The Zhuang language (Saw cuengh in Zhuang) is mainly spoken in Guangxi Zhuangzu Autonomous Region, in the southwest of China is a branch of the Thai languages. The Zhuang people originally attended to agriculture. The language is a tonal language consisting of 6 tones in open syllables. This is the largest minority language in China with approximately 18 million speakers. Currently, Zhuang is probably one of the more well known minorities in China such that if you take a look at a renminbi 1 yuan note you will notice two Zhuang people on it.

There are two distinct dialects of Zhuang, the northern Zhuang and the southern Zhuang of Guangxi. Up until 1956 Zhuang never had a written language of its own and borrowed the Chinese characters then in 1956 they formed their own writing system using the English alphabet.

The Zhuang are China’s largest minority group and they mainly reside in the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, west of Guangdong province, east of Yunnan and borders Vietnam. A great number of the Zhuang live in villages in the mountainous areas, specifically in the western two thirds of Guangxi. The Zhuang may also be found in most of Guangxi’s major cities, in each case making up to a third of the population while the remaining live in Yunnan, Guangdong, Guizhou, and Hunan Provinces.The Zhuang are an offshoot of a Thai-related people group that over 2,000 years ago who existed over a large area of Southern China. The Zhuang probably emigrated from the south in Vietnam. Archaeological remains in Bai-lian Dong near Liu-zhou and Zhen-pi Yan near Guilin have turned up burial sites with burial styles common not to China but to Vietnam. These burial styles also suggest a relationship between the Zhuang and the Haobinhian (9000-5600 BC) and Bacsonian (8300-5900 BC) cultures of Vietnam.The Han Chinese, (not the dynasty) who ruled from 206 BC to 220 AD, expanded into the Zhuang area of Guangxi in the year 221 BC under Emperor Qin Shi Huang during the Qin dynasty; Emperor Qin was the first to unify the country. He had unified what was before known as China; however, he wanted to amalgamate the territories and subsequently conquer the peoples, southward. Though he had conquered these peoples, he did not entirely take over their pre-existing political forms and social institutions. By nature, this left the Zhuang with some autonomy. He brought in some, if only for a short time, some of the features of the central governing system, and he also established three provinces. Emperor Qin oversaw the building of the Li canal at Xing-an, which linked the southern and central river systems.

The Qin dynasty did not last long after the death of Qin Shi Huang. The reason for this was that he made such drastic reforms in China that the rest of the country could not catch up with the ruler’s tight-fisted demands. Eventually the Han dynasty took over. During the period of upheaval in the Qin Dynasty, a Han Chinese, Zhao Tuo, declared himself “Martial King of the Southern Yue.” The region he controlled included the Zhuang areas. It was not until 111 BC that the area under his control was again conquered by the Han Dynasty.The Zhuang, over the years, have been involved in battles with approaching foreigners. In the 1070s, they fought against a people known as the Annamese. Then, in the middle of the 16th century, they fought against Japanese pirates who invaded their shores. Later, in the 1800s, they formed the Black Banner Army along with the Han Chinese and defeated the intruding French near Hanoi in both 1873 and 1882. Again, in 1885, they fought against the French and won a victory that proved crucial at Zhennanguan, a pass on the Sino-Vietnamese border.The Zhuang also joined in the revolutions that began at the beginning of the 20th century. First, they joined with Sun Yatsen in his revolutionary organization, Tong Meng Hui. Later, in 1925, a communist organization was established in the Zhuang area. Whether or not they participated in the revolution is not clear.Customs

Singing is a favorite activity of the Zhuang people. Singing contests are a part of every festival. There are old songs, which are an important part of the Zhuang oral tradition; there are also new songs, invented on the moment. Much of the point of Zhuang singing contests are to show one’s quickness in composing verses. One person will sing out a greeting or question; the one sung to must frame a response and sing back without delay.Urban Zhuang are often almost indistinguishable from Chinese. They have intermarried with the Chinese and over several generations have adopted the Chinese language and customs. This is not to say that they have lost all Zhuang identity, for the Chinese in Nanning and other cities of Guangxi have adopted some Zhuang customs as well. Both Zhuang and Chinese celebrate the Dragon Boat Festival on the fifth lunar month. For the holiday’s major event, teams of twenty men sit in pairs in long canoe-like boats and have competitions. Each boat is carved in the shape of a dragon’s head and scaly designs are painted along the sides.

Language

One way the Zhuang hold fast to their ethnic identity is through the preservation of their language. The Zhuang language remained unwritten until the 1950s when an alphabet based on the Roman alphabet was developed. Now, some Zhuang primary school children in Guangxi are receiving a bilingual education learning both Zhuang and Chinese.The Zhuang language has two major dialects: Northern Zhuang and Southern Zhuang, and descends from the Thai language family. (Even though their languages are part of the same family, the Thai and the Zhuang cannot understand each another.) A 65% lexical similarity exists between Northern and Southern Zhuang; sources indicate that the two languages are similar in grammatical structure and vocabulary. Ten million people, including all sub-dialect speakers, speak Northern Zhuang; four million, including all sub-dialect speakers, speak Southern Zhuang. Some sources report that the Zhuang language has over 50 dialects, most Zhuang also speak Cantonese and Mandarin today.

Rural Zhuang, more than urban Zhuang, still live their traditional way of life and their traditional religion, animism. They believe in many spirits, often malicious, who control the events of their lives and must be calmed down. When a person falls ill, a spirit medium will be called in to perform elaborate ceremonies at the sick person’s bedside. Incense will be burned and food offered to the spirits. The medium may go into a trance hoping to discover what spirit is causing the illness. She may force and threaten the spirits to induce them to leave and throw a kind of dice to determine when the sick one will be cured.

Zhuang language: Spelling

The present day Zhuang language is written in the roman alphabet. The letters and the symbols, which is used for the spelling of written Zhuang are the same as that of the English language. When Zhuang is used on  a computer, special fonts are not needed.

In 26 characters of alphabet, 6 are used for vowel characters, 15 are used for consonant characters. 4 are used for tone marks. The last 1 is used both for a consonant character and a tone mark.

6 vowel characters : a e i o u w

15 consonant characters : b c d f g k l m n p r s t v y

4 tone marks : j q x z

The letter which combines one consonant character and a tone mark : h

The “the tone mark” will be explained later

These symbols are generally used in the same way as English.

“  .  ?  !  ;  :  “ ” ‘ ’ -  ( )  … ”

But the following three are particular to Zhuang:

1. The use of “ ” ， and “ ”、 .

This is common with Chinese. The symbol “,” is used when it divides phrases, and the symbol “ ” 、 is used when it enumerates words.

2. The use of  ” ’ “.

When there is a syllable that begins with a vowel in the word that consists of more than one syllable.

seng + eiq → seng’eiq

(To distinguish “sen + geiq → sengeiq “)

3. When writing a book or a song name, it is written in capital letters.

The present day Zhuang language is written in the roman alphabet. Before the establishment of the People’s Republic of China, Zhuang people had their own writing system. It was called “Fang-gui-Zhuang-zi”. Similar to the Vietnamese “Chunom”characters made from Chinese characters. Some people say that Chunom was made with  reference to Fang-gui-Zhuang-zi as both resemble each other. The letter system, which was derived from Chinese characters: Hiragana, Katakana, Kitay, Xixia, Nuzhen, and Chunom are all well known. However,  Fang-gui-Zhuang-zi is older than any of those characters. It seems that Zhuang existed already in the 8th century (the Tang dynasty in China), so it is much older than Japanese Hiragana and Katakana. The Zhuang people wrote literary works such as “Liu San Jie “, “Liang-shan-po and Zhu-ying-tai ” over 1,000 years, using this letter system.

However, Fang-gui-Zhuang-zi was elliminated in 1957 because the spelling was very complicated and the acquisition was too difficult.

Part 2 Pronounciation of vowels (1)

Of the 108 vowels in Zhuang, there are 6 short vowels and 102 diphthongs. You may think that there are so many but in fact the diphthongs are all composed of short vowels. Therefore, once you remember the basic pronunciation for the short vowels they do not seem all that difficult at all.

The 6 short vowels:

a  – pronounced [a] as in the English /apple/

ae – pronounced as a short [a], shorter than the above [a]

e – pronounced as a long [e] as in the English /e/ in /egg/

i – pronounced as a long [ee] as in the English /eagle/

o – pronounced as a long [o] by rounding the lips as in the English /opera/

oe – pronounced as a short [o], shorter than the above [o]

u – pronounced as a a long [u] by rounding the lips as in the English [oo] in /food/

w – pronounced as a long [u] but by relaxing the lips, as in the English /hood/

108 Diphthongs:

12 open syllable diphthongs:

ai, ae, ei, oi, ui, wi, au, aeu, eu, iu, ou, aw

30 voiced (nasal) diphthongs:

am, aem, em, iem, im, om, oem, uem, um, an, aen, en, ien, in, on, oen, uen, un, wen, wn, ang, aeng, eng, ieng, ing, ong, oeng, ueng, ung, wng

30 glottal stops (high) diphthongs:

ap, aep, ep, iep, ip, op, oep, uep, up, at, aet, et, iet, it, ot, oet, uet, ut, wet, wt, ak, aek, ek, iek, ik, ok, oek, uek, uk, wk

30 glottal stops (low) diphthongs:

ab, aeb, eb, ieb, ib, ob, oeb, ueb, ub, ad, aed, ed, ied, id, od, oed, ued, ud, wed, wd, ag, aeg, eg, ieg, ig, og, oeg, ueg, ug, wg

I will clearly explain how to pronounce the diphthongs later.

Part 3 Pronunciation of vowels (2)

Zhuang vowels are divided into vowels that are pronounced long and vowels that are pronounced short. Just like in other languages pronunciation of vowels either long or short will end up being different words with entirely different meanings. Therefore, it is necessary to get the pronunciations correct.

How to pronunciation open syllable diphthongs:

ai – drawn out pronunciation as in the Mandarin Chinese pronunciation of [ai]. In English /eye/

ae – pronounced short, as in the English /I/

ei – pronounced short, as in the Mandarin Chinese [ei] and as in the English /eh/

oi – pronounced long, as in the English /oy/ in boy

ui – pronounced long don’t forget to protrude the lips. Resembles the English /we/

wi – pronounced long. Different from the above /ui/ as the lips are not protruded when pronounced.

au – pronounced long. Similar to the Mandarin Chinese [ao]. In English, /ou/ in ouch but drawn out.

aeu – pronounced short, as in the English /ou/ in out.

eu – pronounced long, (at the moment I can’t think of an English equivalent).

iu – pronounced long, as in the Mandarin Chinese [iao], as in English abbreviation for European Union: E.U. with the E drawn out.

ou – pronounced short, as in the Mandarin Chinese [ou], as in the English /owe/

aw – pronounced short, different from the above mentioned /aeu/ such that the lips are not protruded.

How to pronounciate voiced (nasal) diphthongs:

am – pronounced long, /a-m/. The lips should be kept closed at the end of the syllable. This one and the following should not be pronounced /a:mu/

aem – pronounced short, /am/

em – pronounced long, /e-m/

iem – pronounced long, /i-m/. Be sure not to get this one mistaken for /iem/ or /im/

im – pronounced short, /im/

om – pronounced long, /o-m/

oem – pronounced short, /om/

uem – pronounced long, /u-m/ the /u/ is like the English /oo/ as in the word boot. Be careful not to get this one confused with /uem/ and /um/ the /u/ here is pronounced like the English /oo/ in boot.

um – pronounced short, /um/

an – pronounced long, /a-n/ The tip of your tongue should touch the top of your mouth behind the teeth at the end of this syllable. Not to be pronounced /a:nu/ (including the ones below). Similar to the Mandarin Chinese [an]

aen – pronounced short, /an/, as in the [en] in Mandarin Chinese.

en – pronounced long, /e-n/ as in the [ian] in Mandarin Chinese.

ien – pronounced long, /i-n/ as in the [in] in Mandarin Chinese.

in – pronounced short, /in/

on – pronounced long, /o-n/ as in the [uan] in Mandarin Chinese.

oen – pronounced short, /on/

uen – pronounced long, /u-n/. Don’t forget to protrude the lips.

un – pronounced short, /un/

wen – pronounced long, /u-n/, do not protrude the lips. Like the [uen] in Mandarin Chinese.

wn – pronounced short, /un/ as in the [en] in Mandarin Chinese.

ang – pronounced long, /a-ng/. (velar) Closing the soft palate at the end of the syllable. Not to be pronounced /a:ngu/, including those below. Similar to the [ang] in Mandarin Chinese.

aeng – pronounced short, /ang/

eng – pronouced long, /e-ng/

ieng – pronounced long, /i-ng/, as in the [iang] in Mandarin Chinese.

ing – pronounced short, /ing/, as in the [ing] in Mandarin Chinese.

ong – pronounced long, /o-ng/

oeng – pronounced short, /ong/

ueng – pronounced long, /u-ng/

ung – pronounced short, /ung/ as in the [ong] in Mandarin Chinese.

wng – pronounced short, /ung/. As in the [eng] in Madarin Chinese.

It is really hard to write the /u/ sound here in writing so if anyone who speaks Mandarin Chinese can let me know who to write an equivalent please let me know.

Part 4: Vowel pronounciation (3)

Glottal diphthongs in the Zhuang language are distinguished by a high and low. Literary, the difference is just the raising and lowering of the voice, the method of pronounciation is exactly the same.

How to pronounciate the glottal diphthong (high):

ap – pronounced long, /a-p/ the lips remain closed at the end of the syllable. Not to be pronounced /a:pu/ including the ones that follow.aep – pronounced short, /ap/ep – pronounced long, /e-p/iep – pronounced long, /i-p/, the /i/ is pronounced /ee/ as in the English  keepip – pronounced short, /ip/op – pronounced long, /o-p/ as in the English /o/ in ohuep – pronounced long, /u-p/ as in the English /oo/ in bootup – pronounced short, /up/ the /u/ is pronounced as in the English /oo/ in bootat – pronounced long, /a-t/ the tip of the tongue the upper part of the mouth behind the teeth at the end of the syllable. Not to be pronounced /a:to/ including the ones that follow.aet – pronounced short, /at/et – pronounced long, /e-t/iet – pronounced /i-t/ as in the English eatit – pronounced short, /it/ot – pronounced long, /o-t/oet – pronounced short, /ot/ the /o/ is pronounced as in the /o/ in hotuet – pronounced long, /u-t/, protrude the lips.ut – pronounced short, /ut/wet – pronounced long, /u-t/ Do not protrude the lips. The /u/ is like the English /oo/ in boot.wt – pronounced short, /ut/ak – pronounced long, /a-k/ (velar consonant) Soft palate remains closed at the end of the syllable. Not to be pronounced /a:ku/ including the ones that follow.aek – pronounced short, /ak/ek – pronounced long, /e-k/iek – pronounced long, /i-k/ the /i/ is like the /ee/ in the English keepik – pronounced short, /ik/ok – pronounced long, /o-k/ the /o/ is like the /o/ in the English hotoek – pronounced short, /ok/uek – pronounced long, /u-k/ protrude the lips. The /u/ is like the English /oo/ in boot.wk – pronounced short, /uk/ do not protrude the lips.

How to pronounciate the glottal diphthong (low):

ab – pronounced long, /a:p/aeb – pronounced short, /ap/eb – pronounced long, /e:p/ieb – pronounced long, /i:p/ The /i/ is like the English /ee/ in keep

ib – pronounced short, /ip/ob – pronounced long, /o:p/ The /o/ is like the English /o/ in hotueb – pronounced long, /u:p/ The /u/ is like the English /oo/ in bootub – pronounced short, /up/ad – pronounced long, /a:t/ (velar consonant) Soft palate remains closed at the end of the syllable. Not to be pronounced /a:to/ including the ones that follow.aed – pronounced short, /at/ed – pronounced long, /e-t/ied – pronounced long, /i:t/  like the English eatid – pronounced short, /it/od – pronounced long, /o:t/oed – pronounced short, /ot/ud – pronounced short, /ut/wed – pronounced long, /u:t/ do not protrude the lips.wd – pronounced short, /ut/ag – pronounced long, /a:k/ (velar consonant) Soft palate remains closed at the end of the syllable. Not to be pronounced /a:ku/ including the ones that follow.aeg – pronounced short, /ak/eg – pronounced long, /e:k/ieg – pronounced long, /i:k/ig – pronounced short, /ik/og – pronounced long, /o:k/oeg – pronounced short, /ok/ueg – pronounced long, /u:k/ protrude the lips.ug – pronounced short, /uk/wg – pronounced short, /uk/ do not protrude the lips.

If there is a [p], [t] or [k] at the end part, the sound should be high and if there is a [b], [d] or [g] at the end the sound will be low.

Glottal stops are the same as one of the four tones in Classical Mandarin Chinese (ru sheng 入声). If you have studied Cantonese, the Fukien dialect or Hakka then you may already have  learned this. Besides Mandarin Chinese, Korean, Vietnamese and Thai also have this pronounciation.  You need to be able to hear the [p], [t], [k] at the end of the syllable.Something that just needs to be learned by repetition and listening.

Part 5: Pronounciation of consonants

Zhuang has 22 consonants.

b - Corresponds to the Mandarin Chinese [b], it is not a voiced consonant.mb - /mb/ the sound has a slight burst of air when pronounced.m - /m/ Corresponds to the Mandarin Chinese [m]f - /f/ Same as the English [f], Corresponds to the Mandarin Chinese [f]v - /v/ Same as the English [v], Corresponds to the Mandarin Chinese [v]

d - /d/ Corresponds to the Mandarin Chinese [d]nd - /nd/ the sound has a slight burst of air when pronounced.n - /n/ Corresponds to the Mandarin Chinese [n]s - /s/ Corresponds to the Mandarin Chinese [s] and [c]l - /l/ Same as the English [l] , Corresponds to the Mandarin Chinese [l]g - /g/ Corresponds to the Mandarin Chinese [g]gv - A double consonant. Pronounced as /kv/ng - A nasal sound pronounced as /ng/h - /h/ Corresponds to the Mandarin Chinese [h]r - Similar to the French [r], Corresponds to the Mandarin Chinese [l]c - /sha/ Pronounced with an opening between the upper and lower teeth, closer to /hya/ rather than /sha/    Corresponds to the the Mandarin Chinese [x]y - Corresponds to the Mandarin Chinese [r]ny - /nya/ngv - A double consonant. Pronounced as /ngv/by - /pya/gy - /kya/ Corresponds to the Mandarin Chinese /j/my - /mya/

Zhuang does not distinguish between sounds that have a slight burst of air and those that do not as like Mandarin. So it should be ok to show the consonants b,d,g,gv,by,gy as p,t,k,kv,py,ky. This places the priority on the corresponding Mandarin.

破裂音のうち、破裂の直後に強い気息を伴うもの。中国語・朝鮮語などでは有気・無気を区別するが、日本語では、沖縄方言の一部を除き、一般にはその区別がない。帯気音。

Part 6: Tones (1)Zhuang like Mandarin is called a monosyllabic tonal language. Each syllable has a fixed high/low, rising/lowering tone to it. It is similar to the difference between meanings of "HA shi" and "ha SHI". Even in Zhuang the difference in words is depended on a higher voice, so within one syllable the voice can be high and low. Those who have learned Mandarin should have learned the four tones. Zhuang has six tones.

Tone number   1    2   3   4   5   6Tone value    24   31  55  42  35  33Tonal mark    n/a  z   j   x   q   h

The "tone values" express the tone of the voice by five levels of numbers. The larger the number the higher the voice. When it reaches "35", means that the rising intonation is pronounced from about the mid-high level to the highest level.

The first and fifth tone, second and fourth tone resemble one another; therefore, it is often difficult to clearly

pronounciate the tone values without a lot of practice. It may be possible to distinguish if the first tone is pronounced from the lowest level to the raising intonation and the fourth tone is pronounced from the highest level to a decreasing intonation.

When the "tonal mark" is mentioned in Zhuang, the mark is there to indicate whether the various syllables have what tones.For example, the first tone is expressed by the syllable [na] by itself. The second tone is [naz], the third tone [naj], the fourth tone [nax], the fifth tone [naq], and the sixth tone [nah]. Therefore, we are able to specify the meaning of words first by the three Zhuang syllables "Consonant + Vowel + Tonal mark". Incidentally, "na" is "thick", "naz" is "rice field", "naj" is "face", "nax" is "aunt on the mother's side", "naq" is "arrow", and "nah" is "meat". The same pronounciation /na/ with different intonations have very much different meanings.

Part 7: Tones (2)

Glottal tonesThe "tonal mark" as introduced in the last part does not use glottal syllables. It is because as explained in part 4, in the case of glottal stops, the letter that is at the end of the syllable already indicates the tone of the voice. The tone of a glottal syllable pronounced high is different whether it is pronounced long or short.

                               high      long high     short lowlast letter of the syllable:  p,t,k     p,t,k         b,d,ktone value:                   55         35            33

Even if you are not definately aware of what places in the 5 tones, you should be able to distiguish the pronounciation such that if the letter at the end of the syllable is [p,t,k], the tone will be high; if it ends in [b,d,g] then the tone will be low.

This explains the system of pronounciation for the Zhuang language. The following are words that you should be able to pronounce.

1. Cunghvaz Yinzminz Gunghozgoz (People's Republic of China)2. baengzyoux                   (friend)3. lauxsae                      (teacher)4. Baekging                     (Beijing)5. Gvangjsih                    (Guangxi)6. hagseng                      (Student)7. bauqceij                     (newspaper)

Those who have studied languages that use kanji (Chinese characters), will notice that the system of Zhuang pronounciation is very similar to other kanji dialects. The main reasons for this is that the Zhuang culture has borrowed kanji and words from the Han. Besides this southern Chinese minority languages such as Zhuang have been influenced by Mandarin dialects. The Han have never inhabited the southern Chinese areas and have been inhabited by

the minorities that speak languages similar to todays Vietnamese and Thai have been called by the general term 百越 bai yue (or 百粤 bai yue).  From the Spring and Autumn (770-476 BC) and Warring States (475-221 BC) periods the Han who began to advance into southern China mixed with the Baiyue and and the development of a dialect that is different from that of the Yellow river area dialect. The present southern Mandarin dialect has a baiyue influence that remains in not only its pronounciation but also its grammer and vocabulary. I will touch on thesimilar points of the the Zhuang language and Cantonese (the Guangdong dialect) later.

If we go futher into detail, the following chart, compares the tones of the Mandarin of the Sui (581-617) and Tang dynasties (618-907) called the "classical Chinese", Zhuang, Cantonese, Hakka (Meixian a county in the municipal region of Meizhou, in northeastern Guangdong province "standard Hakka"), southwest standard Mandarin (Chengdu) and standard Mandarin. Classical Chinese alone does not have tones, not that there were recordings from a hundredthousand years ago but the "types of tones" have been noted by the people of the time.It is presumed that "平=flat" is as it states litterally is a flat sound, "上=up" is a rising sound, "去" is a declining sound, "陰" is the high tone, "陽" is the low tone in the "入" which is the last letter of the syllable sound that is included with the  [p,t,k].

Classical Chinese  type of tone

Zhuang             type of tone

Cantonese          type of tone

Hakka              type of tone

southwest Mandarin type of tone

Mandarin           type of tone

Part 8: Syntax (1)

Zhuang like Han are languages that have grammar that follow word order. There is no reflection of nouns nor verb use. However, there is an importance on syntax rather than grammar.

The coordinate clause

When the subject complements the subject precedes.  Gou dwg Lij Vaz. I am Li Hua.  Gou = I, dwg = am, Lij Vaz = Li Hua (person's name)

The modifier comes after the non-modifier.

  Boh de lauxsae. His father is a teacher.

  boh = father, de = his, lauxsae = teacher

The declarative sentence

1. S + VGenerally, the subject preceeds the predicate.    Gou bae. I go. bae = to go

However, there are many verbs that come before the subject.

   Miz vunz. There is a person. miz= to be (animate beings), vunz= person   Hwnj rumz. The wind blows. hwnj=to blow, rumz=wind

2. S + V + OThe clause with the subject, predicate and object is the same as English. "S + V + O"

   Gou gwn haeux. I eat rice. gwn=to eat, haeux=rice

3. S + V + O1 + O2If there are two objects, the direct object and the indirect object,the word order is subject + predicate + indirect object + direct object.

   De hawj gou song bonj saw. He gives me 2 books.   hawj=to give, song bonj=2 (books), saw=book

The negative sentence

   "mbouj" is placed before the verb, modifier. Besides "mbouj", "wj, mij, aemj" can also be used.

      Gou mbouj dwj hagseng. I am not a student.      hagseng=student

      Bya ndaw daemz mbouj ndei gwn. Fish in the pond is not delicious.      bya=fish, ndaw=in, daemz=pond, ndei gwn=delicious (ndei=good, gwn=to eat)

      Gou mbouj miz ngaenz yungh. I don't have the money necessary.      ngaenz=money, yungh=use, necessary

The interrogative sentence1. The interrogative is formed by placing one of the words "lwi, ha, ne, la, ba, luma" (including others)   to the end of the sentence.   This interrogative sentence can be answered with "yes/no". wx=yes, mbouj caengz=no

     Mwngz caeuq gou bae lwi? Will you go with me?

     mwngz=you, caeuq=together, with

     De dwg boh mwngz lwi? Is he your father?

     De caemh rox sawcuengh ha? Does he understang Zhuang too?     caemh=too, also; rox=to understand; sawcuengh=Zhuang language (saw=書, cuengh=壮)

2. Interrogative sentences that use interrogative pronoun and interrogative adverb   "bouxlawz=who; gijmaz=what; gizlawz/mwnqlawz=where; seizlawz/baenzlawz=when;    geij/geijlai= how many, how much; baenzlawzyiengh= どのように" etc.

        Sou vih maz doxdub ne? Why are you two fighting?        sou=you (plural); vih maz=why (vih 為 purpose, maz 何 what); doxdub=to fight

        Bouxlawz daeuj? Who is comming?        daeuj= to come

        Mwngz miz geij boux nuengx? How many brothers and sisters do you have?        geij 幾 boux = (counter for people); nuengx = brothers and sisters

3. "roxnaeuz = alternative question that uses or               Mwngz naengh ci ne roxnaeuz byaij loh? Will you take the car or will you walk?        naengh = to take/ride (a car); ci = car; byaij = to walk; loh = road

4. Interrogatives that are made up of affirmative and negative sentences. It is equivalent to the Mandarinexpressions「是不是」(shi bu shi),「有没有」(you mei you).

       De dwg mbouj dwg hagseng? Is he a student?

       Ngoenzneix nit mbouj nit? Is it cold today?       ngoenzneix = today (ngoenz = day, neix = this); nit = cold

Until now we have discussed Zhuang in comparision to Mandarin but Zhuang is systematically like Thai.However, many years have past since the Zhuang people and the Thai peoples could be differentiated.Furthermore, just like Zhuang has borrowed many words from Mandarin;Thai has borrowed many words from Cambodian and Sanscrit therefore, they are fairly distanced.

Within China's Thai-related languages, the Zhuang language is much more closely classified to the Kradai and the Zhuang-Dong languages such as the languages as the Buyi (布衣) (Buyei), the Dong peoples (dong zu) their own name: Gaeml also referred to as Kam and the Sui people ( 水族 shuizu).

On another topic, it is said that Zhuang and Buyi languages are often associated with Zhuang/Thai languages that are included in the Thai language of Thailand not the Dong/Shui language groups.

Anyway, pronunciation and grammar characteristics are similar so it is comparatively easierfor someone who knows Thai to learn Zhuang. This is because someone who can understand Zhuang has the ability to master the minority languages of southwest China one after the other.

Part 9: Syntax (2) 第九章 統語論（２）Imperative sentence命令文

１．Tonal: "vei, nw, ho, bw, ha, balo, lubw, dwk" etc. is added to the end of the sentence to form the imperative.

Mwngz vaiq di naeuz de nyi nw. Tell him immediately. (Tell him and make him listen) あなたは早く彼に言って聞かせてあげなさい。vaiq di = immediately naeuz = tell, announce  nyi = listen

２．"gaej" added to the beginning of a verb forms a negative imperative.    Gaej gwn raen saw bw.   Don't drink tap water.gwn = to drink raen saw = tap water (raw water)

Conjunctive Sentences

１．Ordered conjunctive sentences. It uses conjunctions such as the adverb "sien = first < 先" and "gaenlaeng = after that/and then" and tells about the following passage of time.

Daxboh sien cawj haeux, gaenlaeng caiq cawj byaek. お父さんはまずご飯を炊いて、それから料理を作る。My father first cooks the rice, and

then makes supper.daxboh = father (familiar). cawj = boil, simmer, stew, braise. haeux = rice. caiq < 再 byaek = cuisine, cooking, dish, food.

２．Reverse conjunctive sentences. Use the conjunction "hoeng = but, however" and indicates a condition that is different from the preceding phrase. 前文通りではない違った状況を語るもの。

Gaxgonq daxboh gou siengj bae hag, hoeng mbouj miz ngaenz.父はそれまで私を学びに行かせたかったが、しかしお金がなかった。My father wanted me to go and study at that time; however, he had no money.gaxgonq = それまでは／以前は siengj = 〜したい < 想 hag < 学

Yienznaeuz bineix mbwn rengx, hoeng mbanj raeuz lij ndaej fungsou.

今年は旱魃があったにもかかわらず、私たちの村では豊作だった。 Despite the drought this year, our village had a good harvest.yienznaeuz = 〜にもかかわらず bineix = 今年（bi = 年 neix = この）mbwn rengx = 旱魃 mbanj = 村 raeuz = 私たち lij = まだ ndaej = 得るfungsou = 豊作（fung < 豊 sou < 収）

３．Selective conjunctive sentences. Uses the conjunction "roxnaeuz = or" (as previously mentioned in Part 8).

Mwngz ok bae, roxnaeuz youq ranz ? あなたは出かけますか、それとも家にいます か？Will you go out? or will you stay home?

ok = 出る youq = 居る ranz = 家

４．Conditional conjunctive sentences. The future phrase indicates the condition and is followed bythe phrase that is the result. 先行する句が条件を表し、その後ろに結果にあたる句が続きます。

Mbouj mwngz bae, couh gou bae. あなたが行かないのなら、私が行きます。 If you don't go, I will go.couh = それならば < 就

Danghnaeuz raeuz mbouj roengzrengz hag, couh doeklaeng vunz lo. もし私たちがしっかり勉強しなければ、他の人に遅れてしまいます。 If we don't study

hard, it will slow the others down.danghnaeuz = もし roengzrengz = 努力する doeklaeng = 遅れる lo =（完了を表す語気詞）

Gou baenzlawz gangj, de cungj mbouj saenq. 私がどのように話しても、彼は信じない。 However way I say it, he doesn't believe it.baenzlawz = どのように gangj = 話す < 講 cungj = すべて saenq < 信

５．Cause and Effect conjunctive sentences. The future phrase indicates the cause/origin and is followed by the phrase   that is the result. その後ろに結果にあたる句が続きます。"aenvih = why < 因為" is added to the beginning of the phrase that indicates the cause and "sojyij = therefore,   thus, hence, accordingliy < 所以" is added to the beginning of the phrase that indicates the result.「なぜ」は原因を表す句の前に、「sojyij = それゆえに < 所以」は結果を表す句の前につきます。

Aenvih ngoenzneix fwn doek, gou mbouj bae hag. = Ngoenzneix fwn doek, sojyij gou mbouj bae hag.

今日は雨が降るので私は学校に行かない。 It's raining today therefore, I will not goto school.

fwn = 雨 doek = 降る

      お・ま・け

壮語には「こんにちは」にあたる決まった挨拶がありません。「Gwn ngaiz gvaq lwi ? = 飯食ったか」といった生活に密着した表現で挨拶をします。どうしても「こんにちは」と言いたいときは、漢語で「ニーハオ」と言っておけばいいでしょう。There is no greeting that can be directly translated as "hello" in Zhuang. The expression that is the closest to the daily language is "Gwn ngaiz gvaq lwi ? = Have you had (eaten) rice? When you just have to say "hello", you could use the Mandarin "nihao".

Part 10: Syntax (3)

Complex sentences

Complex sentences are sentences that include more than one nominal, adjectival or adverbial parts in one sentence as a subordinate clause.

1. Nominal: The sentence just becomes the subject and object.

    Doxdub mbouj ndei, bouxlawz mbouj rox? Who doesn't know that fignting is not good?    rox = to know

    Gou rox mwngz vihmaz mbouj gamj gangj okdaeuj. I know why you don't dare to speak.    gamj < 敢; okdaeuj = to come out, get out

2. Adjectival: Modifies a noun (phrase) and pronoun (phrase) in a sentence

    Boux vunz daj gwnz bya byaij roengz daeuj haenx, lumj daxboh siujfangh raixcaix.    The one comming down from the top of the mountain looks like Xiaofang's father.

    daj = from; gwnz = up, top; bya = mountain; roengz = to come down, get off; haenx = there, over there;    lumj = to look like, similar; siufangh = Xiaofang (person's name); raicaix = very

    Cijmiz mwngz, coh ndaej coengh gou. You are the only one who can help me.    cimiz = only; coh = finally, at last; ndaej = to be able, can; coengh = to help

3. Adverbial: Modifies a verb and an adjective in a sentence.

    Gou byaij dwk ga naet lo. I walked until my feet were tired.    dwk = (adverb related); ga = feet; naet = to be tired

Causative

"hawj" is placed before the verb. If you are placing the cause on the object then it is placed after the causative verb and before the verb. Besides "hawj" there are also the expressions "heuh, cingj, ep, gouz, ce, baij, coi" including others.

    Hawj gou bae hag hai ci. Please let me learn to drive.    hai = to drive

    De cingj mwngz gwn laeuj. He recommends the drink to me.    cingj =    ;laeuj = sake, alcohol, spirits

    Gou gouz daxboh coengh gou. I helped my father.    gouz

Passive 受身

"deng" is placed before the verb to indicate the passive.If it is placed in a phrase that forms the main action then place it before the verb and after the verb indicating the passive.Besides "deng" there is also the expression "ngaiz".

Gou deng dub. I was beaten up. dub = to beat up/to strike

Gou deng de dub. I was beaten up by him.

Duz gaeq de deng duz ma haeb dai lo. That chicken was bitten and killed by a dog.duz =（counter for animals ） gaeq = chicken de = that ma = dog haeb = to bite dai = to die

Comparatives 比較

  When "gvaq < 過" is placed after an adjective, it becomes a comparative expression.

Gou sang gvaq de. I am taller than him. sang = tall/high

De sij saw ndei gvaq mwngz. He writes better letters than you.sij = to write < 写 saw = letter/character < 書

  There is also an expression that places "beij <比" before the intended comparision.

Gou beij de sang. I am taller than him.

De beij mwngz sij saw ndei. He writes better letters than you.

      Commentary

  For those of you who have studied Cantonese (Guangzhou dialect, Guangdong dialect), you may have noticed that the above Zhuang gramatical expression "〜過" is exactly the same as Cantonese.In today's Han language (Mandarin and classical Han language) "比" is used. Zhuang also uses the expression "比" but this is the influence from modern day Mandarin. As I have mentioned in Part 7, Cantonese is a language that was formed form the influence of ancient Bai Yue (古代百越) so it is thought that"〜過" was borrowed from Zhuang.It is recognized that influence from Zhuang in Cantonese came from pronounciation,grammer, and words.In regards to pronounciation, there are such things as the existance of a double consonant /kw/,conflict with long and short vowels, and a large number of tones.In regards to vocabulary, there are a lot of words that have similarities with Zhuang such as theadverb "幾" ( 幾好食 = very delicious) that emphasizes adjectives, "ngaam = just/exactly","mau = crouch down", "yuk = to move", etc.Gramatically, besides the comparative expression mentioned earlier there are the Mandarin expressions" 先走 = to go first/to walk first" which becomes "行先" in Cantonese and "客人" in Mandarin and"人客" in Cantonese as well where the adverb comes after the verb and the adjective.The modifying word comes after the non modifying word, such as "一匹馬" in Mandarin, becomes "匹馬" in Cantonese. Quantifiers (Units that count objects) follow the noun by itselfwithout accompanying the numeral.By contrast, there are a lot of words from Cantonese that Zhuang has borrowed. The pronounciation of the majority of vocabulary of Han that is included in Zhuang is similar. This is thought to be due historically to the fact that the Zhuang people have incorporated the Han language and culture from the Han people of Guangdong province. After the formation of the new China, it seems to be that since Zhuang and Canonese both have Mandarin influences the distance between the two has become narrower.

Part 11: Structure of Words (1)  第十一章 語の構造（１）NounsNouns in the Zhuang language have a function to change into subject, object, complement and others including quantifiers. It does not have inflection of masculinity/feminity, status, number that Indian/European languages have.

１．Nouns that indicate people:vunz = people daegnuengx = (younger) brother lwgnyez = child lauxsae = teacher <

老師 canghvaz < Zhang Hua (person's name), etc.

２．Nouns that indicate objects:vaiz = water buffulo bya = fish roeg = bird ci = car ruz = boat feihgih = airplane < 飛機feiz = fire rumz = wind bya = mountains （魚と同音異義語 a homonym of fish ）swhsiengj < 思想, thought/idea dauhlei < 道理, reason/sense

dauhdwz < 道徳, morals   etc.

３．Nouns that indicate time:bi = year ndwen = month ngoenz = day seizneix = present/now gyanghaet = morning ngoenzcog = tomorrowseizcin = Spring doengbaez = old times/the past   etc.

４．Nouns that indicate place:Baekging < 北京 Beijing Namzningz < 南寧 Nanning Gvangjsih < 広西 Guangxi gizgyae = far away   etc.

５．Nouns that indicate direction:gwnz = up laj = down naj = before laeng = after doeng < 東 East sae < 西West namz < 南 South baek < 北 Northswix = left gvaz = right ndaw = 〜center rog = 〜outside/outter   etc.

Pronouns

１．Personal pronounsgou = I < 我 dou = We（Only the speaker/not including the listener) raeuz = We（Including the speaker/listener)mwngz = You sou = You (plural) de = he/she gyoengqde = theygag = oneself bouxwnq = another person caezgya = everyone

２．Interrogative pronouns

Things that replace people and objects: bouxlawz = who gijmaz = what

Things that replace places: gizlawz = where mwnqlawz = where

Things that replace time: seizlawz = when baenzlawz = when

Things that replace numerals: geij = how many/how much geijlai = how long

３．Demonstrative pronounsneix = this de, haenx = that/that one over theregizneix = here gizde, gizhaenx = there/over thereyaepneix = at this time, moment yaepde = at that time/at that time

NumeralsZhuang numerals have two kinds, a characteristic sound (Original Zhuang numeral) and literary sound (Borrowed from Mandarin)The characteristic sound is like the Japanese system of counting 「ひとつ、ふたつ、みっつ…」and the literary sound is like the …「いち、に、さん 」in Japanese, which was borrowed from Mandarin.

However, in practice the pronounciation of the numbers other than "1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ..." are the same as the characteristic sound and the literary sound.It is often difficult to distinguish their use.

     Original sound   literal sound   English 零 lingz          lingz           0 一 ndeu          it              1 二 song          ngeih           2 三 sam          sam             3 四 seiq          seiq            4 五 haj          ngux            5 六 roek          loeg            6 七 caet          caet            7 八 bet          bet             8 九 gouj          gouj            9 十 cib          cib             10 百 bak          bak             100 千 cien          cien            1,000 万 fanh          fanh            10,000 億 ik          ik              100,000,000

"cib it = 11", "ngeih cib ngeih = 22" such that 10 comes before the next number is the basic way to  count using literal sound.  There is also the expression "bak ndeu", "cien ndeu" but this implies "one 100 = 100", "one 1000 = 1000".  "bak it" is "110". "101" is "bak lingz it < 百零一". The same usage applies to Han (Mandarin) language.  "2000" is "song cien", "2001" becomes "song cien lingz it". As in Mandarin it is not "二千" it is  "両千". There is no such expression as "cien lingz song".

Ordinal numbers: The numeral is placed after "daih < 第". 1 and 2 uses the literal sound while  5 and 6 uses the original sound.daih it = 第一 daih ngeih = 第二 daih haj = 第五 daih roek = 第六

When indicating multiples, "boix < 倍" is placed after the numeral.haj boix = 五倍 roek boix = 六倍

When indicating fractions, "faenh cih < 分之" is placed after the denominator/before the numerator. haj faenh cih it < 五分之一 bet faenh cih sam < 八分之三

When indicating the date and days of the week, 1 and 2 uses the literal sound while 5 and 6 uses the original sound.  The days of the week are indicated just like Mandarin beginning with Monday and expressed with  a number placed after "singh giz < 星期". Sunday is "singh giz ngoenz = 星期天".

cib it nied = 11 月 roek hauh = 六日（hauh < 号）singh giz haj = 金曜日 < 星期五 singh giz roek = 土曜日 < 星期六

However, only in the lunar calendar, the literary sound is used in 5 and 6.ndwen ngux = 旧暦五月 ndwen loeg = 旧暦六月

Quantifiers Quantifiers (also known as classifiers) indicate units of people and objects or actions and movement.When counting things be sure to attach a noun limiter/modifier after the numeral.When expressing objects figuratively, it is placed between the noun and the adjective.Quantifiers use specific words such as nouns and verbs but there are cases where nouns can change as they are.If using quantifiers, there are many cases where the numeral "一" (1) is not expressed.

１．Object Quantifiers. A unit to count people and objects.

Things that indicate units of weights and measures:conq < 寸 ciengh < 丈 leix < 里 faen < 分 cik < 尺 maenz < 元 liengx < 両gak < 角（元の 1/10 ） swng < 升 moux < 畝 gaen < 斤 daeuj < 斗 等。

Things that indicate units of an individual 個体の単位を表すもの。duz =（unit to count animals ） go =（unit to count plants ） boux／dah／daeg =（Unit to count people）aen = 〜個 gaiq < 塊 fag < 把（to count things that can be grasped in the hand ）mbaw = 〜張り gienh < 件diuz < 条（count long things ） naed = 〜粒 bonj < 本（count books ） etc.

Things that indicate units of a group/aggregate: 集団・集合体の単位を表すもの。gyoengq = 群 bang < 幇 ban < 班 doiq < 対 suenq < 双 fouq < 副 等。

Things that nouns/verbs borrow: 名詞・動詞を借用したもの。hab < 盒 doengj = 桶 daiz = 卓 ranz = 家 cenj = 杯 rap = 挑 fung < 封 等。

２．Verb quantifiers. Unit that count movements and actions.

baez = 次／回（count frequency ） yamq = 歩 din = 脚 bit < 筆 ngoenz = 日 haemh = 晩 等。

Part 12: Structure of Words (2) 第十二章 語の構造（２）Verbs/Auxiliary verbs  動詞・助動詞

壮語の動詞には活用がありません。There is no use for Zhuang verbs. The verb is not only used as a predicate,just like nouns they are also used as subject/object or noun limiter/modifier.However many verbs are used in the sentence is ok but it doesn't matter whether the the actions are only ordered.

  動詞は文中にいくつ用いてもよく、ただ動作の順に並べるだけでかまいません。  また活用がないために、動詞一語だけでは時相や態を表すことができないため、  必要に応じて助動詞が加えられたり、動作の行方や結果を示す後置動詞（時態動詞）が用いられたります。  壮語の助動詞は単独で用いられることもあり、形態上、一般動詞と変わりありません。  後置動詞も一般動詞としても用いられるもので、動詞の二次的用法、助動詞的機能を持ちます。Several verbs are often used in a sentence; however, only the order of the movement does not matter.They can be used with auxiliary verbs when necessary and also used with verbs placed after (verbs of time and state)that indicate verb whereabouts and results to not indicate time a ....

Zhuang auxiliary verbs can be used by themselves and their form do not change with regular verbs.Although regular verbs can be used as well as verbs that are placed after,   second usuage of verbs can also have a function as auxiliary verbs.

１.Regular verbsThings that show action and movement.yawj = 見る gwn = 食べる byaij = 歩く dingq = 聞く < 聴 hag = 勉強する <

学 mbin = 飛ぶ 等。

Things that show a mental state.gyaez = 愛する haenz = 恨む lau = 恐れる ngeix = 思う muengh = 希望する yiem = 嫌う 等。

Things that show existance, change and disappearance.miz = 有る lix = 生きる youq = 居る bienq = 変わる < 変 maj = 成長する dai = 死ぬ law = 消える 等。

２． Verbs that judge decide (equivalent to the english verb be)dwg = 〜である

３．助動詞（能願動詞ともいいます） Auxiliary verbs (known as verbs that ask ability)nyienh = 願う aeu = 必要とする ndaej = できる wnggai = 当然〜すべきである< 応該

４．後置動詞 Verbs placed after

hwnj = 上がる／起きる roengz = 下る haeuj = 進む ok = 出る ma = 回る bae = 行く daeuj = 来る

壮語の時制は、後置動詞か、あるいは語気詞（後述）を動詞の後ろにつけることによって表現します。時制を表す後置動詞として、主に「dwk = している（進行形）< 着」、「liux = おわる（完了形）< 了」、「gvaq = 〜したことがある（経歴・未完了過去）< 過」の三つがあります。The tense of Zhuang, whether verbs placed after or emphatically (following)

Bakdou miz vunz souj dwk. There is a person protecting the entrance. 入り口を守っている 人がいる。 bakdou = 入り口 souj = 守る

De sij liux bak cih saw. He wrote 100 characters. 彼は百個の字を書いた。 sij = 書く< 写 cih = （字を数える量詞）

De bae Baekging gvaq. He has been to Beijing. 彼は北京に行ったことがある。

一部の動詞は重ねて用いることで、「しばらくの間／短時間」を表すことがあります。A part of the verb is used with together and shows "a period/short time".gangjgangj = ちょっと話す byaijbyaij = 少し歩く yietbaeg yietbaeg = しばらく休む（yietbaeg = 休む）

動詞をいくつか組み合わせて、一連の動作の行方・結果を表すことができます。Verbs combined with others and can show a series of results/directions.

De daj ndaw ranz byaij ok daeuj. He walks out of the house. 彼は家の中から歩いて出て来る。

Ci hai gvaq bae lo. The car went too far. 車は走り過ぎて行った。

De buet daeuj naengh gwn haeux gaenlaeng daeq bae lo.He ran in sat down and ate and then went home.彼は走って来て坐ってご飯を食べて、それから帰って行った。buet = 走る naengh = 坐る daeq = 帰る

Ronghndwen ok daeuj lo. The moon came out. 月が出て来た。 ronghndwen = 月

Adjectives 形容詞

壮語の形容詞は名詞や代名詞を後から修飾する以外に、動詞と同じように述語にもなります。英語の be動詞にあたるものを必要としないために、動詞と一緒に扱われることもあります。Zhuang adjectives modify the end of nouns and pronouns and also become the predicate just like verbs.

Since the english verb "be" is not necessary, adjectives can be treated with the verb together.

nit = 寒い／冷たい hwngq = 暑い／熱い soemj = 酸っぱい diemz = 甘い < 甜 haemz = 苦いunq = 軟らかい ndong = 硬い maenh = 堅固な ndei = よい rwix = 悪いcoengmingz = 賢い < 聡明 hung = 大きい iq = 小さい raez = 長い dinj = 短いnding = 赤い heu = 青い sang = 高い daemq = 低い bingz = 平たい < 平naek = 重いmbaeu = 軽い vaiq = 速い < 快 menh = 遅い < 慢

壮語の形容詞は重ねることで意味を強調する場合があります。There are situations where when Zhuang adjectives are repeated they act to emphasize.sangsang = とても高い cingcing sujsuj = とてもはっきりした（cingsuj = はっきりし

た < 清楚）

動詞の後で、動作の状況や結果を表現するのに、形容詞が用いられることがあります。打ち消す場合も、動詞ではなく後の形容詞が否定される表現方法があります。Adjectives can be used to express condition and result of movement after the verb.Even in situation of denial, ****************

De sij ndaej vaiq. He writes fast. 彼は書くのが速い。

De sij mbouj vaiq. He doesn't write fast. 彼は書くのが速くない。

第十三章 語の構造（３）Part 13: Structure of Words (3)Adverbs 副詞

副詞は動詞・形容詞を修飾・限定して、程度・範囲・時間・肯定・否定・状態を表します。Adverbs limit/modify verbs.adjectives and indicate degree, range, time, affimative, negative, or state.

１．程度副詞（数量副詞） Adverbs of degree (adverbs of quantity)gig = 極めて < 極 ceiq = 最も < 最 raixcaix = 非常に dangqmaz = とてもengqgya = さらにyied = ますます < 越 haemq = わずかに mizdi = すこし

２．範囲副詞（場所副詞） Adverbs of range (adverbs of location)gungh = 共に < 共 cungj = みんな itlwd < 一律 couh = もう < 就

３．時間副詞 Adverbs of timelak = 初めて cij = やっと gonq = まず cingq = まさに < 正 yaek = これから doq = すぐにciemhciemh = ようやく < 漸漸 itloh = 一向に baenzciuh = 永遠に caiq = 再び <

再 lij = まだ

youh = また < 又

４．肯定副詞 Affirmative adverbsitdingh < 一定 bietdingh = 必ず < 必定 gaengj = 肯んじて < 肯 danghyienz < 当然daxraix = 的確に yaekaeu = きっと

５．否定副詞 Negative adverbsmbouj = 〜ではない mboujcaengz = 未だに gaej = 〜するな

６．状態副詞 Adverbs of statedaegdaengj = せっかく／わざわざ sawqmwh = 忽然と

７．語気副詞 Tonal adverbsdauqdaej < 到底 gizsaed = 本当は < 其実 saeklaeuq = 万一

前置詞 Preposition

前置詞（介詞）は名詞の前に置かれて、「格」を表します。Prepositions are placed before nouns and indicate "status"

daj = 〜から youq = 〜に於いて daengz = 〜まで yiengq = 〜にむかってriengz = 〜に沿ってginggvaq = 〜を経過して < 経過 yungh = 〜を用いて < 用 aenvih = 〜に因って < 因為vih = 〜の為に < 為 doiq = 〜に対して < 対 gvanhyih = 〜に関して < 関於lawh = に替わってlaeng = 〜と caeuq = 〜と hawj = 〜に〜させる deng = 〜に〜される beij = 〜と比べて < 比cawzbae = 〜を除いて

Riengz henz dah byaij. Walk along the river. 川に沿って歩く。 henz = ほとり dah = 川

Caeuq de gangj vah. Speak with him. 彼と話をする。 vah < 話

Cawz de, dou cungj hag. We all study except him. 彼を除いて、私たちはみな勉強する。

接続詞 Conjunction

接続詞（連詞）は、名詞と名詞あるいは文と文をつなぐ役割をします。（用法は第九章に既述）The conjunction has the role to join 2 sentences or 2 nouns together. (The usage was explained in Part 9)

youhcaiq = しかも／そのうえ < 又再 roxnaeuz = それとも／あるいは hoeng = しかしcouhcinj = すなわち aenvih = なぜならば < 因為 danghnaeuz = もしもsojyij = それゆえに < 所以 yienznaeuz = 〜にもかかわらず

ndaq youhcaiq dub. 罵り、しかも殴る。 ndaq = 罵る

Mwngz bae roxnaeuz mbouj bae cungj mboujmiz gijmaz.あなたが行こうが行くまいがどうでもよい。It doesn't matter whether or not you will go or not.

語気詞 Tonal

語気詞は、文末に添えて、命令・強調・勧誘・招請・感動・疑問・親密さ・丁寧さ・尊敬・激情などを表現します。Tonals are attached to the end of the phrase and indicate imperative, emphasis, solicitation, invitation, touching, question, intimacy, politeness,respect,  passion, etc.

Daxboh ma ranz lo. (My) father came home. 父が帰宅した。 lo = （完了）

Mwngz caeuq gou bae lwi ? Will you go with me? あなたは私と一緒に行きますか？ lwi = （疑問）

Haeuj ranz gou bae ba. Let's go in our home. 我が家に入って行きましょう。 ba = （勧誘）