatly

increased the status of women, including reforms in welfare, education and health. Unfortunately. Liberal feminism has been known to only concentrate on the legislation aspect in the fight against patriarchy. It has been criticized for not breaking down the deeper ideologies of

society and patriarchy. Also, it has been criticized for ignoring race and class issues.

Socialist Feminism:

Social Feminists: focus on material conditions and how these create oppressive societal structures, particularly class; emphasize effort to reform communities and institutions; stress

social relations and responsibilities more than individual rights

Socialist feminists believe that there is a direct link between class structure and the oppression of women. Western society rewards working men because they produce tangible, tradable goods.

On the other hand, women's work in the domestic sphere is not valued by western society because women do not produce a tangible, tradable good. This gives men power and control over women. Socialist feminists reject the idea that biology predetermines ones gender. Social roles

are not inherent and women's status must change in both the public and private spheres.

Socialist feminists like to challenge the ideologies of capitalism and patriarchy. Much like the views of radical feminists, socialist feminists believe that although women are divided by class,

race, ethnicity and religion, they all experience the same oppression simply for being a woman. Socialist feminist believe that the way to end this oppression is to put an end to class and gender. Women must work side by side men in the political sphere. In order to get anything

accomplished, women must work with men, as opposed to ostracizing them. There must be a coalition between the two and they must see each other as equals in all spheres of life. In contrast

to ideals of liberal feminism, which tend to focus on the individual woman, the socialist feminist theory focuses on the broader context of social relations in the community and includes aspects

of race, ethnicity and other differences.

Transformative feminism

Transformative feminism is the belief that change must come about in both the public and private spheres of life. Transformative feminists have organized ways of organizing themselves,

so as to challenge male dominant top-down structures in civil society as well as in government. Group centered leadership and collective participatory decision making are some of the examples Transformative feminism

Diversity Feminists: emphasize differences among women, including race, ethnicity, class, etc.

(alternative name—“multicultural feminists”); focus on coalition building among different groups of women; promote international and global programs of reform