dsrd report
DESCRIPTION
TRANSCRIPT
102
S c h o o l o f B u s i n e s sU n i v e r s i t y o f B a l l a r a t
A Model For Success
Women’s Entrepreneurial and Small Business Activity in Regional Areas
UNIVERSITY of BALLARATHigher Education - Mt Helen Campus
Report prepared for DSRD, Rural Women’s Network, NRE and the City of Ballarat by:
Dr Janice Newton, Dr Lorene Gottschalk and Dr Glenice Wood
2001
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
In a context of a rise in small business and women’s small business in
particular in western economies, and rural decline in Australia and
elsewhere, the fortunes and potential of rural and regional women in small
business appear of vital importance. From June to October 2001 a survey
of 359 women in business, supplemented by group discussions with 49
additional women, was undertaken to establish details on the nature of
women’s involvement in small business in the Western Region of Victoria.
A further aim was to build a model for success. Surveys were distributed
after initial telephone contact and via meetings.
Sample
The sample reflected regional and female small business for the most part.
The majority were Australian born, over 40, with a high school education
and lived with a partner or partner and dependents. One hundred and
sixty-two (44%) asked to be part of a database.
64% aged 30-5091% Australian born8% post graduate qualifications35% did not complete high school86% live with partner/with or without dependents.44% ask to be part of database.
Similarity
There was considerable comparability between the sample and data on
women in small business generally. In relation to a flexible business style
and processes, a preference for face-to-face contact in communication,
word of mouth as the main recognised marketing tool, professional and
personal sources of information, the small number of employees and use
of own savings and banks for start-up, the region was similar to general
studies.
69% employ 1-4 (including self)80% mention ’word of mouth’ as marketing method59% say they receive raw materials from local distributor41% use face to face business communication with experts/specialists94% say staff have some flexibility
Finance was an issue affecting most, both quantitative and qualitative
data revealing continuing instances of gender discrimination by financiers.
2
44% women say lack of finance inhibits start up
50% women say lack of finance inhibits operation.
Only half apply for ongoing loan.
On other aspects the sample showed internal homogeneity, for example in
relation to taking a major responsibility for domestic chores, the work
experience gained prior to starting a business and the highlighting of
experience as the best learning tool. The women mostly worked long
hours and over half wished that time to decrease. Sixteen percent
indicated that they made a profit of between $10,000 and $19,999 and
18% indicated that they made no profit. They claimed staff respected their
authority.
46% worked 40-59 hours per week in businessOver half work 20 + hours per week on domestic work54% women want their time in business to decrease98% say staff respect their authority16% made a profit of $10,000-19,00018% made no profit
There were other similarities in relation to technology and uses of
services.
75.5% had access to Internet68% use email60% were aware of Chambers of Commerce . . .
but only 4% stated that they found them useful
Women agreed on their priorities for training in style and content. Those
few women who made use of NEIS were largely very happy with it.
94% want small face to face workshops for training61% want marketing training50% want financial training49% want promotion training
Difference
In spite of some general common experiences, the sample also
demonstrated considerable range and diversity. For example women were
fairly evenly divided over whether they were risk takers or avoiders. Profits
ranged from nil to over $100,000 and turnovers from under $10,000 to
3
over a million. Attitudes to success varied from those wishing only for
subsistence to those wanting ‘world dominance’.
42% risk takers and 55% risk avoiders30% report turnover between $100,000 and $300,000.24% report nil or less than $1000 profit40% report more than $20,000 profit
Some statistically significant differences were found between those who
were sole traders/partner with women and those in partnerships with men.
The former were more educated and concentrated in gender specific
industries such as Personal, Cultural and Property Services and Health.
They had more responsibilities for household tasks but spent less time on
them. They were more reliant on family and friends for unpaid labour and
financial help, less likely to go for operating loans and less likely to be
successful gaining them. Qualitative data revealed continuing instances of
gender discrimination by banks.
Sole/female Partners with male
Education post grad 11% 5% of 16%Industry sector –Farming 15% 85% of 100%
-Personal Services 73% 27% of 100%Start up finance, median $17,000 $45,000
Success
An objective measure of success was made by isolating those who had
three out of the following criteria: profit of $10,000 or more in 2000;
operated business 5 years or more; reported “moderately strong” to
“rapid sales growth”; and reported “business performing well”. One third
of businesses met this criterion of success. Identifying features that may
have contributed to this success proved very difficult as very few
independent variables appeared to affect the dependent variable, success
or lack of it. Those that were statistically significant often applied to only
small numbers in the category.
Subjective understanding of success highlights intrinsic and extrinsic
factors and a difference between those wanting market dominance and
respect, those wanting family subsistence and survival and those wanting
personal achievement, autonomy and esteem. Such variation reflects a
context of both choice and constraint, but there is little evidence in the
survey of peripheral, ‘non employees’.
4
Main factors linked with successful third of businessesLiving with a partner5-9 employeesPerception that ‘time’ and ‘size of outlet’ biggest hindranceRecognition of the role of dedicated, friendly staff in business successAdvice from mentor
Conclusions
In spite of some similarities, regional women in small business have a
range of motivations and therefore their needs may differ. Efforts should
be made to both encourage those with a strong ‘enterprise culture’ and to
aid the viability of those whose main aim is to self-employ and subsist.
Whilst the women prefer small face to face workshops, the high access to
internet, the lower success rate of those without a partner at home and
the time constraints of many women, suggest that on line training,
information and communication should be further developed. That 44% of
the survey sample offered to be part of a network/database further
supports this option.
5
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page Number
Executive Summary 2
Acknowledgements 91. Introduction 10
1.1 The Rural Context 101.2 The rise of small business – choice and
constraint 111.3The significance of women in the growth
of small business 121.4 Objectives 13
2. Literature Review 14
2.1 Gender and research 142.2 Individual Characteristics of Business Women 16
2.2.1 Motivation and success 162.2.2 Training and experience 192.2.3 Networking 19
2.3 Institutional discrimination 212.3.1 Banks and finance 212.3.2 The law 22
2.4 The gender division of labour: the nexus between domestic and other work 222.4.1 Industry 232.4.2 Business 232.4.3 Household 24
2.5 Summary 24
3 Methods of Research 26
3.1 The survey 273.2 Group and individual discussions 30
4 Results 31
4.1 Introduction 314.2 Sample Description 31
4.2.1 Age 314.2.2 Ethnicity 324.2.3 Education 324.2.4 Residence 344.2.5 Household unit 354.2.6 Summary of basic demographic data 36
6
4.3 Business basic data 364.3.1 Premise location and industry sector 364.3.2 Age of business and how started 394.3.3 Personal/Household income 394.3.4 Employees 404.3.5 Marketing, raw materials 414.3.6 Profit 424.3.7 Sole and partnered 454.3.8 Summary of business basic data 46
4.4 Business themes and issues 464.4.1 Finance 464.4.2 Risk and planning 504.4.3 Perceived hindrances 514.4.4 Business Style 554.4.5 Training and background 594.4.6 Domestic/Family Issues 634.4.7 Time 664.4.8 Indicators of success 68
4.4.8.1 Objective success indicators 684.4.8.2 Subjective success 74
5 Conclusion 80
5.1 Introduction 805.2 Similarities to Women in Small Business
Generally 805.3 Internal Homogeneity 815.4 Differences within the sample 815.5 The Success Model 835.6 Final Comment 83
Appendices 84
Appendix A The survey 84Appendix B List of occupations 100
References 102
List of Tables3.1 Local government area proportional population of
sample and region 294.1 Age structure of sample and Victorian Women’s Small
Business 324.2 Place of birth and ethnicity of sample and region 324.3 Education level of sample by region and Victorian
business women 334.4 Proportion of sample household type compared to
7
Western Region 364.5 Sample representation compared to Western Region
female employment by industry sector 384.6 Age of business 394.7 Numbers employed in business 414.8 Source of raw materials and services 414.9 Per annum profit 1999-2000 financial year 424.10 Business ownership structure of sample and Yellow
pages Business Survey 464.11 Reasons for refusal of finance 484.12 Factors hindering business 524.13 Staff management style 584.14 Use of internet by sample and Australian Small
Business 584.15 Use of services by sample 594.16 How lack of training compensated for 614.17 Course Desired by Sample 634.18 Proportion with most responsibility for domestic
Task by business operation 644.19 Sources of unpaid help noted by total numbers
business operation 654.20 Estimation of domestic work in five years by
business operation 674.21 Hours worked in business by business operation 684.22 Preferred time commitment 68
List of Figures
4.1 Highest level of education in sample 334.2 Size of town/area of residence 344.3 Household living arrangements of sample 354.4 Location of business 374.5 Type of business premise 374.6 How business was acquired 394.7 Numbers of employees in business 404.8 Reported Per annum profit 1999-2000 434.9 Turnover 1999-2000 434.10 Reported sales growth 1999-2000 444.11 Percentage of reported export sales 444.12 Self reports of business status compared with
competitors 454.13 Average hours per week on domestic tasks 664.14 Average hours per week put into business 67
8
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Many people have helped in this research in terms of their willingness to
attend meetings and to fill out the survey. Special thanks must go to those
busy women who gave their valuable time.
Thanks must especially be given to the members of the Steering
Committee for their encouragement, enthusiasm and practical advice:
Linette Penhall, (DSRD Ballarat), Fiona Davey (City of Ballarat), Dr Mandy
Charman, (NRE); Alice Dwelly (DSRD) and to Kathy Coultas (DSRD) for
instigating support for the project.
Neroli Sawyer undertook the survey data entry and helped greatly with
analysis. Jill Blee and Leanne Spain gave clerical support and telephoned
potential respondents. Kara Hodgson, School of Business helped with
formatting of the report and Monika Heim with management of finances.
Council staff in the ten Local Government areas were very helpful
providing maps, community and business lists and setting up meeting
venues. Other people have helped give out surveys or alerted those who
may have been interested in being part of the research include Pauline
Fort (BRACE), John Maguire and Dot Carpenter (Ballarat); Bev Blaskett,
(Gordon) Dennis Witmitz, (Executive Officer, Horsham and District
Commerce Association, Horsham), Mary Ashdown (Hepburn), Joan Bennett
(Nhill); Karen Beggs (Willaura); Liz Brooks (St Arnaud); Karen Chambers
(Ararat), Judy Dahlke (Stawell); Jenny Ellender (Daylesford); Lavergne
Evans (Nhill); Geoffrey Gray (Pyrenees); Margaret Hill (CWA Horsham);
Donna Lindner (Dimboola); Kay Macaulay (AIG); Joe McLelland (CEC
Rainbow); Michelle Morrow (Moorabool); Jen Murray (Central Highlands
Rural Counselling Service); Jo Postlethwaite (St Arnaud); Rosemary
Robertson (Bacchus Marsh Village); Jodie Ryan (Ballarat DSRD); Jenny
Stewart (Warracknabeal); and Mark Troeth (CEC Nhill).
9
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Rural Context
Australia has experienced over the last few decades significant rural
decline. The proportion of the population who lived in rural areas had
declined to about 14% in the 1970s but the 1996 census saw this drop
again. Nearly two and a half million Australians live in towns with
populations between 1000 and 19,999, but a third of these towns lost
population between 1986 and 1996. The young in particular are the ones
to leave (McKenzie, 1995; AusStat., 1999c, 1999d).
The roots of regional decline in Australia stem from a number of factors,
but significant shifts in the competitiveness of the agricultural sector and
the nature of the farm as an institution have played an important role.
Industry restructuring as well as social, economic and technological
changes are contributing causes. The turnovers for main agricultural
products such as sheep, cattle and grain have declined and the number of
agricultural operations reduced. In 1999 the ABS reported that a fifth of
farm businesses reported a turnover of less than $50,000 (AusStat.,
1999c; ABS, 1999a). The Australian Social Trends report on small towns
highlights this situation.
People in declining towns risk losing their savings, livelihood and support systems as they confront the break-up of their community, loss of jobs, deteriorating infrastructure and declining property values. (The concomitant closure of services such as hospitals, schools, shops and banks have) a direct impact on the health and well-being of remaining residents (but can also have a less direct psychological impact on the whole community) (AusStats., 1999d).
Although under stress, the family farm persists and is still the dominant
form of agricultural production in Australia. Governments are reliant on
the farm household to take up the slack when there are market variations.
The rural crisis has given women opportunities to contribute to off and on
farm income (Rickson & Daniels, 1999, pp.235-240). Participation by rural
women in the paid workforce, as a response to rural decline has been
noted increasingly over the last 20 years, but real hope for rural
10
turnaround lies elsewhere, in the growth of new business ventures.
Appreciation of another economic trend, that relating to small business, is
therefore vital.
1.2 The Rise of Small Business – Choice and
Constraint
There is increasing international evidence that the growth of small
business is a key strategy in the restructuring and revitalisation of older
capitalist economies currently underway. In most advanced countries the
self-employed and small employers are increasing in number and in
economic importance. Small business through the 1980s and 1990s in
Australia appeared to be on a strong growth trajectory. In the fifteen years
to 1998-9 employment from small business had risen 59%, accounting for
3.1 million people or 47% of the private sector workforce1 (Carter, 1993,
p.148; Collins, Gibson, Alcorso, Castles & Tait, 1995, pp.15-17, pp.98-99;
Baines & Wheelock, 1998; AusStats., 8127.1 1998; AusStats., 8127.1
1999a).
There are two sides to this trend. One is the optimistic espousal of
‘enterprise culture’. This term is associated with a ‘regeneration of values
associated with the freedom to work for oneself and to emerge from
dependency on the state, from public sector industries as well as from
welfare provisions’ (Allen & Truman, 1993, pp.1-2). The growth of the
small firm that is able to be flexible, to specialize on small runs, to adapt
quickly to technological change has been seen by some to be a sign of a
new post-fordist era of work and industry.
The other side to the growth of small business may be more to do with
constraint rather than choice and this may be a sign of recession, or at
least of an employment trend leading to core and periphery sectors of the
economy (Wheelock, 1992, p.151; Deery, Plowman, Walsh & Brown, 2001;
Bradley, Erickson, Stephenson & Williams, 2000).
1 Victoria at 3.1% growth over this period was the second lowest growing State and Territory in Australia. By 1999 it was apparent that this situation had slowed with growth in the numbers of small businesses slowing to 2% after a 15 year average growth rate of 3.7%. The slow down was accounted for by businesses that did not employ anyone rather than those which had employees, as the latter still increased by 4.2% (AusStats. 8127.0, 1999a).
11
Growth in home work, termed ‘outwork’ in Australia, the dependence and
subjection of small scale businesses to large scale economic organisations,
and the proliferation of outsourcing and privatisation has contributed to a
growth of small business pushed into existence rather than responding to
a drive to be entrepreneurial. These new forms of employment are often
termed the ‘peripheral economy’. Many new jobs are what can be termed
‘non-standard employment’ and much of the new self-employment is
marked by insecurity. Much of this can be termed ‘non-employment’, as
workers often provide the same service to the organisation that previously
employed them, albeit on a subcontracting basis. To term them as
‘capitalist entrepreneurs is highly misleading’ as the labour intensification
involved allows ‘few resources for productivity-enhancing investment’
(Rainbird, 1991, p.214. See also Allen & Truman, 1993, p.7; Bradley,
Erickson, Stephenson & Williams, 2000, pp.51-70; TCFU, 1995; Deery, et
al, 2001, p.73).
1.3 The Significance of Women in Growth of Small
Business.
Over the last 50 years the proportion of women in the workforce has
grown at more than twice the rate of men, so a growth in numbers
involved in small business is not unexpected. Recent decades have seen a
faster growth rate of women in business in Britain, USA and Australia than
the rates for male businesses (Moore, 1999). In Britain women now
account for 25% of all the self-employed although it must be
acknowledged that this reduces to only 16% of all full time self-employed
(Carter, 1993, p.149). In the USA growth rates have been spectacular.
Employment by women-owned companies has increased at double the
general national rate (Kuratko & Hodgetts, 1998, p.14, p.18). In Australia
while the number of business operators between 1995 and 1997 increased
overall by 4.8%, female business operators increased more dramatically
by 9%. (AusStats. 8127.1 1998).2 Over the decade 1987 to 1997 the
average annual growth rate was 3%, one and a half times the growth rate
for male businesses (ABS, 1997). The Yellow Pages Small Business Index
2 In the most recent ABS survey, for the first time the number of female operators has declined, in spite of an increase in small business operators overall (AusStats. 8127.1, 1999b). Interestingly this decline did not take place in Victoria and concerned women in business with a man, rather than sole female operators (ABS. 1999c, pp.6-7).
12
(1996) found that women played a sole (6%) or leading role (7%) in only
13% of businesses but claimed they shared a leading role in another 19%.
Businesses run by women have also been reported to be more viable than
male operated businesses (Sykes, 1989). Women owned businesses thus
represent the fastest growing segments of small business.
In rural areas, too, women are increasingly the drivers of new
entrepreneurial ventures. Such ventures either enhance household income
through vertical diversification, value adding to rural commodity products,
or horizontally through the development of new ventures not related to
the agricultural supply chain (Walsh-Martin, 1998; ABC Landline, 1997,
1998, 1999; O'Brien, 1991).
At the same time that the growth in women’s business has been noted the
significance of small family business for ethnic minority groups has also
come under scrutiny. Researchers into ethnic family business have
observed the reliance on the unpaid labour of women and children; a
gendered division of labour in the business; and motivations to take up
small business arising as much from discrimination in the general labour
market, as from a desire to be an entrepreneur (Phizacklea & Ram, 1996,
p.332-337; Collins, Gibson, Alcorso, Castles & Tair, 1995). Such issues are
worth bearing in mind for understanding women in small business
generally.
1.4 Objectives
In regional and rural Australia, the situation of rural decline and the
decreased importance of ‘standard’ agricultural products, suggests the
necessity of looking at the scope for small business and small business by
women in particular, as a path towards greater viability and sustainability
of regional and rural Australia. Before such a path can be followed a
thorough understanding of the nature of women and small business must
be obtained. The objective of this research is to clarify the nature of
regional business in Victoria and thus develop and refine a model for
success for female entrepreneurs within a rural/regional context. The
above discussion locates this phenomenon within a broader western
economic framework, which reveals two dimensions to the marked growth
of small business (choice and constraint).
13
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Gender and Research
In the world of business and economics generally much research has been
uninformed by a gender perspective. It has been acknowledged for some
time that women’s participation in agriculture, in particular, has remained
under recognized (See Alston, 1991; James, 1989; McKenzie 1996).
Despite apparent equal legal status and significant labour contribution
women are often not noticed. Coming from this history where the labour of
farm women has been termed invisible, the last few decades have seen
change in that women are registering their involvement.
Recorded farm employment has changed from a ratio of 1 female to 10
males to one to three. National Forums call for women’s perspectives on
future direction and farm productivity and so on. Current research on
income diversification and pluriactivity on farms demonstrates the strong
involvement of women in these activities and augurs well for greater
visibility of gender issues for rural women on farms (Alston, 1991; James,
1989; Rickson & Daniels, 1999, p.237; Cullinen, 2001). Family farming,
although declining, is still the most predominant form of farming in
Australia (Voyce, 1993), so can be gainfully included in general
understandings of small business.
Invisibility of women in agriculture has not been an isolated instance of
gender blindness. Gender dimensions are often neglected in generic
business research as well. Serious academic research into small business
has followed its revival in the economies of the west and most of the
research until now has, in effect, concentrated on male-owned businesses.
Those studies that have concentrated on women specifically have come
up with a range of common themes. A focus on women alone in business
and a failure to cover the many women in business with their husbands
and to ask comparable family related questions of men, detracts from the
generalisability of such studies (Allen & Truman, 1993, p.1; Carter, 1993,
p.149; Baines & Wheelock, 1998, p.18).
14
For instance men in Australia have been reported as leading the push for
more flexible working hours, as they want to spend more time with their
families, but this is not a question asked in business research.
Furthermore, some of the variables suggested for gender difference in
business have not been tested with men, for example the impact of life
cycle stage and the reason that credit was given or refused by banks
(Allen & Truman, 1993, pp.12-13).
A few studies now are suggesting that both sexes sometimes define and
sometimes blur boundaries between family and business and that men,
too, have non-economic goals for business (Baines & Wheelock, 1998,
pp.18-19). There has been some acceptance that, aside from motivation
and start up barriers, few significant differences exist between male and
female operated companies (Carter, 1993, p.149). For example, Johnson
and Storey (1993) compare demographic profiles and find more
similarities than differences. Kallenberg & Leicht (1991) in relation to the
'how' of entrepreneurship, in terms of their start-up and mode of operating
over time, suggest that gender does not make a difference (Stevenson &
Jarrillo, 1990). However, debate persists over this issue (Miner, 1997;
Langan, Fox & Roth, 1995).
Detailed comparative studies are beginning to test the assumption of
gender difference more rigorously, but for some features there is general
agreement that there is difference. Women’s businesses are smaller,
younger, take fewer risks and derive lower earnings (Loscocco & Leicht,
2000, pp.2-3; Soutar & Still, 2000). Empirical studies suggest that new
ventures, run by women, have very different growth, cash flow and
survival characteristics to businesses run by men (Still, 1988; Sykes,
1989).
As it stands, the following issues appear to have substantive support for
gender differences: individual characteristics such as motivation and
notions of success; institutional factors such as banking and legal practice
and social structural constraints arising out of a gender division of labour.
The following section will address these issues.
15
2.2 Individual Characteristics Of Business Women
2.2.1 Motivation and Success
Attempts to isolate factors leading to success have historically been
difficult. An Australian case study looking at success factors in small to
medium enterprises involved in high technology, concluded that
strength of the partnership between two (male) founding members,
based on trust and respect was most significant (Warren & Hutchison,
2000). Such a finding may have implications for understandings of
small family business. Most studies, however, focus on individual
motivations and perceptions of success and they also problematise
both the definition of success as well as the characteristics that might
be associated with it (Marlow & Strange, 1994).
Gilligan, a feminist psychologist, says that a defining feature of
women’s business is the ‘intimate integration between the business
and the social’ (cited in Baines & Wheelock, 1998, p.18). Self-
employment is as much a life strategy as a business strategy
(Richardson & Hartshorn, 1993; Moore, 1999). It can be a household
response to the effects of economic restructuring on a peripheral
labour market’ (Wheelock, 1997, p.163). Many studies suggest that
women’s motivations are different to those of men and also that their
views of success may differ (eg. Moore, 1999; Still & Timms 2000).
Some authors have even argued that women have a fear of success
(Horner 1972). However, Marlow and Strange (1994) argue that
definitions of success traditionally used in small business research, like
profitability and turnover are inappropriate to the study of many
ventures and what should be taken into account is what the original
motivations and aims are. They argue that a major aim of many
women is to reconcile the competing demands of waged and domestic
labour and that if they manage to achieve this by undertaking
business ownership, they have been successful. This discussion has
led to debate about typology of female entrepreneurship.
Goffee and Scase’s (1985) typology of female entrepreneurs
recognises the classic entrepreneur committed to individualism and
self-reliance and others committed to traditional, often subservient,
16
gender roles. Recognition of difference within females is sound but a
finer understanding requires further qualification. Business can change
the woman as much as the woman changing the business and
superficial similarities in, for example, commitment to independence,
can mean different things at different stages in a woman’s life cycle
(Carter, 1993, pp.153-4).
An American study that measured business growth in relation to family
circumstances found that sole mothers were ‘driven’ as much as
breadwinning males by the need to provide (Loscocco & Leicht, 1993).
This finding may not transfer too well to a British or Australian context
where there is more state aid for sole parents and less expectation
that mothers should find paid work to support their children. A British
study (Baines & Wheelock, 1998) suggests that of family businesses
categorised by chief concerns and motivations, only one of four types
aimed for the business growth expected by government policy makers.
Furthermore, this ‘Achievement’ type was more likely than other types
to use human resources beyond the family.
Various scholars have attempted ideal types or continuums to
categorise motivation to engage in small business. ‘Men have been
found to put more emphasis on economic goals than women;
alternatively women have been found to sacrifice some economic
performance in favour of social goals such as increased customer
satisfaction and work/family balance’ (Souter & Still, 2000, pp.9-10).
New research notes the significance of push factors or constraints
‘forcing’ women to take up the small business option (Still & Timms,
2000). The cruder dichotomies of male entrepreneur money-makers
versus female social lifestyle workers have been superceded by
models which recognise heterogeneity within the sexes. Goffee and
Scase (1985) constructed a 4 way typology on the basis of the
different combinations of two variables: commitment to traditional
gender roles and commitment to entrepreneurial values. There is also
a two way model which differentiates between the ‘opportunist’ and
the ‘craftsperson’, or Gray’s three way model differentiating between
concerns with money, lifestyle or safety. Baines & Wheelock (1998)
built on this latter model recognising four sets of concerns and
17
priorities in their data on male, female and mixed operated micro
businesses from the south-east and north east of England.
The four motivations and concerns are: survival and security; business
intrinsic; creative; and achievement. The ‘survival/security group
characteristically struggle to achieve livelihood in the face of very
limited choices and may suffer from the dependency on larger more
powerful organisations. Those concerned primarily with survival
worked long and often inconvenient hours. Relying on one’s own
labour was a stress rather than a freedom and the financial rewards
were precarious (Baines & Wheelock, 1998, pp.25-6).
The second category entitled ‘business intrinsic’ embraced most of the
British sample. These were the people who gained satisfaction from
being their own boss and from having some choice over whom to work
for and when. There was an overwhelming desire for independence
and reluctance to seek help from outside agencies.
The new category proposed by Baines and Wheelock (1998) was
termed ‘Creative’: these businesses evinced the desire to be
recognised by peers for the quality of their work. This group were
more positive about involving their spouses in the business, but had
difficulty employing others. They were more likely to be located in the
arts and media.
Those driven by ‘Achievement’ wanted wealth, recognition and the
opportunity to have influence. They were the only group whose values
approximated the enterprise criteria set by the British small business
policy makers. This group fitted ‘classic’ entrepreneur personality
types and tended to have conflict and tension with spouses as well as
employees. They were less likely to embed their ‘economic behaviour
in social relations with their immediate family’ but more likely to be
‘energetic users of non family networks’ (Baines & Wheelock, 1998,
p.30).
Models of success and motivation have moved from simple gendered
dichotomies to more complex understandings, across and within the
sexes. A range of priorities, from household survival to classic
18
entrepreneurial drive, operates among small, family and micro
businesses but it seems likely that women may be associated with
more of those motivations not representing the ‘classical
entrepreneur’ .
2.2.2 Training and Experience
It is often argued (Baines & Wheelock, 1998, p.31; Carter, 1993, p.152;
Loscocco & Leicht, 1993, p.7; Boden & Nucci, 1997) that women in
small business lack the knowledge, experience and training of men. In
Britain and the US, men have been more likely to have work
experience and/or education related to their present venture. In
husband and wife businesses, women sometimes struggle to perform
tasks for which they are not trained.
Such shortcomings in training and experience could be related to the
‘lack of confidence’, ‘lack of credibility’ and ‘failure to be treated
seriously’ found among women in Canadian and British studies cited
by Carter (1993, p.151). There are suggestions that, given the time
constraints and domestic commitments of women, they should have
training courses well away from these responsibilities ‘to allow the
time and space for women to re-assess realistically their existing
obligations and the taking on of new ones’ (Allen & Truman, 1993,
p.10). Given that spouse support is vital for survival in many family
businesses, Baines and Wheelock (1998, p.31) suggest that there
could be benefits in offering joint training to husbands and wives.
While women partner their husbands in business they are probably
more likely to be working away from their gendered experience and
therefore, unless they are able to access relevant training, more likely
to be restricted in role and authority to make decisions as a
consequence. Gaining skills and knowledge depends to a large extent
on access to formal and informal business networks.
2.2.3 Networking
Kaur and Hayden find that a crucial factor in the difficult process of
starting a new enterprise is ‘an ongoing support network . . . that
provides professional help and advice staffed by those with the
19
knowledge and skills relevant in the industry, from sources of raw
materials through to its markets’ (cited in Allen & Truman, 1993, p.11).
Baines and Wheelock (1998) in their British study attempted to
measure the significance of networks and associations beyond the
family and found that while nominal membership of organisations such
as Chambers of Commerce was high (nearly 40%), there was a lack of
enthusiasm for such bodies compared with the high value placed on
‘loosely linked groups, often composed of other owners and small
businesses and of colleagues known through former employment’.
They were valued for practical advice and moral support. As stated,
the practice of calling upon people outside the business and family
was associated with a positive attitude to business growth (1998,
p.22).
Networking has been recognized as something women do strongly on
the social, relationship plane (Moore, 1999), but deficiencies on the
business and professional level have been noted. Some have been
addressed with the establishment of government-aided networks (Still
& Timms, 2000, p.4) including the Rural Women’s Network and
Professional and Business Women’s Network. These go some way to
compensate for women’s lack of links with male-dominated
professional organisations and community bodies like Rotary and
Chambers of Commerce, but younger professional women at least are
now ‘aggressively networking in the male domain’ (Still, 1993, p.174).
A recent comparative study of 1000 businesses in Western Australia
found that women sought more information sources at start up than
men and while accountants were the most important source for both,
women relied more on immediate family and friends and colleagues
than did men (Soutar & Still, 2000). The significance of kinship,
household and friendship ties was also apparent in Baines and
Wheelock’s major British study (1998, p.17). Family members give
substantial practical and moral help and a family tradition of business
ownership can also be significant (Baines & Wheelock, 1998, p.17,
p.21; Allen & Truman, 1993, p.9).
20
While networking socially is recognized as being quite strong among
women, it is the style and content of the network that may
differentiate women from men. If the focus of business women is on
family, friends and colleagues, it is possible that they will not obtain
the professional and relevant help that has been associated with
growth and objective success. While networking has been presented
as an individual characteristic, it involves links with institutions.
Another theme in general studies on women in small business
concerns institutional discrimination.
2.3 Institutional Discrimination
Institutional discrimination can be seen as a result of a culture of prejudice
or a result of policies and procedures within the institution.
2.3.1 Banks and Finance
Many of the gendered barriers associated with start up are put down to
problems receiving finance. Previous studies have found difficulties in
accessing capital and credit. Lack of capital forces the women to rely more
on their own labour and efficiency and is cited as one of the reasons the
businesses of women start and remain small (Allen & Truman, 1993, p.8;
Sykes, 1989).
Agencies like banks are generally geared to the perceived needs of men.
The procedural criteria they apply make it more difficult for women to set
up a business (Sykes, 1989; Koper, 1993). Australian small
businesswomen have knowledge of prejudice and discrimination, but in a
recent major study (Yellow Pages, 1996) they did not link this to their own
circumstances. Although there was recognition of prejudice against
women in small business operations and a lack of sympathy from banks,
the women rarely acknowledged being personally affected by this (1996,
p.1). It could be surmised that mainly sole operator females would be
affected by such prejudice, whether it be personal or structural. A
resistance to making personal complaints may be associated with a
reaction to what some women see as a ‘welfare’ approach to woman as
‘victim’ (Still & Timms, 2000, p.4). For those with a focus on achievement
goals it seems likely that a strong ideology of individualism and
commitment to the idea that the self has considerable scope for action,
21
would also act against recognition of institutional discrimination and
structural constraints.
2.3.2 The Law
The most noted form of legal institutional discrimination relates to family
farm businesses. Patterns of inheritance and the modification of the
Family Law Act (to avoid dissolution of property after divorce), operate to
continue a patriarchal structure. Women in such small businesses may be
born into a business and lack knowledge on whether they are to have a
future role in it (Bowen, 1995), or may marry into a situation where they
are regarded as a conduit to the next generation and transfer of the farm
may be delayed decades until a daughter-in-law ‘settles in’ (Voyce, 1993).
Such women lack a resource and power base from which to conduct the
business in the equal manner to which many aspire.
2.4 The Gender Division of Labour: The Nexus
Between Domestic and Other Work
At the wider social level there are economic structures and patterned
arrangements relating to the gender division of labour, that have endured
for decades and some even for centuries. Despite the fact that women are
entering the paid workforce in greater numbers, with women in Australia
now making up 43% of the paid workforce (ABS, 1999d), it has been
reported that women continue to take a larger share of domestic
responsibilities (eg. Burton, 1991; Davidson & Cooper, 1992; Parker &
Fagenson, 1994; Pringle & Tudhope, 1996; Still & Timms, 2000, p.7).
An understanding of domestic household labour both prefigures and
follows an understanding of the division of labour in industry sectors and
in business enterprises (Marlow & Strange, 1994, p.181). The lower
financial reward associated with work seen as feminine, domestic or linked
to the nature of women, factors back into the continuation of a system in
which women remain primarily responsible for domestic work. If they earn
less in a female type job or business employment in the paid economy, it
becomes more likely that it is in a household’s interest to prioritise the
(male) work that can bring a bigger income and leave household
responsibilities to the woman. If they earn less in wage labour they are
22
more financially constrained with the scale of their new business initiatives
(Boden & Nucci, 1997, p.1). In the following discussion the division of
labour across industry sectors; the division of labour within small business;
and the division of labour within the household are discussed, in relation
to the need to recognise the specific needs of women in small business.
2.4.1 Industry
Western labour markets are defined by horizontal segregation in that
women predominate in a few sectors. These sectors are often outgrowths
of the support and service work that may go on in a household. The types
of business which women are in reflect the traditional female labour
market segregation and location. Throughout the world women are more
likely to be found in food production, nutrition, health and child care.
Women predominate in non-standard employment sectors. Some scholars
believe that most income differences for women in small business can be
attributed to organisational, occupational and industrial segregation
(Loscocco & Leicht, 1993, p.2, p.19; Carter, 1993, p.150; Allen & Truman,
1993, p.9; Deery et al., 2001).
The industries in which there are high proportions of women relative to
men in Australia are Education (61%); Health and Community Services
(55%); Personal and Other Services (52%); Accommodation, Cafes and
Restaurants (48%); and Cultural and Recreational Services (43%). The
industries most women work in with their own business are the retail trade
and property and business services (ABS 1301.0, 1997b).
2.4.2 Business
Within shared businesses a gendered division of labour persists. Past
studies of the division of labour in farm businesses see women as
undertaking book-keeping and accounting roles whilst males are dominant
in labour management and capital issues (Craig, c1990; Rickson & Daniels,
1999).
Unpaid support in small business where the wife may or may not be a
partner, can also follow such gender lines, women typically working in a
clerical, service or support capacity. ‘Symmetrical partnerships were rare’
(Baines & Wheelock, 1998, pp.21-24).
23
Talk of equality in business operations is not always matched by
empirically proven equality in decision making over serious issues. For
example, Queensland farm women had more say on ‘inside’ issues than
broader general issues concerning farming and the environment,
according to Rickson and Daniels, 1999, p.244.
2.4.3 Household
Studies of rural women testify to the resilience of gendered responsibilities
for household tasks (Dempsy, 1992). Shelton and Firestone in 1989
estimated that 8% of the gender gap in general US earnings was a direct
result of women’s greater domestic burden. They spend more time per
week on domestic work and take the main responsibility for care giving to
dependent children (Loscocco & Leicht, 1993; Allen & Truman, 1993, p.9).
Carter (1993, p.151) claims that many women feel guilt and role conflict
due to difficulties meeting business and family obligations. Involvement of
women in small business is often underwritten by the need to reconcile the
competing demands of waged and domestic labour (Marlow & Strange,
1992, p.182). Domestic responsibilities restrict time and mobility but we
cannot assume that business is always subordinate to family (Allen &
Truman, 1993, p.9).
While industry sector may structurally disadvantage a sole female
operator, the division of labour within family farms and other ‘husband
and wife’ operated businesses may detract from true equal understanding
and ability to make strategic decisions. The division of labour in the
household is possibly the most important structural disadvantage for all
women involved with business.
2.5 Summary
Female invisibility and gender blindness have marked earlier studies of
women in farming and other small businesses. Current debate about the
level of difference and similarity between men and women in business is
hampered by a lack of truly comparative data linking business with family
and social aspects. Women’s businesses though are smaller, younger and
take lower earnings. While women in these businesses appear to vary
from men’s businesses in motivations and notions of success, they can
24
also be differentiated by motivational categories such as ‘survival and
security’ and ‘achievement’, that cross male and female businesses.
Women in business lack training, relevant experience and involvement in
business and professional networks. Institutional discrimination appears to
persist in terms of divorce and inheritance factors for agricultural
businesses and access to finance through banks for business generally. A
gendered division of labour in which women remain primarily responsible
for domestic tasks and in which they are still associated with ‘feminine’
work in the general labour market, underpins an involvement in business
that reflects this ‘horizontal segregation’ and sees the persistence of a
separation of tasks within businesses. Such separation may provide a
basis for a lack of true equality in strategic decision-making in shared
partnerships.
Regional and rural contexts for current developments for women in small
business should take into account the issues discussed above. In
ascertaining the nature of small business in the Western Region notions of
choice and constraint and a critical appreciation of ideas and measures of
success are central. In the following section the Methodology sets out the
rationale for the current research and clarifies the methods used to
address the above issues.
25
3 METHODS OF RESEARCH
Multiple research techniques were used to gain an understanding of the
situation that could furnish both objective descriptive statistics of the
current situation, enabling the charting of simple correlations, as well as
providing more qualitative insight into the passions and concerns of the
women involved in enterprise throughout the region. Multiple research
methods, also referred to as triangulation (Reinharz, 1992, p.197) allow for
creative research designs and increase the richness of the findings because
the subject is investigated from a number of different approaches (Reinharz,
1992). Through the use of such methods, understanding of the respondents’
perception of reality is likely to be increased, thus the validity of the findings
is increased.
Both qualitative and quantitative methods were used in this project. This
approach is supported by Toby Jayaratne (1983, p.140) who, though aware
of the restrictions of positivistic methods, also advocates the use of both
qualitative and quantitative research methods, believing that such an
approach is more effective in developing and explicating theory. While
quantitative methods can provide a wealth of facts about a phenomena, the
additional qualitative methods allow exploration of reasons for, and feelings
that led to, a phenomena, as well as feelings about a phenomena (Jayaratne,
1983:140). The qualitative approach focuses on meaning, rather than
measurement, of social phenomena (Hussey & Hussey, 1997:53). Qualitative
research embraces:
the importance of establishing rapport between the researcher and the
subject;
the need for the researcher to value and respect the subject’s view of
their own reality; and
for the subject’s own words to be used in the subsequent written report.
(Hussey & Hussey, 1997, p.53).
This research was conducted using a combination of questionnaires and
interviews. The central research tool for the former was an extensive
questionnaire and for the latter eleven meetings were held throughout the
region and note was taken of telephone conversations with potential
survey respondents throughout the period of data gathering.
26
The focus group interviews had a dual purpose. The first group in Ballarat
enabled the piloting of the questionnaire and some minor improvements
to be made. For the other ten group interviews, personal contact with
regional centres and women’s groups in the context of holding group
discussions promoted a more thorough distribution of questionnaires,
more thoughtful and considered responses, as well as more reliable
returns. The data from the focus group interview/discussions add a deeper
dimension, another layer of information which can ‘validate and refine’
questionnaire responses (Reinharz 1992, 201).
Ethics approval for the research was granted through the Human Research
Ethics Committee of University of Ballarat on June 7, 2001.
3.1 The Survey
The survey (See Appendix A) was designed by the researchers between
March and April, modified after a steering committee meeting in May 11,
and piloted by two women from Southwestern and Northwestern Victoria
who responded to a media release. In order to have a more thorough
critique, it was piloted again by women at the first focus group in Ballarat
June 15.
The population of participants for the survey consisted of all adult, female
small businesses (employing less than 20 effective full time workers),
which were either sole operated or consisting of partnerships with men or
women, in the Western Region. The Western Region consists of 10 Local
Government areas: Rural City of Ararat, City of Ballarat, Hepburn Shire
Council, Hindmarsh Shire Council, Horsham Rural City Council, Moorabool
Shire Council, Northern Grampians Shire Council, Pyrenees Shire Council,
West Wimmera Shire Council, and Yarriambiack Shire Council.
The sample of 359 was drawn through two major means: a general
snowballing database for a mail out following an introductory phone call,
and a series of advertised meetings in Ballarat, Beaufort, Ararat, Stawell,
Horsham, Dimboola, Warracknabeal, Nhill, Edenhope, Willaura and
Daylesford. The limited time available to women for meetings and the
small number at the meetings meant that greater effort had to be applied
to direct phone calling of lists, ‘subcontracting’ lots of surveys to helpful
27
community members and finally, to creating targeted lists through the
Yellow Pages Directory.
Local Government areas were contacted to provide maps of the
boundaries for the regions and lists of social groups. Some initial contacts
were made through the CWA but were found to be of limited use because
of the lack of women involved in business in the groups. Advertisements
were also placed in the Rural Women’s Network magazine however, and
unexpectedly, there was minimal response.
The Western Region’s DSRD Women in Business list was used as a starting
point to invite women to attend the first focus group and pilot of the
survey, then was further used as a data base to telephone to ask
permission to send surveys. The Rural Women’s Network and Australian
Industries Group provided useful short lists of contacts. Other council
areas were able to provide lists of all businesses in the area though some
were considerably out of date. Some councils were able to direct the
researchers to key women in the community with local knowledge of
businesses. The sample was thus recruited through contact with Council,
Social & Economic Development officers, women's groups, traders'
associations, State and Regional Development, Western Region, and
advertisements in the Rural Women's Network, a CWA conference, a
Quilters website and the Australian Federation of Business and
Professional Women’s Network.
Every effort was made to reach as many women in business as possible.
For example a worker at the National Enterprise Incentive Scheme posted
45 surveys to those who had completed NEIS business courses at Ballarat.
A contact in Horsham distributed two questionnaires to 50 businesses,
(100 in total) hoping each one would pass the second questionnaire on to
an appropriate person. A contact in Edenhope National Resources and
Environment agreed to take 10 surveys to send out, three contacts took
bulk surveys to distribute in Edenhope (10), Nhill (50) and Rainbow (15).
The Council worker in Ballan arranged for 100 surveys to be given out at
meetings in Ballan and Bacchus Marsh. Contacts in Ballarat distributed by
hand to Gordon businesses (Moorabool), and to Zonta (15) and
Soroptomist (10) meetings in Ballarat.
28
To further enhance the number of respondents, hand deliveries and pick
ups were made to businesses in Sturt St Ballarat, East Ballarat,
Sebastopol, Buninyong, Mt. Pleasant and Daylesford during the weeks
September 17-28th
In September and October, two research assistants were hired to do
intensive phone calling in the Hepburn, Northern Grampians, Ballarat and
Moorabool local government areas once again for the purpose of
increasing the number of survey participants. In October 19 and 20 th
advertisements were run in the Wimmera Mail Times and Ballarat Courier
respectively but both newspapers failed to make use of editorial copy
provided. The Daylesford Advocate and The Glenlyon ran both
advertisements and editorials.
In terms of population of the Western Region, the Local Government areas
varied immensely in size. Where possible some effort was made to
replicate in locations of businesses in the sample, the population
proportions of the differing Local Government Areas. The following table
sets out this comparison.
Table 3.1 Local Government Area Proportional Population of Sample and Region
Local Government Area Sample proportion of Business locations (%)
(n358)
Population proportion
(%)Ararat 6.7 6.2Ballarat 32.5 43Hepburn 11.5 7.6Hindmarsh 5.5 3.7Horsham 8.4 9.6Moorabool 6 12.5Northern Grampians 12.4 6.9Pyrenees 3.3 3.8West Wimmera 5.7 2.8Yarriambiack 6 4.4
NB 2.1% of sample businesses locations were outside of the region. This occurred particularly when a business was in multiple locations.
There was more success in meeting targets in the less populated, areas as
well as the Stawell (Northern Grampians) and Daylesford (Hepburn) areas,
as a result of access to extensive listings. Poorer returns for Horsham and
Moorabool can be linked to an over-reliance on intermediaries and bulk
deliveries rather than intensive phone calling. A return rate of 34% was
achieved overall for usable surveys (1 failed to meet the criteria and
29
another 9 were received too late for data entry.) The data were entered
and analysed using SSPS software, the social science package for
statistical analysis.
3.2 Group and Individual Discussions
The Ballarat Focus Group Meeting was held on June 15 in the Board Room
of the Victorian Business Centre Ballarat, and small meetings were held in
Council rooms at Beaufort, Ararat, Stawell, Horsham, Warracknabeal, Nhill
and Edenhope. Other meetings were held in the Dimboola Footwear
premises and the Willaura Hotel between July 9 and 13. A final group
meeting was held at in the Hepburn Council Chambers at Daylesford on
September 17. A total of 49 women were involved in these meetings.
Additionally some informal conversations were held while delivering
surveys in the main streets of towns such as Warracknabeal, Stawell,
Willaura, Daylesford and Ballarat.
Individual discussions were held by telephone, face to face and email
throughout the period of the research and some effort has been made to
include these understandings in our analysis.
30
4 RESULTS
4.1 Introduction
The results section of the report is divided into three main parts: a
description of the sample, basic data on the businesses and business
themes and issues. Qualitative data is integrated with the quantitative
data and comparisons made with regional demographic data from the
appropriate Statistical Subdivisions from the 1996 Census (ABS) and the
1999 ABS study Characteristics of Small Business where appropriate. In
the final section on themes and issues, the elements of business
experience and practice are cross-tabulated with the structure of the
business ownership and with measures of business success.
In this report the categories have been collapsed into two. The first
category combines women as sole operators and women in partnership
with a woman. The second category combines women in partnerships with
men irregardless of whether they take a leading role or are in a shared
leading role. The majority of women in partnerships with men claimed to
have a shared leading role with their male partners. Women took a leading
role in only 6.7% of businesses. It is important then to recognise a
potential influence by male partners in the women’s attitudes and
experiences. Because of this potential the experiences of women in
business on their own and the experiences of women in partnership with
men are discussed separately in this report where it is deemed important
for this distinction to be made.
4.2 Sample Description
In this section the age, ethnicity, education, residence and household
structure of the sample population are described and compared with
regional and/or Victorian characteristics.
4.2.1 Age
The sample held a large proportion of older women, seventy percent being
over 40 years old. Similarities to the Victorian demographics in the 1999
ABS survey on Small Business (ABS 8127.0, 1999) are apparent.
31
Table 4.1 Age Structure of Sample and Victorian Women’s
Small Business
Age range Sample % ABS % 1999Under 30 6.7 7.5 Between 30 and 50 63.8 66.2 Over 50 29.5 26.4
4.2.2 Ethnicity
The sample were almost all Australian born (90.5%) of whom 0.6%
were Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander. Of the 9.5% born overseas,
none used a language other than English in their business dealings.
One hundred percent of the sample therefore used English as their
language for business. In the Western Region as a whole in 1996
97.1% used English at home (ABS, 1996.)
Table 4.2 Place Of Birth And Ethnicity Of Sample And Region.
Sample % Western Region %Overseas born 9.5 7.6Aboriginal/Torres Strait Islanders 0.6 0.7NB. Statistics derived from 1996 Census, ABS 2901.0 Statistical Subdivisions of North and South Wimmera, Ballarat City, Western and Eastern Central Highlands. ABS 2000.
Although typical of the region itself this aspect is less reflective of the
Victorian small business population as a whole that had in 1999, 28%
overseas born female owners (ABS 8127.0, 1999, p28). This study
should not therefore be generalised to the wider Victorian situation in
relation to issues affecting non-English speaking background.
4.2.3 Education
Over half the sample had gone no further than high school, a situation
certainly affected by the age of the sample. The following pie chart
demonstrates the proportions of the variously qualified women.
32
Figure 4.1 Highest Level Of Education In Sample
5.6%
7.5%
20.9%
8.1%
22.8%
35.1%
currently studying
post graduate
degree or diploma
vocational
high school
high incomplete
This study sample was less well-educated than Victorian business
women as a whole but there are more women with degrees and post
graduate qualifications than women in the region generally. These
were more likely to be held by sole operators or women in partnership
with other women. Table 4.3 sets out this comparison.
Table 4.3 Education Level of Sample By Region and Victorian Business Women (Per cent).*
Sample
Total
Sole & female
partner.
With male
partner.
Western Region
Vic. Small Business Women
Did not finish High School
35 27 39 45 -
Completed High School
23 24 23 30 46
Basic or Skilled Vocational
8 8 8 8 16
Degree or Diploma
21 22 20 10 34
Post Graduate 8 11 5 2 -Currently studying
6 8 5 5 -
* Data on Western Region is adapted from Statistical Subdivision East and West Central Highlands, North and South Wimmera and Ballarat data (ABS 2901.0, 2000). B12 categories 16 years and under for ‘Age left School’ are taken as ‘Did Not Complete High School’, 17-18 are taken as Completed High School’, and Still at School for ‘studying’. For B17 data on qualifications, higher degree and post graduate diploma are merged for ‘Completed Post graduate’, Bachelor Degree and Undergraduate Diploma are merged for ‘Completed Degree or Diploma’ and Associate Diploma, Skilled Vocational and Basic Vocational are merged for Completed basic or Skilled training’. Victorian small business data from ABS 1999b.
33
4.2.4 Residence
The pie chart Figure 4.2 Sets out the size of the towns in which survey
respondents resided. The biggest proportions are living in Ballarat (the
only town greater than 20,000) or in small towns between 1000-9999,
but a sizable proportion of 18.2% lived in rural towns or areas with
fewer than 500 people.
Figure 4.2 Size Of Town/Area Of Residence of Sample
1.9%
1.7%
26.5%
9.7%
32.0%
10.3%
17.8%
Missing entries
bi-local
over 20000
10000-19999
1000-9999
500-999
less than 500
Two of the towns in the Western Region have been identified as
experiencing a population decline of over 10% between 1986 and
1996 (Ararat 14% and Beaufort 13.3%), so the reality for some of our
sample is a declining local market (AusStat, 1999d). About a third of
Australia’s small towns have been experiencing a decline, mostly in
inland areas. Such people ‘risk losing their savings, livelihood and
support systems as they confront the break up of their community,
loss of jobs, deteriorating infrastructure and declining property values’
(ABS Australian Social Trends 1998, pp.1-7).
Of the 48.8% of the Australian population who live in towns of less
than 500,000 population (ABS Social Trends 1998) 31.9% live in towns
of under 20,000 (cf sample 71.3%) and 10.9% in towns/areas of less
than 1000 (sample 28.7%). So the sample may be seen as
representing a more rural and small town demographic profile than
general ‘non-city’ Australia.
34
4.2.5 Household Unit
The household unit structures represented by Figure 4.3 reveal that
85.8% of the sample lived with a partner or with partner and
dependents. This contrasts with the proportions of family/household
types in the region in that there are fewer living alone and fewer living
without partners. The age and life cycle of the women in the sample
goes some way to explaining this, but it may also be an indication of a
feature of business women and families.
Figure 4.3 Household Living Arrangements of Sample
2.5%
4.2%
42.3%43.5%
7.5%
other
no partner & deps
partner and depspartner
alone
Victoria has a slower expected population growth than Australia as a
whole. However one household type, female lone person, is projected
to increase by between 51% and 86% between 1996 and 2021 (ABS
Demography 3311.2, 1999). Not all of this anticipated growth is due
to the ageing population and differing mortality rates between men
and women. Greater numbers of women will never marry or have
children (Australian Women’s Year Book, 4124.0, 1997). The fertility
rate of the region is 1.9 (Central Highlands) and 2 (Wimmera)
compared to the Victorian average of 1.7 (ABS 3311.2, 1999) which
may also have a bearing on future household types and regional
differences in family size.
35
Table 4.4 Proportions of Sample Household Type Compared to
Western Region (Percent)
Family Household Type Sample Western Region
Living Alone 7.5 13.3Living With Partner 43.5 19.4Living with partner &
Dependents 42.3 54.2Living without partner,
with Dependents 4.2 5.7Other 2.5 7.3
Source: ABS 2000, 2901.0
4.2.6 Summary Of Basic Demographic Data
Descriptive frequencies on the characteristics of the survey sample
reveal that a typical respondent was an Australian-born woman, over
40 years old, living with her partner, with or without dependents. She
had a high school education and was likely to live in Ballarat or in a
town of 1000-9999 people. In relation to age the sample reflects small
business women generally but in ethnicity it reflects the Western
region rather than Victorian small business in general. In education the
sample differed from Victorian data, with lower qualifications but were
still higher qualifications overall than for the rest of the population in
the region. The sample lives in smaller and more rural areas than non -
city Australia as a whole and two of the major towns have experienced
significant population decline. In addition, the present sample is more
likely to live with a partner and no dependents, than others in the
region.
4.3 Business Basic Data
4.3.1 Premise Location And Industry Sector
Figures 4.4 and 4.5 indicate the type of business premise and where this
premise was located. Most business premises were shops/galleries but
there were also a significant percentage with a home office or a town
office or factory. A music teacher had an academy and a horse-riding
business made use of a bush shed. Most businesses were in towns smaller
than 10,000, in the town over 20,000 (Ballarat), or at home.
Figure 4.4 Location of Business
36
otherfarm
20,000 +
between 11-20,000
town less 10,000
home residence
Pe
rce
nt
40
30
20
10
0
The following Table shows the proportional representation of the different
industry sectors in the sample compared with the proportions of female
employees in those same industries in the western region.
Figure 4.5 Type of Business Premises
academy
bush shed
motel b&b
farmtown office/factory
home shed/studio
shop or gallery
home office
desk at home
Pe
rce
nt
50
40
30
20
10
0
The following table compared the sample representation with the industry
sector employment of Western Region females.
37
Table 4.5 Sample Representation Compared to Western Region Female Employment in Industry Sector
Industry Sector Sample Female Business % (n 359)
Western Region Female Employment % (n 28,377)*
Mining 0 0.2Manufacturing 12.5 8.6Construction 2.2 1.5Wholesale 1.7 2.7Retail 34.3 18.2Accommodation 16.4 6.5Transport 1.1 1.5Communications 2.5 1.3Finance/Insurance 0.3 3.5Property Services 5.3 6.1Education 0.6 12.3Health and Community Services 4.7 22.9Cultural and Recreational 3.1 2.1Personal & other 8.1 4.1Agriculture 7.2 8.3
*Statistics derived from 1996 Census, ABS 2901.0 Statistical Subdivisions of North and South Wimmera, Ballarat City, Western and Eastern Central Highlands. ABS 2000. Electricity, Gas merged with Business and Property Services.
All industry sectors except mining were therefore covered.
Understandably employment in Health and Community Services and in
Education, embracing as they do government employed teachers and
nurses, are less represented by women in small business, while retail,
accommodation/cafes and personal services are more significant.
Appendix A lists all occupations alphabetically and reveals the
continuing significance of a gender structured labour force. Whether
the business was sole/female or partnered with a male also made a
difference. For example those in partnership with males dominated in
Construction (100%), Transport and Storage (100%), Farming and
Agriculture (85%), Accommodation and Cafes (83%) and
Manufacturing (76%). Sole women or women in business with another
woman were more significant in Personal and Other Services (73%),
Cultural and Recreational Services (73%), Health and Community
Services (59%) and Property and Business Services (53%).
4.3.2 Age Of Business And How Started
38
Table 4.6 Age of Business
Years business owned
%
Up to 5 years 44
6-10 years 24
11-20 years 20
21 years or more 12
A little less than half the businesses (44%) were less than five years
old, a finding parallel with that for Victoria in the ABS study of Small
Business (8127.0, 2000 p.39). Mean years held was 12 years.
Figure 4.6 demonstrates that most women (55%) either started the
business themselves or purchased it as a going concern (38.5%).
Figure 4.6 How Business was Acquired
1.7%
1.1%
.8%
37.9%
.3%
4.2%
54.0%
Missing entries
takeover partnership
obtain a franchise
buy going concern
began direct selling
inherit
start business
4.3.3 Personal/Household Income
Three quarters of the sample (75.2%) claimed that the business was
the principal source of their personal income and a little less than two
thirds (63.6%) stated that it was also the main source of their
household income. The businesses surveyed were therefore generally
perceived as much more important than ‘pin money’.
39
There was a significant difference noted between the respondents who
answered the above question affirmatively, and their profile (2 39.70,
df = 1, p = <.001). Seventy six per cent (n = 167) of respondents (n
= 221) who said that the business was the main source of household
income were partnered with men, compared with 24% (n = 54) of
sole/female operators. Understandably, there is a significant
relationship between whether business is the main source of family
income, and whether the respondent is partnered with a male or is a
sole operator/female partnership.
4.3.4 Employees
The mean number of people employed by the small businesses,
including the owner/s was 5, though the standard deviation at 7
showed considerable range. The effective full time employees, also
including the owners was 3.13 with a smaller standard deviation of
3.65. The 359 businesses surveyed were providing employment then
for almost 1800 people in the region. 3
Figure 4.7 Numbers of Employees in Businesses
3 As the survey was designed to include up to 20 full time employees it differed from the 1999 ABS research which in the absence of effective full time statistics, based its calculations on total employees. employment
40
Table 4.7 Numbers Employed in Businesses
Numbers employed %
1-4 69
5-9 19
10-19 8.4
20+ 3.6
4.3.5 Marketing, Raw Materials
The major means of acquiring raw materials were through local
distributors (58.6%) and deliveries from Melbourne (56.7%), though
interstate deliveries and self-drive from Melbourne were also used by
around a third of the respondents. The supply of services was more
localised with almost two thirds acquiring them through local
distributors. Self drive and deliveries from Melbourne were also
important. The following table outlines the various sources of raw
materials and services.
Table 4.8 Source of Raw Materials and Services
Source Raw Materials %
Services%
Local Distributor 59 64Delivered from Melbourne 57 34Interstate 34 17Self-drive Melbourne 29 24Carrier to nearest town 23 15Mail Order 19 15Overseas 8 4Intermediaries 7 9Major regional centre 2 2
Marketing and advertising by word of mouth (80%) was the most
commonly reported method used but newspapers (50%), fliers (41%),
shop fronts (42%) and existing personal relationships (40%) all
featured prominently. Internet (17%) and television (12%) were used
by a smaller minority.
Marketing strategies also included more innovative methods such as
combining farm stay with craft workshops. One respondent
commented “Some of the customers came on the farm stay for ‘teddy
41
weekends’ . These visitors tried to complete their craft project during
their weekend stay, so they had on hand advice.”
A woman who dealt in produce and saddlery talked about the
customers’ positive response to the smell of leather, hay and feed in
the store. Other women noted the potential for aroma to attract
custom, as in the well-known baker of north-eastern Victoria who piped
the smell of baking bread to the front of the shop.
A manufacturing firm that sells nationally rather than locally wanted to
move into international markets but did not fit the criteria for export
help, (understood to include $500,000 turnover and 3 years of export
experience). Furthermore they found it difficult to get a secure patent
for their product and already someone had copied and was selling.
“We now travel around at field days and take orders.”
4.3.6 Profit
More than a fifth of the respondents failed to complete questions on
profit and turnover but, of those who did, the category ‘did not make a
profit’ was the largest. The low response on this question could
indicate a resistance to revealing information they regarded as
personal and confidential.
Table 4.9 Per Annum Profit 1999-2000 Financial Year
Frequency Valid PercentN = 280
Valid no profit 49 17.5 Less than $1,000 18 6.4 $1,000-$4,999 28 10.0 $5,000-$9,999 26 9.3 $10,000-19,999 46 16.4 $20,000-29,999 33 11.8 $30,000-49,999 31 11.1 $50,000-74,999 26 9.3 $75,000-99,999 10 3.6 $100,000+ 13 4.6 Total 280 100.0 Missing System 79 Total 359
Figure 4.8 reveals that 39% claimed a profit of between $10,000 and
$50,000, 43% claiming less than $10,000 profit.
42
Figure 4.8 Reported Per Annum Profit 1999-2000
22.0%
3.6%
2.8%
7.2%
8.6%
9.2%
12.8%
7.2%
7.8%
5.0%
13.6%Missing entries
$100,000+
$75,000-99,999
$50,000-74,999
$30,000-49,999
$20,000-29,999
$10,000-19,999
$5,000-$9,999
$1,000-$4,999
less than $1,000
no profit
Figure 4.9 indicates that the most commonly reported response was a
turnover of $100,000-300,000.
Figure 4.9 Turnover 1999-2000
1,000,000+
500,000-$999,999
300,000-$499,999
$100,000-$299,999
$50,000-$99,999
$20,000-$49,999
$10,000-$19,999
$0-$9,999
Pe
rce
nt
40
30
20
10
0
Figures 4.10 And 4.11 indicate reported sales growth and percentage
of export sales. Almost a half reported that their growth was
moderately strong or rapid and, given that 164 did not reply to the
question on export sales and 87% of those who did reply, had ‘none’, it
can be argued that this aspect was not important to most businesses.
43
Figure 4.10 Reported Sales Growth 1999-2000
18.1%
7.2%
36.5%
26.2%
12.0%Missing entries
rapid (25%+)
mod strong (10-24%)
low (< 10%)
nil or declining
Figure 4.11 sets out the reported export sales of the sample.
Figure 4.11 Percentage of Reported Export Sales
45.7%
2.2%
.8%
1.1%
3.1%
47.1%
Missing entries
40%+
20-39%
10-19%
1-9%
0%
The following Pie chart reveals that a large majority of respondents
report themselves as keeping up or performing well in comparison to
their competitors.
44
Figure 4.12 Self Reports of Business Status Compared to
Competitors
2.8%
3.6%
1.1%
8.1%
34.8%
49.6%
Missing
not applicable
surviving
struggling
keeping up
growing/perf well
Given the number of missing responses and reasonably significant
numbers who reported no or low profits, in contrast to positive self
reports of ‘growing moderately strongly’ and ‘performing well’, it is
somewhat difficult to come to a definite conclusion about how the
businesses were faring in reality. Up to half appear quite optimistic
and positive.
4.3.7 Sole And Partnered
In defining the categories ‘sole operator’; ‘in partnership with
female/s’, ‘in partnership with male/s, shared leading role’ and ‘in
partnership with male/s, leading role’ the survey followed the Yellow
Pages Small Business Index, Special Report (1996, p.1). Table 4.10
Sets out the ownership proportions of the sample in comparison to the
Yellow Pages survey. This research sample has more sole operators
and fewer women who play a leading role when in business with a
male than the yellow pages survey. A little less than two thirds of the
sample are in partnership with a male.
45
Table 4.10 Business Ownership Structure of Sample and Yellow Pages Survey
Category of Ownership Sample % Yellow Pages Survey % Sole Operator 33.6 15In partnership with female/s 3 3In partnership with male/s
shared leading role 56 59In partnership with male/s 6.7 22
leading role
4.3.8 Summary Of Business Basic Data
Of the businesses surveyed a third were sole operated and most of the
rest involved partnerships with men. Most were in shops, offices, factories
or private homes in small towns or Ballarat. The business women had a
similar engagement in female industrial sectors except that there were
more in retail, accommodation and personal services and less in education
and health. Almost half the businesses were quite recent and most started
or purchased their business rather than inheriting them. Income from the
business was an important source of personal and household finance. The
mean effective number of full time employees in the businesses was
three. Local distributors were most important for raw materials and
services and the most important form of advertising was ‘word of mouth’.
Almost half of those who responded to questions on profit were optimistic
about the state of their business. In terms of comparisons with wider
surveys the Western Region businesses from the sample were younger
and more likely to be sole operated.
4.4 Business Themes And Issues
4.4.1 Finance
Start up finance ranged from a few hundred dollars to a million dollars
with 62% of responses starting with less than $50,000. The same
proportion used their own money, with 50% also using banks.
A Mann-Whitney Test of independent samples indicated that there is a
significant difference between the amount of ‘start-up’ finance and the
“profile” of the respondent ( 5583, p <.001). The amount of start up
finance where businesses were operated on a partnership with a male (n
46
= 155) was significantly higher (median = $45,000) compared to those in
sole/female operation (n = 102), (median $17,500).
Sixty percent of respondents were dependent on loans and 50%, at least
partially, upon their own savings. This was a common situation for those
women who preferred to avoid risk.
For those women who preferred to avoid risk a typical comment was,
I had no trouble with finance as I started the business with my own savings and the bank knew my partners from growing up in the town. I would not like the pressure of paying back so much if I had borrowed to begin.
Those who borrowed for start up finance usually used the money to buy or
build the business though in a number of cases it was used for stock and
tools and equipment as well. Of some interest were those who gained
money from father (8%), mother (5%) and those who sold assets (9%) to
gain money.
There is a significant relationship between respondents who sought to
borrow, and their partnership profile (2 8.329, df = 1, p = .004). Of those
who sought to borrow for their business activities, 71% were in a
partnership (n = 121), compared to 29% of respondents (n = 49) who
were sole/female operators.
There was also a significant relationship between those who were
successful in borrowing and their partnership profile (2 10.344, df = 1, p
= <.001). Of the respondents who had successfully borrowed for ongoing
business activities, 77% were in a partnership (n = 105) compared to only
23% of sole/female operators (n = 32).
Ten percent of respondents applied for, but were refused finance to start
their business. The differing outcomes with respect to gaining finance
potentially affects size, growth and profitability of business. A number of
studies previously mentioned have shown that women derive lower
income than men from small business, however there are characteristics
of women’s businesses that explain such results, none the least the issue
of difficulty in getting finance. Women in this research too have cited
discriminatory treatment by financiers.
47
There is a significant relationship between respondents and sought to
borrow and their profile (2 8.329, df = 1, p = .004). Of those who sought
to borrow for their business activities, 71% were in a partnership (n =
121), compared to 29% of respondents (n = 9) who were sole operators.
There was also a significant relationship between those who were
successful in borrowing and their profile (2 10.344, df = 2, p = .001). Of
the respondents who had successfully borrowed from ongoing business
activities, 77% were in partnership (n = 105) compared to only 23% of
sole/female operators (n = 32).
Table 4.11 sets out the proportions for reasons given for the 36 who had
finance rejected at start up phase and those 24 women who were refused
a loan to finance on-going business activities such as expansion.
Table 4.11 Reasons for Refusal of Finance
Reason given Percentage ofResponses re start up (n = 36)
Percentage of Responses re growth (n = 24)
Not enough security 33 38Insufficient cash flow 33 29No business plan 20 17Unable to service loan 13 12.5Unemployed/other 2 4
Examination of the experiences of women who had been refused start-up
loans showed that the sorts of responses found by Sykes (1989), that
focussed on negative attitudes about women’s ability to manage
businesses, were still given by financiers. Because of the perceived risk of
lending to women, security was required by women attempting to set up
business on their own. Typically, in a number of cases the “security”
involved providing a male guarantor. The following are comments made
by two women in partnerships with men.
I was 22 years old and told I was too young and inexperienced to own a business. They would however give me a loan if my husband was a partner – who knew nothing about the business. I used my own money. I am still told by the banks that it would be better for my husband to be doing the financial matters.
I had to have my mother and father’s land as security to borrow $25,000. I was told it was too big a risk even though I provided $10,000 of own money.
48
On the other hand one woman was told that the amount she wished to
borrow was not large enough for a loan. Some anecdotal evidence exists
that those wishing to borrow small amounts of money, for business or
otherwise, are encouraged to use their credit cards. This was indeed the
experience mentioned by a respondent. The bank manager had suggested
to her that, rather than take out a loan, she should survive on bankcard.
The woman in question chose to save the amount instead.
Women on their own attempting to get finance were at times treated by
financiers in a way which one woman describes as “Their attitude was very
‘look down the nose’”. Another woman commented that, “I did a business
plan but they (the financier) were still not happy. Arrogant bank manager.
He was OK while my husband was there.”
One woman, attempting to start her business on her own found herself
with a $50,000 debt and in a ‘Catch 22’ situation. She described how,
I was granted a $50,000 business loan. I needed an extra $15,000 to complete the set up and stock but the bank would not give this for 6 months. … luckily I was able to rely on my husband, so my husband took out a private loan.
At this point she was in debt but could not start her business to generate
income.
Financiers also refused loans on the basis of age and lack of business
experience. “I’ve never owned a business before so it’s assumed I don’t
know what I’m doing!”
Almost half of the women (49.7%) had sought to borrow for ongoing
business activities and most of these (41% of 49.7%) had been successful.
Those 24 who were unsuccessful (See table 4.11) were provided with
similar reasons by financiers as those women who were refused loans for
start-up.
We were refused a loan later, 10 years into the business, to expand – the reason given that it really only was “just a small women’s business” but was later retracted on discriminatory grounds, when the accountant stepped in.
49
Even when a business may have been operating relatively successfully
some women nevertheless had to rely on male partners to get a loan. Age
was again another reason given for refusal. As one woman said, “I was too
old.”
A woman in business on her own who did not attempt to borrow money
cynically commented,
I have not sought support from a financial institution since becoming a sole parent in 1997, because I know from past association with banks that my present status as a single parent/sole trader makes them consider me to be a poor risk, therefore discrimination.
Financiers perception of women as poor financial managers is not
supported in practice. Of the women in this study, the majority (68%) did
their own bookkeeping during operation, 18% paid someone to do their
books and 13% made use of kin, (mostly husbands).
4.4.2 Risk And Planning
Women’s cognisance of the need for risk planning and financial planning
are exemplified in their responses to questions of how they managed on-
going operations of their businesses. In terms of planning, 58% had a
formal business plan, 78% a financial plan and 74% formal goal setting
and planning. In ‘attitude to risk’ responses varied but few opted for the
‘big financial injection’ (4.4%). Respondents were almost equally divided in
their perception of whether they were a risk avoider (55%) or risk taker
(42%) and some insisted that they were both or ‘in between’ (3%).
In order to manage risks most opted for goal planning (63%) or having a
contingency plan (42%). A small minority (5.5%) acknowledged they ‘go
for broke’.
Many women wrote comments relative to how they manage risk. The
women in business on their own who were risk avoiders expressed some
degree of caution relative to taking risks in the setting up and operation of
their businesses. As one woman said, “I am not making a large net profit. I
would never have started my business except for the fact of an
independent income”, and one of the 26.3% women who stated that they
prefer to avoid borrowing said “I try small then grow and develop if I’m on
the right track. I am a risk avoider and prefer to avoid bank loans.”
50
Similar sentiments were expressed by women in business with men who
were risk avoiders, “I am self financed and I only take risks I can afford to
lose,” and “I never put the house and basic pension income at risk. So if
the business should fail, one is still OK.”
Eleven percent of respondents stated that they had strategies in place to
manage risk. “I know that I’m not dependent on the business for survival. I
have eggs in different baskets,” and “I know exactly how much I need to
cover all the bills and rent every week. After that it is a profit.”
Slightly less than half of all respondents (42.1%) saw themselves as risk
takers, though only 38.1% were women in business by themselves or with
a woman and 44.9% of them had male partners. One woman with a male
partner said that, “I rely on my husband and a little bit of go for broke,”
and a woman in partnership with a man who described herself as a risk
taker said, “We call it taking calculated risks” but another added, “I
married the right man.”
One female sole operator maintained, “I manage risk by just deciding and
doing it” while a second woman said, “To go into business certain risks
must be taken unless you are already wealthy.”
4.4.3 Perceived Hindrances
Lack of finance, confidence and prior experience were the most
acknowledged factors inhibiting start up phase of the business.
Comparable proportions (34%-39%) believed that finance, mentors,
training courses and financial advice would have helped them in start up.
The main inhibiting factor at operation of the business once again was lack
of finance though 50% of respondents had not sought to borrow for on-
going business activities such as expansion. Most (41%) of the 49.7% who
had attempted to borrow more money were successful.
Lack of time was the other major barrier (47%) that women identified as
getting in the way of the successful operation of the businesses. Of the
factors limiting business growth, time and competition are the most
important.
51
Table 4.12 Factors Hindering Business Percentages rounded.
Factor Start up % of Cases
Operation % of Cases
Lack of finance 43 49Lack of time 47Lack of community support 8 16Lack of confidence 30 16Lack of prior experience 30 10Lack of information 23Lack of information and support services
18 10
Bank not treating seriously 17Lack of child care 15 9Lack of infrastructure 13 7Accountant not treating seriously 7Lack of support from spouse/partner 6Different family priorities 6Staffing 2Space 2Government/GST/tax office 2
Type of business partnership had some influence. Lack of finance did not
differentiate between the partnership profiles, nor did lack of access to
information. In addition, rejection, lack of prior experience, and lack of
information and support services did not differentiate between the
categories. However, lack of confidence was statistically significant (2
9.991, df = 1, p = .002). On this question, 71% of respondents who said
that lack of confidence was not a problem were in a partnership with a
man, and 29% were sole/female operators.
Competition ( n = 95 in partnership, n = 42 sole operators), time available
(n = 52 partnered, n = 49 sole) and size of outlet (n = 13 partnered, n = 6
sole operators) were the most frequently answered responses in relation
to factors limiting growth.
No significant difference was noted in the profile of the respondents on
lack of finance, confidence, community support, childcare, prior
experience, time or information and support services, tax office, staffing,
Government or GST. In addition, area profile, different family priorities
and weather did not differentiate the groups.
52
However, on the item ‘bank not treating you seriously’, at on-going
operation phase, a significant relationship was noted (2 9.201, df = 1, p =
.002). The majority of respondents who stated that the bank had not
treated them seriously were sole operators (77%, n = 10) compared to
23% who were in a partnership (n = 3). (Once again, attention is drawn to
the small number of respondents in this analysis). In contrast, 65% of
individuals who had no concerns with their treatment from the banks were
in a partnership, as compared with 35% of sole operators.
In addition, lack of infrastructure and profile also differentiated the groups
(25.08, p<.05). Lack of infrastructure was seen as a factor which
hindered or inhibited operation or business by 884% (n = 15) of
respondents who were in a partnership, compared to 12% of sole
operators (n = 2). Because of the small numbers in this analysis, the
results cannot be used for the purposes of generalisation.
During the focus group discussions the factors inhibiting start-up and
operation were explained in greater depth. The women there highlighted
the areas of childcare, infrastructure and government and availability of
information, knowledge and skills as also being major barriers.
Discussion around housework and childcare exposed the women’s reality
of “you’ll always be responsible for the children’ and ‘that’s the trouble,
we have to do it all now”. As members of one group concluded:
“Being ‘superwoman’ is not something we should have to aspire to”.
“Often a male’s perception of helping out is either not up to standard or
not a full equal responsibility”. “In many rural areas child care is almost
non existent or may involve a long drive to relations”.
In one town only one person was registered to run Family Day Care and a
high school girl did baby sitting, but only out of school hours. She often
had to be transported long distances to client’s premises. Women noted
that many grandmothers were doing the child minding and some were
being paid. Alternatively relatives helped with childcare but for several,
the children were brought up in the business – neither they nor their
mothers thought this was bad for them.
53
Two women commented that twenty years ago when both started their
businesses they had to ‘fly by the seat of their pants’. There was no child-
care. If one wanted to work she had to do it from home and combine it
with child rearing. One said that it would take ‘generations’ before
anything really changes in relation to child rearing responsibility and
housework. The women maintained that there was a strong need for
affordable childcare.
Whilst the issue of adequate childcare was clearly an important issue, so
too were concerns about the level of government regulation. Forms of
regulation by authorities and various levels of government was an area
frequently commented upon in focus groups, though not addressed
specifically in the survey.
Over regulation was the term used to describe what they felt were
unnecessary bureaucratic obstacles. For example significant frustration
was felt about the amount of paper work, especially relative to the GST.
There was a perception that there were many levels of bureaucracy to get
through even for simple issues such a taking on a trainee. As one woman
concluded, “Dealing with a big organisation is very difficult.”
Over regulation was also considered to be a problem in areas such as
health, hygiene, sewerage and so on. Other examples were the expense in
meeting the standards, for example health regulations requiring $30,000
for a septic system. One woman also maintained that, “Even when there is
a bushfire the women are no longer able to bring cooked food from home
to feed the men because of hygiene rules.” Regulations also placed
barriers on stalls in the street. Furthermore it was claimed that regulations
were “… killing voluntary cooperation. It has stopped cooperative fencing
and cropping.”
The issue of taxation was a bone of contention. Taxation and GST include
hidden costs that a retailer cannot pass on and there is much ‘down time’
trying to sort out tax mistakes.
The problem with taxation is that there is no human intervention or overall appreciation of the logic of how it all works until well down the line when there is a problem. In many situations you have to go through eight different
54
people, who give different opinions and advice, so perhaps you may as well just wait until you hear one you agree with.
Payroll tax was also seen as a burden and there was also complaint of a
double tax, where shop insurance had both stamp duty and GST.
Employment policies were blamed for the difficulties in dealing with public
service bureaucracies. “The people we deal with are all on short contracts
so there is a lack of security and of continuity in dealing with government
services.” One woman now has a personal policy to avoid direct contact
with the authorities – she just does what she wants to.
There was general agreement because of the mire of legislation and
regulation at various levels of government, accessing information was not
always easy. Respondents seemed to feel that local Government should
be the entry point to an overview of all schemes relevant to those in small
business in rural area.
Some women found difficulty accessing the information they needed to
start (23.1%) and run their businesses. Lack of prior experience was cited
by 30.6% at start-up phase as a major reason. Women were forced to
learn completely new skills for example dealing with technology. One
woman found barriers in learning about export and claimed that, “it is a
nightmare”. She had to find out about customs laws and exchange rates
on the internet and found it hard to work in two time frames to
communicate with Asia.
For another the major barrier was finding out how to do things, like use
computers. She eventually found a book which,
… took you through 24 hour steps to create your own web page. Local libraries should stock such user friendly books but they claim the software changes too quickly. People who do not have the time to attend courses can work through the skills at home by themselves in their own time.
4.4.4 Business Style
The most important sources of information that aided the sample
businesses were professionals such as accountants and solicitors, with
magazines and journals and mentors next in significance. Newspapers,
55
then radio, television and internet were not far behind. While some read
local newspapers generally others focused on specific industry related
sections of The Age or subscribed to industry specific journals.
Business communication style with friends and acquaintances was
overwhelmingly ‘face to face’ (71%), most using this method for
interaction with experts and specialists, suppliers as well (41%), although
in this case telephone was used in 23% of the cases. Only 141 of the
sample communicated with Women’s or Business organisations and here
telephone contact (40%) was more important than face to face (31%) and
email contact not insignificant (14.9%).
Most of the women seemed to prefer face to face communication though
this was not always possible. For reasons of distance, time and lack of
effectiveness their preferred communication style was not always used.
Except for experts/suppliers, email contact was preferred over fax,
“Sometimes face to face contact would be better re experts/specialists
advice etc. But generally, telephone contact possibly followed up with
fax/email is sufficient.”
For rural business in particular it is not always possible to have face to
face contact as expressed by one woman “It is hard to be face to face
when you are 300 kilometres apart.” The situation for rural women is
summed up by one woman:
As we work in a relatively isolated area, most ordinary information gathering must be done remotely. Phone contact at least initially is most efficient, and I use either phone, fax or email as the situation requires.
Networking is a critical communication factor in both the start up and
operation phases of a business. Networking activities that worked for
various women were both formal and informal. All agreed that knowing
what is available has been important. For one woman being in Rotary
helped. She also has good contacts with the Council (local government).
Another knew all the main courier services. For two businesses a good
network of friends delivered and picked up parts when they were already
going to Ballarat.
56
At a focus group discussion women had mixed responses when asked if
they wanted a women’s business network. They were interested but
thought that women need to think they are getting something out of it –
some skill or motivation. One hundred and thirty people in Ararat attended
a business dinner with a motivational talk by football coach David Parkin.
If something, even one thought or idea is gained from a meeting or
network, it can be seen as worth the effort.
Networking and asking questions, as stated, was a common way of gaining
information, especially at start up. One woman mentioned a male mentor
who had been in the same business. He advised her to buy what she liked
and set the trend, to avoid over buying and to buy within the clients’
market. She had followed this advice successfully.
Networking between business people also occurred. The women
particularly mentioned the encouragement from other traders and locals
when someone opened up a business, for example flowers and cards were
given. When one woman began her business, everyone in the street
called in and gave her bouquets of flowers to welcome her. Happy
customers also helped to promote business and word passes around
through sporting and other clubs.
The networking and communication styles of female business operators
largely informed the way they dealt with staff. Most respondents reported
themselves as having a responsive management style with staff. Relative
to participative management and decision making 39.3% chose the option
that they “presented ideas and invited suggestions before making a
decision” and 23% thought that to “allow subordinates to function
independently within limits” reflected their decision making style the best.
A minority of respondents used authoritarian styles or at the other end of
the continuum, laissez faire styles. Four percent said they would make
decisions, “then announce it to the staff” and 3% would let the staff make
group decisions. Ultimately almost all those with staff presented
themselves as having flexibility and authority in relation to staff
management.
The relationship women business owners have with staff is demonstrated
in their responses to general employee relations questions (see Table
57
4.13). Those respondents for whom the question was applicable indicated
overwhelmingly that they had both flexibility and authority.
58
Table 4.13 Staff Management Style
Staff management % TrueStaff willingly work back when required 95%Staff have a say over when they take their
annual leave and some flexibility to suit family needs. 94%
I generally feel that I have the skills required to effectively manage my staff. 94%
Staff respect my authority 98%
The final category of exploring business style focussed on respondents’
use of information technology. Three quarters (75.5%) of the sample had
access to the internet through a computer. Interestingly there was a
higher proportion of internet access among this sample than in the ABS
survey of 1999 in which 33% had access to the internet. Of those who had
access to the internet 68% used it for email, 58% for research, and 12.5%
to conduct main business activities such as buying and selling.
Furthermore, as many as 27% had their own home page.
Table 4.14 Use of Internet by Sample and Australian Small Business Women
Use of Internet Sample % ABS Australian Small Business %* Access to Internet 75.5 33Email 68 25Research 58 23Buying or selling 12.5 5Website or homepage 27 6* Predominantly female operators. (ABS 8127.0 1999)
Though email is widely used it is not preferred.
Although telecommunications makes it possible to work from different home bases, I felt that you need the direct and immediate response through a telephone call, where there is banter, a personal relationship and the chance to check up on something on the spot.
Although generally the take up of information technology is positive for
some it was still seen as a barrier. One businesswoman had tried a
computer course in order to learn excel but found it “a bit fast” and could
not keep up. This year she has not even set up the excel for her tax. She
now rarely puts the computer on as she is “so busy”.
Another woman also commented on difficulty with new technology. She is
convinced local libraries should stock such user friendly books but says
that library staff claim the software changes too quickly. She said that
59
people who don’t have the time to attend courses can “… work through
the skills at home by themselves in their own time.”
A third woman did not quite trust computer technology,
…you cannot rely on computer inventories - you need someone to really check up on the shelves. Ecommerce would not work for me, though I may get listed on the town web page.
Although access to technology is high some problems with application
remain which may become relevant for training issues.
4.4.5 Training And Background
Most (72%) of the sample had work experience before setting up their
business and the most useful aspects of this experience for their business,
according to proportion of total responses, were customer service and
management skills (33.5%); same industry experience (27.4%) and
bookkeeping (25.5%).
Respondents were asked if they were aware of, made use of and found
useful a number of specialist services and courses for the start up phase
of their small businesses. Of some interest are the following items.
Table 4.15 Use of Services by Sample
Percentages of valid cases on all training options*
Training Course/ Aware available Used Found UsefulService AgencyNEIS 31 6 13Australian Taxation Office 39 29 9Chambers of Commerce 60 8 4Women’s Assoc/networks 25 5 4Accountants 24 39 32Solicitors 37 34 17Other eg. Colleagues 9 25 43*Percentages refer to the valid responses for each column category and bear no relation to other columns.
In terms of help available the sample endorses the importance of
colleagues, accountants and New Enterprise Incentive Scheme (NEIS), had
some reservations about the Tax Office and solicitors and made limited
use of Chambers of Commerce and Women’s Associations.
60
Training is a practical area that governments can respond to, hence
considerable resources are committed in this area. There were some
concerns expressed about the quality and experience of those running
business training courses.
I am very suspicious of courses, I feel that anyone running a course for business needs to have hands on experience. If not, all I have had anything to do with live in a fantasy business world and do more harm than good.
In spite of some complaints about inappropriate content, timing, place,
cost and eligibility of courses (12%) and a few who thought they were
poorly run (4%), most women found the course they did useful. The NEIS
was particularly commended, as the following comments highlight:
NEIS was most useful in providing bookwork skills and knowledge necessary for our business. NEIS gives us security to get through the teething stages of starting up, and assists us with any unanswered questions we may have.
I used the NEIS scheme which helped set out my business plan, helped finance while starting, and provided continual back-up in case of any problems. The NEIS scheme helped us to make a business plan, and showed us how to budget to keep us afloat.
NEIS course was most useful in helping with confidence and forming contacts. Free information and mentoring was great. It was comforting to know NEIS was available if needed.
However, few of the women who were aware of NEIS actually made use of
it, see Table 4.15. The restrictive eligibility criteria were one reason cited
by those who were aware of the NEIS program but who did not make use
of it.
I asked about NEIS but they said I wouldn’t qualify. I had a determination to succeed and did a Horticultural course at Longerenong. I also used common sense and hard work.
Those women who lived in or close to Ballarat or close enough to other
TAFE colleges or other providers found the business related courses run by
these institutions very useful. For example “My first year of marketing at
TAFE produced a marketing plan which was useful. Computer technology
at BRACE was also very useful,” and “I did a small business bookkeeping
management course through BRACE which was excellent and didn’t
consume too much time. I did extra hard work, learning the hard way.”
61
That most women who completed courses found them useful suggests
that extension of TAFE and other small business courses could also be
considered. This need was evident in the following responses:
I did a small short business course at TAFE before starting a business that was very basic. I made a huge amount of mistakes in the early days of the business. Took a long time to learn to get education before mistakes. Industry courses have been excellent; there is a huge gap in education on delivery of customer service, effective communication, goal setting, etc.
Of some interest are the responses from 206 respondents who set out how
they compensated for a lack of courses.
Table 4.16 How Lack Of Training Compensated For
Factor Percentage of responsesExperience or professional qualif. 35Self taught 11.8Use/employment of specialist 11.4Trial and error 11.4Mentor/seeking advice 10.6Instinct/gut feeling 8.5Perseverance/hard work 6.3Organised own training 4Strength of partner relationship 1
Prior experience and (less often) professional qualifications were
perceived as very important. Thirty-one percent of women stated that they
had experience in a similar or the same industry. Twenty-nine percent had
bookkeeping skills 47.8 had customer service, staff supervision and
management experience. Of the latter group often the skills were acquired
whilst working previously in a similar industry, as noted by one woman,
“Twelve years retail experience helped me to cope as six years had been
in management.” Another woman summed up with:
Although formal training has its place, nothing teaches you more quickly than practice and mistakes and listening to other people. My family had their own small business. I love owning my own business.
The skills and knowledge gained from professional qualifications were also
used.
My management certificate provided me with clearer objectives, and allowed me to formulate my business plans. I still use my knowledge re marketing, finances etc. most days. I continue to use my Bus. Grad. Certificate skills as I operate the business.
62
The Diploma of Management was excellent to build my business/management skills. I also learned through trial and error. I had accountant support and network support in the region.
As one woman concluded, “You can’t beat experience.”
There was also an interesting minority opinion voiced concerning a natural
proclivity for business expressed as ‘instinct’, ‘gut feeling’, and ‘common
sense’. This is exemplified by the following comments: “I used my brains”,
“I had to use my own gut feelings,” and “I used my common sense, that’s
all that is necessary. I read instructions re tax returns or car fix-up
manuals. Read.” Additionally women spoke of trial and error, learning on
the job (being self-taught) and the importance of mentors.
Women who were in a business partnership could also draw on their
husband’s or male partner’s experience. Many of those women
commented on the invaluable help this gave them. For example “My
husband had prior qualifications,” and “My partner had been in small
business before, same industry, and had much experience.”
Of more importance however is making use of specialists, with 38.6% of
women making use of accountants. “At the time of setting up business,
minimal help was available – Accountant the best. I managed hard work by
asking questions.”
At the conclusion of the survey, respondents were asked what courses or
training they would like to see available. Almost all who responded asked
for small face-to-face workshops (94%). Only 8% of cases wanted internet
chat groups. More than half wanted courses at night, 27% wanted day
time courses and a little less than half wanted part time (49%). Table 4.17
below indicates the percentage of cases requesting various types of
course content. The three most important were Marketing, Financial and
Promotion.
63
Table 4.17 Courses Desired By Sample
Content Percentage of
cases
MarketingFinancialPromotionComputerInterpersonal skillsInternetStaff supervisionEcommerceExportOther
6150493822201615.577
In terms of accessing courses a number of respondents commented on the
difficulty getting to the larger regional centres where many courses are
conducted. At a focus group meeting the comment was made that, “The
main talks, seminars that we’d like to attend are in Melbourne.” A
suggestion for self-paced learning (correspondence and internet based)
was made. For example “There are some training courses that I would be
interested in. E.g. Workcare, Workplace relations, Awards etc. but they
tend to be in Melbourne and expensive for us,” and “I am really unable to
leave work early. Self-paced learning is the best and would need to be of a
standard that would be useful.”
4.4.6 Domestic/Family Issues
Underpinning many of the constraints facing women in business are issues
concerning household responsibilities and kinship links. When asked
which household tasks they were mostly responsible for, business women
responded in a way that clearly reflected a gendered household division of
labour, but they also revealed significant involvement in outdoor, ‘male’
activities.
64
Table 4.18 Proportion with Most Responsibility for Domestic Task
by Business Operation
Task % Sole female & female & female
n = 130
% Females in partnership with males n= 222
% Totaln =352
Minding children 33.8 43.9 38.7Transporting children
36.9 43.2 40.7
Cleaning house 87.6 91 89.8Cleaning clothes 94.6 91 92.9Cleaning dishes 81.5 84.2 83.3Buying food 91.5 91.4 91.5Cooking food 89.2 91 90.4Maintaining garden 60.8 56.3 58.2Lawn mowing 26.9 24.8 26Waste handling 45.4 37.8 40.7Maintaining vegetable garden
30 18.9 23.2
House/car maintenance
40.8 23 29.9
Budgeting & bills 81.5 77 78.8
Almost all women, whether in partnership with a male, or in business on
their own or with a female, were mostly responsible for cleaning clothes,
buying and cooking food and cleaning the house. The style of partnership
made a notable difference for maintaining a vegetable garden, minding
children, waste handling, and house and car maintenance. Here sole
operators and those few with a female business partner had more primary
responsibilities.
Business partners were almost all family members, mostly husbands (n
=203). Other family members included sister (4), mother (2), father (3),
brother (3) and, where there was a second partner, child (12). The most
common reason for forming a partnership was the close kin or residential
tie (n = 117) but a number of others noted that access to complementary
skills was important (n = 55) and, to a lesser extent, business network
(11), finance (11) and tax minimisation (11). Women in business with
females were mainly so because of close kin ties (6) or complementary
skills (3).
Family members were also those most noted for offering unpaid labour
and advice. The numbers who answered this question (and who did not)
give the impression that sole operators were more reliant on family and
friends than others and less likely to gain unpaid helped from local and
65
state government sources, but numbers are too small to attach statistical
significance.
Table 4.19 Sources Of Unpaid Help Noted By Total Numbers Business Operation*
Source % Sole female & females
% Females & males
Family 41.5 29.7
Friends 19.2 11.7
Associates 4.6 5
Suppliers 5.4 7.2
Local Govt.Authorities
Nil 3.2
State Government
Nil 2.7
Other 3.1 1.8
* Responses relating to help were compared to total number of women in different partnership arrangements, rather than those who answered this question.
The type of help offered was mainly work in the business (n = 72), advice
(40), childcare and housework (24) and cleaning and maintenance of
business (22). The type of help was not altered by the type of business
operation. Many could not estimate the time given to these activities per
week but of the 139 who did, unpaid help given amounted to a mean of
8.8 hours a week (median 5, mode 2 and standard deviation 12.2).
Family help extended for some to financial aid for start up of business.
Fathers were mentioned by 8% (over-represented by sole–female
businesses with 14, compared with 13 responses) of the sample and
mothers by 5% (over-represented by sole/female businesses with 8 c.f. 7
responses). Most, as stated, were reliant on their own (and partners’)
savings and bank loans.
Although responses were rather small for some of these issues, questions
relating to domestic issues reveal the continuing overwhelming
responsibility for domestic work by women and the centrality of marriage
partners to their business partnerships noted in focus groups. Some
unpaid family help on businesses is strong and a minority received
financial aid from family members. On a number of these measures sole
women and women with female partners differ, undertaking more of the
outside domestic tasks and receiving more help from family members.
66
4.4.7 Time
Figure 4.13 demonstrates the average hours per week that women
estimated they spent on domestic tasks. (The detailed task-related
questions were designed as a memory aid for this estimation.) Over half of
the respondents work more than 20 hours a week and almost a fifth, more
than 40 hours a week on domestic tasks.
Figure 4.13 Average Hours per Week on Domestic Tasks
2.5%
17.8%
10.9%
25.1%
31.5%
12.3%
Missing entries
over 40 hours
30-39 hours
20-29 hours
10-19 hours
less than 10 hours
Group discussions revealed that women’s biggest constraint is time. They
know what they have to do but do not have time to do it, or do it well.
Recently at a meeting of farm women from Nhill, they were advised by the
facilitator to take off a day a week for their family, and the response was
incredulous laughter. Other women too spoke of their responsibilities
arising out of gendered expectations.
Some women feel isolated because, even if they could afford to pay for
household services like cleaning, they are too far out from town, so have
to do it all themselves. Two said they would “feel bad” about paying out
for something they could do.
It was hard to get someone to ‘run a house’. Some women had minimal
help with ironing etc. and some were not negative about housework. If
their partner took the long shift at work they were given the flexibility to
67
start later and do other things. One found the break from home office work
useful. Vacuuming for one woman was a physical release that allowed
thinking time. An older woman in retail however expressed anger at
having to do all the housework and household organisation, as well as
running a business.
When the survey data on domestic work data was cross-tabulated with
type of business operation some differences were perceived. Female sole
operators and those in partnership with women were likely to work fewer
hours on domestic tasks in spite of their acknowledgement that they were
mainly responsible for more tasks. More, however, did perceive that the
time on domestic tasks was likely to increase in the next 5 years.
Table 4.20 Estimation of domestic work in five years by business operation
Estimation % Sole female & females
% Females & males
Stay same 56.6 62.7Decrease 24 26.4Increase 19.4 10.9
Given past research that suggests that women may have only a part-time
commitment to business, it is noteworthy that more than half of the
sample work more than 40 hours a week on the business activity and a
fifth work more than 60 hours per week.
Figure 4.14 Average Hours Per Week Put Into Business
1.1%
8.4%
12.8%
39.3%
12.8%
11.7%
13.9%
Missing entries
more than 80 hours
60-79 hours
40-59 hours
30-39 hours
20-29 hours
less than 20 hours
68
A bigger proportion of sole female operators worked 40-59 hours a week in
comparison with women in partnership with men. The latter, however, had
proportionally more working over 80 hours a week.
Table 4.21 Hours Worked In Business By Business Operation
Hours % Sole & femalen = 127
% Partner with malen =224
$Total
Less than 20 11.8 15.2 14.120-29 11 12.1 11.830-39 16.5 11.2 1340-59 45.7 36.2 39.760-79 11.8 13.8 1380+ 3.1 11.6 8.5
There is a statistically significant difference between the hours spent in a
business, and whether the respondent was partnered or in sole operation
(2 11.406, df = 5, p = <.05). Of those who put in less than 20 hours per
week on their business, 69% were in partnership with males, (n = 34)
compared to 31% of sole/female operators (n = 15). Furthermore, for
respondents who put in more than 80 hours per week, 87% of this group
were in a partnership with a male (n = 26), compared to 13% (n = 4) of
women in sole/female partner operation. Those in partnerships with males
therefore more likely to do both low part-time hours as well as extremely
high hours.
Over half the sample wished that the time they put into the business could
decrease. Given that when business workloads are added to domestic
workloads many women were working in excess of 80 hours a week, the
wish for the workload to decrease is understandable.
Table 4.22 Preferred Time Commitment
Desired time
% Sole female & females
% Females & males
Total
Decrease 49.6 57.5 54Stay same 36.8 32.1 33Increase 13.6 10.4 12
4.4.8 Indicators of Success
4.4.8.1 Objective Success Indicators
A main objective of the research was to attempt to isolate features
associated with success. Usual indicators of success for economists
69
include profit and turnover measures and age of business. In this research
a substantial number of respondents (79 or 22%) chose not to fill out
questions relating to such measurable returns in particular the item
relating to profit/income. It was decided therefore to construct an
objective measure of success based on four indicators and to include as
successful, those businesses with three out of the four criteria. The
indicators of the “success” variable were:
Profit of $10,000-19,999 or more in 2000;
In business for 5 years or more;
Respondent reported ‘Moderately Strong’ to ‘Rapid Sales
Growth’ and
Respondent reported Business ‘Performing Well’.
When these criteria were applied exactly one third of the sample proved to
be a ‘success’. That two thirds were not may be some cause for concern,
given the large time input of most women.
Cross tabulations were made with a number of variables but many that
may have been expected to make a difference to success, did not. For
example, there was no statistical relationship between ‘success’ and
where respondents lived; the number of hours spent per week on
domestic tasks or on business work; work experience; source of start-up
finance; how they obtained raw materials and services, how marketing
was done or how financial records were managed. None of the points
listed on the question exploring ‘factors influencing start up’, that is,
finance, confidence, information, bank not taking you seriously, rejection
by finance, lack of experience, lack of information and support, were
statistically significant.
Furthermore, out of the 258 respondents who answered the question on
amount of start up finance, 167 (65 %) did not meet the criteria of
success, and 91 (35 %) did meet the criteria of success. There was no
significant difference between the median amounts of start-up finance
used (i.e. those who were successful started with a median of $27,000,
while those who were not, started out with a median of $30,000). A Mann-
Whitney test of independent samples indicates that there is no significant
difference between the amount of start-up finance acquired by those who
were successful, and those who were not ( = 7554, p >.05).
70
Many aspects of business style failed to make a difference to objective
‘success’. There was no significant relationship between success and style
of communication in business, communications and interaction with staff,
and managing and interacting with employees. Neither having access to
the internet, nor using it for research and constructing a web page, made
a difference to success.
The following aspects are however statistically significant, or approaching
it, and are therefore worthy of more detailed analysis.
a) Living arrangements and “success”:
There was a significant relationship between the living
arrangements of respondents, and those who met the criteria of
“success” (2 13.400, df = 4, p = <.05). Only 7% of people living
alone (n = 27) met the criteria of “success”, whereas 36% of
respondents who lived with a partner (n = 156) met the criteria of
“success”.
b) Local government area and “success”:
There does not appear to be a relationship between which local
government area the business is located within, and meeting the
criteria of “success”. However, proportionally more of the expected
ratio of 33% successful businesses, were from the farming areas of
West Wimmera (50%), Hindmarsh (48%) and Yarriambiack (47%).
Least successful Local Government Areas were Moorabool (24%),
Northern Grampians (29%) and Hepburn (29%). It is possible that
farming business has skewed this success ratio.
c) Number of employees and “success”:
There was a statistically significant relationship between the
number of staff employed in the business, and the criteria of
“success” being met (2 17.864, df = 3, p = <.001). Of the
businesses that employed between 1-4 employees, 27% met the
criteria of “success” (n = 66), while 73% did not (n = 180). Of the
businesses that employed between 5 – 9 employees, a greater
proportion (53%, n = 36) met the criteria of “success” when
71
compared to those who did not meet the criteria (47%, n = 32).
This could suggest that there is a relationship between an optimum
number of employees and “success”.
d) Main source of household income and “success”:
There is a relationship between the criteria of “success” and
whether the business is the main source of income (2 4.717, df = 1,
p = <.05). Of the respondents who stated that the business was
their main source of household income, 38% met the criteria of
“success” (n = 85), whereas only 27% of those who did not use the
business as the main source of income, met the criteria (n = 34).
e) Type of loan, gift, own savings, sale or assets and “success”:
The type of loans, gifts, own savings, sale of assets, credit, and
government allowances did not differentiate respondents in terms
of meeting the criteria of “success”. However, where respondents
received a ‘superannuation or redundancy’ payment, this did
differentiate between those who met the criteria of “success”, and
those who did not (2 4.450, df = 1, p = <.05). Respondents who
received a superannuation or redundancy payment were more likely
to reach the criteria of “success” (67%, n = 6) compared to 33% (n
= 3) who did not meet the criteria. However, because of the small
numbers involved in this analysis, it is not possible to generalise
from these results.
f) Training courses, services, agencies, and “success”:
On this question, a significant difference was noted between the
respondents who met the criteria of “success” and those who made
use of various training courses, services and agencies. Various
possibilities were tested, and these included the Chamber of
Commerce, Industry Associations, TAFE, Women’s Associations or
Networks, Accountants, and Solicitors. There was no significant
relationship between being aware of, or using these various
agencies and meeting the criteria of “success”. However, with
regard to the NEIS scheme, a significant difference was noted
between respondents who were aware of, or had made use of this
scheme, and meeting the criteria of “success” (2 12.308, df = 3, p
= <.05). It is of interest to note the direction of the difference
72
obtained. Almost a third of the respondents who met the criteria of
success were not aware of the NEIS scheme, and a further 45% of
“successful” respondents were aware it was available, but did not
use it. In total, 92% of respondents (n = 12) who made use of the
NEIS scheme, were not successful by our criteria, although attention
is drawn to the small number of respondents. This result can largely
be explained in terms of the recent start-ups of most of these
businesses and the profile of those eligible for NEIS, those who are
unemployed for twelve months and lack their own assets. Also, the
types of businesses that are started by participants of NEIS tend to
be very small, and require low start-up capital, thus struggle to
meet our criteria.
g) How lack of training was compensated for:
There was a relationship between meeting our criteria of “success”
and seeking advice from a mentor (2 4.394, df = 1, p = <.05). A
small number of respondents (n = 29) stated that they had sought
advice from a mentor, and of these, 55% met our criteria of
“success”. This was significantly more than expected. This
suggests that mentoring has a positive outcome on the success of
the business.
h) Formal written plans:
There was a statistically significant difference between respondents
on this question. Those who had a business plan were much more
likely to meet the criteria of “success” than those who did not (2
5.405, df = 1, p = < .05). Forty per cent of respondents (n = 60)
who had a business plan met the criteria of success, whereas only
28% (n = 54) of those without a formal written business plan were
“successful”.
i) Factors limiting business growth:
This question considered if a relationship existed between “success”
and factors that may have limited business growth. Three areas
were chosen to provide a focus: competition, time and size of outlet.
There appears to be a significant relationship between what
respondents believed to be limiting factors and whether they were
“successful” (2 21.468, df = 2, p = <.01). Of these factors,
73
competition was the most frequently mentioned response (n =
138). Of those respondents who thought that competition was a
limiting factor, only one quarter met the criteria of “success” (25%),
whereas 75% of this group failed to meet the “success” criteria.
One hundred respondents commented that ‘time available’ was a
factor limiting business growth, and 54% of this group (n = 54) met
the criteria of “success”. This number was more than the expected
33%. Of the 20 respondents who believed that the size of their
outlet was a contributing factor to business growth, 40% (n = 8)
met the criteria for “success”. Hence time and size of outlet were
more likely to be seen to limit successful businesses, while
competition was more likely to be seen as a limiting factor by those
not successful.
j) Attitude to business risk:
This question addressed whether success or failure was dependent
on an individual’s attitude to risk. Fifty four per cent of those who
had strategies in place to manage risks met our criteria for
“success” (compared with 46% of respondents who did not meet
the criteria). There appears, then, to be a relationship between
attitude to risk and “success”, which is approaching significance (2
9.260, df = 4, p = .055).
k) Perception of risk avoidance:
There is a significant relationship between our measure of
“success” and self perceptions of being a ‘risk avoider’ (2 4.910, p
< .05). Of the respondents who met our criteria of “success”, 50%
saw themselves as ‘risk avoiders’, whereas only 38% of those not
“successful” were risk avoiders. Of the 200 respondents who
indicated they did not avoid risks, 71% did not meet our criteria of
“success”, and only 29% did. Therefore, it appears that if people do
not avoid risks, this exacerbates the likelihood that they will not be
“successful” by the objective criteria. This result suggests that risk
avoidance may be associated with success.
l) Key success factors of your business:
74
This question addressed if there was a relationship between our
definition of “success” and what the respondents thought were the
key success factors for them in their businesses. No relationships
were noted on skills, reliability of suppliers, location, networking,
creative ideas, quality, weather, genuine care for clients or being
unique. However, on the factor ‘dedicated friendly staff’, sixty nine
per cent of respondents (n = 13) who considered that dedicated
friendly staff was a key success factor in their business, also met
our criteria of “success”. This is much more than expected. It is
noted, however, that a small number of respondents answered this
question, and hence caution must be taken when considering these
results.
Objective success, then, is not clearly distinguishable from a lack of
success. Successful women in business were more likely to live with a
partner, to come from west Wimmera, Yarriambiack or Hindmarsh, to
employ 5-9 people, and to recognise the importance of good staff. The
business was mostly their main source of income and although they were
likely to be risk avoiders, they were more likely to have strategies in place
to manage risk as well as having formal business plans. In addition, they
made more use of mentors.
4.4.8.2 Subjective Success.
Several questions on the survey produced some understanding of
subjective motivation and success and these were elaborated and
qualified by open ended questions and group discussions.
The following responses to reasons for being in business were as follows:
sense of achievement (n = 168)
creating employment for self (n = 125).
a sense of being in control of one’s own destiny (n =
114),
better lifestyle (n = 100).
extra income for the family (n = 98)
desire to ‘be their own boss’ (n = 61).
75
The question, What does business success mean to you? considered the
various subjective responses made by the sample in relation to the
meaning of business success. The following categories created in relation
to the answers received, were cross-tabulated with success.
a) Market dominance (n = 12)
Greater than the expected number of those respondents who met
the criteria of “success” wrote responses that could be
encapsulated by the concept “market domination”. There were 83%
(n = 12) of respondents who met the criteria of “success”,
compared to 17% (n = 2) who also wrote similar responses but did
not meet the criteria of “success”.
b) Market respect (n = 90)
Greater than the expected number of respondents who considered
market respect important (47%) met the criteria of “success”,
compared to 53% who did not meet the criteria of “success”.
c) Better income, profit and comfortable lifestyle (n = 103)
Of those respondents who reported that better income, profit and
comfortable lifestyle were an important definition of business
success to them, 73% were not “successful”. This is considerably
more than expected (65%) whereas only 27% of respondents (n =
28) who said that better income, profit and comfortable lifestyle
were important met the definition of “success”. That is, more
respondents met the criteria of “success” who did not consider that
better income etc. were important aspects of their definition of
success.
The profile of the business partnerships did not indicate a difference
between any of the factors (i.e. market dominance, market respect, family
subsistence or security, satisfying and happy work environment, better
income, profit and comfortable lifestyle, and achieving the self worth and
rewards of hard work). This suggests that there is no relationship between
subjective measures of business success, and whether or not the
respondent is in a partnership with a male.
76
When asked what their original aspirations were regarding the size of their
business, ‘steady growth’ summarised the most common response
(29.6%). The comments relative to growth included, “Within two years be
able to financially justify building studio to work in and within three years
to be able to work five days per week on good money,” and “… to be as
big as a supermarket”. The second most common (27.1%) response was
staying small, i.e. to fit with family responsibilities. Many also desired
market respect in that they had a product or service that they could be
proud of and that clients and peers thought well of them (20%). A minority
wanted market dominance, for example the biggest shop in the area, the
best product made (7.5%) or a large income, profit and a comfortable
lifestyle (8.6%). A not insignificant proportion of the responses focused on
family subsistence (10.4%) and work for self or family members (15.7%).
Though for those whose concern was family lifestyle a more modest idea
of growth prevailed,
I never ever wanted to get too large to handle the business on my own. No desire to complicate things by going too big or employing staff. My original idea came about to be here for the children when little and now I’m still here before and after school - very important.
For these women it was considered important to, “… be able to maintain a
regular income on a weekly basis sufficiently supporting myself and
lifestyle.”
There were others whose desire for growth was a means to a more
complex end. For example , “To grow as rapidly as possible, to provide for
myself and for local young workers.”
Others wanted to grow to a point where they were able to employ a
certain number of staff, “To be able to employ 4-5 people; make an
income and pay my bills, and “Two or three employees and sufficient
income to provide weekends off and an annual holiday.”
Responses that suggested a desire for steady growth were the most often
cited, for example: “To grow as rapidly as possible, to provide for myself
and for local young workers, and “It was operating as a three day a week
business; we aim for a 6-7 day a week business.”
77
The majority however wanted to stay small or grow only to the point
where they could support themselves and their families. Their main
objective was independence and flexibility, “Self employment of ourselves
only, not to employ staff. “We thought we would like it to remain small
and manageable,” and “Not to become bigger than we can control. Self
employed”, and “I wanted to make enough money to personally survive
on, enough to save well and live comfortably without worry.”
A quarter of the respondents said they would be happy if their business
could ‘break even’ and they kept enjoying the work. This may have meant
covering business costs with or without a salary being drawn. However,
the majority (60.7%), wanted the business to grow and make more profit,
a little less than half of these wanting to produce or service more for the
same market. Others wanted to produce more for a different market
(18.6%), or to produce something else in the same sector (19.2%). Only
11.3% anticipated employing more people to enhance growth.
When asked what business success meant, the women mentioned similar
motivations to their original aspirations. Self-worth and reward for hard
work was the most common type of response (36.5%) with better income,
profit and a comfortable lifestyle second most important (34.4%). Once
again market respect (30.1%) was important and market dominance
(3.7%) reflected the views of a smaller minority. A satisfying happy work
environment (28.1%) and family security or subsistence (23.4%) were also
significant. Personal autonomy was mentioned by 8% of the sample and
6% saw success as serving the community in some way.
When asked what the key success factors were for their business the most
frequently mentioned response was ‘skills’ (77.6%) followed by ‘creative
ideas’ (44%), ‘location’ (42.9%) and ‘reliability of suppliers’ (37%).
Networking was mentioned by a quarter of the sample and several pointed
to the significance of staff (4%, n=13), quality of product or service (7%,
n=23) and genuine care for the client (45%, n=14) in the ‘Other’ category.
A few attributed their success to being a market leader, or having a
unique product (n=5).
78
At the focus groups women were also asked to discuss their perceptions of
business success. Their responses and those from the survey can be
categorised as both intrinsic and extrinsic measures of success.
Enjoyment/personal satisfaction and achievement can be termed intrinsic
measures of success. There was discussion of success leading to self-
confidence and the importance of positive feedback to self worth.
One woman described how her initial shyness and reluctance turned to
self confidence as she began to realise that clients were responding
positively to her:
With Avon type selling it is all set up for you so you do not have to make any big decisions but the first time selling was difficult. Now I find it easy and I go inside for 20 minutes rather than leaving the catalogue in the letterbox as some do. Some clients like the social interaction and like me to stay longer.
In terms of intrinsic measures of success women in business on their own
and women in business with men said similar things. The following
comments focus on achievement, job satisfaction and confidence. A
number of women noted that their reason for going into business was that
they wanted to achieve and that it gave them social contact. “I have
financial security, sense of achievement, job satisfaction,” and
“confidence in my own abilities of various types. A purpose in life as well
as happiness and room to do whatever I want.” The following comment is
also typical of many responses. Whilst this woman emphasises personal
fulfilment she also recognises the need to be profitable and the
importance of how her business is perceived by others.
Personal and employee satisfaction and fulfilment. Obviously we must be profitable enough to justify remaining in the business, such as return on capital. Business name and reputation I view to be very important in gauging success.
Growth, profit and business status can be termed as extrinsic measures of
success. To have achieved growth and be making a profit was also
deemed important as a measurement of success, as the following
comments demonstrate, “For me it is financial independence, to build a
reputation as an effective operator in charge of my destiny,” and “To have
lots of money and a sense of self worth - next step world dominance.”
79
It is worth noting that even when extrinsic factors are spoken of relative to
success the women still focus on satisfaction and personal lifestyle issues.
“Doing what I do with a passion; keeping my business small and
manageable, but also making a profit”, and “Having a balance between
work and life-style. Being financially self-reliant.”
Financial independence and security was also an important measure of
success for many of the women. Often these two issues were their reasons
for starting the business. Many women wanted to work because they
needed a second income to keep their farms afloat. The rural downturn
and the subsequent lack of jobs in rural and regional areas was another
factor. The women knew that in the absence of opportunities for waged
work they had to make their own work by running a business.
Success factors discussed in previous research include a focus on a small
multi-skilled staff and a strong orientation toward customers (Ackroyd,
1995). Many respondents in this research nominated high quality staff and
their ability to satisfy customers as an indication of success.
Both women operating on their own and women in business with men also
placed emphasis on customer satisfaction. For example one woman noted
that, “Being able to provide a personal service that has my character and
individuality associated with it,” was important to her and another woman
felt that, “Having a good reputation in the community, giving satisfaction
to clients and providing a high quality effective service,” was important.
Additionally another woman said,
Being responsible for the improved quality of life and a means of communication to my clients and their families. As a result continuing to receive referrals and maintain a good reputation.
Ultimately the main issue was that customers are satisfied and “gladly
return to do business”.
Mostly women understandably placed importance on financial reward
however they also placed great importance on intrinsic rewards such as
happiness and a sense of achievement. For example, “A sense of
achievement and I suppose to create an identity for myself. I like myself
better when I can make a contribution,” and “A feeling of achievement
80
and increased self-worth, “Validation of existing skills and talents”,
“Independence, financial and personal”, and finally “Business success to
me means that after all the hard work a sense of achievement and
personal satisfaction and self-worth has been conquered”.
81
5.CONCLUSION
5.1 Introduction
The number and scope of businesses, the significant proportion of sole
operators and strong optimism among women in business in the Western
Region reflects the growth and interest in women’s businesses in recent
decades. On the other hand the data bear out some aspects of the
influence of rural decline and the struggle some households have to
survive, in terms of long hours input and limited financial returns.
In conclusion we draw attention to some other ambivalent findings. First
the Western Region sample has many similarities with the general
literature and similar surveys of women in small business generally.
Secondly the sample as a whole has some internal, broad-based,
commonly experienced features. Thirdly within that homogeneity,
diversity can be discerned. On some matters there is a wide range of
experience of business. Comparisons between sole/female businesses and
those partnered with males, and between those objectively defined as
successful and those not, bring to light some characteristics of interest
that should allow a more refined approach to policy.
5.2 Similarities To Women In Small Business
Generally
The study revealed that there was much about the sample that reflected
general patterns for women in small business described in literature and
previous surveys. They were broadly similar in terms of education, age,
industrial sectors, gendered division of labour, business style and
preferred communication patterns, and use of family links and help. They
claimed to be flexible in staff dealings but not to lack authority.
Although there was no direct evidence of acts of discrimination, the
gendered horizontal segregation of industries could be a factor
constraining women to a restricted number of employment options. The
gender division of labour in the home and business reflects previous
studies of ethnic family business and wider women and business studies.
The occupations of the women and industry sectors of the businesses
reflect a growth in service work but do not appear to reflect ‘non
82
employment’ of people forced to contract for their former waged work.
Most of those surveyed do not appear to be such peripheral workers.
5.3 Internal Homogeneity
Most of the sample worked long hours when domestic and business work
was considered jointly and half wanted their time on the business to
decrease. On the other hand 60% wanted their business to grow. Most
also had some work experience before going into business and had strong
regard for pragmatic experience as the best preparation for business. Lack
of finance, confidence and prior experience were considered the most
significant factors hindering them at start up and, once operating, time,
competition and finance were most important.
Domestic work competed with business time, but isolation, finance and
guilt reduced the potential for outsourcing housework. Although not
addressed in the survey dominant concerns with bureaucratisation and
over-regulation appeared to erode the social capital of the community.
The growth of non-standard work amongst salaried community workers
also compounded this situation.
Professionals, in particular accountants, as well as mentors and colleagues
were deemed by respondents as more vital help to business success than
training courses and business organisations, but informal interaction and
support from fellow traders and similar business owners was valued.
Dominant marketing techniques such as ‘word of mouth’ could be
considered basic. Although many did not make a profit the majority
remained optimistic about their business.
5.4 Differences within the sample
In spite of similarities the study also brought out the range of scale of
business and spectrum of attitudes within the sample. A close look at the
demography revealed some differences that may prove to be important.
Although many of the sample were mature women, it was younger than
the Victorian business women’s sample and contained more sole
operators. The women had more access to the internet than previous
studies of small business had shown.
83
Turnover ranged from less than $10,000 to over $1 million. Profits ranged
from nil to $100,000. Just over half claimed they were risk avoiders while
the rest self-defined as risk takers. Attitudes to success ranged from
minimal subsistence, to a desire for world dominance (perhaps tongue in
cheek); from strong commitment to strengthened self worth, to
community altruism. Some had a strong wish to be entrepreneurial and
others were constrained by the need to find employment for themselves
or for family members.
In relations to motivation and success then the findings support a model
that embraces diversity and extrinsic and intrinsic features among women,
which might also cross over to men’s motivation (Baines & Wheelock,
1998). Survival and security are obviously important to many and market
dominance, market respect and the desire for profit appear to reflect the
enterprise culture or classic entrepreneur of a smaller minority.
When sole/female businesses and those partnered with men were
separated out more differences emerged. Although the research did not
directly compare men’s and women’s businesses, the comparison between
sole and female partnered businesses and others revealed some
interesting points of agreement with previous generalisations about
women’s business, especially in relation to size of business and finances.
The sole businesses were more likely to be in Personal, Cultural, Health
and Property sectors, to experience banks not treating them seriously, to
have responsibilities for more household tasks but to spend less time on
them. They were more reliant on family and friends for unpaid labour and
financial help. Data support the notion that women, particularly sole
operators are more kin and social tie bound and could benefit from more
use of official, business, professional networks.
Women in partnership with a male were dominant in Construction,
Transport, Farming, Accommodation and Manufacturing sectors and the
business was more likely to be the main source of household income. They
obtained more start up finance, sought to borrow more and were more
successful when they did. They made more use of unpaid help from Local
and State authorities and were more likely to work both short, part-time
hours and extremely long hours in their business. Thus the model of
women in business with men has similarities to male business.
84
5.5 The Success Model
Isolating success factors proved to be difficult, for while there were some
significant differences between the objectively successful and the others
on some variables, there were very few independent variables that
appeared to affect the dependent variable. The successful business
women were more likely to be living with a partner and for the businesses
to be the main source of household income. They were more likely to have
between 5 and 9 employees and to see lack of time and size of outlet as
hampering factors. They did appear to recognise and value good
employees and to value mentors. Their aims were more likely to be
market dominance, market respect, more profit and a comfortable
lifestyle. Although more likely to be risk avoiders, they tended to have
strategies in place to manage risk. More had formal business plans.
Comparisons that suggest that the farming LGAs (Local Government
Areas) appear more successful should be viewed with some scepticism, as
primary production should be analysed within a larger time frame and
financial context, including some recognition of debt.
5.6 Final comment
Time, future training needs, and access to finance could hinder future
success of women’s small business. Greater family equity, efficiency or
outsourcing of domestic tasks may have to be negotiated to allow the
necessary time release for those committed to business growth. The long
hours worked by the women in small business in the western region
warrant greater levels of success and survival than is currently apparent.
In relation to training, although most women prefer face to face contact
for business interaction, the wide use of computers and the high email
accessibility of the 162 who expressed their wish to be on a data base
suggest potential developments in an IT direction. In addition, the women,
like those in the Assessment of Rural Women’s Business Training Needs
(1999) want, foremost, marketing and financial planning business skills.
Finally, finance was a major problem perceived by many of the women in
small business. This problem in all likelihood applies more broadly to small
business, and has been reported in earlier studies (Mason & Harrison,
85
1992, p.148). The present research has found that financial difficulties
may be more acute for sole/female traders.
APPENDIX AUniversity of BallaratMt. Helen CampusPO Box 663Ballarat Vic 3353
October, 2001
Dear Small Business Owner
The University of Ballarat in partnership with the City of Ballarat recently attracted funding from the Department of State and Regional Development and the Department of Natural Resources and Environment to identify the extent of women’s involvement in small business within the Western Region.
The project entitled ‘A Model of Success: Women’s Entrepreneurial and Small Business Activity in Regional Areas’ is being managed through the University’s School of Business. The information gathered as a result of this project will influence future government policies and aims to assist women in rural areas.
To assist in providing information and identifying the factors leading to success, we require your assistance in completing the attached questionnaire and either handing it to the researcher in a sealed envelope or posting it in the reply paid envelope provided. It will take approximately thirty (30) minutes to complete the questionnaire.
All information provided will be treated with the strictest confidence and data will be stored separately from any listing that includes names and addresses. Aggregated results will be used for government reports, research purposes and may be reported in scientific and academic journals. It should be noted that individual businesses will not be traceable.
Your consent to the above is implied by completing and returning the questionnaire.
Yours Sincerely
Janice NewtonLorene GottschalkGlenice WoodSchool of Business
A return by late October would be greatly appreciated.
86
SURVEY ON WOMEN'S ENTREPRENEURIAL AND SMALL BUSINESS ACTIVITY IN REGIONAL VICTORIA
(For this survey small business is defined as a business employing less than 20 people.)
Questions are on both sides of the page. Please tick the box provided or write on line provided.
PERSONAL DETAILS
1. Age Less than 30 40-50 30-39 Greater than 50
2.Ethnicity Born in Australia Aboriginal or Torres Strait IslanderBorn Overseas If yes, year arrived in Australia _________What is your most commonly used language in relation to running your business __________________
3.Education Did not finish high school Completed high school
Completed basic or skilled vocational Completed Degree or Diploma Completed post-graduate degree Other eg. Currently studying (explain) _______________________
4.ResidenceRural town/area below 500 people Rural town 10,000 to 19,999 people Rural town/area 500-999 people Rural town over 20,000 people Rural town 1000 to 9999 people Bi-local (move between different areas)
5. Are you:Living alone Living with partner Living with partner and dependent children
and/or elderly/disabled dependant Living without partner with dependent
children and/or elderly/disabled dependant Other Age of children (if applicable) ___________________
87
Domestic Responsibilities6.What are your main domestic responsibilities? (tick only those that you are mostly responsible for)minding child/ren/elderly parent,
or arranging for their minding lawn mowing transporting child/ren waste handling cleaning house maintaining vegetable cleaning clothes garden/chickens cleaning dishes house and vehicle buying food/household provisions maintenance cooking food budgeting & bills maintaining garden other (name) ________________________________________________
7. How many hours a week, on average, would you spend on all these tasks? Less than 10 hours 30-39 hours 10-19 hours Over 40 hours 20-29 hours
8. Do you anticipate that in the next 5 years your time on this domestic work will:remain the same decrease increase
CURRENT BUSINESS PROFILE
9.Current Business Sole operator In partnership with male/s, shared leading role
In partnership with female/s In partnership with male/s, leading role 10. If in partnership, what is your starting point partner’s relationship to you, and reason for forming the partnership?
Partner 1’s relationship to you Partner 2’s relationship to youhusband father mother brothersister
partnerfriend acquaintanceOther__________
husband father mother brothersister
partnerfriend acquaintanceOther__________
Reason for forming partnership: Reason for forming partnership:Close kin or residence tie Access to financeAccess to business networkAccess to complementary skillsTax minimisationOther
Close kin or residence tie Access to financeAccess to business networkAccess to complementary skillsTax minimisationOther
88
Industry Sector
11.Tick the category that best describes the primary activity of your business (Choose only one).
Mining Manufacturing Construction Wholesale trade
Retail Trade Accommodation, cafes & restaurants
Transport & storage
Communication services
Finance & Insurance
Property & Business Services
Education Health & community services
Cultural & Recreational services
Personal & other services
Farming & agriculture
12.What type of product/service do you make or exchange? ______________
13.Please give a 2-5 word description of current business. ______________________________________________________________
14. Local Government Area of business.
West Wimmera Hindmarsh Horsham Yarriambiack Northern Grampians Ararat Pyrenees Hepburn Ballarat Moorabool
15. Location of your business
home residence farm town (less than 10,000 population) on net ( e business) town (less than 11 - 20,000 population) Other (please state)large town (more than 20,000 population) ______________________
16.Type of business premise/s
desk at home shed/studio at home room/office at home office and/or factory in a town shop/gallery Other (please state) _______________
Numbers Employed
17. Numbers employed in this business including self __________________
18. Effective number of full time employees (ie 2 half times = 1) __________
19.Unpaid labour and advice.
89
Source of help Type of help Estimate of average weekly hours of help
FamilyFriendsAssociatesSuppliersLocal Government agenciesState Government agenciesOther
Income20. Is the business your principal source of personal income? Yes No
21. Is it the main source of household income? Yes No
CURRENT BUSINESS - START UP PHASE
22. Beginning the business Year
Time first conceived idea of having this business _______Year business actually began _______
23. Did you: Start this business Purchase business as a going concern Inherit this business Obtain a franchise for this business Take on direct selling Other _________________________________
Work Experience24. Did you have past work experience prior to setting up your business?Yes No
25. If ‘Yes’, what knowledge and skills that you acquired from your prior work experience have been the most useful in your business? (eg. bookkeeping, staff supervision.)____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
26. Source, type and amount of actual ‘start up’ finance.
Source eg. self, father, bank, financial institution.
Type eg. loan, gift, own savings, sale of assets.
Purpose Amount in dollars
27.If you were refused finance, what were the main reasons given by the financier?
90
unable to service loan insufficient cash flow not enough security no business plan Other ___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Training
28. Tick if you were aware of, used and/or found useful the following training courses, services and agencies in your region for the start up phase of your business.
Training Course/Service/Agency
Not Aware
Aware available
Made use of
Found useful
NEIS (New Enterprise Incentive Scheme) Certificate II to IV in Small Business Certificate III to Diploma in Business Management
Diploma of Business Certificate II to III in Retail Operations Certificate IV to Diploma of Retail Management
Australian Taxation Office Dept of State & Regional Dvlpt Koori Business Network Small Business Counselling Service Victorian Civil & Admin.Authority Rural Finance Corporation of Victoria Austrade Victorian Workcover Authority Chambers of Commerce Industry Associations Tourism Victoria Victorian Business Centres Business Enterprise Centres Women’s Associations/networks TAFE (local) Accountants Australian Customs Service Consumer & Business Affairs, Victoria Solicitors Council Economic Development Unit Other, eg Colleagues
29. Please comment on usefulness of courses, if applicable.
______________________________________________________________
91
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
30. If you did not make use of any courses, how did you compensate for this?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
Factors influencing start up
31. Which factors hindered or inhibited start up phase, if applicable?Lack of finance Lack of prior experience Lack of confidence Lack of support from spouse/partner Lack of access to information Lack of community support Lack of infrastructureLack of child care (eg.water supply, telecommunications)
Bank not treating you seriously Lack of information and support Rejection by financial institutions services (eg banks, building societies) Accountant not treating you seriouslyOther _______________________________________________________________
32.In hindsight what would have helped you in start up of your business?
Finance Training Courses Business Mentors Financial advice Other _________________
________________________________________________________________
CURRENT BUSINESS OPERATIONS
Planning33.Do you have: Yes Noa formal, written business plan? a financial plan? formal goal setting and planning?
92
Time34. How many hours are you able to put into the business per average week?
Less than 20 hours 40-59 hours 20-29 hours 60-79 hours 30-39 hours More than 80 hours
35.Would you like this amount of time to: decrease stay the same increase
Training
36. Tick if you were aware of, used and/or found useful the following training courses, services and agencies in your region for the operating phase of your business. Training Course/Service/Agency
Not Aware
Aware available
Made use of
Found useful
NEIS (New Enterprise Incentive Scheme) Certificate II to IV in Small Business Certificate III to Diploma in Business Management
Diploma of Business Certificate II to III in Retail Operations Certificate IV to Diploma of Retail Management
Australian Taxation Office Dept of State & Regional Dvlpt Koori Business Network Small Business Counselling Service Victorian Civil & Admin.Authority Rural Finance Corporation of Victoria Austrade Victorian Workcover Authority Chambers of Commerce Industry Associations Tourism Victoria Victorian Business Centres Business Enterprise Centres Women’s Associations/networks TAFE (local) Accountants Australian Customs Service Consumer & Business Affairs, Victoria Solicitors Council Economic Development Unit Other, eg Colleagues
93
37.Please comment on usefulness of courses, if applicable.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
38.If you did not make use of any courses, how did you compensate for this?
_____________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
Obtaining Raw Materials & Services
39.How do you obtain the following: (Raw Materials/resources = RM; Services = S) RM S RM S
Local distributor Melbourne (self drive) Mail Order Melbourne (delivered from) Intermediaries Interstate Overseas Carrier to nearest major town Other ______________________________________________________________
Marketing and Advertising
40.What is your main method of marketing and advertising?
Internet word of mouth existing personal relationships newspaper advertisements fliers/brochures posters/noticeboards shop front incentives to current customers exhibitions and trade shows television Other (please state)___________________________________________________
Financial Records
41. How do you manage your financial records?I do my own bookkeeping. A family member _________(nameI pay someone to do my books. relationship) or friend does my books.
94
Measures of profit and growth
42. Per annum profit last financial year 1999 –2000 43. Turnover 1999-2000did not make a profit 0- $10,000 less than $1000 $10,001 - 20,000 $1000-$5000 $20,001 - 50,000 $5001-$10,000 $50,001 - 100,000 $10,001-20,000 $100,001 - 300,000 $20,001-30,000 $300,001 - 500,000 $30,001-50,000 $500,001 –1,000,000 $50,001-75,000 $1,000,001 + $75,001-100,000 $100,001 +
If business is more recent, estimate last quarterly profit $ ____________
44. Sales Growth 1999-2000 45. Percentage of Export Sales
Nil or declining 0% Low (less than 10%) 1-9% Moderately strong (10-24%) 10-19% Rapid (25% +) 20-39%
40% +
46. Compared with your competitors, would you say you werePerforming well/growing Struggling Keeping up Other ______________________
Factors limiting business growth.
47. Please tick the 3 most important.
competition size of outlet time available domestic responsibilities venture finance transport of product access to market lack of information infrastructure (roads, telecommunications) Other ___________________________________________________
95
Factors affecting Operation
48.Which factors hinder or inhibit operation of business?
Lack of finance Lack of information and support services Lack of confidence Lack of support from spouse/partner Lack of community support Bank not treating you seriously Lack of child care Lack of infrastructure Lack of prior experience (eg.water supply, telecommunications) Lack of time Other (please state)_________________________________________________________________________________
49.Have you ever sought to borrow for ongoing business activities (eg expansion)?
Yes No
50. If ‘Yes’, were you successful? Yes No
51. If ‘No’ what reason was given by financier?
unable to service loan insufficient cash flow not enough security no business plan Other ______________________________________________________________
Attitude to business risk.
52.Tick the statement that is closest to your attitude.a) I prefer to avoid large bank loans. b) To do something properly you should start with a big financial injection. c) I prefer to produce only a small batch and see how a product goes, or start in a small way with service provision, before investing too much money. d) If I really believe in what my business has got to offer, I am prepared to take
risks to start or build up my business. e) I have strategies in place to manage risk.
53.Would you perceive yourself as a risk avoider? or risk taker?
54.How do you manage risks?Goal planning ‘go for broke’(not worry) Rely on others having a contingency plan Other ______________________________________________________________
Information and Communication
96
55.Main sources of information that aid you in business. (Rank from ‘1’ most important to ‘7’ least important, until not applicable).
Radio (specify program) ____________________Television (specify program) ____________________Newspapers (specify) ____________________Magazines/journals (specify) ____________________Rural Women’s Network Internet searches Professionals (eg accountant, solicitor) Mentors
56.How do you communicate with your business partner/s, if applicable. (P1 = Partner 1, P2 = Partner 2)
Typical frequency P1 P2
Type of interaction P1 P2
Continuous Informal Daily Set, formal meetings Several times a week Telephone contact Weekly Fax contact Less than weekly Email contact Less than monthly Web contact Varies Other (please state)
57. How do you generally communicate with staff as a whole, if applicable?
Typical frequency Type of interactionContinuous Informal Daily Set, formal meetings Several times a week Telephone contact Weekly Fax contact Less than weekly Email contact Less than monthly Web contact Varies Other (please state)
58.What is your normal style of communication for business (Tick the appropriate box)
97
STYLE OF COMMUNICATIONWHO YOU COMMUNICATE WITH
Face to face contact
Telephone contact
Fax contact
Email/ internet contact
Friends and acquaintances
Experts/specialists, accountants, suppliers, other like businesses etc.Women's or Business organisation eg. Chamber of Commerce, CWA
59. Generally, what is your preferred style of communication in your business dealings? (Tick appropriate box)
STYLE OF COMMUNICATIONWHO YOU COMMUNICATE WITH
Face to face contact
Telephone contact
Fax contact
Email/internet contact
Friends and acquaintances
Experts/specialists, accountants, suppliers, other like businesses etc.Women's or Business organisation eg. Chamber of Commerce, CWA
60. If your actual style of communication and your preferred style differ please comment on the reasons for the difference._____________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
Managing/Interacting with Employees
61. Decision making style with staff, if applicable. Please tick one statement that is closest to your typical style of making business decisions.
I allow subordinates to function independently within limits. I make a decision then announce it. I present a tentative decision and allow that it is subject to change. I let the staff make group decisions within defined limits. I present ideas and invite suggestions before making the decision. I make a decision then explain it. I present a problem, take suggestions and then make a decision.
98
Staff management 62.Mark the statements that are generally true, false or not applicable for your business. True False NAI have a fairly quick turnover : few staff stay longer than 6 months.Most of my staff have been with me since I began/for several years.Staff willingly work back when required.I have difficulty getting the staff to work the odd/flexible hours I need for my business.Staff work set hours.Staff have a say over when they take their annual leave and some flexibility to suit family needs.Staff can alter start and finish times as long as the required hours are put in.I generally feel that I have the skills required to effectively manage my staff.Staff respect my authority.
Information Technology
63. Do you have access to the Internet through a computer? Yes No
64.If yes, tick what uses you make of the internet?
Email Research Buying or selling (e-commerce) Website or homepage Other (please state) ______________________________________________
SELF REFLECTION
Objectives65. Why are you in business? (tick up to only 3 main reasons)extra income for family tax minimisation extra income for self better lifestyle sense of achievement satisfying work environment sense of being in control of own destiny creating employment for self creating employment for family members satisfying a local need inherited business wanting to be own boss recognised market niche Other (please state) ___________________________________________________
Aspirations for business growth
66.What were your original aspirations regarding the size of your business when you set up or obtained your business? ___________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
99
67.Tick the statement that most fits your aspirations now.a) As long as I break even and keep enjoying the work I will be happy. b) I would be happy if I could make $_________(insert number) profit per year. c) I want to sell or close my business d) I would like the business to make lots of profit and to keep growing.
If d) This is how I would anticipate growing:producing more ( or servicing more) for the same market producing more (or servicing more) for a different geographical market diversifying, producing something else in same sector of industry diversifying, producing something else for a different industrial sector employing more people Other (please state) ________________________________________
68.What does business success mean for you? ______________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
69.What are the key success factors of your business?
Skills reliability of suppliers location networking creative ideas not known Other ____________________________________________________________
70. What sort of courses or training would you like to see made available? Delivery style Content TimingSmall workshops face to face
Financial Night
Internet chat groups Marketing Day Large city based seminars Promotion Part-time Other Ecommerce Fulltime in block
Export Interpersonal skills Computer Internet Staff supervision Other
Thank you very much for your time and cooperation
Janice Newton, Lorene Gottschalk, Glen Wood
100
THIS SECTION IS DETACHED BEFORE QUESTIONNAIRE CODED AND MAY BE MAILED SEPARATELY, SO NAME REMAINS ABSOLUTELY
CONFIDENTIAL----------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------------------
I would like to become part of a database network for rural women in small business managed through the Department of State and Regional Development.
I would like to be a mentor for other women
Please leave your name and phone number and/or email address, postal address if you
would like to be a mentor or part of the database (Alternatively, you can also phone
this information to Janice Newton 03 53279623.)
Name:
Phone:
Email address if applicable:
Postal Address:
Any questions regarding this project can be directed to Janice Newton on telephone number 53279623 . Should you have any concerns about the conduct of this research project, please contact the Executive Officer, Human Research Ethics Committee, Scholarship and Educational Development Services Branch, University of Ballarat, PO Box 663, Mt Helen VIC 3353. Telephone: (03) 5327 9765.
101
APPENDIX B LIST OF OCCUPATIONSBold indicates sole or female partnership
102
Accommodation (17) 2Accommodation and mealsAccommodation- B & B (6) 3Accountancy (4) 2Adult educationAdvertisingAgri tourism (2) 1Alternative therapiesAmusement machinesAromatherapyArt classes and suppliesAuto repair (2)Auto salesAuto-electrical repairsBakery (5) 1Beauty therapyBookkeepingBuilder (3)Building materialsBusiness advisorCabinet makingCafé (8) 1Café & BakeryCatering (2) 1Ceramics (3)Chemical manufactureCleaner (2)ClothingClothing alterationsCommunicationConsultancyConsultant – engineeringCorporate writerDance supplies (2)Dance teacherDental careDietetic consultantDigital illustrationsDoll making – porcelainDry cleaning (2)Earthworks (2) EngineeringEnvironmental managementFarm machineryFast food (2) 1Florist (4) 2Food (4) 2Food – sandwich barFood – takeawayFood – takeaway and deliFood productsFood –takeawayFood, hospitalityFunction centreFurniture makerFurniture removals (2)General store (2) 1Giftware (3)Glazier (3)
Grain cleaners Graphic designGrass seed supplierGrazierGrocer (2) 1Grocery wholesalerHairdresser (15) 12Health advisorHealth supplementsHearing aidsHome helpHoney gathering and packingHorseriding (2)HospitalityHotel (5) 1House restumpingHuman servicesInterior design (5) 2IT servicesJewellery manufactureJoineryKitchen manufactureLaminated benchtop manufactureLegal services (2)Licensed barLiquor tradeMaintenance manualsMake-up direct salesManufacture -Navigation buoysManufacture – candyManufacture – chocolateManufacture – confectionaryManufacture Clothing (2) 1 Manufacture – food (3) 1Manufacture – Hand knittingManufacture – wrought iron productsManufacture Animal food Manufacture –Curtains (3)Manufacturer – steelManufacturing – canvas goodsMarketing consultantMassage (3) 2Milkbar and sandwichesMilkbar and videosMotel (7) 2Motor parts manufactureMultimedia consultantMusic teacherNatural healthNatural medicinesNaturopathyNewsagency (4) 1)APPENDIX C (ContinuedOccupational health and safety trainingOffice suppliesOrchardistPainter
103
Painter and wallpapererPatchwork quilting (2)PersonnelPet cagesPet carePharmacy (3) 2Photography (5) 3Photography, designPhysiotherapy (2) 1Picture framer (2) 1Plant nursery (2)Postal (2)Primary producer – organic vegetablesPrimary producer – cereals and legumesPrimary producer – grain (3) 1Primary producer – sheep, grainPrimary producer – wool (3)Primary producer – wool and grainPrimary producer –AgriculturePrimary producer –FlowersPrimary producer –Wool, accommodationPrimary producer – cropping, grazingProperty maintenanceProperty managementPsychologist (2)Real estate (2) 1Retail –Children’s clothingRepair – TVRepairs – electrical applianceRestaurant – veganRetail (3)Retail – antiquesRetail – apparel (12) 9Retail – apparel and ManchesterRetail – baby productsRetail – children’s clothing (2)Retail – confectionaryRetail – crystalRetail – electrical (3)Retail – electrical motorsRetail – fabric and giftsRetail – floorcoveringsRetail – Footwear (3) 1Retail – fuelRetail – furnitureRetail – garden suppliesRetail – giftware (4) 3Retail – hardwareRetail – homewaresRetail – kitchen wareRetail – Manchester (2)Retail – menswearRetail – motorcyclesRetail - shopkeeperRetail – small engines
Retail – souvenirRetail – specialty Retail – sporting goods (2)Retail – sportswear (2) 1Retail – underwear (2)Retail – uniformsRetail – wineRetail furniture, removalistRetail –haberdasheryRetail, petrol, garden suppliesRoadhouse restaurantSaddlerySecretarial serviceSecretarial supportSecurityService stationService station and mechanical repairs (2) 1Shopkeeper (2)Snack foodSpeech pathologySpray paintingSteel fabricationStockfeed, calf rearingSupermarket (2)Superphosphate supplierTaxiTobacconistTourism (2) 1Transport -sheep and grazierTravel consultantVeterinary servicesVideo hire (3)Vineyard (3) 1Vineyard and accommodation, tourismVineyard, wool, accommodationWaste collectionWholesaler - Chinese goodsWildlife Art manufactureWood turningWriter – children’s book
104
REFERENCES
ABC Landline [on line] Available www.abc.net.au/landline, [14/12/1997, 12/10/1998, 10/1/1999].
Allen, S. & Truman, C. (1993) Women and men entrepreneurs, life strategies, business strategies, in Allen, S & Truman, C. pp.1-13. Women in Business: perspectives on women entrepreneurs. London: Routledge.
Alston, M. (1991) Family Farming Australia and New Zealand. Centre for Rural Social Research, Wagga Wagga: Charles Sturt University.
Australian Bureau of Statistics (1996) Census.
Australian Bureau of Statistics (1997) Agricultural Australia 1996-7, 7113.0, 2, ABS.
Australian Bureau of Statistics (1997) Special Article - Women in Small Business, ABS 1301.0.
Australian Bureau of Statistics (1999a) Agricultural Industries, 1998-9, 7506.0.
Australian Bureau of Statistics (1999b) Characteristics of Small Business, 8127.0.
Australian Bureau of Statistics (1999c) Small Business in Australia, 1321.0, ABS.
Australian Bureau of Statistics (1999d) Special Article - Employment Generation by the Small Business Sector, Australia Now - A Statistical Profile Industry Overview Year Book Australia, 1301.01.
Australian Bureau of Statistics (2000) 2901.0 Statistical Subdivisions of North and South Wimmera, Ballarat City, Western and Eastern Central Highlands.
AusStats 8127.1[online](1998) More small businesses and more women business operators. Available: www.abs.gov.au/ausstats [12/2/01.]
AusStats 8127.0 [online] (1999a) Women turn away from small business. Available: www.abs.gov.au/ausstats [12/2/01.]
AusStats 8127.0 [online] (1999b). Growth in small business sector slows. Available: www.abs.gov.au/ausstats [12/2/01.]
AusStats 3218.0: [online] (1999c) Population: population distribution Available: www.abs.gov.au/ausstats [12/2/01].
AusStats 3218.0 [online](1999d) Australian Social Trends 1998, Population- population distribution: Small towns: which ones are in decline? Available: www.abs.gov.au/ausstats [12/2/01].
102
Baines, S. & Wheelock, J. (1998) Working for each other: gender, the household and micro-business survival and growth, International Small Business Journal,17, (1), pp.16-35.
Boden, R. & Nucci, A. (1997*) On the survival prospects of men’s and women’s new business ventures. Journal of Business Venturing. 15, pp. 347-362.
Bradley, H., Erickson, M., Stephenson, C. & Williams, S. (2000) Myths at work, Cambridge: Polity.
Burton, C. (1991). The promise and the price: The struggle for equal opportunity in women’s employment. North Sydney, N.S.W.: Allen & Unwin.
Caley, K., Chell, E., Chittenden, F. & Mason, C. (1992) Small Enterprise Development: policy and practice in action UK Enterprise Management and Research Association, London: Paul Chapman Publishing:
Carter, S. (1993) Female business ownership: current research and possibilities for the future. In Allen, S & Truman, C. Women in Business: perspectives on women entrepreneurs. pp 144-160. London: Routledge.
Carter, S. (1999) Multiple business ownership in the farm sector: assessing the farm enterprise and employment contributions of farmers in Cambridgeshire, Journal of Rural Studies. 15, (4), pp. 417-429.
Clayton, K. (1998). Women’s work: Success in small business. [http://www.cpaonline.com.au/html/aa/9811]
Collins, Jock Gibson, Katherine, Alcorso, Caroline, Castles, Stephen & Tait, David.(1995) A shop full of dreams: ethnic small business in Australia. Leichardt: Pluto Press.
Craig, R. (c1990) Partners or Helpers – farm wives and decision making. CVAH: unpublished paper.
Cromie, S. & Hayes, J. (1988). Towards a typology of female entrepreneurs. Sociological Review, 36, (1), pp.87-113.
Cullinen, Kate (2001) Unpublished thesis. Current research for Masters in Business, University of Ballarat.
Davidson M. & Cooper, C. (1992). Shattering the Glass Ceiling. The Woman Manager. London: Paul Chapman.
Deery, S., Plowman, D., Walsh, J., & Brown, M. (2001) Industrial relations: a contemporary analysis. Boston: McGraw Hill. Dempsey, K. (1992) A man’s town: inequality between women and men in rural Australia. Melbourne: Oxford University Press.
Egan, M. (1997) Getting down to business and off welfare: rural women entrepreneurs. Affilia: Journal of Women and Social Work, 12: 2, EBSCOhost 1999, 10pp.
106
Goffee, R. & Skase, R. (1985). Women in Charge, London: Allen & Unwin.
Heckscher, C. & Donnellon (1994) (Eds.) The Post-Bureaucratic Organization. London: Sage.
Hussey, J. and Hussey, R.(1997) Business Research: A Practical Guide for Undergraduate and Postgraduate Students, London: Macmillan Press,
James, K. (1989) (Ed.) Women in Rural Australia, St. Lucia, Queensland: University of Queensland Press.
Jayaratne, T. (1983) The Value of Quantitative Methodology for Feminist Research, in Bowles, G. and Klein, R. (Eds), Theories of Women’s Studies, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Johnson, S. & Storey, D. (1993) Male and female entrepreneurs and their businesses: a comparative study in Allen, S & Truman, C. (Eds) Women in Business: perspectives on women entrepreneurs. pp.70-85, London: Routledge.
Koper, G. (1993) Women entrepreneurs and the granting of business credit, in Allen, S & Truman, C.(Eds) Women in Business: perspectives on women entrepreneurs. London: Routledge.
Kuratko, D. & Hodgetts, R.(1998) Entrepreneurship: a contemporary approach, New York: The Dryden Press.
Lake, M. (1985). Helpmeet, slave, housewife: women in rural families 1870 1930, In P. Grimshaw, C. McConville & E.McEwen(Eds) Families in Colonial Australia). Sydney: George Allen & Unwin, pp.173-185.
Langan-Fox, J. (1995). Achievement motivation and female entrepreneurs. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology. September. 68, (3), pp.209-219.
Loscocco, K. & Leicht, K. (1993) Gender, work-family linkages, and economic success among small business owners, Journal of Marriage and the Family 55, (4), pp. 875-888.
Marlow, S. & Strange, A. (1994). Female entrepreneurs –success by whose standards? In M. Tanton (Ed) Women in Management: a developing presence. Routledge: London, pp.172-184.
Mason, C. & Harrison, R. (1992) A strategy for closing the small firm’s finance gap. In Small enterprise development: policy and practice in action. K. Caley, E. Chell, F. Chittendon & Mason, (Eds). London: Paul Chapman Publishing.
McKenzie, F. (1995) Rural women: hitting the big time, at what cost? In Feminine forces: redefining the workplace P. Carroll, .(Ed). Women in Leadership Project 1995, Edith Cowan University: Perth, pp.143-147.
107
McKenzie, F. (1996) Technology: the key to freedom for farming women:or the lock on the door. In Dancing on the glass ceiling: new century, new workplace, new leaders. L. Lord, A. Kinnear, F. McKenzie, L. Pike. (Eds) Women in Leadership Project 1995, Edith Cowan University: Perth, pp.186-190.
Miner, J. (1997). A typology of successful entrepreneurs. Westport: CT.
Moore, D. (1999). Women entrepreneurs: Approaching a new millennium. In G. Powell (Ed.), Handbook of gender and work. CA: Thousand Oaks.
Parker, B. & Fagenson, E.A. (1994). An introductory overview of women in corporate management. In M.J. Davidson, R.J. Burke (Eds). Women in Management. Current Research Issues. pp.11-28. London: Paul Chapman.
Phizacklea, A & Ram, M. (1996) Being your own boss: ethnic minority entrepreneurs in comparative perspective, Work, Employment, Society, 10, (2), pp. 319-339.
Pringle, J. & Tudhope, J. (1996). Family Friendly Policies: The experiences of three New Zealand companies. Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources, 34 (3), pp. 77-89.
Rainbird, H. (1991) The Self-employed: small entrepreneurs or disguised wage labourers in A. Pollert (Ed) Farewell to Flexibility, pp.200-214. Oxford: Blackwell.
Reinharz, S. (1992) Feminist methods in social research. New York: Oxford University Press.
Rickson, S. & Daniels P. (1999) Rural Women and Decision Making: Women’s role in resource management during rural restructuring, Rural Sociology, 64, (2), pp. 234-250.
Rogers, N. (1998) The role of Marital status, family composition, role commitment, family support of career and role conflict in women business owners’ success. PhD. Proquest Digital Dissertations, abstract.
Stevenson, H.H. and Jarillo, J.C. (1990). A paradigm of Entrepreneurship: Entrepreneurial Management. Strategic Management Journal, 11, pp.17-27.
Still, L. (1988). Becoming a top woman manager, Sydney: Allen & Unwin.
Still, L. (1993) Where to from here? The managerial woman in transition. Sydney: Business & Professional Publishing.
Still, L and Timms, W. (2000) Women’s business: the flexible alternative workstyle for women. Women in Management Review 15, (5/6), pp.272-283.
108
Souter, G. & Still, L. (2000) Sources of Assistance, advice and information from small businesses: a gender comparison of start-up to operations. Discussion Paper Series, Graduate School of Management Centre for Women and Business, University of Western Australia.
Sykes, Helen, (1989) Financing Australian Female Entrepreneurship (Unpublished PhD), University of New South Wales.
TCFU Textile Clothing and Footwear Union of Australia (1995) The Hidden Cost of Fashion, TCFU: Sydney.
Victorian Women in Agriculture and Resource Management Advisory Team (1999) Assessment of Rural Women’s Business Training Needs. Rural Women’s Network: Melbourne.
Voyce, Malcolm (1993) The farmer and his wife: (hey ho the dairy goes). Alternative Law Journal, 18, (3), pp.121-125.
Walsh-Martin M. (Ed.) (1998). Making It Happen: How 25 Rural Women Turned Ideas Into Businesses, Carlton North, Victoria: Scribe Publications Pty. Ltd.
Warren, L. & Hutchison, W. (2000) Success factors for high technology SMEs: A case study from Australia, Journal of Small Business Management, 38, (3), pp. 86-92.
Wheelock, J. (1997) Survival and flexibility in the urban small business household. In J. Wheelock and A. Mariussen (Eds). Households, Work and Economic Change: A Comparative Institutional Perspective, pp.157-166. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers
Wheelock, J. (1992) The Flexibility of Small Business Family Work Strategies In Caley, Kevin, Chell, Elizabeth, Chittenden, Francis & Mason, Colin (Eds) Small Enterprise Development: policy and practice in action, pp. 151-165. UK Enterprise Management and Research Association, London: Paul Chapman Publishing.
Willax, P. (1998) More Women Seeking Entrepreneurial Rewards in Business First-Louisville. 15, (12), October, 1998, Source:epnet, item number 1263051.
Yellow Pages (1996) Small Business Index: Special Report, Yellow Pages.
109