EDUCATION 505July 31, 2012

OBSERVATIONS

Observations occur in a natural field setting, and provide a first-hand account of the phenomenon being studied

Observations can explore what is happening, and they may also check what is happening

In regards to the former, this is much like the unstructured interview

Remember to distinguish between what you observe and what you interpret

If you are using observation to check what is happening, then structure and precision is the key

As such, you’ll need to decide what to observe and how to observe it

That is, will you adopt a “molecular approach” or a “molar approach”

Also, to what degree will you as the observer become involved in the actual observation

Gold’s (1958) classic typology offers a spectrum of four possible alternatives:

1)complete participant – observer takes an active role in the group, but his or her identity is not known to any members of the group

2)participant-as-observer – observer takes an active role in the group, but his or her identity is made known to all participants

3)observer-as-participant – identity of observer is known at the outset, but the researcher makes no real effort to be involved in the activities of the group

4)complete observer – the observer is either hidden from the group, or in a completely public setting

Recently, an additional stance has been suggested: 5)collaborative participant – the identity of the

observer is known, and he or she is actively involved in the group activities

Source: Gold, R.L. (1958). Roles in sociological field observations. Social Forces, 36(3), 217-223.

Be mindful of the impact that the “observer effect” can have on participants

Always keep in mind that “eyewitness effect” can compromise the reliability of an observation

As such, it is important to maintain detailed field notes

At a minimum, these notes should contain: (1)descriptions of the setting, the people, the activities; (2)direct quotations or at least the substance of what people said; and (3)observer comments (put in the margins, and identified as “OC”)

An emerging area of observational research is collecting data from publically accessible online spaces

Other instruments available to researchers include the following:

1)rating scales How many numbers or points will I use? Will my scale have a midpoint? What descriptors will I use on the scale? Do the descriptors on the scale logically

match the question? 2)documents 3)diaries

FIELD WORK B Your mission, should you choose to accept it: The researchers

are to go in the field and inquire about a socially constructed place. Please follow the listed restrictions.

Rules: 4 in a group Different places, first come, first serve Begin your observations as researchers (quantitative and

qualitative) Find: something to measure, someone to interview, and a

document that is related to the place Divide the tasks as a shared responsibility within the group Construct a rich-descriptive and accurate-representation of your

place in the form of field notes Helpful Tips: Use the “Descriptive Question Matrix” Using your text identify and use various data gathering tools to

fit your specific location Share the work, cooperate, and have fun!

FIELD WORK B (CONTINUED) Presentation: 5 minute report Remember you must be descriptive and accurate The presentation MUST NOT make reference to any names associated with the place,

proper names of any type, nick names, etc. This must be a real place We will guess your socially constructed place after your presentation

Considerations: How would time affect this place? How would your observations differ over extended visits and over a long period of time? How could seasonality affect your observations? How would the number of observers change the impression of the place? How would your observations change if you were to develop a relationship connected to

this place? How would the people you are observing be different in a different place? Or would they? Did you want to make changes to the designated space to allow for ease in your

observations? How did you feel in this selected space?   And so on…

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1)Is observing people without their knowledge or informed consent unethical?

2)Are there certain types of behaviour that should not be observed?

3)A major problem associated with observational research is that much of what is happening may be missed by the observer. How can one combat this?

INTERVIEWS

Dexter (1970, p. 11) states that “interviewing is the preferred tactic of data collection when...it will get better data or more data at less cost than other tactics!”

In essence, interviews can be described as “conversations with a purpose”

As a result, interviews are always contrived to a degree

Source: Dexter, L.W. (1970). Elite and specialized interviewing. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press.

Interviews can take the form of individual or group formats

Interviews are also categorized according to the amount of structure

Structured/Standardized

Semi-Structured

Unstructured/Informal

Generally, an interview should be done in a quiet location

A rule of thumb is that interviews should last one hour for adults, and 30 minutes for children

The key to a successful interview is preparation

Certainly, one of the most important elements is asking good questions (can be inductive & deductive), and as such, an interview schedule, which contains a list of questions you plan to ask, can be advantageous. But, don’t forget to use probes when and where appropriate!

Interview questions should be: 1)unambiguous 2)one-question questions 3)non-leading 4)culturally sensitive and ethically informed

Avoid the following: 1)multiple questions – How do you feel about

the school and its teachers? 2)leading questions – What emotional

problems have you had since beginning to work on your poster assignment?

3)yes-or-no questions

Things to keep in mind about the interview: 1)pre-plan carefully 2)check recording equipment 3)be mindful of the effects of power (begin

with general chit chat) 4)signal regularly that you are listening 5)manage the pace of the interview

6)thank the interviewee, and also make a follow-up thank-you

7)explain the study prior to commencing and obtain approval

8)be genuine 9)put people at ease; be respectful, non-

judgmental, and non-threatening

A last point to be conscious of is the manner in which you will manage the data from the interview:

1)tape-record or video 2)take notes during the interview – not

recommended 3)copy down what you remember after the

interview – least desirable

What is the age of the respondent? How many years has the respondent been a teacher? How many years has the respondent taught physical education? In preparing to teach a physical education class, to what extent does the

respondent worry about the potential for liability arising from student injury? In what ways does the respondent believe that the potential for liability resulting

from student injury impacts his or her curricular planning and teaching practices? What does the respondent understand to be risk management? Has the respondent received in-service training in the area of risk management? What are the risk management policies and practices followed by the respondent? Why does the respondent employ these particular practices? Does the respondent believe that the steps he or she takes to guard against

liability are excessive? That is, has risk avoidance become paramount in his or her risk management procedures?

How would the adoption of a no-fault or mixed system for accident compensationaffect the respondent’s attitude as a physical education teacher?

Does the respondent believe that a no-fault or mixed system would impact his orher planning and teaching of physical education classes?

FOOD FOR THOUGHT

Look at your appearance right now. Identify aspects of your appearance that might create a problem if you were interviewing a general cross section of the public.

QUESTIONNAIRES

A questionnaire is a type of survey designed to gather information that will be useful for analysis

Questionnaires gather information by asking people questions, or asking them to agree or disagree with statements

A questionnaire can be administered face-to-face, but usually it is completed anonymously

In a questionnaire, one may use open-ended or close-ended questions

If you employ the latter, ensure they are exhaustive and mutually exclusive

To ensure that the question is exhaustive, the category of “other” is commonly employed

To ensure that the question is mutually exclusive, ask yourself if a reasonable person could conceivably choose more than one answer

Also, remember that questions need to be clearly worded

Plus, avoid double-barrelled questions – The Department of Education should focus its attention on balanced budgets and abandon the principle of inclusion.

When you employ the word “and” always ask yourself if the statement is double-barrelled

It is preferable to use short items in a questionnaire

Avoid negative items if possible – The public schools should not be closed on the weekend.

Avoid biased items and terms Use contingency questions – avoids having

to answer questions irrelevant to you Once a questionnaire has been mailed or

electronically mailed to respondents for completion, employ a return rate graph, and also utilize follow-up mailings

Response rates for questionnaires can be problematic

50% is adequate 60% is good 70% is very good