Brief overview of early

Korean history and

culture

Albert L. Park

Claremont McKenna College

Abstract Although people have inhabited East Asia since Paleolithic

times, it took many millennia for them to develop into distinct countries with unified identities.

Their development was a process marked by both autonomy and shared cultures. Each country has unique origins, culture, and social customs that distinguish it from its neighbors, but there also was extensive exchange of ideas, material goods, and technology.

Additionally, Korea has not just been a transmitter of culture between China and Japan, but has had an active role in the production and exchange of cultures within East Asia and beyond.

Rise of civilization on the

Korean peninsula

Paleolithic period Paleolithic period from ca. 50,000 BP – 8000 BCE

BP: Before present (as of 1950*)

Paleolithic

chipped stone tools

Paleolithic stone scraper

Neolithic culture (ca. 8000

BCE to 1500 BCE)

Shamanism Spirits dwell in mountains, trees, rocks, all natural

objects

Dead spirits are all around us

Spirits can help or harm humans

Shamans are intermediaries between the spiritual

realm and the human realm

Shamans use song and dance to invoke spirits

Early Shamanism Early settlers from the Siberian region brought

Shamanism with them, so there are similarities with

other forms of Siberian-based Shamanism

Early shamans were priests/priestesses, healers, and

diviners

Contemporary shaman ceremony (NY Times)

Neolithic sites in South Korea

Neolithic life Semi-subterranean pit dwellings

Comb-pattern pottery

Lived in groups of fewer than 20 homes

Hunting, fishing, gathering

Neolithic semi-subterranean pit dwellings

Comb-pattern pottery

Mythical origins Dangun Wanggeom (2333 BCE)

Father, Hwanung, was the son of the Lord of Heaven

A bear and tiger asked to be transformed into humans, cave for 100 days, garlic and wormwood

The tiger gave up after 21 days, but the bear became a woman

Hwanung became mortal and had a son, Dangun, with the bear

Scytho-Siberian bronze

culture

ca. 1500 BCE-300 BCE

Agriculture land inheritance

Social stratification

Cist grave with bronze artifacts

(Chopori, S Jeolla)

Northern-style tabletop dolmen (Ganghwa Island)

Sinitic iron culture ca. 300 BCE-300 CE

Continued use of bronze goods in burials

Greater stratification of society

Wood-chamber tomb containing iron and ceramic grave goods

(Tokcheon-ni, N Gyeongsang)

Agriculture From hunting/fishing/gathering to farming

Lineages arose as people settled into farming and land

became inheritable

Millet preceded rice agriculture

Agriculture as example of cultural and commercial

contacts in East Asia

Three Kingdoms period ca. 50 BCE to 668 CE

Goguryeo (37 BCE-668 CE)

Baekje (18 BCE-663 CE)

Gaya (47-562, confederated kingdom)

Silla (57 BCE–936 CE)

Goguryeo (37 BCE-668 CE) Largest land area of 3 kingdoms

Northernmost of 3 kingdoms

Bordered “barbarians” to north

In shifting alliances with Silla and Baekje

Baekje (18 BCE-663 CE) Southwestern region of peninsula

Closest ties with Japanese archipelago

Some migrated (willingly or otherwise) to Japan

Gaya (47-562) Confederated kingdom of 6 different states

Defeated in unification wars

Silla (57 BCE–936 CE) Longest lasting of 3 kingdoms

Defeated neighbors with help of Tang China and then ousted Tang China

History seen from Silla viewpoint because they were the victors

Bone Rank System

Hwabaek Council of Nobles

Hwarang (“flower youths”)

Queen Seondeok (r. 632-647)

Bone Rank System Hallowed Bones (also called Holy Bones) were eligible

for the throne but died out because of rigidity of system

True Bones became the highest rank after the Hallowed Bones died out

Head Ranks 6-1

Child took lower-ranking parent’s status regardless of gender

Strict sumptuary laws

Hwabaek Council of Nobles Balanced the power of the throne by representing the

aristocrats’ interests

They alone could declare war, approve adoption of

Buddhism as the official state religion

Hwarang (“flower youths”) Aristocratic youths who studied, trained, and socialized

together

Queen Seondeok (r. 632-647) Succeeded her father (last of male Hallowed Bones) to

the throne

Said to have been instrumental in laying foundation for

the unification of Silla

Silla flourished culturally and technologically under her

reign

Followed by cousin Queen Jindeok (r. 647-654)

Silla crown of 24K gold

Cheomseongdae observatory in former Silla capital

Three Kingdoms,

China, and Japan 6th and 7th grade standards (CA)

Silk Road

Buddhism

Confucianism

Syrian glass from Silla

period

Spread of culture and trade Aristocratic culture: classical Chinese was the common

written language in East Asia

Buddhism was not just transmitted through Korea; Korean monks were very active in producing and disseminating scholarship throughout Asia

Material culture and technology: metallurgy, silk production, textile manufacture, paper-making, Buddhism

Commercial trade: Chinese and Korean luxury goods, Japanese silver, copper, timber, steel swords

Unified Silla (668-936) Maritime trade: rise of powerful traders (wealth,

private army)

Later Three Kingdoms Later Goguryeo, founded in 901 by Kim Gungye (“the

ugly”)

Later Baekje, founded in 892 by Yi Gyeonhwon (“the

bad”)

Wang Geon took over Later Goguryeo in 918 (“the

good”)

Goryeo (918-1392) Wang Geon (King Taejo, r. 918-943)

Dynastic founder relied on support of local warlords

with private armies

Sought to cement relations with supporters, former Silla

royal family through marriage alliances (29 wives total)

Buddhism and Confucianism 7th grade standards

Civil service examinations (est. 968) on Chinese model

Role of Buddhism in lives of aristocrats and commoners

Comparisons to Catholic Church in medieval Europe

Aristocrats sent sons into the clergy

Aristocrats donated land, goods, slaves to temples which had

tax-exempt status

Goryeo Tripitaka (1087, 1251) as example of woodblock

printing (entirety of East Asian Buddhist canon at that time)

Goryeo Tripitaka, original woodblocks carved in 11th centurydestroyed by Mongols and re-carved in 13th century

set composed of 81,258 blocks

Military rule (1170-1270) and

feudalism 7th grade standards

1170 Military Coup: military officials revolted against civil officials’ abuses

Military monopoly over government

Military controlled the throne but did not usurp it for themselves

Military officials used power to gain more land and wealth

Rise of private armies

New power based not on lineage but on military power

Choe House rule (1196-1273) Choe Chungheon (1149-1219)

Brother Choe Chungsu

Son Choe U (aka Choe I)

Civil officials not completely abolished

Preserved royal house, did not marry with royal family

Elevated some household retainers and slaves

Feudal period ended after Mongol Invasions

Peasant rebellions

and slave revolts Peasant rebellions (1172-1217)

Uprisings in countryside as well as capital

Large-scale efforts to restructure social order, seize

political power

Economic causes

Political discontent

Breakdown in local government

Slave revolts (1196-1232)

Perceived unfair elevation of some slaves’ status

About mistreatment rather than immorality of slavery

Mongol rule (1270-1368) Complex hierarchies within tribute system

Goryeo king performed certain rites as Son of Heaven

(or Son of Heaven of East of the Sea)

Mongol invasions Genghis Khan (ca. 1162-1227) and grandson

Khubilai Khan (1215-1294)

First invasion in 1231 (6 in 30-year period)

Choe family moved capital to Ganghwa Island in 1232 till 1258

Peasants, lowborn, slaves fought back without military leaders

Mongols burned fields, decimated food supplies, slaughtered many

200,000 captives from 1254 invasion

Cultural treasures such as Tripitaka lost

King sued for peace with Mongols in 1270 and returned capital to Gaeseong

The Mongol empire Significant contributions to both European and Asian

cultures

Described by Marco Polo (1254-1324), who was in China 1275-1291

Advances in medicine, astronomy, science, engineering

Summer palace at Shangdu (Xanadu)

Roads, postal stations

Promotion of trade

Trade ship

Goryeo and the Mongol

empire Goryeo became “son-in-law” kingdom

Goryeo elites sought ties with Mongols

Many foreigners in Goryeo from queen dowager/crown

princess down

Goryeo kings made visits to Mongol court

Goryeo participated in 1274 and 1281 expeditions

against Japan

Heavy tribute demands by Mongols

Cosmopolitanism Mongol capital of Daidu (today’s Beijing) was center of

culture

Many Goryeo elites went to Daidu

Goryeo women who were consorts of elite Mongols

also spread Koryo culture in Daidu

Queen Noguk was King Gongmin’s Mongol wife

Empress Gi was a Goryeo woman who became

Mongol empress

Joseon (1392-1910) Yi Seonggye (King Taejo, r. 1392-1398) established

Choson

Gave Dynastic Foundation Merit Subject titles to loyal

supporters

King Sejong the Great

(r. 1418-1450)

Appointed top scholars to the Hall of Worthies

Phonetic Korean script (invented1443, promulgated

1446)

Print culture including moveable metal print (invented

1234, predating the Gutenberg Bible of 1454)

Histories, gazettes, geographies compiled

Development of astronomy, geography, technology

Yi Sunsin (1545-1598) Imjin Wars (Hideyoshi Invasions) led by Hideyoshi,

between 1592-1598 in their attempt to conquer Ming

China

Admiral Yi Sunsin is credited with leading turtle boats to

defend Joseon

Yi died in battle

Social status in Joseon Scholar-officials (yangban): civil officials higher than

military officials

Secondary status groups Technical officials, local functionaries, descendants of

illegitimate sons by concubines

Peasants/commoners Farmers valued for their hard work

Artisans

Merchants

Lowborn (outcasts, entertainers, despised

occupations)

Slaves

Neo-Confucianism

and women’s lives Women originally lived with their natal families after

marriage and had equal inheritance rights

With Confucianization of Joseon, women moved out of

their natal homes

Wedding ceremonies, contrary to Confucian ritual,

continued to take place at the bride’s home

As women moved out of their natal homes, their

inheritance was reduced to one-third of their brother’s,

and their responsibilities also reduced (from 3 years of

mourning to 1)

Sin Saimdang (1504-1551) 2nd of 5 daughters of prominent family

Madame Sin was a noted artist

Madame Sin’s mother left a will dividing up property

almost equally among 5 daughters, listing all her

property including slaves

Madame Sin’s third son (Yulgok Yi I) was named the

ritual heir

Sin

Saimdang,

mother of

Yulgok Yi I

Confucianization Lineage (and the patriline) became more important

from Joseon

Women’s roles were more dependent on their status as

mothers of sons

With the establishment of the Manchu Qing dynasty in

China (1644-1911), Joseon elites saw themselves as

the “last bastion of civilization” and further promote

Neo-Confucianism

Peace to the 19th century Relative peace and stability

Factionalism at court followed by policy of impartiality in

18th century

Rule by in-law families during reigns of young kings

Premodern Korea Korea has distinct origins

Korea developed autonomously but with significant

exchanges with its neighbors

Korea was not just the passive recipient/transmitter of

culture

Korea produced, contributed, and exchanged culture

with its neighbors and beyond

Korea has an important role in the historical

development of East Asia