Early Jesuit Missionary Methods in the PhilippinesAuthor(s): Nicholas P. CushnerReviewed work(s):Source: The Americas, Vol. 15, No. 4 (Apr., 1959), pp. 361-379Published by: Academy of American Franciscan HistoryStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/978866 .Accessed: 03/12/2012 16:05Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp .JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range ofcontent in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new formsof scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org. .Academy of American Franciscan History is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend accessto The Americas.http://www.jstor.org This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.82.202 on Mon, 3 Dec 2012 16:05:25 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and ConditionsEARLY JESUIT MISSIONARYMETHODS IN THE PHIlIPPINES tN1565,when Spainwas sdll on the ascendingarc of its colonial ventllres,the firstpermanentsettlementin thePhilippineswasmade. The subsequentdecadeswitnessed,not only a militaryconquest by Spanishconquistadores,but a spiritualconquestas well. The efforts of Salcedo,Legazpiand the otherswere, so to speak,the first stage, usheringin the missionaries,". . . the realconquerors,who withoutany Otherarmsthantheirvirtues,gainedoverthe goodwill of the islanders, . . . and gave the king two millionsmoreof submissiveand Christian subjects."1 The task ofthe missionaryin the PhilippineIslandswas, first and foremost,tospreadthe CatholicFaith. Since Christianitywas the foundationstoneof Westerncivilizationand it was the acknowledged duty of the Spanishstateto extendthe Faith,it followsthat fromthe standpointof both stateand Churchit was the missionary'sfirst task to convertthe heathen.2But the statebenefitedfromthe missionary's laboras well as the Church.For, justas in New Spain,the missionary served,not only to christianizethe frontier,but he alsoaidedin extend- ing, holding,and civilizingit.3 The Jesuitmissionariesin the VisayanIslands,a centralgroupin the PhilippinearchipelagocomposedprincipallyofLeyte, Samar,Cebu, Negros,andBohol,effectedthe extensionand civilizationof the new Spanishfrontierthroughmissionschools. TvheJesuit territorywas dividedinto districtsand each districtprovidedelementary,and later, secondaryinstruction,for the nativechildren.4 In the followingpageshowever,wewill be concernedwith the primarytask of the missionary,that of" christiamzingthe frontier," implantinga new set ofreligiousprinciplesin place ofthe old; and 1Thomasde Comyn,State of the PhilippineIslands,wans.WilliamWalton (London, 1821),p. 209. ' HerbertE. Bolton," The Missionas a FrontierInstitutionin the SpanishAmencan Colonies,"TheAmerican Historica]Review, XXIII, no.1(October, 1917), 4647, Althoughthe authoris speakingof the missionaryas a politicaland socialinfluenceon the North Americanfroniier, such was also the case inthe PhilippineIslandswhere often the missionarywas the sole representativeofcross and crown. 8Ibid. 4 For the influenceofJesuitIIiissioneducationin the Philippines,see Horacio de la Costa," JesuitEducationin the Philippinesto 1768,"PhiZippineStudies,IV, no. 2(July, 1956), 127-155. 361 This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.82.202 on Mon, 3 Dec 2012 16:05:25 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions362JESUITMISSIONARYMETHODS more particularly,with the meansby which this was accomplished. It is the purposetherefore,of thisarticle,to set forththe typicalJesuit methodsused inthe variousphasesoftheir missionarywork.For froma consideraaonof missionarymethodswe may obtainan insight into the natureof the " spiritualconquest" and therebybe one step closerto an accurateunderstandingof the complexrelaiionshipwhich existedbetweenthe spiritualandmilitaryconquestsof the Philippines. In 1595,fourteenyearsafterthe arrivalof the Societyof Jesusin the Philippines,the Jesuitsbeganwork amongthe inhabitantsof the VisayanIslands,the territoryassignedas their sphereofmissionary activity.6The Augustinianshad been in the Visayasever since their arrivalwith Legazpiin 1565. For the mostpart,however,theirwork was confinedto the peopleof Cebu.7But aroundCebuwere several large, well populatedislands,whose inhabitantswere not being in- structedin the Faith. It wasamangthesepeoplethatJesuitmissionaries workeduntil theirexpulsionfrom the King'sdomainsin 1767. MISSIONARIESANDTHENATIVEDIALECTS The Jesuitmissionariesin the VisayanIslandsusedthe nativedialects as a mediumfor teachingthe doctrinesof the CatholicChurch.There wereseveralreasonsfor this,the mostcogentof whichwas thatit was mucheasierfor one missionaryto learnthe languageof an areathan for all the peopleof that areato learnSpanish.Besides,the teaching of Castilianposedseveralimpraciicalities.8In addition,the impression 6Robert Ricard'sclassic study inthefield ofmissionarymethods,La"conqueAte spirituelle"daMexigue, essai sur l'apostolatetles methodesmissionairesdes ordres mendicantsen Nouqnelle-Espagnede IS23 aIS72 (Paris, 1933), has providedamodel on which similarstudiesmay be profitablypatterned.As isobvious,this brief study has made considerableuse of its large-scalemodel. 6 In a communicaaondated April 27, 1594,Philip II orderedthat the Philippinesbe dividedamongthe four residentreligiousgroups,the Dominicans,Augusiinians,Fran- ciscans, and Jesliits. Thereason forthis paration was thespeedierinswctionand conversionofthe Filipines. See E. H.Blair and J. A. Robertson,eds., The Philippine Islands(55 vols.; Cleveland,1903-1909),IX, 120-121. 7AnAugustinianFather,Alonso Velasquez,worked for a short time inLeyte. He withdrew,however,when the territorywas given over to the Jesuits.D. FelipeRedondo y Sendino,Bresc Resena. . . de lo que es la Diocesisde Cebu (Manila,1886),p. 35. 8See Ricard,op. cit., pp. 69-70;also EvergistoBazaco,O.P., History oJ Education inthePhilippines(Manila, 1953), p.58.Through thesixteenth andseventeenth centuriesa steadystreamof royal decreesurged the use ofSpanishin giving religious instruction.For the most parthowever,the missionaries" obedezian,pero no cumplian." In Mexico,the famousJesuit missionary,FranciscoPiccolo, once broughttwoIndian lads to the bishoptohelp in his plea for alms. The bishopaskedwhetherthey knew their prayers. Theyrecited them perfectly, butcould onlydosointheir naiive This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.82.202 on Mon, 3 Dec 2012 16:05:25 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and ConditionsNICHOLASP.CUSHNER363 madeupon the Filipinosbya strangerspeakingtheir languagewas extremelyfavorableand went far toinsurethe missionary'ssuccess. This is well illustratedby Fr. GabrielSanchez'saccountof his visit to the islandof Negrosin 1599. The peoplewere astoundedto hearhim speakin theirown tongue,and withina month400 hadbeen to con- fessionandsomehadreceivedCommunion.9 When Fr. PedroChirino,alongwith threecompanions,inaugurated Jesuitmlssionaryactivityin the Visayasin1595,he was alreadyac- quaintedin somedegreewith the regionaldialects.He hadcatechized on Panayin 1593. His priestcompanions,however,JuandelCampoand Cosmede Flores,werenot,so uponarrivalat Leytetheybeganthe study ofthe language.They realizedthat ifany lastingwork was tobe accomplished,it wouldbe throughthe dsalects.It didnot takelong for Floresto becomeproficientin the language,for Chirinowrotethata few monthslater Fr. Cosmede Floresshowedgreat fluencyin Visayan and he ". ..spokeit with masterlyskill."10 Weare also told that Fr. Flores'rapidmasteryof the local dialectwas matchedby that of Fr. MariinHenrlquez,who not only learnedthe dialectof his areain threemonths,but alsoprepareda collectionof Sundaysermonsanda treatiseon confessionwrittenin the nativelanguage.l1 The use of the nativedialectsbecameso universalamongthe Jesuit missionariesthatby 1602the AnnualLetterreportedthatin the mission stations" allthefathers(excepttwo or threewho aretoo old or engaged in governmentalwork) know the dialects."12Fr. Chirinoalso wrote that: ... the facility with which many ministersof the Lord in the four religiousorderslearnedthe languageusedin their respeciivemissions, even so as to preachand hearconfessionsin them,seemsa gift from heaven. The most tardy studentof them,ifhe apply himselfmoder- ately, spendsno more than six months;and one ofours, [JesviitRe- dialects. Piccolo receiveda severe reprimandand was orderedhenceforthtoinstruct only in Spanish.E. J. Burrus,S. J., "FranciscoPiccolo, PioneerofLower California," HispanicSrzericanHistoricalReview, XXXV, no. 1(February,1955),61-76. For the ideasof the Jesuitfounder,IgnatiusLoyola,on the nativedialectsand the missionaries, see Jesus MariaGranero,S. J., " La accion misioneraylos metodosrnisionalesde San Ignaciode Loyola,"BibliothecaHispanaMissionum,VI(Burgos,1931),143-150;209-210. 9Theaccount ofSanchez'strip isrelatedinPedro Chirino'sRelacion delas Islas Filipinas,an English translationofwhich isinBlair and Robertson,op.cit., XIII, 151-152. lbid., XII, 284. lbid., XII, 222. 12William C. Repetti,S. J., History ofthe Society of Jesusin tSe PSilippineIslands (2 vols.; Manila,1938),II, 326. This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.82.202 on Mon, 3 Dec 2012 16:05:25 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and ConditionsJESUITMISSIONARYMETHODS 364 ligious]Fr.Cosme deFlores, learned and mastered this language, so that he could preach and hear confessions,in selrenty-fourdays, tothe astonishmentofour people, as wellas oftheIndiansthemsellres.... Intruth, these languages are notverydifficult, either tolearn orto pronounce-andmoreespecially now,sincethereisagrammar, a vocabulaw, and many writings therein.18 The use of the nativetongue,however,broughtits problems.In its lirnitedvocabularywere not to be found the wordsnecessaryfor an adequateteachingof the principlesof the Faith. Such concepts,and correspondingwords,for God, grace,redempiion,Holy Spirit,etc., were foreignto the natives,and consequentlynot foundin theirlan- guage. The questionarosethen:how weretheseideasto be expressed, whatwordswereto be used? This problemwas by no meansan entirelynew one.It had been met 2nd solvedin NewSpaindecadesbefore. There the Friarssaw two possiblesolutionsto the perplexingproblem;eitherintroduceEuro- peanwordsinto the nativevocabulary,or paraphrasethe requiredcon- cept in the nativetongue,a ratherroundaboutprocess.14 The first solutionseemedto take from Christianityits universality andconfineit to certaincivilizations.The secondwouldseemto avoid this,but it requireda thoroughunderstandingof the languagewith all its intricaciesand flexiblevocabulary.Likewise,the first alternaave avoidedthe dangerof heterodoxyas well as confusionand misunder- standingon the partof the neophyte. For ifthe nativewordswere retainedtherealwaysremainedthe possibilitythat the ideasthey con- noted were not orthodox.16St. FrancisXavierencounteredthis very diflicultyin Japan.le A cedulafromValladolid,datedSeptember22, 1538,warnedagainst this samedanger.It orderedthat a catechismin the nativedialectbe closely examined,lest the termsit used admitof a differentmeaning *- m t le natlvetongue. ...Eadveriid mucho enque losquelaexaminarenque miren los vocablos notraigan incovevenientes (sic)para ladoctrina yreligion cristiana,por las significacionesque los indios en su lengua les dan.l7 The danger,therefore,was a very realone andso hadto be faced. 8Blairand Robertson,op. cit., XII, 234-235. l' Ricard,op. cit., pp. 72-73.l6 1bid. 16Ibid.;When St. FrancisXavierfaced this difficultyin Japanhe used for God only the Portugueseword Deos in order to avoid equivocalexpressionsthen currentamong the Japanesesects. The Bonzeshowever,arguedthat Deos and their Dasuzowere one and thesame thing.Actually Dauzomeant a" Great Falsehood."Thedifficulty arose,not from nlalice,but from a completemisunderstandingof the two concepts. 17Ibid. This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.82.202 on Mon, 3 Dec 2012 16:05:25 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and ConditionsNICHOLASP.CUSHNER365 The solutionwhichthe missionariesof the Philippinespreferredwas thesameasthatadoptedby the Friarsof New Spainyearsbefore.They simplyaddedto the vernacularlanguagesthe wordswhichthey needed to explainthe conceptsof Christianity.In the Visayanversionof the Hail Mary,for example,gracia,Dios, Santa,wereusedfor grace,God, andholy. The enteprayerreadsas follows: MaghimayacaMaria naponocasagracia AnGuinoon RejoicethouMary,fullthouofgrace; theLord Diosanaacanimo.Guirayegcauyamotsababaihun Godiswith thee.Exaltedthoumuchamongwomen tanan ugprayegman animon anac Jesus.Santa Mana allandexaltedalsohethysonJesus.HolyMary inahan saDios, iguiampomocanii mother ofGod.Lerus be intercededfor by theeus macasasalaoniaugsaamun camatai. Amen.Jesus18 sinners,nowandinourdeath. Likewisein the Tagalogversionofthe Doctrina Christianathere appeara numberofwords which are simplytransplantedfrom the Spanishinto the local dialect.Someof themaregracia,Dios, Espiritu Santo,yglesia, catholica,sirgen,cruz,infierno,confesar,comulgorr,do- mingo,fiesta,sacramentos,confirmar,extremauncionandorden sacerdo.l9 SincetheJesuitmissionariesusedVisayanasa mediumof communica- tion, it was necessarythat therebe availablein the missionsomeaids for learningthe language.What was probablyusedin the earlydays ofthe Visayanmissionwas the Introducciona la LenguaBisayaof Fr. Christ6balJimenez.The greaterpartof the learIiingprocess,how- ever, was carriedon vivaqJocebetweenthe learnerand a IIiissioner alreadywell versedin the dialects.This methodpossessedthe added advantageof being able to acquaintthe newcomerwith the slightly differentvarietiesof Visayan,as spokenin the differentislands.This was important,in view ofthe fact that the missionariesfrequently movedfrom islandto island;and more often than not, a changeof islandsmeanta change,howeverslight,in dialect. l9Blair and Robertson,op.ck.,XU,239. 19Doctrina C^TiStiABas A facsimileof the copy in the LessingJ. RosenwaldColleconon; with an introductoryessay by Edwin Wolf, 2nd. (LibraryofCongresss1947),passim. This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.82.202 on Mon, 3 Dec 2012 16:05:25 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and ConditionsJESUITMISSIONARYMETHODS366 DISTRIBUTIONOFTHEMISSIONARIES Prior tothe visitationofthe Visayanmissionsin1599-1600,the missionariestheremoreor lesschosetheirown fieldsof labor.2When three fathersand one lay brotherwere sent toLeyte bythe Jesuit superior,Fr. AntonioSedeno,to begin missionwork in that region, they establishedon the islandtwo residences.One was at Carigaraon the northerncoastof the island,and the otherwas at Dulac,about50 milessoutheast,also on the coast. Notonly did these well situated coastaltowns affordthe possibilityofrelativelyconvenienttrips to nearbyislands,but also the encomenderoat Carigara,Cristobalde Truxillo,was well disposedtowardsthe Jesuitsandhadhimselfbegun the spiritualinstructionof his encomendados.2lThe missionarieswere fortunatein havingsuchfavorableassistance,for althoughthe Spanish Crownhad clearly outlinedthe spiritualrole ofthe encomenderos, theirreligiouszealoftenfailedto matchtheirpecuniarypursuits. Leyte,in the earlydaysof themission,wasthe quasi-centerof activity in the Visayas.Lateron Cebuassumedthis role. But by the end of July, 1595,Fr. MateoSanchezwas aloneat Carigara,and Frs. Alonso Humanesand Juandel Campowere in Dulac. Fr. Chirinoand Bro. Garay,who werein the groupsentto Leyte,hadbeenorderedto Cebu where Fr. Sedeno,the superiorof the Philippinemission,was dying. The typeof workin whichthemenat DulacandCarigarawereengaged is describedby Fr. Chirino: FatherAlonsode Humanesand FatherJuandel Campowere the first to instructthe dwellersin and aboutDulac . . . In the time that they spent together,they erectedthe frstchurchin Dulac; establisheda schoolfor children,manyof whom they baptized;and formeda long list ofcatechumens,whom they preparedand baptized,with great solemnityandrejoicing,to the increaseof reverencefor the holy sacra- ment. Besidesthis, FatherJuandel Campo,travellingthroughoutthe district,gained the good willofall those villagesand marvelously influencedthemto receiveour holy faith....22 FatherAlonsoHumanesalso reportedon the work being done at Dulacin thisearlyperiod: 2Avisitation,as referredtohere, isan inspectionofthe religiouscommunitiesin a given area. It is usuallyconductedbya religiousappointedby the superiorofthe order. 21FranciscoColin,Labor evangelica,ed. by Pablo Pastells?(3 vols.; Barcelona,1900- 1902),II, 12. a2Blairand Robenson, op. cit., XII, 282-283. This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.82.202 on Mon, 3 Dec 2012 16:05:25 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and ConditionsNICHOLASP.CUSHNER367 In September1595, he[Humanes]and Fr. del Campospent a few daysat the riverof Palowherethey fouxldthe peopledocileandwilling to hearaboutCatholicity.Carewas takento instructapt childrenwho wouldreturnto theirhomesandtell theirelderswhatthey hadlearned. ArrivlnginDulac, they gatheredthe people ofthree encomiendas, assistedby the Spaniardswho were livlng there. Specialattentionwas paidto the menandFr. Campogot in touchwith the headmanof each barrio,an importantpoint,becausethe peopleof the barriofollow the lpadof the headman. Beforethe comingof the Fathersno one had preachedCatholicityand the only Chrisiiansamongthe nativeswere afew servantsof the Spaniardswho had heardMassand confessedin Cebu...23 A churchandschoolwereopenedandChristiandoctrinewas taught thereon Sundays.However,many did not ask for baposmand the Fathers,on theirpart,werenot eagerto baptizeuntila betterknowledge ofthe native languagewould enablethem toprovidebetter pre- baptismalinstruction.It was not until ChristmasEve, 1595,that the firstsolemnbaptismswere heldin Dulac. Over40 adultsandchildren were receivedinto the Church.24 In 1596an increaseof personnelallowedthe missionariesto expand theirfieldsof operation.They establishedthemselvesin nearbySamar andBohol,andundertookthe conversionof theirinhabitants.In all of theseislandsthe samegeneralmethodof evangelizationwas used. The missionaryfoundednumerousmissionstations,usuallycoveringa wide area,and in thesestationshe catechizedand baptized.A stationwas erectedwhena sufficientlylargenumberof peoplecouldbe inducedto live in one accessibleplace,whichwas by no meansan easytask. The stationwasalsoknownasa visita,sinceit hadno residentpriest,but was visitedperiodically.Atleast once ayear astationwas visited by the priest.25Somestationswere fortunateenoughto be visitedonce a month.26Such a methodwas by no meansconsideredtotally ade- quateand it had its critics. Somemissionariesarguedthat when the priestrevisitedhisstationeithertheirchargeshadsunkbackintopagan- ism, or they had forgotteneven how to blessthemselves.What was neededwas a priestresidingpermanentlyin a given area. Only this could insurea well instructedChrisnancommunity:a priestat hand to guardagainstany possiblerelapseinto paganism.27 The inspectionof the PhilippineVice-Provincein 1599by Fr. Diego 28Repem, Op.cit., II, 21-22. 2Ibid.,II, 22-23.26Ibid.,,123. 26Colin,op. cit., II, 122.27Ibid.,II, 301. This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.82.202 on Mon, 3 Dec 2012 16:05:25 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions368 JESUIT MISSIONARY METHODS Garc1a,S. J., who cameas the official visitor, resultedin a numberof important changesin the distributionof Jesuitsin the Visayan Islands. Aftera thoroughtourof the Visayashe orderedthateachof the islands was to be dividedinto seciions,and each sectionwas to haveits own central residence wherefive or sig Fathersand Brotherswere to live.28 Fromthese central residencesthe Fatherswere to maketheir salidas, going out two bytwo, "in imitationofthe apostles."The change was enactedin orderto expeditetheirwork, returnthe Fathersto some form of communicylife, and certairllyfor companionship. Hitherto, the missionarieshadspread themselvesthinlyovera wide area, whereas now they were more centralizedand their monthlyand annualsalidas coordinated.As a result,the new Christianscould be visitedmore frequently.On July 7, 1600,Fr. Garc1a reportedthe recent changes to Fr. General Aquaviva: ... conformably tothe orders ofyour Paternity, the residenceshave been reduced sothat six ofours may live together. Dulac and Palo have been united and there are three Fathersand two Brothersto whom anotherFatherwill be added. Another residencehas been formed from Carigaraand Alangalang. Those who ordinarilyreside in Ormoc have been subordinatedto Alangalangwith ordersthat the Fathersbe changed every two months....29 The centralizationof the men whenwe comparethe respective beforeandafterthe changes. 1598: Residence Cebu Alangalang Ogmuc Palo Dulac . Tlnagon Bohol 1601: Cebu Alangalang Dulac . Tlnagon Bohol :sand residencesis strikingly apparent cataloguesof the missionfor the years Fathers 6 (residents) 1 2 4 4 3 Brothers 3 3 4 4 35o 28Ibid., II, 210-211. 29Repem,Op.cit.,II, 98. 80From theAnnualLettersof 1598-1599 and 1601-1602 W.C. Repem's " TheSocietyofJesus inthe Philippines," inthe manuscriptcopy of (7vols.; Washington,D. C., This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.82.202 on Mon, 3 Dec 2012 16:05:25 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and ConditionsNICHOLASP.CUSHNER369 In general,the reactionof the missionariesto the revisionwas favor- able. However,theJesuitsuperior,FatherdelPrado,voiceda somewhat dissentingopinion.He wishedto extendthe centralizationprojecteven further,desiringto staffone housein a given areawith ten or twelve men,the otherresidencesremainingthe same. His plan,however,was judgedimpracticalsince the missionwas sufferingfrom a manpower shortage.So the onginalplanof Garclawas put into operation.The AnnualLetterfor 1602reported: Each day weexperience more and more the importance oftheorder ofyourFraternity (sic)toincrease thenumber inour communities. In some there are six of Ours, in others eight.Once a month, or a little more, they come together for the space ofa weekduring which time their principal business istheirownadvancement. Oneoranother makes the exercisesso that all make them at least once a year.There are exercisesof penanceand mortificationin the refectory, as customary in the Society, and inaddition there are praciices ofhumility such as cooking, sweeping, etc....31 Twoyears after the visitationofFr. Garc1a,Fr. Pedro Chinno journeyedto Romein the capacityof Vice-Provincialprocurator.He was to advisethe Jesuitsuperiorthereof conditionsin the islands.In his reportwas includedthe work undertakenin the VisayanIslands, for the Generalmentionedthe southernmissionsin a subsequentdirec- tive. The first potnt treatedbythe Generalinthis directivewas the arrangementofresidencesand doctrinasin the Visayanmissions.It seemsthat the reporttoRome partiallydescribedconditionswhich obtainedpriorto Garc1a'svisit,for the directivesaysthat: TheFather ViceProvincial and other superiors and Fathers ofthe Philippines have given theinformaiion that theycan not,and ought not, coniinue themanner ofresidencesand doctrinaswhichhas been followed uptothepresent, because oftheobjections theyhave pre- sented tous,and discover each day.32 In view of this,it was suggestedby Romethatthe firstthingto be undertakenin the Visayanmissionswas a concentratedeffortto gather the peopleinto towns inordertoexpediteinstruction.Where the peoplerefusedto be so gathered,they were to ". . . leavethemsolely 1945-1950),III, 154-176;V,47-83.Thewriter wishes tothank Fr. Repetti forperrnission tomake use ofhis manuscript. al Repetti, History,II,187.8Ibid., II,194-198. This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.82.202 on Mon, 3 Dec 2012 16:05:25 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions370JESUITMISSIONARYMETHODS in the handsof the Bishopfor conversion."It was foreseen,however, thatthisreductionof thepeoplewouldbe opposedby the encomenderos. If suchwerethe case,thekingcouldbe petitionedandthe encomenderos madeto enforcethe movement.If they still remainedobstinate,they shouldbe deprivedof theirencomiendas. Theencomiendaswouldthenbe left to hisMajestyandwe wouldfind theworkof catechizingandinstructiongreatlyfacilitated,as hasbeen foundby experiencein suchencomiendas.It willbe of greatimportance for ourworkto securein the courtandcouncil,or in Manilafrom the governorandaudiencia,somecommutationfor the encomenderos of ourresidencesandmissionsandleavethementirelyas the property of his Majesty.33 The Jesuitsuperiorin Romealso insistedthat the Societyof Jesus in the Philippineswas eventuallyto disposeof all the parishesit held, since the administraiionofparisheswas forbiddenbyJesuitConsti- tutions. The surrenderof perpetualcuracieswas to take place only afterthe peoplein themhadbeenwellinstructedandconverted.Where possible,the residencesof the parisheswere to be turnedinto colleges, and the formermissionarieswere to find their apostolatein this new type of work. On no accountwere new residencesto be opened,but the mainpreoccupationof themissionwasto be schoolswherethework of the pastten yearscouldbe broughtto fruitionin the instructionof the youth. The Generalalso hoped that from these schoolsnative vocationswoulddevelop.34 In addition,a modificationwas madein the existinggovernanceof the residences.Therewasto be appointeda superintendentwhoseonly task was todiligently"watch over the most distantresidencesand villagesof the Vice Province." Thedutyof thesaidsupenntendentwillbe,ashasbeensaid,continually tovisitandinspectthevillages,not onlyasto whatconcernsOurs,but alsowhattouchesthe conversionof the nativesandthe conservation of thosealreadyconverted.He shallsee how the rules,ordersand religiousdisciplineareobserved.... The superiorsof the villagesand residenceswill be subjectin everythingto this superintendentas to an immediatesuperior.But the superintendentcannottransferthem withoutan orderfromthe vice-provincial....35 Such an appoinenentwas a wise one in view of the fact that the Vice-Provincialresidedmorethan300milesfromthe Visayanmissions. '8 Ibid.84 Ibid.*6Ibid.sII, 197. This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.82.202 on Mon, 3 Dec 2012 16:05:25 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and ConditionsNICHOLASP.CUSHNER 371 His very inaccessibilitydemandedthat therebe anothersuperiorwho would insurethe smoothworkingorderof the southernmissionsby settlingimmediatelocalproblems. METHODSOFINSTRUCTION Four requirementshad to be met beforethe sacramentof baptism was administeredto the newly instructed.He was expectedto repent of the sins of his pastlife, afiirmingbelief in the efl;cacyof baptism. A monogamousunionwas expectedof the marriedcandidate.Adult convertswere to be ableto recitethe Our Father,Hail Mary,Credo and Ten Commandments.They also had tohave some idea ofthe other sacramentsand an awarenessofthe principalobligationsofa Christian.Childrenwere requiredto know from memorythe entire catechism.86 The methodsused bythe missionariestohave their catechumens fulfill these conditionsvaried. In Ormoc,Leyte, the learningof the ChristianDoctrinetook placeon Sundays.As manyclasseswere had as therewere divisionsin the subjectmatterofthe catchism,which meantsix or seven. One grouplearnedthe Sign of the Cross,another the HailMary,andso on. Whena childor adultlearnedthe particular classmatter,he passedto the next class,andso on uniil,as Fr. Chirino says,he ". . . took his degree,"andwas baptized.37The instruciionin Palo,Leyte, was carriedon with the help of decuriones.The pupils weredividedintogroupsof ten andthe moreadvancedstudentssuper- vised the lessons.38The practiceofallowingthe well instructedto catechizeseemsnot tohave been uncommon.Fr. Alonso Humanes refersto two ninos abiles who instructedthose of their own pueblo. Theirofiice,however,wastemporary,andHumanesintendedreplacing them as soon as enoughFatherswere available.89Fr. Chirinoalso mentionsthat it was the practicefor each residencetohave several trainedcatechists. In additionto the usuallrocalinstruciionofpoteniialconvertsthe missionariesmadeconsiderableuse of visualaidsas well.Picturesde- pictingthe truthsof theFaithwereusedto greatadvantage,andusually producedthe desiredresults.They were of great-aidto thosewhose 86See John L. Phelan,"Pre-BaptismalInsctionand the AdnistranonofBaptism inthePhilippinesduring theSixteenthCentury,"TheAmericas,XII, no.1(July, 1955),6. a7Blair and Robertson,op. cit., XIII, 96. 88Ibid.,XIII,t. 89Coi,op. cit., IIs285. This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.82.202 on Mon, 3 Dec 2012 16:05:25 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions372JESUITMISSIONARYMETHODS knowledgeofthelanguagewas limited. Thepicturesfrequently includeda largeariist'sconceptionof Hell, for it was to this motive that the missionariesfrequentlyappealed.Weare informedthat Fr. Juande Torreswent severalstepsfurther.He once arrangedwith his coadjutorcompanionthat at the most fervent part ofhis discourse on Hell the Brothershouldlight a pitchfire behindhim," with much fireandsmoke,"to impressuponhis bearersthe horrorsof the punish- mentwhichmightbe theirs.40The sensesas well as the intellectwere appealedto by themissionaries. Sermonsto the neophytesusuallyrevolvedaboutfour basictopics: 1) Hell or Purgatory,2) Immortalityof the soul,3) Existenceof God, and4) Rewardfor Christiansin the nextlife. The methodof preachingthesetopicswasnot so muchby meansof reasonedargumentandcontinuousdiscourse,for thelisteners'powersof concentrationwere not yet developedto the full.Sermonsconsisted ratherof a seriesof shortspiritualconferencesin which one or two importantideas were presented.Atthe end ofthe conferencethe preacherwouldreviewthe mainpointshe had discussedandby means ofquestionand answerrepeatthem.utThe listenerswere thereby relievedof the tediumof a long discourseandthey usuallymanagedto retainthebroadoutlineof the conference. Preachingplayedan importantpartin the life of a missionary,for when he went on a salidaor trip into a given area,almostthe entire day was devotedtoinstruction.Themorningwas taken up with preachingor shortdiscoursesto theChristiansin thepuebloandteaching catechismto the children.If the Fatherwerefortunateenoughto have a Lay Brothercompanionwith him,he was assistedin the task. Fre- quently,though,he wasalone. In the afternoonhe visitedtheranchergas or clustersof homeson theoutskirtsof the village.Herehe repeatedthe sermonshe hadpreachedin the morning.Thosewho were not Chris- tiansandwho desiredto be so were instructedin the late afternoon. The processwas repeatedthe following day until the missionwas satisfiedwith the progressof his neophytes. A missionarytrip to Barili,a town on the southwestcoastof Cebu, affordsa view of a wpicalmissionarysalida. Weleft Cebu on Monday, June 16, and arrivedin Barilion Wednesday before noon.On Thursday a large number,both Chrisiiansand pagans, ' Ibid., II, 396. 41Fordetailed accounts ofpreaching methods used bythemissionanes, seeBlalr and Robertson, op. cit., XIII, 62; Repem,Htstory,II, 121-124. This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.82.202 on Mon, 3 Dec 2012 16:05:25 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and ConditionsNICHOLASP.CUSHNER 373 assembledin the church and after a prayer Igave a sermon in which Iexhorted them toreceive Baptism,and taught them about Godand Hisworkofcreation.Wetold them toreturn onSunday and they went out to their fields in all directionsto distancesof one, two or three leagues. Thehouses in thetownare small because tlleyare notused much.Thepeople began tocome inonSaturdayand in theevening webaptized a large number ofchildren. Sunday morning thechurch could not hold everybody and after Mass I gave a sermon on eterni. Thatwasfollowedbyasolemn baptism ofboys.OnMonday, the feast ofSt.John the Baptist,there was another large gathering and 29 adults, exclusive ofchildren, werebaptized.Among theadults were some leading citizens and the chief principalwhohad held out against baptism. Hisexample influenced many others....On Thursday we setoutwiththereverend pastor ofthedistrict and came toasmall village namedCarlumand we spent Friday, Saturdayand Sunday there. Every morning and evening the people came to the church for instruc- tion.On Saturdaywebaptized the children and on Sunday 28 adults. On Monday wecontinued on toAgpile....From there wewent to another towncalled Tuburan, around whichthere are twoorthree smaller villages, theinhabitantsofwhichgathered inthetown.The people werepeaceable and wellbehaved because their principalwas a goodChristian. Wewere there tendays and morning and evening we were busy prayingsteaching,catechizing,so that the people thought of nothing else during that time.Theycould be heardreciting prayers until midnight....Besides children, 114 adults werebaptized. The confessions oftheChristianswereheard because there had been no priest there during Lent.Thetownwas thus leftpurified bybaptism and confession, although thebaptism ofsome had tobedeferred to another time, Godwilling, because theywerenotprepared. Inour journey wefoundmany whohad notbeen toconfession foryears and some whohad been Christiansfor many years but had never con- fessed.In most ofthetowns wegave a written formofBaptism to some capable persons touse incase ofnecessity.Wealso instructed theChristianstocommend themselves toGodand howtohave re- course tohim in case ofnecessity in the absence ofa confessor. The recitationof the rosarywas taught and urged as a daily practice. Every evening wehad the Salveand Litany ofour Lady after the instruction orBaptism because wehoped that through this most holyLady, the SunofJustice wouldshedHisraysonthispeople justasthesun rising in the east sheds its light over the world and dispelsdarkness.... On our return toBariliwepassedthrough the twopueblos previously mentioned and baptized 11adults andthreechildren.InBarili we found16 ready forBaptism, 15 ofthem being adults. Wethen ccle- This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.82.202 on Mon, 3 Dec 2012 16:05:25 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions374 JESUIT MISSIONARYMETHODS bratedthe feast ofgloriousSt. Anne, towhom the churchisdedi- cated...42 Once the Faithwas plantedand pagansbapiized,the problemarose of how to helpthe neophyteskeepthe Faithandmaintaina Christian modeof life.In a certainsense,it was not overlydifficultto convert and baptizesince the Visayanswere peacefuland pliableenoughto embracethe doctrinesof Christianity.Butwhatwas moredifficultsand of weightier responsibility,was to maintainthe new Chrisiiansin their newlyacquiredFaith.We do not possessan overabundanceof material on how the missionariesattemptedthis. Therewere,however,certain standardprocedureswhich were introducedbythe missionariesto thisend. One of thesemethodswas the chantingof the catechismby young andold. The timeandplacevaried.In Carigarathe Christiansassembled in homeseach night and togetherchantedthe articlesofFaith and the prayers. In Dulac the Doctrinawas chantedinchurchbyan assembled congregationno lessthanfourtimesa day. In Palocas well Doctrinalessonswere held daily. Someeven wrote their prayerson camas(stripsof reed) in orderto rememberand continuallyrefer to them. . . . Not only do they, as good students,write theirlessons(Doctrina), mainlyin theirown characters,andusinga piece of reedas a book of memorandum,and an iron point as a pen; but they alwayscarryveth them these matenals,and wheneverone ceaseshis labors,whetherat homeor in the field,by way of resthe takeshis book,andspendssome time in study....43 These are byno meansisolatedincidentsbut are indicativeofa generalmethodicalpractice.In fact, one of the firstinquiriesof the missionaryon revisitinga villagewas whetheror not the Christians were faithfulin recitingthe doctrinesof the Faith. In Tinagon,Samar,the Father'sassistant,one Don Gonzalo,proved to be of greatassistancein maintaininga Christianamlosphere. . . . The fiscalmaintainswith thema regularplanand order:morning and evening,theirprayersand procession;andat nightbeforeretiring and in the morningbeforedawn,they also offer theirprayers-sothat the Spaniards,their encomendero said, and the collectorsare notably edifiedthereby. . . He [OonGonzalo]not only looksafterthe knowl- *2Repem,History,II,274-276. "Blair and Roberuon,Op.Ctt.,XIIi,96. This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.82.202 on Mon, 3 Dec 2012 16:05:25 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and ConditionsNICHOLASP.CUSHNER 375 edge and recitaton of the doctrine,but even trainsthem in good habits, and punishesthem gently when they are at fault....44 Morgacommentedon thisvery methodof employinglay personsto helppreservethe Faithamongthe newly converted. In many districts the religious make use, in their visitas,ofcertain of the natives who are clever and well instructed,so that these may teach theothers topray dailyinstruct them inother matters touching re- ligion, and see that theycome toMass at the central missions;and in this way they succeed in preserung and maintainingtheir converts....45 In seekingprospectiveconvertsthe missionariestried first towin over the principorlesand corciques.If they were successful,it was then only a matterof time beforethe whole villagewould be convened. Thefirst baptismsinavillage were usuallyperformedwith great solemnityinordertoimpressupon the people the importanceand sacrednatureof the sacrament.The ceremonyoften took placeon a specialfeast day.There was achoir, a brassband which included nativeandEuropeaninstruments,arquebusiersandthatcolorfulMedi- terraneaneffervescencewhichthe Spanishso successfullyprojectedinto the Filipinoculturepattern. However,not all the villageswere equallyreceptivetothe new doctrine. Some were bitterly hostile,and othersmildly indifferent. What swungthe balanceitl severalcaseswas the persuasivepresence of the encomendero.46 Beforeone was adrnittedtobaptismalinstruciion,he was togive ampleproof ofhis desirefor the sacrament.Aset ofquestionswas sometimesput to the candidatewhichfollowedthis generalfoIm: Priest:Are you in earnestaboutreceivingthe sacrament? Candidate: Yes, Father,I say this with my whole heart. P.:Does the love of God andyour eternalsalvationprompt you? C.:Yes Father,nothingelse. P.:Are you determinedto leaveall of your false gods and to changethemfor the trueGod? C.:Yes,Father. 44lbid.,XIII, 64. '6Sucesos ofAntonio de Morga,in Ibid., XVI,153. '6 One ofthe possiblereasonsfor oppositiontothe missionarieswas that they were confusedwith SpanishtaxcoHectors. This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.82.202 on Mon, 3 Dec 2012 16:05:25 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions376JESUITMISSIONARY1\/1ETHODS P.:Are you resolvedto servethe true God and be a good Christian,or areyou merelyspeakingwords? C.:No otherdesireis in my heartthanto be a goodChristian. P.:Then youare tobecongratulated,Iadmityouas a catechumen.4t In spite of all the precautions,however,manywere drawnto the sacramentby less worthy motives. From the time ofMagellan,the apparentlyphysicalcurativepowersof baptismenticeda certainnum- ber.48What furtherenhancedthe medicinalpowersof baptismin the mindsof the peoplewas the fact that the missionariesfrequentlyper- formedthe servicesofthe physician.The administrationofbaptism wasthusconfusedwiththe administrationof curativeherbs,withwhich some missionarieswere very skillful. During one epidemicagreat numberof childrenwere broughtto the Fathersfor baptism,because it was thoughtthat the sacramentwould providea spiritualimmunity againstillness.49 In additionto thesesupposedphysicalbenefits,it wasof distinctsocial advantageto becomea Christuan,for Spanishlaw providedpreferential treatmentfor Christiannatives. DIRECTIVESOF FATHERDEL PRADO Frequentcorrespondencebetweenthe missionaryresidencesand the superiorin Manilawas an importantfeatureofmissionmethods.It enabledthe over-allsuperiortoobtaina fairly accurateidea ofthe accomplishmentsandproblemsof the variousmissioners,andso it was possibleto give generaldirectivesto the activemissionaries.In 1596 and 1598Fatherdel Prado,the JesuitVice-Provincial,issuedsucha set ofdirectives.They were intendedfor missionariesas well as local superiorsandthey wereissuedonly aftercloseinspectionsof the Vice- Province.The sectionsdealingwith the Visayanmissionsarepresented herein part. OrdinationsofFather Vice-Provincial Raymundo del Prado, in1596. 2.Theymust not gotoconfess or visit the sick in the pueblos unless withacompanion, and much less toother distant pueblos; and if,in some house, thiscan notbeobserved letthem arrange totake some 47Colin,Op.Cit.,II, 287. 48For a discussionof variousmonvesfor baposm,seeJ. L. Phelansloc.Cit.,pp. 17-20. 4'Blairand RobertsonsOp.Cit.sXII, 88; Phela,loc.cit.,p.18. This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.82.202 on Mon, 3 Dec 2012 16:05:25 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and ConditionsNICHOLASP.CUSHNER 377 native as a companion. Ifnotaccompaniedbysome other Father or Brother theymust bynomeans sleep insuch pueblos, but return to sleep inourcentral house, whichshould bewellplaced, arranging togoout in the morning and return in the evening. 12.Baptismsshould beconferred with as much solemnity as possible, having as many presentas possible,and on some Pascuaswith a sermon in which the sacred mysteries and ceremonies are explained. 14.Letsome natives beinstructed howtobaptize inextraordinary circumstances,especially the fiscales,and howtoprepare persons for Bapasm. 15.Make special efforts to gain over the chiefs, because their example exerts great good or evil on others, and so weshould respect them and cause them tobe respected in their pueblos. 16.HolyWater should be used solemnly on Sundays and the Masses and offices should be sung withthe greatest solemnity possible. 18.Letthenatives bepaid justly fortheir work,likewise fortheir favors and all that may be taken; likewise pay them according tothe just current price, and notliketheKingoraIcaldemayor,unless it may be seen that it is a just price.50 That which the same Father ordered inhis nsitationof1598 fortheFathers whoare inthePintados.51 1.Tothe superiorsof the Residencesand doctrinas,they are enjoined very exactly on the rule of the Rector that they must not incur debt or borrow anything, nor assumethe account of alms of the encomenderos, ifitisnotknown and definite, even though itmay betogivealms and help tothe natives. Theymust regulate matters and actas conformably aspossible to what theyhave and nomore, because inanother year another Father may succeed them in the Residence and he would have nothing toeat nor anything to give to the poor, and it might be possiblethat he would leave the Society and the latter would have nothing with which to pay its debts. Memorial forFather Tomas Montoya, Superior ofAlangalang,and the other Fathers and Brothers. 1.YourReverence isveryspecially charged thatinyourpueblos, 6The Englishtranslationofthese directivesisin Repetii, "TheSociety ofJesus," III, 10-17. 61The people ofthe Visayasand the islandsthemselveswere often referredtoas Pintados.They were socalled becausethe nativesthere tattood themselves. This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.82.202 on Mon, 3 Dec 2012 16:05:25 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions378JESUITMISSIONARYMETHODS and more inthose under yourjurisdiction,thenatives beinstructed in twothings; one, how tobapiize in extreme necessity and that there bemany inall places whounderstandthis; secondly, howtoturn to Godincase ofnecessity, and inthe absence ofthose whoadminister the sacramentsofbaptismand penance,with true sorrow for their sins and a desire for baptismor confession. 2.Thosewhomaybebaptized are ofthree classes: some veryold; others,childrenand youth; and others of middle age.It is not necessary that the first know anything, or very little, bymemory, but only that they know the necessaryarticles ofour holy faith.It is necessarythat the second group know the entire Christiandoctrine bymemory.For thethird itwillsuffice iftheyknow theSign oftheCross, theOur Father,the Hail Mary and the Creed, and this is what is ordinary,that they may not be dispensedin this. 3.Do not put so much stress on the fact that they are baptizedas that they may be bapezed well and are Christians,live as such and, although few, that they be models in their pueblos. Twothings must be insisted upon with those who are bapiized;first, that they be well imbued th the truth of our holy faith and the falsiw of the idols, believing firmly; secondly, that theybeattached toChrisiian customs and life,telling them especially not tomake mangitos,charms,sorceries,etc. 5.Take noiiceofthe Chrisiianswhoattend Mass and those whoare notatthesermon; and that theybepresent atboth withbecoming decency; and for this it will help that the Brotherbe among the naiives to show them how to act, when they are to kneel, etc. 11.Theboys ofthe schools must be treated withgreat kindnessand must be allowed good periods ofiime for play.Tothem, and tothe other natives,some camotesand tuba should be given from iime to iime to awractthem to Ours and to the instruciion.52 CONCLUSIONS There are severalfactorswhich contributedto the rapidspreadof Christianityin the Philippines,one of whichwas the presenceof large numbersof missionaries.By 1604the Jesuitsalonecounted69 members, a considerableincreasefrom the originalfour who arrivedin1581. However,we mustnot forgetthatthe Philippineswasa uniquemission field,in the sensethatit was a 7000-islandarchipelagoextendingover 115,000squaremiles. Travelbetweenthe islandswas difficult,danger- ous,andtimeconsuming.Consequently,moremissionarieswereneeded 6Camotesare the nativesweet potatoand tuba isa drinkobtainedfrom the coconut tree. This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.82.202 on Mon, 3 Dec 2012 16:05:25 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and ConditionsNICHOLASP.CUSHNER379 thanwouldbe requiredfor one continuousfrontier,suchas was New S. pam. The procedureandmethodswhichtheseJesuitmissionariesfollowed were byno m-eansoriginalwith them. They drew heavilyon the experienceofthe Augustintans,Dominicans,and Franciscans,all of whom worked long and successfully,both inNewSpain and the Philippines.What mightbe notedas originalwas the organizationof the residences,as well as certainmethodsofinstruction.And these mightbe tracedto the Constitutionsof the SocietyanditScontemporary Europeaninstructionalmethods. In any case, the combinedeffort ofall the missionarieswhich so successfullyplacedthe greaterpart ofthe PhilippineIslandswithin the paleof Christendomin sucha shortperiodof timewasnothingshort of remarkable.And althoughwe maylook uponit as simplyan exten- sion ofthe spiritualconquestofNewSpain,itremainsone ofthe outstandingconquestsof Christendom. NICHOLASP. CUSHNER,S. J. SanJoseSeminary, Cagayande Oro,Philippines This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.82.202 on Mon, 3 Dec 2012 16:05:25 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions