Early Rome and the Beginnings of Roman Imperialism

The Nature of the Evidence

Roman Legends, the Literary Roman Legends, the Literary Tradition and their PitfallsTradition and their Pitfalls

Archaeology and the Problems of Archaeology and the Problems of InterpretationInterpretation

Paucity of Inscriptions (Lapis Niger)Paucity of Inscriptions (Lapis Niger)

Language Map of Early Italy

Broad Outlines

Bronze Age Italy and Greek Influences Bronze Age Italy and Greek Influences (ca. 1800-800 (ca. 1800-800 BCEBCE))

Iron Age Italy and Rome: 1000-750 Iron Age Italy and Rome: 1000-750 BCEBCE (Villanovans)(Villanovans)

Material Conditions: Subsistence Material Conditions: Subsistence AgricultureAgriculture

Etruscans and the Question of Etruscans and the Question of UrbanizationUrbanization

Early Roman Legends as Reflected in the Historiographical Tradition

Myths of Heterogeneity and the Myths of Heterogeneity and the Policy of InclusionPolicy of Inclusion

Sallust, The Conspiracy of Catiline, chapter 6 (written between 44 & 40 BCE)

““The city of Rome, as far as I can make out, was The city of Rome, as far as I can make out, was founded and first inhabited by Trojan exiles who, led founded and first inhabited by Trojan exiles who, led by Aeneas, were wandering without a settled home, by Aeneas, were wandering without a settled home, and by rustic natives who lived in a state of anarchy and by rustic natives who lived in a state of anarchy

uncontrolled by laws or government. When once uncontrolled by laws or government. When once they had come to live together in a walled town, they had come to live together in a walled town, despite different origins, languages, and habits of despite different origins, languages, and habits of life, they coalesced with amazing ease, and before life, they coalesced with amazing ease, and before

long what had been a heterogeneous mob of long what had been a heterogeneous mob of migrants was welded into a united nation.”migrants was welded into a united nation.”

The Elder Seneca on Early Rome

““Unroll the family tree of any nobleman you like: you will Unroll the family tree of any nobleman you like: you will arrive at low birth if you go back far enough. Why should arrive at low birth if you go back far enough. Why should

I list individuals? I could use the whole city as my I list individuals? I could use the whole city as my example. Once these hills stood bare and within the example. Once these hills stood bare and within the extensive confines of our walls there is nothing more extensive confines of our walls there is nothing more

distinguished than a lowly hut….Can you reproach the distinguished than a lowly hut….Can you reproach the Romans? They could conceal their humble beginnings but Romans? They could conceal their humble beginnings but instead they make a display of them and do not regard all instead they make a display of them and do not regard all this as great unless it is made obvious that it rose from a this as great unless it is made obvious that it rose from a

small beginning.”small beginning.”

ControversiaeControversiae, 1.6.4, 1.6.4

Romulus, the Sabine Women, and the Politics of Inclusion

“ ‘“ ‘If you regret,’ [the Sabine women] continued, ‘the If you regret,’ [the Sabine women] continued, ‘the relationship that unites you, if you regret the marriage tie, relationship that unites you, if you regret the marriage tie,

turn your anger against us; we are the cause of the war, turn your anger against us; we are the cause of the war, the cause of the wounds, and even death to both our the cause of the wounds, and even death to both our

husbands and our parents. It will be better for us to perish husbands and our parents. It will be better for us to perish than to live, lacking either of you, as widows or as than to live, lacking either of you, as widows or as

orphans.’ It was a touching plea, not only to the rank and orphans.’ It was a touching plea, not only to the rank and file, but to their leaders as well. A stillness fell on them, file, but to their leaders as well. A stillness fell on them, and a sudden hush. Then the leaders came forward to and a sudden hush. Then the leaders came forward to

make a truce, and not only did they agree on peace, but make a truce, and not only did they agree on peace, but they made one people out of the two. They shared the they made one people out of the two. They shared the

sovereignty, but all authority was transferred to Rome. In sovereignty, but all authority was transferred to Rome. In this way the population was doubled…” this way the population was doubled…”

(Livy, 1.13.3-5)(Livy, 1.13.3-5)

The Regal Period, 753-510 BCE

Legend, Quasi-History, HistoryLegend, Quasi-History, History

The King List

[Romulus [Romulus ((753-717 BCE753-717 BCE))]] [Numa Pompilius [Numa Pompilius ((715-672 BCE715-672 BCE))]] [Tullus Hostilius [Tullus Hostilius ((672-640 BCE672-640 BCE))]] [Ancus Marcius [Ancus Marcius ((640-616 BCE640-616 BCE))]] Lucius Tarquinius Priscus Lucius Tarquinius Priscus (616-579 BCE)(616-579 BCE) Servius Tullius Servius Tullius (578-535 BCE)(578-535 BCE) Lucius Tarquinius Superbus Lucius Tarquinius Superbus (534-510 BCE)(534-510 BCE)

Romulus and Remus: The Native Foundation Legend

Outlines of the Story: Alba Longa, Numitor and Amulius, Rhea Outlines of the Story: Alba Longa, Numitor and Amulius, Rhea Silvia and Mars, the She-Wolf and the Twins (Folk-Tale Motifs).Silvia and Mars, the She-Wolf and the Twins (Folk-Tale Motifs).

““Meanwhile Rome was growing. More and more ground was Meanwhile Rome was growing. More and more ground was coming within the circuit of its walls. Indeed, the rapid expansion coming within the circuit of its walls. Indeed, the rapid expansion of the enclosed area was out of proportion to the actual of the enclosed area was out of proportion to the actual population, and evidently indicated an eye to the future. In population, and evidently indicated an eye to the future. In antiquity, the founder of a new settlement, in order to increase its antiquity, the founder of a new settlement, in order to increase its population, would as a matter of course shark up a lot of homeless population, would as a matter of course shark up a lot of homeless and destitute folk and pretend that they were “born of earth” to be and destitute folk and pretend that they were “born of earth” to be his progeny; Romulus now followed a similar course: to help fill his progeny; Romulus now followed a similar course: to help fill his big new town, he threw open, in the ground--now enclosed--his big new town, he threw open, in the ground--now enclosed--between the two copses as you go up the Capitoline Hill, a place of between the two copses as you go up the Capitoline Hill, a place of asylum for fugitives. All the lowliest elements from neighboring asylum for fugitives. All the lowliest elements from neighboring peoples fled here for refuge: some free, some slaves, and all of peoples fled here for refuge: some free, some slaves, and all of them wanting a fresh start. That mob was the first real addition to them wanting a fresh start. That mob was the first real addition to the City’s strength, the first step to its future greatness.”the City’s strength, the first step to its future greatness.”

– Livy, Livy, History of RomeHistory of Rome, Book One, chapter 8 , Book One, chapter 8

She-Wolf and Twins (Bologna, early 4th century BCE)

Capitoline She-Wolf (Etruscan, ca. 500 BCE)

The Etruscan Monarchy at Rome L. Tarquinius Priscus (616-579 BCE), Servius Tullius L. Tarquinius Priscus (616-579 BCE), Servius Tullius

(578-535 BCE), L. Tarquinius Superbus (534-510 BCE)(578-535 BCE), L. Tarquinius Superbus (534-510 BCE) Lapis Niger or “Black Stone” (around 500 BCE?); Lapis Niger or “Black Stone” (around 500 BCE?);

archaic Latin inscription (“to or for the king”)archaic Latin inscription (“to or for the king”) King Servius Tullius (traditional dates: 578-535 BCE)King Servius Tullius (traditional dates: 578-535 BCE)

Temple to Diana on the AventineTemple to Diana on the Aventine New Geographical Tribes (21: 17 rural, 4 urban); New Geographical Tribes (21: 17 rural, 4 urban);

replaces ethnicity with geography as basis of replaces ethnicity with geography as basis of political organization (attempt to break power of the political organization (attempt to break power of the great clans?)great clans?)

Centuriate Assembly: creates a citizen-army based Centuriate Assembly: creates a citizen-army based on property. 60 centuries of 100 men = 1 legion on property. 60 centuries of 100 men = 1 legion ((legiolegio). As voting assembly, 193 units divided into 5 ). As voting assembly, 193 units divided into 5 classes based on wealth, with the first two classes classes based on wealth, with the first two classes making a majority (probably limited to a yes/no making a majority (probably limited to a yes/no vote)vote)

Lapis Niger“Black Stone”Early 6th century BCE

Developments Attributed to King

Servius Tullius (578-535 BCE)

Enlargement of Urban Area Enlargement of Urban Area (L 1.44.3; DH 4.13.2)(L 1.44.3; DH 4.13.2)

Defensive (Servian) Wall and Four Urban Regions Defensive (Servian) Wall and Four Urban Regions (L 1.44.3 and 1.43.13; DH 4.13.3 and 4.14.1)(L 1.44.3 and 1.43.13; DH 4.13.3 and 4.14.1)

26 Tribes and 4 Urban Region Tribes 26 Tribes and 4 Urban Region Tribes (DH 4.15.1, a (DH 4.15.1, a variant number)variant number)

Centuriate System Centuriate System (L 1.43; DH 4.16)(L 1.43; DH 4.16)

Roman Census Roman Census (L 1.42.5; DH 4.15.6)(L 1.42.5; DH 4.15.6)

Temple to Diana on Aventine Temple to Diana on Aventine (L 1.45.2-3; DH 4.25.3-26)(L 1.45.2-3; DH 4.25.3-26)

Sources: L=Livy (late first century BCE); DH=Dionysius of Sources: L=Livy (late first century BCE); DH=Dionysius of Halicarnassus (late first century BCE-early first century CE)Halicarnassus (late first century BCE-early first century CE)

Etruria and Early Rome Etruscan Heyday: ca. 700-500 BCEEtruscan Heyday: ca. 700-500 BCE The Question of Origins: Immigrants or Autochthonous?The Question of Origins: Immigrants or Autochthonous?

Herodotus (5th century BCE), Herodotus (5th century BCE), HistoriesHistories 1.94--from Lydia in 1.94--from Lydia in Asia MinorAsia Minor

Dionysius of Halicarnassus (first century CE), Dionysius of Halicarnassus (first century CE), Roman Roman AntiquitiesAntiquities 1.25-30--Indigenous 1.25-30--Indigenous

Etruscans and Urbanization at RomeEtruscans and Urbanization at Rome Public Building (Capitoline Temple to Jupiter Optimus Public Building (Capitoline Temple to Jupiter Optimus

Maximus)Maximus) Drainage of MarshesDrainage of Marshes Development of ForumDevelopment of Forum

Etruscan ContributionsEtruscan Contributions Alphabet (via Greeks)Alphabet (via Greeks) FascesFasces and and Sella CurulisSella Curulis LictorsLictors

Line Map of Etruria and Latium

Etruscan Power and Etruscan Cities

““This people…in ancient times possessed great territory and founded many This people…in ancient times possessed great territory and founded many notable cities. Likewise, they also availed themselves of powerful naval forces notable cities. Likewise, they also availed themselves of powerful naval forces

and were masters of the sea over a long period, they caused the sea along and were masters of the sea over a long period, they caused the sea along Italy to be named Tyrrhenian after them…They were also the authors of the Italy to be named Tyrrhenian after them…They were also the authors of the dignity that surrounds the heads of state, providing their rulers with lictors dignity that surrounds the heads of state, providing their rulers with lictors

and an ivory stool and a toga with a purple band; and in connection with and an ivory stool and a toga with a purple band; and in connection with their houses they invented the peristyle, a useful device for avoiding the their houses they invented the peristyle, a useful device for avoiding the confusion connected with the attending throngs; and these things were confusion connected with the attending throngs; and these things were

adopted for the most part by the Romans, who added to their embellishment adopted for the most part by the Romans, who added to their embellishment and transferred them to their own political institutions. Letters and the and transferred them to their own political institutions. Letters and the

teaching about nature and the gods they also brought to greater perfection, teaching about nature and the gods they also brought to greater perfection, and they elaborated the art of divination by thunder and lightning more than and they elaborated the art of divination by thunder and lightning more than all other men; and for this reason the Romans, who rule practically the entire all other men; and for this reason the Romans, who rule practically the entire inhabited world, show honor to these men even to this day and employ them inhabited world, show honor to these men even to this day and employ them

as interpreters of the omens of Jupiter as they appear in thunder and as interpreters of the omens of Jupiter as they appear in thunder and lightning.” lightning.”

~ Diodorus, 5.40.1-2~ Diodorus, 5.40.1-2

Aristocratic Banqueting SceneTomb of the LeopardsFifth Century BCE

Sarcophagus of the Amazons

Sarcophagus of the Bride and Groom (ca. 525 BCE)

Gold Necklace from Vulci (ca. 650 BCE)

Chimaera from Arezzo

The Apollo of Veiica. 500 BCE

Fall of the Monarchy and the Beginnings of the Republic Tarquinius SuperbusTarquinius Superbus,, Sextus Tarquinius Sextus Tarquinius

, The Rape of, The Rape of Lucretia Lucretia, and Brutus, and Brutus Traditional Date for the Foundation of the Traditional Date for the Foundation of the

Republic—510 Republic—510 BCEBCE

PatresPatres, 100 advisers under Romulus (Livy, , 100 advisers under Romulus (Livy, 1.8.7)1.8.7)

300 Senators, 2 annually-elected consuls, 300 Senators, 2 annually-elected consuls, imperiumimperium

Livy on the First Senate (1.8.7)

““[Romulus] had now no reason to be [Romulus] had now no reason to be dissatisfied with his strength, and proceeded dissatisfied with his strength, and proceeded

to add policy to strength. He appointed a to add policy to strength. He appointed a hundred senators, whether because this hundred senators, whether because this

number seemed to him sufficient, or because number seemed to him sufficient, or because there were no more than a hundred who there were no more than a hundred who

could be designated Fathers (could be designated Fathers (PatresPatres). At all ). At all events, they received the designation of events, they received the designation of

Fathers from their rank, and their Fathers from their rank, and their descendants were called patricians.”descendants were called patricians.”

Defensive Imperialism?

Romans, Latins, and Common Romans, Latins, and Common EnemiesEnemies

Pressures on the Early Republic

Aftermath of Expulsion of Etruscan MonarchyAftermath of Expulsion of Etruscan Monarchy Battle at Lake Regillus: 496 BCEBattle at Lake Regillus: 496 BCE Cassian Treaty (Cassian Treaty (foedus Cassianumfoedus Cassianum): mutual ): mutual

defensive alliance between Rome and all defensive alliance between Rome and all Latins based on equality: 493 BCELatins based on equality: 493 BCE

12 Etruscan cities to the North12 Etruscan cities to the North ““Hill Peoples”: Aequi (northeast); Volsci Hill Peoples”: Aequi (northeast); Volsci

(southeast); Sabines (northeast): 500-350 BCE(southeast); Sabines (northeast): 500-350 BCE

Offensive Imperialism?

The Siege of Etruscan VeiiThe Siege of Etruscan Veii

Roman Aristocratic Militaristic Ethos:Senator’s Proclamation after Romulus’ Rapture,

following Military Action against Veii

‘‘Quirites, the Father of this City, Romulus, Quirites, the Father of this City, Romulus, descended suddenly from the sky at dawn this descended suddenly from the sky at dawn this

morning and appeared to me…. “Go,” he said, “and morning and appeared to me…. “Go,” he said, “and declare to the Romans the will of Heaven that my declare to the Romans the will of Heaven that my Rome shall be the capital of the world; so let them Rome shall be the capital of the world; so let them cherish the art of war, and let them know and teach cherish the art of war, and let them know and teach

their children that no human strength can resist their children that no human strength can resist Roman arms”.’Roman arms”.’

(Livy, 1.16.6-7) (Livy, 1.16.6-7)

Internal Crises: Patricians and Plebeians

Patricians and non-Patricians (Plebeians)Patricians and non-Patricians (Plebeians) Origin: senators created by Romulus: “conscripted Origin: senators created by Romulus: “conscripted

fathers” = fathers” = patres conscripti.patres conscripti. Distinction seems to Distinction seems to become important in the early years of the Republic.become important in the early years of the Republic.

Minority: population estimates for Archaic Rome--Minority: population estimates for Archaic Rome--6,600-9,900 adult male citizens; 2,700-4,000 heavy 6,600-9,900 adult male citizens; 2,700-4,000 heavy infantrymen (hoplites); 400-600 adult male infantrymen (hoplites); 400-600 adult male patricians (Raaflaub, patricians (Raaflaub, Social StrugglesSocial Struggles, pg. 44)., pg. 44).

12 Tables and12 Tables and Nexum Nexum: Debt-Bondage (Table VI; cf. : Debt-Bondage (Table VI; cf. Table III)Table III)

War as Palliative (see Livy, Book Two War as Palliative (see Livy, Book Two passimpassim: unity in : unity in face of external threats; internal discord in times of face of external threats; internal discord in times of international peace; compare Dionysius, international peace; compare Dionysius, Roman Roman AntiquitiesAntiquities, 10.33), 10.33)

The Siege of Etruscan Veii (406-396 BCE) A question of historicity: the 10-year A question of historicity: the 10-year

duration modeled on the Trojan War?duration modeled on the Trojan War? War booty and the doubling of Roman War booty and the doubling of Roman

territoryterritory Control of the Tiber (Fidenae) and the salt Control of the Tiber (Fidenae) and the salt

marshesmarshes Distribution of land to poorer Roman Distribution of land to poorer Roman

citizenscitizens

Light Green =Roman territoryCa. 700 BCE

Yellow-Green =Roman TerritoryCa. 500 BCE

Yellow Explosion =Site of Etruscan Veii

Livy on the Sack of Veii““In a moment the armed soldiers were everywhere hurled In a moment the armed soldiers were everywhere hurled from the walls, and the gates thrown open. A part of the from the walls, and the gates thrown open. A part of the

Romans poured through them in a body, others scaled the Romans poured through them in a body, others scaled the deserted walls; the city was overrun with enemies; the deserted walls; the city was overrun with enemies; the

battle raged in every quarter; then, when there had battle raged in every quarter; then, when there had already been great carnage, the fighting began to flag, and already been great carnage, the fighting began to flag, and the dictator bade the heralds proclaim that those without the dictator bade the heralds proclaim that those without

arms should be spared. This ended the slaughter. The arms should be spared. This ended the slaughter. The unarmed began to give themselves up, and the Romans unarmed began to give themselves up, and the Romans

scattered, with the dictator’s permission, in quest of scattered, with the dictator’s permission, in quest of booty.”booty.”

Livy, 5.21.12-14 Livy, 5.21.12-14

Readings for Next Meeting

Livy, Livy, Rome and ItalyRome and Italy, 11-34, 37-156, 11-34, 37-156 Doyle, Doyle, EmpiresEmpires, 11-47, 11-47

Assignments for Next Meeting

Individual Report on Livy as an historian Individual Report on Livy as an historian and the background and nature of his workand the background and nature of his work

Individual Report on Doyle, Individual Report on Doyle, EmpiresEmpires, 11-47, 11-47

Reports should run approximately 15 Reports should run approximately 15 minutesminutes

Questions for Readings Are there pitfalls in using Livy as an historical Are there pitfalls in using Livy as an historical

source for early Roman imperialism? What is the source for early Roman imperialism? What is the nature of Livian historiography? What do we nature of Livian historiography? What do we know of Livy’s research methods and his know of Livy’s research methods and his conception of history?conception of history?

Are there recurrent patterns in Livy’s narrative in Are there recurrent patterns in Livy’s narrative in the relationship between Roman domestic politics the relationship between Roman domestic politics and foreign affairs?and foreign affairs?

What does Doyle mean by “metrocentric,” What does Doyle mean by “metrocentric,” “pericentric,” and “systemic” views of “pericentric,” and “systemic” views of imperialism?imperialism?