Early Hominid BehaviorEarly Hominid BehaviorAustralopithecine/ParanthropusAustralopithecine/Paranthropus

Early Human BehaviorEarly Human Behavior

Evidence in South AfricaEvidence in South Africa– SwartkransSwartkrans– KromdraiiKromdraii– SterkfontainSterkfontain

Swartkrans, South AfricaSwartkrans, South Africa

Swartkrans has provided the largest sample Swartkrans has provided the largest sample (more than 126 individuals) of the fossil hominid (more than 126 individuals) of the fossil hominid known as known as Paranthropus robustusParanthropus robustus. .

This hominid is only found in South Africa, This hominid is only found in South Africa, becoming extinct around one million years ago. becoming extinct around one million years ago.

Also, Swartkrans contributed the first evidence Also, Swartkrans contributed the first evidence for the co-existence of two different types of for the co-existence of two different types of hominds, hominds, Homo erectusHomo erectus and and ParanthropusParanthropus robustusrobustus. .

Swartkrans, South AfricaSwartkrans, South Africa

This was the first indication to the scientific This was the first indication to the scientific community that hominid evolution did not occur community that hominid evolution did not occur in a linear fashion from one species to the next, in a linear fashion from one species to the next, to eventually us, Homo sapiens. to eventually us, Homo sapiens.

Instead, it demonstrated that human evolution Instead, it demonstrated that human evolution proceeded in a more bushy arrangement, with a proceeded in a more bushy arrangement, with a number of different species adapting to different number of different species adapting to different environments at different times. Some of these environments at different times. Some of these "experiments" in human evolution succeeded "experiments" in human evolution succeeded and some failed, with subsequent extinction. and some failed, with subsequent extinction.

Importance of SwartkransImportance of Swartkrans

The first and earliest evidence for the controlled The first and earliest evidence for the controlled use of fire found anywhere at approximately use of fire found anywhere at approximately one million years ago. one million years ago. It is believed that the hominid which was It is believed that the hominid which was responsible for this had the cognitive ability to responsible for this had the cognitive ability to take a burning log back from a naturally caused take a burning log back from a naturally caused fire, a veld fire, back to the cave, but that it did fire, a veld fire, back to the cave, but that it did not have the cognitive ability to make one itself. not have the cognitive ability to make one itself. Nonetheless, this is still a profound step forward Nonetheless, this is still a profound step forward for our ancestors. for our ancestors.

Digging for termitesDigging for termites

Modified bones from Modified bones from SwartkransSwartkrans and and Sterkfontein in South Africa represent the Sterkfontein in South Africa represent the oldest known bone tools.oldest known bone tools.

They were used by They were used by Australopithecus Australopithecus robustusrobustus to dig into termite mounds. to dig into termite mounds.

http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/98/4/1358

Digging for termitesDigging for termites

http://www.trussel.com/prehist/news239.htm

"While a rump steak yields 322 calories per 100 grams and cod fish 74, termites provide 560 calories per 100 grams."

Excavations at SwartkransExcavations at Swartkrans

http://www.cast.uark.edu/local/swartkrans3d/thesis_web4.html

GIS 3D Model of SwartkransGIS 3D Model of Swartkrans

http://www.cast.uark.edu/local/swartkrans3d/thesis_web16.html

Excavated fossils from SwartkransExcavated fossils from Swartkrans

http://www.cast.uark.edu/local/swartkrans3d/thesis_web21.html

Kromdraai, South AfricaKromdraai, South Africa

Kromdraai is a much smaller site than either Kromdraai is a much smaller site than either Sterkfontein or Swartkrans, but nevertheless Sterkfontein or Swartkrans, but nevertheless has contributed its own pieces to the puzzle of has contributed its own pieces to the puzzle of human evolution. human evolution. There are actually two sites lying almost next to There are actually two sites lying almost next to each other. each other. – Kromdraai A has yielded an incredible wealth of Kromdraai A has yielded an incredible wealth of

fossil animals, including extinct saber-toothed cats, fossil animals, including extinct saber-toothed cats, extinct monkeys and baboons, extinct hyaenas and extinct monkeys and baboons, extinct hyaenas and extinct antelopes. extinct antelopes.

– Kromdraai B produced the first Kromdraai B produced the first Paranthropus Paranthropus robustusrobustus fossil the world had ever seen. fossil the world had ever seen.

Kromdraai, South AfricaKromdraai, South Africa

Also found at Kromdraai:Also found at Kromdraai:– 50 specimens of 50 specimens of ParanthropusParanthropus robustusrobustus. . – The first specimen of The first specimen of robustusrobustus ever ever

discovered , found in 1938. discovered , found in 1938. – A wealth and diversity of extinct animals A wealth and diversity of extinct animals – More than 100 stone tools. More than 100 stone tools.

Sterkfontein, South AfricaSterkfontein, South Africa

The first fossils at Sterkfontein came to light as The first fossils at Sterkfontein came to light as early as 1936 and were the first adult early as 1936 and were the first adult Australopithecines or, more specifically, Australopithecines or, more specifically, Australopithecus africanusAustralopithecus africanus. . This species existed only in South Africa This species existed only in South Africa between 3,2- and 2,6-million years ago and was between 3,2- and 2,6-million years ago and was a very early hominid (ie, a species that belongs a very early hominid (ie, a species that belongs in our family, the Hominidae). in our family, the Hominidae). Sterkfontein has fossil deposits dating back to Sterkfontein has fossil deposits dating back to almost 3,5-million years ago, providing a wealth almost 3,5-million years ago, providing a wealth of information about the different hominid of information about the different hominid species that existed in the two million year species that existed in the two million year interval up to 1,5-million years ago. interval up to 1,5-million years ago.

Important finds at SterkfonteinImportant finds at Sterkfontein

The first adult Australopithecine, The first adult Australopithecine, Australopithecus africanusAustralopithecus africanus, that the world had , that the world had ever seen, discovered in 1936. ever seen, discovered in 1936. The most complete skull of Australopithecus The most complete skull of Australopithecus africanus, or commonly and affectionately africanus, or commonly and affectionately known as Mrs Ples, found in 1947. known as Mrs Ples, found in 1947. The first partial skeleton of any early hominid The first partial skeleton of any early hominid ever found, known only as Sts 14. It was found ever found, known only as Sts 14. It was found in 1947 and demonstrated without a doubt that in 1947 and demonstrated without a doubt that these early hominids walked upright, or these early hominids walked upright, or bipedally. bipedally.

Also at SterkfontainAlso at Sterkfontain

The first find of a fossil of our genus, Homo, or The first find of a fossil of our genus, Homo, or more specifically Homo habilis, found in 1976. more specifically Homo habilis, found in 1976. The geologically earliest record of any hominid The geologically earliest record of any hominid in South Africa at close to 3,5-million years ago. in South Africa at close to 3,5-million years ago. 500 fossil specimens of 500 fossil specimens of Australopithecus Australopithecus africanusafricanus, including both adults and children. , including both adults and children. This is a remarkable sample -- enabling This is a remarkable sample -- enabling scientists to study a population of hominids, scientists to study a population of hominids, instead of just a single fossil. instead of just a single fossil.

SterkfonteinSterkfontein

http://www.palaeotours.com/sites.htm

Australopithecus africanusAustralopithecus africanus“Mrs. Ples”“Mrs. Ples”

Hunters vs. ScavengersHunters vs. Scavengers

Dart’s “Osteodontokeratic” CultureDart’s “Osteodontokeratic” Culture– Osteo=BoneOsteo=Bone– Donto=TeethDonto=Teeth– Keratic=HornKeratic=Horn

C.K. Brain’s later interpretationC.K. Brain’s later interpretation

Dart and the “Taung Baby”Dart and the “Taung Baby”In 1924, Raymond Dart, an Australian anatomy professor In 1924, Raymond Dart, an Australian anatomy professor at the University of Witerwatersrand in Johannesburg, at the University of Witerwatersrand in Johannesburg, South Africa, obtained a fossil skull that had been blasted South Africa, obtained a fossil skull that had been blasted out of a nearby limestone quarry at out of a nearby limestone quarry at TaungTaung .  .  It took him 73 days to chisel the skull free from its It took him 73 days to chisel the skull free from its surrounding stone matrix and ultimately 4 years of spare surrounding stone matrix and ultimately 4 years of spare time to free the jaw and the fossilized brain.   However, time to free the jaw and the fossilized brain.   However, long before then, long before then, Dart recognized the importance of this find.  In 1925 he Dart recognized the importance of this find.  In 1925 he named it named it Australopithecus africanusAustralopithecus africanus (literally "southern (literally "southern ape from Africa").  Because of its small size, he called it ape from Africa").  Because of its small size, he called it the "Taung baby."   In fact, it was a child of 3-4 years old.  the "Taung baby."   In fact, it was a child of 3-4 years old. 

Osteodontokeratic CultureOsteodontokeratic Culture

Dart also concluded from his Dart also concluded from his analysis of the site of analysis of the site of Makapansgat that these Makapansgat that these creatures had had what he creatures had had what he called an "osteodontokeratic" called an "osteodontokeratic" (bone, tooth and horn) (bone, tooth and horn) culture, and argued that they culture, and argued that they were savage hunters and were savage hunters and bloodthirsty killers whose bloodthirsty killers whose violent tendencies had left violent tendencies had left their mark in human their mark in human behavior. behavior.

OsteodontokeraticOsteodontokeratic

BONE

TEETH

HORN

““Man the Hunter”Man the Hunter”

Now anthropologists are reconsidering traditional theories Now anthropologists are reconsidering traditional theories about the importance of male hunting, of meat and of the about the importance of male hunting, of meat and of the so-called nuclear family in human evolution.so-called nuclear family in human evolution.Instead, a renewed look at archaeological records and Instead, a renewed look at archaeological records and observations of a contemporary hunting and gathering tribe observations of a contemporary hunting and gathering tribe in East Africa suggest the key roles in nourishing the in East Africa suggest the key roles in nourishing the evolution of people's ancestors may have been played by evolution of people's ancestors may have been played by females — mothers and grandmothers. females — mothers and grandmothers. Meanwhile, male hunting was likely more about elevating Meanwhile, male hunting was likely more about elevating one's social status than providing for the family, one's social status than providing for the family, researchers say. researchers say.

Click here to read more:http://abcnews.go.com/sections/scitech/DailyNews/grandmothers030114.html

C.K. Brain-ReinterpretationC.K. Brain-Reinterpretation

Bones, teeth and horns not those of Bones, teeth and horns not those of animals killed by humans.animals killed by humans.

Humans the hunted rather than the Humans the hunted rather than the hunters.hunters.

The Hunters or the Hunted? C.K. Brain The Hunters or the Hunted? C.K. Brain 19811981

Leopard PredationLeopard Predation

MakapansgatMakapansgat

Early Human BehaviorEarly Human Behavior

Scavengers, not Hunters!Scavengers, not Hunters!Bones at early sites have tool marks Bones at early sites have tool marks on topon top of animal tooth marks.of animal tooth marks.

Humans and ChimpanzeesHumans and Chimpanzees

Besides, chimpanzees hunt-why did they Besides, chimpanzees hunt-why did they not evolve as much as we did??not evolve as much as we did??

Click here for more on this subject: Click here for more on this subject: Chimp the HunterChimp the Hunter

Thus, we need to be careful about our Thus, we need to be careful about our biases when interpreting the biases when interpreting the archaeological record.archaeological record.

Red Colobus monkey predation by Red Colobus monkey predation by ChimpanzeesChimpanzees

http://www-rcf.usc.edu/~stanford/meat.jpeg

So, Early Australopithecine/Paranthropus So, Early Australopithecine/Paranthropus behavior was like what?behavior was like what?

Small groupsSmall groups

Utilized caves for shelter in South AfricaUtilized caves for shelter in South Africa

May have used bone tools for digging May have used bone tools for digging termites out of mounds.termites out of mounds.

Could have hunted small animals.Could have hunted small animals.

Most food was probably plants.Most food was probably plants.

Were more often the hunted, rather than Were more often the hunted, rather than the hunter.the hunter.