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Title( The Religion of the Ancient Celts

Author( J. A. MacCulloch

Release )ate( January *+, +- /Book 0*123+4

)ate last u%!ate!( )ece"ber *1, +-4

anguage( /nglish

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The scientific stu!y of ancient Celtic religion is a thing of recent

groth. As a result of the %aucity of "aterials for such a stu!y,

earlier riters in!ulge! in the il!est s%eculati#e flights an!

connecte! the religion ith the !istant /ast, or sa in it the re"ainsof a "onotheistic faith or a series of esoteric !octrines #eile! un!er

%olytheistic cults. ?ith the orks of MM. Gai!oH, Bertran!, an! )'Arbois

!e Jubain#ille in 9rance, as ell as by the %ublication of 6rish teIts

by such scholars as )rs. ?in!isch an! 5tokes, a ne era "ay be sai! to

ha#e !ane!, an! a floo! of light as %oure! u%on the scanty re"ains of

Celtic religion. 6n this country the %lace of honour a"ong stu!ents of

that religion belongs to 5ir John Rhy4s, hose :ibbert ectures K8n

the 8rigin an! Groth of Religion as illustrate! by Celtic :eathen!o"K

>*FF2@ as an e%och&"aking ork. /#ery stu!ent of the subject since that

ti"e feels the i""ense !ebt hich he oes to the in!efatigable

researches an! the brilliant suggestions of 5ir John Rhy4s, an! 6oul! be ungrateful if 6 !i! not recor! "y in!ebte!ness to hi". 6n his

:ibbert ectures, an! in his later "asterly ork on KThe Arthurian

egen!K, hoe#er, he took the stan!%oint of the "ythological school,

an! ten!e! to see in the ol! stories "yths of the sun an! !an an! the

!arkness, an! in the !i#inities sun&go!s an! !an&go!!esses an! a host

of !ark %ersonages of su%ernatural character. The %resent riter,

stu!ying the subject rather fro" an anthro%ological %oint of #ie an! in

the light of "o!ern folk sur#i#als, has foun! hi"self in !isagree"ent



ith 5ir John Rhy4s on "ore than one occasion. But he is con#ince!

that 5ir John oul! be the last %erson to resent this, an! that, in

s%ite of his "ythological inter%retations, his :ibbert ectures "ust

re"ain as a source of ins%iration to all Celtic stu!ents. More recently

the stu!ies of M. 5alo"on Reinach an! of M. )ottin, an! the #aluable

little book on KCeltic ReligionK, by Professor Anyl, ha#e broken fresh

groun!.*4

6n this book 6 ha#e "a!e use of all the a#ailable sources, an! ha#e

en!ea#oure! to stu!y the subject fro" the co"%arati#e %oint of #ie an!

in the light of the anthro%ological "etho!. 6 ha#e also inter%rete! the

earlier cults by "eans of recent folk&sur#i#als o#er the Celtic area

here#er it has see"e! legiti"ate to !o so. The results are su""arise!

in the intro!uctory cha%ter of the ork, an! stu!ents of religion, an!

es%ecially of Celtic religion, "ust ju!ge ho far they for" a true

inter%retation of the earlier faith of our Celtic forefathers, "uch of

hich rese"bles %ri"iti#e religion an! folk&belief e#eryhere.

;nfortunately no Celt left an account of his on religion, an! e areleft to our on inter%retations, "ore or less #ali!, of the eIisting

"aterials, an! to the light she! on the" by the co"%arati#e stu!y of

religions. As this book as ritten !uring a long resi!ence in the 6sle

of 5kye, here the ol! language of the %eo%le still sur#i#es, an! here

the Kgenius lociK s%eaks e#eryhere of things re"ote an! strange, it "ay

ha#e been easier to atte"%t to realise the ancient religion there than

in a busier or "ore %rosaic %lace. $et at e#ery %oint 6 ha#e felt ho

"uch oul! ha#e been gaine! coul! an ol! Celt or )rui! ha#e re#isite!

his for"er haunts, an! %er"itte! "e to Luestion hi" on a hun!re! "atters

hich "ust re"ain obscure. But this, alas, "ight not be

6 ha#e to thank Miss Turner an! Miss Annie Gilchrist for #aluable hel%

ren!ere! in the ork of research, an! the on!on ibrary for obtaining

for "e se#eral orks not alrea!y in its %ossession. 6ts stores are an

in#aluable ai! to all stu!ents orking at a !istance fro" libraries.

J.A. MACC;8C:.

T:/ R/CT8R$,

BR6)G/ 89 AA<,

K8ctoberK ***.

988T<8T/5(

*4 5ee also "y article Celts in :astings' K/ncyclo%ae!ia of Religion

an! /thicsK, #ol. iii.

TRA<5CR6B/R'5 <8T/( Throughout this book, so"e characters are use!

hich are not %art of the atin&* character set use! in this e&book. The

string y4 is use! to re%resent a loer&case $ ith a circu"fleI



"ark on to% of it, Na4 is use! to re%resent a loer&case A ith a

line on to% of it, an! oe4 is use! to re%resent the oe&ligature.

<u"bers in braces such as OE are use! to re%resent the su%erscri%tion

of nu"bers, hich as use! in the book to gi#e e!ition nu"bers to

books.4

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65T 89 ABBR/6AT68<5 ;5/) 6< T:/ <8T/5 T:R8;G:8;T T:65 ?8R=

>KThis list is not a Bibliogra%hy.K@

BRA<)( Re#. J. Bran!, K8bser#ations on the Po%ular AntiLuities of Great

Britain.K E #ols. *F3.

BA<C:/T( A. Blanchet, KTraite !es "onnaies gauloises.K + #ols. Paris,

*-.



B/RTRA<)( A. Bertran!, KReligion !es gaulois.K Paris, *F3.

CAMPB/, K?:TK( J.9. Ca"%bell, KPo%ular Tales of the ?est :ighlan!s.K 1

#ols. /!inburgh, *F.

CAMPB/ K9K( J.9. Ca"%bell, Keabhar na 9einne.K on!on, *F3+.

CAMPB/, K5u%erstitionsK( J.G. Ca"%bell, K5u%erstitions of the

:ighlan!s an! 6slan!s of 5cotlan!.K *.

CAMPB/, K?itchcraftK( J.G. Ca"%bell, K?itchcraft an! 5econ! 5ight in

the :ighlan!s an! 6slan!s of 5cotlan!.K *+.

C8RMAC( KCor"ac's Glossary.K Tr. by J. 8')ono#an. /!. by ?. 5tokes.

Calcutta, *F2F.

C8;RC//&&5/</;6.( J.. Courcelle&5eneuil, Kes !ieuI gaulois !'a%res

les "onu"ents figures.K Paris, **.

KC6K( KCor%us 6nscri%tionu" atinaru".K Berlin, *F2E f.

KCMK( KCeltic MagaHine.K 6n#erness, *F3- f.

C;RT6<, K:T6K( J. Curtin, K:ero Tales of 6relan!.K *F1.

C;RT6<, KTalesK( J. Curtin, KTales of the 9airies an! Ghost ?orl!.K

*F-.

)A/( 5ir J.G. )alHell, K)arker 5u%erstitions of 5cotlan!.K *FE-.

)'ARB865( :. )'Arbois !e Jubain#ille, KCours !e litterature celtiLue.K

*+ #ols. Paris, *FFE&*+.

)'ARB865 Kes CeltesK( :. )'Arbois !e Jubain#ille, Kes Celtes.K Paris,

*1.

)'ARB865 Kes )rui!esK( :. )'Arbois !e Jubain#ille, Kes )rui!es et les

!ieuI celtiLues a for"es !'ani"auI.K Paris, *2.

)'ARB865 KP:K( :. )'Arbois !e Jubain#ille, Kes %re"iers habitants !el'/uro%e.K + #ols. Paris, *FF&*F1.

)8M MART6<( )o" Martin, Ke religion !es gaulois.K + #ols. Paris, *3+3.

)8TT6<( G. )ottin, KManuel %our ser#ir a l'etu!e !e l'antiLuite

celtiLue.K Paris, *2.

/T8<( C.6. /lton, K8rigins of /nglish :istory.K on!on, *F.



9RA/R, KGBKO+( J.G. 9raHer, KGol!en BoughKO+. E #ols. *.

G;/5T( a!y Guest, KThe Mabinogion.K E #ols. lan!o#ery, *F1.

:A6TT( ?.C. :aHlitt, K9aiths an! 9olk&lore( A )ictionary of <ational

Beliefs, 5u%erstitions, an! Po%ular Custo"s.K + #ols. *-.

:8)/R( A. :ol!er, KAltceltischer 5%rachschatH.K E #ols. ei%Hig, *F*

f.

:;( Miss /. :ull, KThe Cuchullin 5aga.K on!on, *FF.

K6TK( 5ee ?in!isch&5tokes.

KJA6K( KJournal of the Anthro%ological 6nstitute.K on!on, *F3* f.

J8$C/, K8CRK( P.?. Joyce, K8l! Celtic Ro"ancesKO+. on!on, *F1.

J8$C/, KP<K( P.?. Joyce, K:istory of 6rish <a"es of PlacesKO1. + #ols.

on!on, **.

J8$C/, K5:K( P.?. Joyce, K5ocial :istory of Ancient 6relan!.K + #ols.

on!on, *E.

J;6A<( C. Jullian, KRecherches sur la religion gauloise.K Bor!eauI,

*E.

=/AT6<G( =eating, K:istory of 6relan!.K Tr. 8'Mahony. on!on, *F22.

=/<</)$( P. =enne!y, Kegen!ary 9ictions of the 6rish Celts.K *F22.

ARM6<6/( ?. ar"inie, K?est 6rish 9olk&Tales an! Ro"ances.K *FE.

/A:$( eahy, K:eroic Ro"ances of 6relan!.K + #ols. on!on, *-.

/ BRA( A. e BraH, Ka egen!e !e la Mort cheH les Bretons

ar"oricains.K + #ols. Paris, *+.

KK( Keabhar aignechK >Book of einster@, facsi"ile re%rint. on!on,

*FF.

8T:( oth, Ke Mabinogion.K + #ols. Paris, *FF.

K;K( Keabhar na h&;i!hreK >Book of the )un Co@, facsi"ile re%rint.

on!on, *F3.

MACBA6<( A. MacBain, K/ty"ological )ictionary of the Gaelic anguage.K

6n#erness, *F2.



MAC)8;GA( Mac!ougall, K9olk an! :ero Tales.K on!on, *F*.

MAC=6<A$( J.M. Mackinlay, K9olk&lore of 5cottish ochs an! 5%rings.K

Glasgo, *FE.

MART6<( M. Martin, K)escri%tion of the ?estern 6slan!s of 5cotlan!KO+.

on!on, *3*2.

MA;R$( A. Maury, KCroyances et legen!es !u Moyen Age.K Paris, *F2.

M8<<6/R( ). Monnier, KTra!itions %o%ulaires co"%arees.K Paris, *F-1.

M88R/( A.?. Moore, K9olk&lore of the 6sle of Man.K *F*.

<;TT&M/$/R( A. <utt an! =. Meyer, KThe oyage of Bran.K + #ols. on!on,

*F-&*F3.

8'C;RR$ KMCK( /. 8'Curry, KManners an! Custo"s of the Ancient 6rish.K 1#ols. on!on, *F3E.

8'C;RR$ KM5. MatK( /. 8'Curry, KM5. Materials of Ancient 6rish :istory.K

)ublin, *F2*.

8'GRA)$( 5.:. 8'Gra!y, K5il#a Ga!elica.K + #ols. *F+.

R//5( Re#. ?.J. Rees, Ki#es of Ca"bro&British 5aints.K lan!o#ery,

*F-E.

R/6<AC:, B9( 5. Reinach, KBronHes 9igures !e la Gaule ro"aine.K Paris,*.

R/6<AC:, B9 KCatal. 5o""aireK( 5. Reinach, KCatalogue Co""aire !u Musee

!es AntinLuitee <ationalesKO1. Paris.

R/6<AC:, B9 CMR( 5. Reinach, KCultes, Mythes, et Religions.K + #ols.

Paris, *-.

RC( KRe#ue CeltiLue.K Paris, *F3 f.

R/</( C. Renel, KReligions !e la Gaule.K Paris *2.

R:$45, KAK( 5ir John Rhy4s, KThe Arthurian egen!.K 8Ifor!, *F*.

R:$45, KCBKO1( 5ir John Rhy4s, KCeltic BritainKO1. on!on, *F.

R:$45, KC9K( 5ir John Rhy4s, KCeltic 9olk&ore.K + #ols. 8Ifor!,

**.



R:$45, K:K( 5ir John Rhy4s, K:ibbert ectures on Celtic

:eathen!o".K on!on, *FFF.

5/B68T( P. 5ebillot, Ka 9olk&lore !e la 9rance.K 1 #ols. Paris, *1

f.

5=/</( ?.9. 5kene, K9our Ancient Books of ?ales.K + #ols. /!inburgh,

*F2F.

5T8=/5, KT6GK( ?hitley 5tokes, KThree 6rish Glossaries.K on!on, *F2+.

5T8=/5, KTri%. ifeK( ?hitley 5tokes, KThe Tri%artite ife of Patrick.K

on!on *FF3.

5T8=/5, K;5K( ?hitley 5tokes, K;rkeltischer 5%rachschatH.K Goettingen,

*F1 >in 9ick's Kergleichen!e ?oerterbuchKO1@.

TA$8R( 6. Taylor, K8rigin of the Aryans.K on!on, n.!.

KT5CK( KTransactions of 5ociety of Cy""ro!or.K

KT85K( KTransactions of the 8ssianic 5ociety.K )ublin *F-1&*F2*.

KTri%. ifeK( 5ee 5tokes.

?6)/( a!y ?il!e, KAncient egen!s an! 5u%erstitions of 6relan!.K +

#ols. *FF3.

?6<)65C:, KTainK( /. ?in!isch, K)ie altirische :el!ensage Tain Bo

Cualgne.K ei%Hig, *-.

?6<)65C:&5T8=/5, K6TK( /. ?in!isch an! ?. 5tokes, K6rische TeIte.K

ei%Hig, *FF f.

?88)&MART6<( ?oo!&Martin, K/l!er 9aiths of 6relan!.K + #ols. on!on,

*E.

KCPK( Keitschrift fuer Celtische Philologie.K :alle, *F3 f.

C:APT/R 6.

6<TR8);CT8R$.

To su""on a !ea! religion fro" its forgotten gra#e an! to "ake it tell

its story, oul! reLuire an enchanter's an!. 8ther ol! faiths, of



/gy%t, Babylon, Greece, Ro"e, are knon to us. But in their case

liturgies, "yths, theogonies, theologies, an! the accessories of cult,

re"ain to yiel! their re%ort of the outar! for" of hu"an belief an!

as%iration. :o scanty, on the other han!, are the recor!s of Celtic

religion The bygone faith of a %eo%le ho ha#e ins%ire! the orl! ith

noble !rea"s "ust be constructe! %ainfully, an! often in fear an!

tre"bling, out of frag"entary an!, in "any cases, transfor"e! re"ains.

?e ha#e the surface obser#ations of classical obser#ers, !e!ications in

the Ro"ano&Celtic area to go!s "ostly assi"ilate! to the go!s of the

conLuerors, figure! "onu"ents "ainly of the sa"e %erio!, coins, sy"bols,

%lace an! %ersonal na"es. 9or the 6rish Celts there is a "ass of ritten

"aterial foun! "ainly in ele#enth an! telfth century M55. Much of this,

in s%ite of alteration an! eIcision, is base! on !i#ine an! heroic

"yths, an! it also contains occasional notices of ritual. 9ro" ?ales

co"e !ocu"ents like the KMabinogionK, an! strange %oe"s the %ersonages

of hich are ancient go!s transfor"e!, but hich tell nothing of rite or

cult.+4 aluable hints are furnishe! by early ecclesiastical !ocu"ents,

but "ore i"%ortant is eIisting folk&custo", hich %reser#es so "uch ofthe ol! cult, though it has lost its "eaning to those ho no use it.

9olk&tales "ay also be inLuire! of, if e !iscri"inate beteen hat in

the" is Celtic an! hat is uni#ersal. astly, Celtic burial&"oun!s an!

other re"ains yiel! their testi"ony to ancient belief an! custo".

9ro" these sources e try to rebuil! Celtic %aganis" an! to guess at its

inner s%irit, though e are orking in the tilight on a hea% of

frag"ents. <o Celt has left us a recor! of his faith an! %ractice, an!

the unritten %oe"s of the )rui!s !ie! ith the". $et fro" these

frag"ents e see the Celt as the seeker after Go!, linking hi"self by

strong ties to the unseen, an! eager to conLuer the unknon by religiousrite or "agic art. 9or the things of the s%irit ha#e ne#er a%%eale! in

#ain to the Celtic soul, an! long ago classical obser#ers ere struck

ith the religiosity of the Celts. They neither forgot nor transgresse!

the la of the go!s, an! they thought that no goo! befell "en a%art fro"

their ill.E4 The sub"ission of the Celts to the )rui!s shos ho they

elco"e! authority in "atters of religion, an! all Celtic regions ha#e

been characterise! by religious !e#otion, easily %assing o#er to

su%erstition, an! by loyalty to i!eals an! lost causes. The Celts ere

born !rea"ers, as their eILuisite /lysiu" belief ill sho, an! "uch

that is s%iritual an! ro"antic in "ore than one /uro%ean literature is

!ue to the".

The analogy of religious e#olution in other faiths hel%s us in

reconstructing that of the Celts. Though no historic Celtic grou% as

racially %ure, the %rofoun! influence of the Celtic te"%era"ent soon

Celticise! the religious contributions of the non&Celtic ele"ent hich

"ay alrea!y ha#e ha! "any Celtic %arallels. Because a gi#en Celtic rite

or belief see"s to be un&Aryan, it nee! not necessarily be borroe!.

The Celts ha! a sa#age %ast, an!, conser#ati#e as they ere, they ke%t



"uch of it ali#e. 8ur business, therefore, lies ith Celtic religion as

a hole. These %ri"iti#e ele"ents ere there before the Celts "igrate!

fro" the ol! Aryan ho"e yet since they a%%ear in Celtic religion to

the en!, e s%eak of the" as Celtic. The earliest as%ect of that

religion, before the Celts beca"e a se%arate %eo%le, as a cult of

nature s%irits, or of the life "anifeste! in nature. But "en an! o"en

%robably ha! se%arate cults, an!, of the to, %erha%s that of the latter

is "ore i"%ortant. As hunters, "en orshi%%e! the ani"als they sle,

a%ologising to the" for the slaughter. This a%ologetic attitu!e, foun!

ith all %ri"iti#e hunters, is of the nature of a cult. 8ther ani"als,

too sacre! to be slain, oul! be %reser#e! an! orshi%%e!, the cult

gi#ing rise to !o"estication an! %astoral life, ith tote"is" as a

%robable factor. /arth, %ro!ucing #egetation, as the fruitful "other

but since the origin of agriculture is "ainly !ue to o"en, the /arth

cult oul! be %ractise! by the", as ell as, later, that of #egetation

an! corn s%irits, all regar!e! as fe"ale. As "en began to interest

the"sel#es in agriculture, they oul! join in the fe"ale cults, %robably

ith the result of changing the seI of the s%irits orshi%%e!. An

/arth&go! oul! take the %lace of the /arth&"other, or stan! as herconsort or son. egetation an! corn s%irits oul! often beco"e "ale,

though "any s%irits, e#en hen they ere eIalte! into !i#inities,

re"aine! fe"ale.

?ith the groth of religion the #aguer s%irits ten!e! to beco"e go!s an!

go!!esses, an! orshi%ful ani"als to beco"e anthro%o"or%hic !i#inities,

ith the ani"als as their sy"bols, atten!ants, or #icti"s. An! as the

cult of #egetation s%irits centre! in the ritual of %lanting an! soing,

so the cult of the !i#inities of groth centre! in great seasonal an!

agricultural festi#als, in hich the key to the groth of Celtic

religion is to be foun!. But the "igrating Celts, conLuering ne lan!s,e#ol#e! !i#inities of ar an! here the ol! fe"ale influence is still at

ork, since "any of these are fe"ale. 6n s%ite of %ossessing so "any

local ar&go!s, the Celts ere not "erely "en of ar. /#en the KeLuitesK

engage! in ar only hen occasion arose, an! agriculture as ell as

%astoral in!ustry as constantly %ractise!, both in Gaul an! Britain,

before the conLuest.14 6n 6relan!, the belief in the !e%en!ence of

fruitfulness u%on the king, shos to hat eItent agriculture flourishe!

there.-4 Music, %oetry, crafts, an! tra!e ga#e rise to culture

!i#inities, %erha%s e#ol#e! fro" go!s of groth, since later "yths

attribute! to the" both the origin of arts an! crafts, an! the

intro!uction of !o"estic ani"als a"ong "en. Possibly so"e culture go!sha! been orshi%ful ani"als, no orshi%%e! as go!s, ho ha! gi#en these

ani"als to "an. Culture&go!!esses still hel! their %lace a"ong

culture&go!s, an! ere regar!e! as their "others. The %ro"inence of

these !i#inities shos that the Celts ere "ore than a race of arriors.

The %antheon as thus a large one, but on the hole the !i#inities of

groth ere "ore generally i"%ortant. The ol!er nature s%irits an!

!i#ine ani"als ere ne#er Luite forgotten, es%ecially by the folk, ho



also %reser#e! the ol! rituals of #egetation s%irits, hile the go!s of

groth ere orshi%%e! at the great festi#als. $et in essence the loer

an! the higher cults ere one an! the sa"e, an!, sa#e here Ro"an

influence !estroye! Celtic religion, the ol!er %ri"iti#e stran!s are

e#eryhere a%%arent. The te"%era"ent of the Celt ke%t hi" close to

nature, an! he ne#er Luite !ro%%e! the %ri"iti#e ele"ents of his

religion. Moreo#er, the early influence of fe"ale cults of fe"ale

s%irits an! go!!esses re"aine! to the en! as another %re!o"inant factor.

Most of the Celtic !i#inities ere local in character, each tribe

%ossessing its on grou%, each go! ha#ing functions si"ilar to those of

other grou%s. 5o"e, hoe#er, ha! or gaine! a "ore uni#ersal character,

absorbing !i#inities ith si"ilar functions. 5till this local character

"ust be borne in "in!. The nu"erous !i#inities of Gaul, ith !iffering

na"es&&but, ju!ging by their assi"ilation to the sa"e Ro"an !i#inity,

si"ilar functions, are best un!erstoo! as go!s of local grou%s. This is

%robably true also of Britain an! 6relan!. But those go!s orshi%%e! far

an! i!e o#er the Celtic area "ay be go!s of the un!i#i!e! Celts, or

go!s of so"e !o"inant Celtic grou% eIten!ing their influence on allsi!es, or, in so"e cases, %o%ular go!s hose cult %asse! beyon! the

tribal boun!s. 6f it see" %recarious to see such close si"ilarity in the

local go!s of a %eo%le eIten!ing right across /uro%e, a%%eal can be "a!e

to the influence of the Celtic te"%era"ent, %ro!ucing e#eryhere the

sa"e results, an! to the ho"ogeneity of Celtic ci#ilisation, sa#e in

local areas, e.g. the 5outh of Gaul. Moreo#er, the co"%arison of the

#arious testi"onies of onlookers %oints to a general si"ilarity, hile

the %er"anence of the %ri"iti#e ele"ents in Celtic religion "ust ha#e

ten!e! to kee% it e#eryhere the sa"e. Though in Gaul e ha#e only

inscri%tions an! in 6relan! only !istorte! "yths, yet those testi"onies,

as ell as the e#i!ence of folk&sur#i#als in both regions, %oint to thesi"ilarity of religious %heno"ena. The )rui!s, as a "ore or less

organise! %riesthoo!, oul! assist in %reser#ing the general likeness.

Thus the %ri"iti#e nature&s%irits ga#e %lace to greater or lesser go!s,

each ith his se%arate !e%art"ent an! functions. Though groing

ci#ilisation ten!e! to se%arate the" fro" the soil, they ne#er Luite

lost touch ith it. 6n return for "an's orshi% an! sacrifices, they

ga#e life an! increase, #ictory, strength, an! skill. But these

sacrifices, ha! been an! still often ere rites in hich the

re%resentati#e of a go! as slain. 5o"e !i#inities ere orshi%%e! o#er

a i!e area, "ost ere go!s of local grou%s, an! there ere s%irits ofe#ery %lace, hill, oo!, an! strea". Magic rites "ingle! ith the cult,

but both ere gui!e! by an organise! %riesthoo!. An! as the Celts

belie#e! in unseen go!s, so they belie#e! in an unseen region hither

they %asse! after !eath.

8ur knole!ge of the higher si!e of Celtic religion is %ractically a

blank, since no !escri%tion of the inner s%iritual life has co"e !on to

us. :o far the Celts culti#ate! religion in our sense of the ter", or



ha! gli"%ses of Monotheis", or ere trouble! by a !ee% sense of sin, is

unknon. But a %eo%le hose s%iritual influence has later been so great,

"ust ha#e ha! gli"%ses of these things. 5o"e of the" "ust ha#e knon the

thirst of the soul for Go!, or sought a higher ethical stan!ar! than

that of their ti"e. The enthusiastic rece%tion of Christianity, the

!e#otion of the early Celtic saints, an! the character of the ol! Celtic

church, all suggest this.

The relation of the Celtic church to %aganis" as "ainly intolerant,

though not holly so. 6t often a!o%te! the less har"ful custo"s of the

%ast, "erging %agan festi#als in its on, foun!ing churches on the sites

of the ol! cult, !e!icating sacre! ells to a saint. A saint oul! #isit

the to"b of a %agan to hear an ol! e%ic rehearse!, or oul! call u%

%agan heroes fro" hell an! gi#e the" a %lace in %ara!ise. 8ther saints

recall !ea! heroes fro" the an! of the Blesse!, an! learn the nature of

that on!erlan! an! the heroic !ee!s

8f the ol! !ays, hich see" to be

Much ol!er than any history That is ritten in any book.

Rea!ing such narrati#es, e gain a lesson in the fine s%irit of

Christian tolerance an! Christian sy"%athy.

988T<8T/5(

+4 5o"e riters sa in the bar!ic %oetry a )rui!ic&esoteric syste" an!

traces of a cult %ractise! secretly by the bar!s&&the <eo&)rui!ic

heresy see )a#ies, KMyth. of the Brit. )rui!sK, *F :erbert, KThe

<eo&)rui!ic :eresyK, *FEF. 5e#eral 9rench riters sa in )rui!is" a"onotheistic faith, #eile! un!er %olytheis".

E4 i#y, #. 12 Caesar, #i. *2 )ion. :al. #ii. 3 Arrian, KCynegK.

III#. *.

14 Caesar, #i. *-, cf. #. *+, ha#ing age! ar, re"aine! there an!

culti#ate! the lan!s.

-4 Cf. Pliny, K:<K I#ii. 3, I#iii. *F on the heele! %loughs an!

agricultural "etho!s of Gauls an! Britons. Cf. also 5trabo, i#. *. +,

i#. -. - Giral!. Ca"b. KTo%. :ib.K i. 1, K)escr. Ca"b.K i. F Joyce,K5:K ii. +21.

C:APT/R 66.

T:/ C/T6C P/8P/.



5crutiny re#eals the fact that Celtic&s%eaking %eo%les are of !iffering

ty%es&&short an! !ark as ell as tall an! fairer :ighlan!ers or

?elsh"en, short, broa!&hea!e! Bretons, #arious ty%es of 6rish"en. Men

ith <orse na"es an! <orse as%ect ha#e the Gaelic. But all alike ha#e

the sa"e character an! te"%era"ent, a striking itness to the influence

hich the character as ell as the language of the Celts, hoe#er they

ere, "a!e on all ith ho" they "ingle!. /thnologically there "ay not

be a Celtic race, but so"ething as han!e! !on fro" the !ays of

co"%arati#e Celtic %urity hich el!e! !ifferent social ele"ents into a

co""on ty%e, foun! often here no Celtic tongue is no s%oken. 6t

e"erges here e least eI%ect it, an! the stoli! Anglo&5aIon "ay

su!!enly aaken to so"ething in hi"self !ue to a forgotten Celtic strain

in his ancestry.

To "ain theories of Celtic origins no hol! the fiel!(

>*@ The Celts are i!entifie! ith the %rogenitors of the short,brachyce%halic Al%ine race of Central /uro%e, eIisting there in

<eolithic ti"es, after their "igrations fro" Africa an! Asia. The ty%e

is foun! a"ong the 5la#s, in %arts of Ger"any an! 5can!ina#ia, an! in

"o!ern 9rance in the region of Caesar's Celtae, a"ong the Au#ergnats,

the Bretons, an! in oHere an! Jura. Re%resentati#es of the ty%e ha#e

been foun! in Belgian an! 9rench <eolithic gra#es.24 Professor 5ergi

calls this the /urasiatic race, an!, contrary to general o%inion,

i!entifies it ith the Aryans, a sa#age %eo%le, inferior to the

!olichoce%halic Me!iterranean race, hose language they Aryanise!.34

Professor =eane thinks that they ere the"sel#es an Aryanise! folk

before reaching /uro%e, ho in turn ga#e their acLuire! Celtic an!5la#ic s%eech to the %rece!ing "asses. ater ca"e the Belgae, Aryans, ho

acLuire! the Celtic s%eech of the %eo%le they conLuere!.F4

Broca assu"e! that the !ark, brachyce%halic %eo%le ho" he i!entifie!

ith Caesar's Celtae, !iffere! fro" the Belgae, ere conLuere! by the",

an! acLuire! the language of their conLuerors, hence rongly calle!

Celtic by %hilologists. The Belgae ere tall an! fair, an! o#erran Gaul,

eIce%t ALuitaine, "iIing generally ith the Celtae, ho in Caesar's ti"e

ha! thus an infusion of Belgic bloo!.4 But before this conLuest, the

Celtae ha! alrea!y "ingle! ith the aboriginal !olichoce%halic folk of

Gaul, 6berians, or Me!iterraneans of Professor 5ergi. The latter ha!a%%arently re"aine! co"%arati#ely %ure fro" a!"iIture in ALuitaine, an!

are %robably the ALuitani of Caesar.*4

But ere the short, brachyce%halic folk CeltsS Caesar says the %eo%le ho

call the"sel#es Celtae ere calle! Gauls by the Ro"ans, an! Gauls,

accor!ing to classical riters, ere tall an! fair.**4 :ence the Celtae

ere not a short, !ark race, an! Caesar hi"self says that Gauls

>inclu!ing Celtae@ looke! ith conte"%t on the short Ro"ans.*+4 5trabo



also says that Celtae an! Belgae ha! the sa"e Gaulish a%%earance, i.e.

tall an! fair. Caesar's state"ent that ALuitani, Galli, an! Belgae !iffer

in language, institutions, an! las is #ague an! unsu%%orte! by

e#i!ence, an! "ay "ean as to language no "ore than a !ifference in

!ialects. This is also suggeste! by 5trabo's or!s, Celtae an! Belgae

!iffer a little in language.*E4 <o classical riter !escribes the

Celts as short an! !ark, but the re#erse. 5hort, !ark %eo%le oul! ha#e

been calle! 6berians, ithout res%ect to skulls. Classical obser#ers

ere not craniologists. The short, brachyce%halic ty%e is no %ro"inent

in 9rance, because it has alays been so, eli"inating the tall, fair

Celtic ty%e. ConLuering Celts, feer in nu"ber than the broa! an!

narro&hea!e! aborigines, inter"arrie! or "a!e less lasting alliances

ith the". 6n course of ti"e the ty%e of the "ore nu"erous race as

boun! to %re#ail. /#en in Caesar's !ay the latter %robably outnu"bere!

the tall an! fair Celts, ho ha!, hoe#er, Celticise! the". But

classical riters, ho kne the true Celt as tall an! fair, sa that

ty%e only, just as e#ery one, on first #isiting 9rance or Ger"any, sees

his generalise! ty%e of 9rench"an or Ger"an e#eryhere. ater, he

"o!ifies his o%inion, but this the classical obser#ers !i! not !o.Caesar's ca"%aigns "ust ha#e !raine! Gaul of "any tall an! fair Celts.

This, ith the ten!ency of !ark ty%es to out&nu"ber fair ty%es in 5outh

an! Central /uro%e, "ay hel% to eI%lain the groing %ro"inence of the

!ark ty%e, though the tall, fair ty%e is far fro" unco""on.*14

>+@ The secon! theory, alrea!y antici%ate!, sees in Gauls an! Belgae a

tall, fair Celtic folk, s%eaking a Celtic language, an! belonging to the

race hich stretche! fro" 6relan! to Asia Minor, fro" <orth Ger"any to

the Po, an! ere "asters of Teutonic tribes till they ere !ri#en by

the" fro" the region beteen /lbe an! Rhine.*-4 5o"e Belgic tribes

clai"e! a Ger"anic ancestry,*24 but Ger"an as a or! sel!o" use!ith %recision, an! in this case "ay not "ean Teutonic. The fair hair of

this %eo%le has "a!e "any su%%ose that they ere akin to the Teutons.

But fairness is relati#e, an! the !ark Ro"ans "ay ha#e calle! bron hair

fair, hile they occasionally !istinguishe! beteen the fair Gauls an!

fairer Ger"ans. Their institutions an! their religions >K%aceK Professor

Rhy4s@ !iffere!, an! though they ere so long in contact the na"es of

their go!s an! %riests are unlike.*34 Their languages, again, though of

Aryan stock, !iffer "ore fro" each other than !oes Celtic fro" 6talic,

%ointing to a long %erio! of 6talo&Celtic unity, before 6taliotes an!

Celts se%arate!, an! Celts ca"e in contact ith Teutons.*F4 The ty%ical

Ger"an !iffers in "ental an! "oral Lualities fro" the ty%ical Celt.Contrast an east country 5cot, !escen!ant of Teutonic stock, ith a ?est

:ighlan!er, an! the !ifference lea%s to the eyes. Celts an! Ger"ans of

history !iffer, then, in relati#e fairness, character, religion, an!

language.

The tall, blon!e Teutonic ty%e of the Ro gra#es is !olichoce%halic. ?as

the Celtic ty%e >assu"ing that Broca's Celts ere not true Celts@

!olicho or brachyS Broca thinks the Belgae or =y"ri ere



!olichoce%halic, but all "ust agree ith hi" that the skulls are too fe

to generalise fro". Celtic iron&age skulls in Britain are

!olichoce%halic, %erha%s a recru!escence of the aboriginal ty%e. Broca's

=y"ric skulls are "esoce%halic this he attributes to crossing ith

the short roun!&hea!s. The e#i!ence is too scanty for generalisation,

hile the ?alloons, %erha%s !escen!ants of the Belgae, ha#e a high in!eI,

an! so"e Gauls of classical art are broa!&hea!e!.*4

5kulls of the British roun! barros >early Celtic BronHe Age@ are "ainly

broa!, the best s%eci"ens shoing affinity to <eolithic brachyce%halic

skulls fro" Grenelle >though their oners ere - inches shorter@,

5elaigneauI, an! Borreby.+4 )r. Be!!oe thinks that the narro&skulle!

Belgae on the hole reinforce! the "eso& or brachyce%halic roun! barro

folk in Britain. )r. Thurna" i!entifies the latter ith the Belgae

>Broca's =y"ri@, an! thinks that Gaulish skulls ere roun!, ith

beetling bros.+*4 Professors Ri%ley an! 5ergi, !isregar!ing their

!ifference in stature an! higher ce%halic in!eI, i!entify the" ith the

short Al%ine race >Broca's Celts@. This is negati#e! by Mr. =eane.++4

Might not both, hoe#er, ha#e originally s%rung fro" a co""on stock an!reache! /uro%e at !ifferent ti"esS+E4

But !o a fe hun!re! skulls justify these far&reaching conclusions

regar!ing races en!uring for thousan!s of yearsS At so"e #ery re"ote

%erio! there "ay ha#e been a Celtic ty%e, as at so"e further %erio!

there "ay ha#e been an Aryan ty%e. But the Celts, as e kno the", "ust

ha#e "ingle! ith the aborigines of /uro%e an! beco"e a "iIe! race,

though %reser#ing an! en!oing others ith their racial an! "ental

characteristics. 5o"e Gauls or Belgae ere !olichoce%halic, to ju!ge by

their skulls, others ere brachyce%halic, hile their fairness as a

relati#e ter". Classical obser#ers %robably generalise! fro" the higherclasses, of a %urer ty%e they tell us nothing of the %eo%le. But the

higher classes "ay ha#e ha! #arying skulls, as ell as stature an!

colour of hair,+14 an! 6rish teIts tell of a tall, fair, blue&eye!

stock, an! a short, !ark, !ark&eye! stock, in 6relan!. /#en in those

!istant ages e "ust consi!er the %eo%le on ho" the Celts i"%resse!

their characteristics, as ell as the Celts the"sel#es. ?hat ha%%ene! on

the /urasian ste%%e, the hy%othetical cra!le of the Aryans, hence the

Celts ca"e ste%%ing estar!s, see"s clear to so"e, but in truth is a

book seale! ith se#en seals. The "en hose Aryan s%eech as to !o"inate

far an! i!e "ay alrea!y ha#e %ossesse! !ifferent ty%es of skull, an!

that age as far fro" the #ery beginning.

Thus the Celts before setting out on their K?an!erjahreK "ay alrea!y

ha#e been a "iIe! race, e#en if their lea!ers ere of %urer stock. But

they ha! the bon! of co""on s%eech, institutions, an! religion, an! they

for"e! a co""on Celtic ty%e in Central an! ?estern /uro%e. 6nter"arriage

ith the alrea!y "iIe! <eolithic folk of Central /uro%e %ro!uce! further

re"o#al fro" the un"iIe! Celtic racial ty%e but though both reacte! on

each other as far as language, custo", an! belief ere concerne!, on the



hole the Celtic ele"ents %re!o"inate! in these res%ects. The Celtic

"igration into Gaul %ro!uce! further racial "ingling ith !escen!ants of

the ol! %alaeolithic stock, !olichoce%halic 6berians an! igurians, an!

brachyce%halic sarthy folk >Broca's Celts@. Thus e#en the first Celtic

arri#als in Britain, the Goi!els, ere a %eo%le of "iIe! race, though

%robably relati#ely %urer than the late co"ing Brythons, the latest of

ho" ha! %robably "ingle! ith the Teutons. :ence a"ong Celtic&s%eaking

folk or their !escen!ants&&short, !ark, broa!&bea!e! Bretons, tall, fair

or rufous :ighlan!ers, tall chestnut&haire! ?elsh"en or 6rish"en,

:ighlan!ers of <orse !escent, short, !ark, narro&hea!e! :ighlan!ers,

6rish"en, an! ?elsh"en&&there is a co""on Celtic KfaciesK, the result of

ol! Celtic characteristics %oerful enough so to i"%ress the"sel#es on

such #arie! %eo%les in s%ite of hat they ga#e to the Celtic inco"ers.

These %eo%les beca"e Celtic, an! Celtic in s%eech an! character they

ha#e re"aine!, e#en here ancestral %hysical ty%es are reasserting

the"sel#es. The folk of a Celtic ty%e, hether %re&Celtic, Celtic, or

<orse, ha#e all s%oken a Celtic language an! eIhibit the sa"e ol! Celtic

characteristics&&#anity, loLuacity, eIcitability, fickleness,

i"agination, lo#e of the ro"antic, fi!elity, attach"ent to fa"ily ties,senti"ental lo#e of their country, religiosity %assing o#er easily to

su%erstition, an! a co"%arati#ely high !egree of seIual "orality. 5o"e

of these traits ere alrea!y note! by classical obser#ers.

Celtic s%eech ha! early lost the initial K%K of ol! 6n!o&/uro%ean

s%eech, eIce%t in or!s beginning ith K%tK an!, %erha%s, K%sK. Celtic

K%areK >at. K%raeK@ beca"e KareK, "et ith in KAre"oriciK, the !ellers

by the sea, KAreclutaK, by the Cly!e, the region atere! by the

Cly!e. 6rish KathairK, ManI KayrK, an! 6rish KiasgK, re%resent

res%ecti#ely atin K%aterK an! K%iscisK. KPK occurring beteen #oels

as also lost, e.g. 6rish KcaoraK, shee%, is fro" Kka%eraIK KforK,u%on >at. Ksu%erK@, fro" Ku%erK. This change took %lace before the

Goi!elic Celts broke aay an! in#a!e! Britain in the tenth century B.C.,

but hile Celts an! Teutons ere still in contact, since Teutons

borroe! or!s ith initial K%K, e.g. Gothic KfairguniK, "ountain,

fro" Celtic K%ercunionK, later K/rcunioK, the :ercynian forest. The loss

"ust ha#e occurre! before * B.C. But after the se%aration of the

Goi!elic grou% a further change took %lace. Goi!els %reser#e! the soun!

re%resente! by KLuK, or "ore si"%ly by KcK or KchK, but this as change!

into K%K by the re"aining continental Celts, ho carrie! ith the" into

Gaul, 5%ain, 6taly, an! Britain >the Brythons@ or!s in hich KLK beca"e

K%K. The British K/%i!iiK is fro" Gaulish Ke%osK, horse, hich is in8l! 6rish KechK >at. KeLuusK@. The Parisii take their na"e fro"

KarisiiK, the Pictones or Picta#i of Poictiers fro" KPictosK >hich in

the %lural KPi!iK gi#es us Picts@, !eri#e! fro" KLuictoK. This change

took %lace after the Goi!elic in#asion of Britain in the tenth century

B.C. 8n the other han!, so"e continental Celts "ay later ha#e regaine!

the %oer of %ronouncing KLK. 6n Gaul the KLK of K5eLuanaK >5eine@ as

not change! to K%K, an! a tribe !elling on its banks as calle! the

5eLuani. This assu"es that 5eLuana as a %re&Celtic or!, %ossibly



igurian.+-4 Professor Rhy4s thinks, hoe#er, that Goi!elic tribes,

i!entifie! by hi" ith Caesar's Celtae, eIiste! in Gaul an! 5%ain before

the co"ing of the Galli, an! ha! %reser#e! KLK in their s%eech. To the"

e oe 5eLuana, as ell as certain na"es ith KLK in 5%ain.+24 This at

least is certain, that Goi!elic Celts of the KLK grou% occu%ie! Gaul an!

5%ain before reaching Britain an! 6relan!. 6rish tra!ition an!

archaeological !ata confir" this.+34 But hether their !escen!ants ere

re%resente! by Caesar's Celtae "ust be uncertain. Celtae an! Galli,

accor!ing to Caesar, ere one an! the sa"e,+F4 an! "ust ha#e ha! the

sa"e general for" of s%eech.

The !ialects of Goi!elic s%eech&&6rish, ManI, Gaelic, an! that of the

continental Goi!els&&%reser#e! the KLK soun! those of Gallo&Brythonic

s%eech&&Gaulish, Breton, ?elsh, Cornish&&change! KLK into K%K. The

s%eech of the Picts, %erha%s connecte! ith the Pictones of Gaul, also

ha! this K%K soun!. ?ho, then, ere the PictsS Accor!ing to Professor

Rhy4s they ere %re&Aryans,+4 but they "ust ha#e been un!er the

influence of Brythonic Celts. )r. 5kene regar!e! the" as Goi!els

s%eaking a Goi!elic !ialect ith Brythonic for"s.E4 Mr. <icholsonthinks they ere Goi!els ho ha! %reser#e! the 6n!o&/uro%ean K%K.E*4

But "ight they not be !escen!ants of a Brythonic grou%, arri#ing early

in Britain an! !ri#en northar!s by neco"ersS Professor ?in!isch an!

)r. 5tokes regar! the" as Celts, allie! to the Brythons rather than to

the Goi!els, the %honetics of their s%eech rese"bling those of ?elsh

rather than 6rish.E+4

The theory of an early Goi!elic occu%ation of Britain has been conteste!

by Professor Meyer,EE4 ho hol!s that the first Goi!els reache! Britain

fro" 6relan! in the secon! century, hile )r. MacBainE14 as of the

o%inion that /nglan!, a%art fro" ?ales an! Cornall, kne no Goi!els,the %lace&na"es being Brythonic. But unless all Goi!els reache! 6relan!

fro" Gaul or 5%ain, as so"e !i!, Britain as "ore easily reache! than

6relan! by "igrating Goi!els fro" the Continent. Pro"inent Goi!elic

%lace&na"es oul! beco"e Brythonic, but insignificant %laces oul!

retain their Goi!elic for", an! to these e "ust look for !ecisi#e

e#i!ence.E-4 A Goi!elic occu%ation by the ninth century B.C. is

suggeste! by the na"e Cassiteri!es >a or! of the KLK grou%@ a%%lie!

to Britain. 6f the Goi!els occu%ie! Britain first, they "ay ha#e calle!

their lan! KretanisK or KritanisK, hich Pictish in#a!ers oul! change

to KPretanisK, foun! in ?elsh $nys Pri!ain, Pri!ain's 6sle, or 6sle of

the Picts, %ointing to the original un!erlying the Greek Greek(Pretanikai <esoi4 or Pictish 6sles,E24 though the change "ay be !ue to

continental K%K Celts tra!ing ith KLK Celts in Britain. ?ith the

Pictish occu%ation oul! agree the fact that 6rish Goi!els calle! the

Picts ho ca"e to 6relan! KCruithneNritaniNPre&taniK. 6n 6relan! they

al"ost certainly a!o%te! Goi!elic s%eech.

?hether or not all the Pictish in#a!ers of Britain ere calle!

Picta#i, this or! or Picti, %erha%s fro" KLuictoK >6rish KcichtK,



engra#er@,E34 beca"e a general na"e for this %eo%le. KK ha! been

change! into K%K on the Continent hence Picta#i or Pictones, the

tattooe! "en, those ho engra#e! figures on their bo!ies, as the

Picts certainly !i!. )is%ossesse! an! !ri#en north by inco"ing Brythons

an! Belgae, they later beca"e the #irulent ene"ies of Ro"e. 6n E2

/u"enius !escribes all the northern tribes as Cale!onii an! other

Picts, hile so"e of the tribes "entione! by Ptole"y ha#e Brythonic

na"es or na"es ith Gaulish cognates. Place&na"es in the Pictish area,

%ersonal na"es in the Pictish chronicle, an! Pictish na"es like

Peanfahel,EF4 ha#e Brythonic affinities. 6f the Picts s%oke a

Brythonic !ialect, 5. Colu"ba's nee! of an inter%reter hen %reaching to

the" oul! be eI%laine!.E4 ater the Picts ere conLuere! by 6rish

Goi!els, the 5cotti. The Picts, hoe#er, "ust alrea!y ha#e "ingle! ith

aboriginal %eo%les an! ith Goi!els, if these ere alrea!y in Britain,

an! they "ay ha#e a!o%te! their su%%ose! non&Aryan custo"s fro" the

aborigines. 8n the other han!, the "atriarchate see"s at one ti"e to

ha#e been Celtic, an! it "ay ha#e been no "ore than a conser#ati#e

sur#i#al in the Pictish royal house, as it as elsehere.14 Britons,

as ell as Cale!onii, ha! i#es in co""on.1*4 As to tattooing, it as%ractise! by the 5cotti >the scarre! an! %ainte! "enS@, an! the

Britons !ye! the"sel#es ith oa!, hile hat see" to be tattoo "arks

a%%ear on faces on Gaulish coins.1+4 Tattooing, %ainting, an!

scarifying the bo!y are #arieties of one general custo", an! little

stress can be lai! on Pictish tattooing as in!icating a racial

!ifference. 6ts %ur%ose "ay ha#e been orna"ental, or %ossibly to i"%art

an as%ect of fierceness, or the figures "ay ha#e been tote" "arks, as

they are elsehere. 9inally, the !escri%tion of the Cale!onii, a Pictish

%eo%le, %ossessing fla"ing hair an! "ighty li"bs, shos that they

!iffere! fro" the short, !ark %re&Celtic folk.1E4

The Pictish %roble" "ust re"ain obscure, a elco"e %uHHle to

antiLuaries, %hilologists, an! ethnologists. 8ur knole!ge of Pictish

religion is too scanty for the inter%retation of Celtic religion to be

affecte! by it. But e kno that the Picts offere! sacrifice before

ar&&a Celtic custo", an! ha! )rui!s, as also ha! the Celts.

The earliest Celtic king!o" as in the region beteen the u%%er aters

of the Rhine, the /lbe, an! the )anube, here %robably in <eolithic

ti"es the for"ation of their Celtic s%eech as a !istincti#e language

began. :ere they first beca"e knon to the Greeks, %robably as a

se"i&"ythical %eo%le, the :y%erboreans&&the folk !elling beyon! theRi%oean "ountains hence Boreas ble&&ith ho" :ecataeus in the fourth

century i!entifies the". But they ere no knon as Celts, an! their

territory as Celtica, hile Galatas as use! as a synony" of Celtae,

in the thir! century B.C.114 The na"e generally a%%lie! by the Ro"ans

to the Celts as Galli a ter" finally confine! by the" to the %eo%le

of Gaul.1-4 5uccessi#e ban!s of Celts ent forth fro" this

co"%arati#ely restricte! territory, until the Celtic e"%ire for so"e

centuries before E B.C. inclu!e! the British 6sles, %arts of the



6berian %eninsula, Gaul, <orth 6taly, Belgiu", :ollan!, great %art of

Ger"any, an! Austria. ?hen the Ger"an tribes re#olte!, Celtic ban!s

a%%eare! in Asia Minor, an! re"aine! there as the Galatian Celts.

Archaeological !isco#eries ith a Celtic KfaciesK ha#e been "a!e in "ost

of these lan!s but e#en "ore striking is the itness of %lace&na"es.

Celtic K!unonK, a fort or castle >the Gaelic K!unK@, is foun! in

co"%oun! na"es fro" 6relan! to 5outhern Russia. KMagosK, a fiel!, is

"et ith in Britain, 9rance, 5itHerlan!, Prussia, 6taly, an! Austria.

Ri#er an! "ountain na"es fa"iliar in Britain occur on the Continent. The

Pennine range of Cu"berlan! has the sa"e na"e as the A%%enines. Ri#ers

na"e! for their inherent !i#inity, K!e#osK, are foun! in Britain an! on

the Continent&&)ee, )e#a, etc.

Besi!es this linguistic, ha! the Celts also a %olitical unity o#er their

great e"%ire, un!er one hea!S 5uch a unity certainly !i! not %re#ail

fro" 6relan! to the Balkan %eninsula, but it %re#aile! o#er a large %art

of the Celtic area. i#y, folloing Ti"agenes, ho %erha%s cite! a lost

Celtic e%os, s%eaks of king A"bicatus ruling o#er the Celts fro" 5%ain

to Ger"any, an! sen!ing his sister's sons, Bello#esus an! 5ego#esus,ith "any folloers, to foun! ne colonies in 6taly an! the :ercynian

forest.124 Mythical as this "ay be, it suggests the hege"ony of one

tribe or one chief o#er other tribes an! chiefs, for i#y says that the

so#ereign %oer reste! ith the Bituriges ho a%%ointe! the king of

Celticu", #iH. A"bicatus. 5o"e such unity is necessary to eI%lain Celtic

%oer in the ancient orl!, an! it as "a!e %ossible by unity of race or

at least of the congeries of Celticise! %eo%les, by religious

soli!arity, an! %robably by regular gatherings of all the kings or

chiefs. 6f the )rui!s ere a Celtic %riesthoo! at this ti"e, or alrea!y

for"e! a cor%oration as they !i! later in Gaul, they "ust ha#e

en!ea#oure! to for" an! %reser#e such a unity. An! if it as ne#er soco"%act as i#y's or!s suggest, it "ust ha#e been regar!e! as an i!eal

by the Celts or by their %oets, A"bicatus ser#ing as a central figure

roun! hich the i!eas of e"%ire crystallise!. The hege"ony eIiste! in

Gaul, here the Ar#erni an! their king clai"e! %oer o#er the other

tribes, an! here the Ro"ans trie! to eaken the Celtic unity by

o%%osing to the" the Ae!ni.134 6n Belgiu" the hege"ony as in the han!s

of the 5uessiones, to hose king Belgic tribes in Britain sub"itte!.1F4

6n 6relan! the high king as su%re"e o#er other s"aller kings, an! in

Galatia the unity of the tribes as %reser#e! by a council ith regular

asse"blies.14

The !iffusion of the A"bicatus legen! oul! hel% to %reser#e unity by

recalling the "ythic greatness of the %ast. The Boii an! 6nsubri

a%%eale! to transal%ine Gauls for ai! by re"in!ing the" of the !ee!s of

their ancestors.-4 <or oul! the )rui!s o"it to infuse into their

%u%ils' "in!s the senti"ent of national greatness. 9or this an! for

other reasons, the Ro"ans, to ho" the so#ereignty of all Gaul as an

obnoIious atch&or!, en!ea#oure! to su%%ress the".-*4 But the Celts

ere too i!ely scattere! e#er to for" a co"%act e"%ire.-+4 The Ro"an



e"%ire eIten!e! itself gra!ually in the consciousness of its %oer the

cohesion of the Celts in an e"%ire or un!er one king as "a!e i"%ossible

by their "igrations an! !iffusion. Their unity, such as it as, as

broken by the re#olt of the Teutonic tribes, an! their subjugation as

co"%lete! by Ro"e. The !rea"s of i!e e"%ire re"aine! !rea"s. 9or the

Celts, in s%ite of their #igour, ha#e been a race of !rea"ers, their

conLuests in later ti"es, those of the s%irit rather than of the "aile!

fist. Their su%eriority has consiste! in i"%arting to others their

characteristics organise! unity an! a #ast e"%ire coul! ne#er be

theirs.

988T<8T/5(

24 Ri%ley, KRaces of /uro%eK ?ilser, K'Anthro%ologieK, Ii#. 11

Collignon, Kibi!.K *&+ Broca, KRe#. !'Anthro%.K ii. -F ff.

34 5ergi, KThe Me!iterranean RaceK, +1* ff., +2E ff.

F4 =eane, KMan, Past an! PresentK, -** ff., -+*, -+F.

4 Broca, KMe". !'Anthro%.K i. E3 ff. :o#elacLue thinks, ith =eane,

that the Gauls learne! Celtic fro" the !ark roun!&hea!s. But Galatian

an! British Celts, ho ha! ne#er been in contact ith the latter, s%oke

Celtic. 5ee :ol"es, KCaesar's ConLuest of GaulK, E**&E*+.

*4 Caesar, i. * Collignon, KMe". 5oc. !'Anthro%. !e ParisK, EO"e ser.

i. 23.

**4 Caesar, i. *.

*+4 Caesar, ii. E.

*E4 Caesar, i. * 5trabo, i#. *. *.

*14 Cf. :ol"es, +- Be!!oe, K5cottish Re#ieK, IiI. 1*2.

*-4 )'Arbois, Kes CeltesK, *3-.

*24 Caesar, ii. 1 5trabo, #ii. *. +. Ger"ans are taller an! fairer than

Gauls Tacitus, KAgric.K ii. Cf. Be!!oe, KJA6K II. E-1&E--.

*34 )'Arbois, KP:K ii. E31. ?elsh Gy!ion an! Teutonic ?uotan "ay ha#e

the sa"e root, see %. *-. Celtic Taranis has been co"%are! to )onar,

but there is no connection, an! Taranis as not certainly a thun!er&go!.

Much of the folk&religion as alike, but this a%%lies to folk&religion

e#eryhere.

*F4 )'Arbois, ii. +-*.



*4 Be!!oe, K'Anthro%ologieK, #. -*2. Tall, fair, an! highly

brachyce%halic ty%es are still foun! in 9rance, Kibi!.K i. +*E

Bortran!&Reinach, Kes CeltesK, E.

+4 Be!!oe, -*2 K'Anthro%.K, #. 2E Taylor, F* Greenell, KBritish

BarrosK, 2F.

+*4 K9ort. Re#.K I#i. E+F KMe". of on!on Anthr. 5oc.K, *F2-.

++4 Ri%ley, E 5ergi, +1E =eane, -+ Taylor, **+.

+E4 Taylor, *++, +-.

+14 The ?alloons are both !ark an! fair.

+-4 )'Arbois, KP:K ii. *E+.

+24 Rhy4s, KProc. Phil. 5oc.K *F* Celtae an! Galli, KProc. Brit.

Aca!.K ii. )'Arbois %oints out that e !o not kno that these or!s areCeltic >KRCK Iii, 13F@.

+34 5ee %%. -*, E32.

+F4 Caesar, i. *.

+4 KCBKO1 *2.

E4 5kene, i. ch. F see %. *E-.

E*4 KCPK iii. EF K=eltic ResearchesK.

E+4 ?in!isch, =elt. 5%rachen, /rsch&Gruber's K/ncylo%ae!ieK 5tokes,

Kinguistic alue of the 6rish AnnalsK.

EE4 KT:5CK *F-&*F2, -- f.

E14 KCMK Iii. 1E1.

E-4 6n the 6sle of 5kye, here, looking at na"es of %ro"inent %laces

alone, <orse !eri#ati#es are to Gaelic as E to +, they are as * to -

hen na"es of insignificant %laces, untouche! by <orse influence, areinclu!e!.

E24 Rhy4s, KCBKO1 +1*.

E34 )'Arbois, Kes CeltesK, ++.

EF4 Be!e, K/ccl. :ist.K i. *+.



E4 A!a"nan, Kita 5. Col.K

14 5ee %. +++.

1*4 )io Cass. lII#i. *+ Caesar, #. *1. 5ee %. ++E.

1+4 6si!ore, K/ty"ol.K iI. +, *E Rhy4s, KCBK +1+&+1E Caesar, #. *1

<icholson, KCPK in. EE+.

1E4 Tacitus, KAgric.K ii.

114 6f KCeltaeK is fro" KLeloK, to raise, it "ay "ean the lofty,

just as "any sa#ages call the"sel#es the "en, K%ar eIcellenceK.

Rhy4s !eri#es it fro" KLelK, to slay, an! gi#es it the sense of

arriors. 5ee :ol!er, Ks.#.K 5tokes, K;5K FE. KGalataeK is fro" KgalaK

>6rish KgalK@, bra#ery. :ence %erha%s arriors.

1-4 Galli "ay be connecte! ith Galatae, but )'Arbois !enies this.

9or all these titles see his KP:K ii. E2 ff.

124 i#y, #. E* f. )'Arbois, KP:K ii. E1, E*.

134 5trabo, i#. *. E Caesar, i. E*, #ii. 1 K9rag. :ist. Graec.K i.

1E3.

1F4 Caesar, ii. 1.

14 5trabo, Iii. -. *.

-4 Polybius, ii. ++.

-*4 Caesar, i. +, *&E.

-+4 8n the subject of Celtic unity see Jullian, )u %atriotis"e

gaulois, KRCK IIiii. E3E.

C:APT/R 666.

T:/ G8)5 89 GA; A<) T:/ C8<T6</<TA C/T5.

The %assage in hich Caesar su"s u% the Gaulish %antheon runs( They

orshi% chiefly the go! Mercury of hi" there are "any sy"bols, an! they

regar! hi" as the in#entor of all the arts, as the gui!e of tra#ellers,

an! as %ossessing great influence o#er bargains an! co""erce. After hi"

they orshi% A%ollo an! Mars, Ju%%iter an! Miner#a. About these they



hol! "uch the sa"e beliefs as other nations. A%ollo heals !iseases,

Miner#a teaches the ele"ents of in!ustry an! the arts, Ju%%iter rules

o#er the hea#ens, Mars !irects ar.... All the Gauls assert that they

are !escen!e! fro" )is%ater, their %rogenitor.-E4

As ill be seen in this cha%ter, the Gauls ha! "any other go!s than

these, hile the Ro"an go!s, by hose na"es Caesar calls the Celtic

!i#inities, %robably only a%%roIi"ately corres%on!e! to the" in

functions. As the Greeks calle! by the na"es of their on go!s those of

/gy%t, Persia, an! Babylonia, so the Ro"ans i!entifie! Greek, Teutonic,

an! Celtic go!s ith theirs. The i!entification as sel!o" co"%lete, an!

often eIten!e! only to one %articular function or attribute. But, as in

Gaul, it as often %art of a state %olicy, an! there the fusion of cults

as inten!e! to break the %oer of the )rui!s. The Gauls see" to ha#e

a!o%te! Ro"an ci#ilisation easily, an! to ha#e acLuiesce! in the %rocess

of assi"ilation of their !i#inities to those of their conLuerors. :ence

e ha#e thousan!s of inscri%tions in hich a go! is calle! by the na"e

of the Ro"an !eity to ho" he as assi"ilate! an! by his on Celtic

na"e&&Ju%iter Taranis, A%ollo Grannus, etc. 8r so"eti"es to the na"e ofthe Ro"an go! is a!!e! a !escri%ti#e Celtic e%ithet or a or! !eri#e!

fro" a Celtic %lace&na"e. Again, since Augustus reinstate! the cult of

the ares, ith hi"self as chief ar, the e%ithet Augustus as gi#en to

all go!s to ho" the character of the ares coul! be ascribe!, e.g.

Belenos Augustus. Cults of local go!s beca"e cults of the genius of the

%lace, cou%le! ith the genius of the e"%eror. 6n so"e cases, hoe#er,

the nati#e na"e stan!s alone. The %rocess as ai!e! by art. Celtic go!s

are re%resente! after Greco&Ro"an or Greco&/gy%tian "o!els. 5o"eti"es

these carry a nati#e !i#ine sy"bol, or, in a fe cases, the ty%e is

%urely nati#e, e.g. that of Cernunnos. Thus the nati#e %aganis" as

largely transfor"e! before Christianity a%%eare! in Gaul. Many Ro"ango!s ere orshi%%e! as such, not only by the Ro"ans in Gaul, but by the

Gauls, an! e fin! there also traces of the 8riental cults affecte! by

the Ro"ans.-14

There ere %robably in Gaul "any local go!s, tribal or otherise, of

roa!s an! co""erce, of the arts, of healing, etc., ho, bearing

!ifferent na"es, "ight easily be i!entifie! ith each other or ith

Ro"an go!s. Caesar's Mercury, Mars, Miner#a, etc., %robably inclu!e "any

local Miner#as, Mars, an! Mercuries. There "ay, hoe#er, ha#e been a fe

great go!s co""on to all Gaul, uni#ersally orshi%%e!, besi!es the

nu"erous local go!s, so"e of ho" "ay ha#e been a!o%te! fro" theaborigines. An eIa"ination of the !i#ine na"es in :ol!er's

KAltceltischer 5%rachschatHK ill sho ho nu"erous the local go!s of

the continental Celts "ust ha#e been. Professor Anyl reckons that +3

go!s are "entione! once on inscri%tions, +1 tice, ** thrice, * four

ti"es, E fi#e ti"es, + se#en ti"es, 1 fifteen ti"es, * nineteen ti"es

>Grannos@, an! * thirty&nine ti"es >[email protected]

The go! or go!s i!entifie! ith Mercury ere #ery %o%ular in Gaul, as



Caesar's or!s an! the itness of %lace&na"es !eri#e! fro" the Ro"an na"e

of the go! sho. These ha! %robably su%%lante! earlier na"es !eri#e!

fro" those of the corres%on!ing nati#e go!s. Many te"%les of the go!

eIiste!, es%ecially in the region of the Allobrogi, an! bronHe

statuettes of hi" ha#e been foun! in abun!ance. Pliny also !escribes a

colossal statue !esigne! for the Ar#erni ho ha! a great te"%le of the

go! on the Puy !e )o"e.-24 Mercury as not necessarily the chief go!,

an! at ti"es, e.g. in ar, the nati#e ar&go!s oul! be %ro"inent. The

nati#e na"es of the go!s assi"ilate! to Mercury are "any in nu"ber in

so"e cases they are e%ithets, !eri#e! fro" the na"es of %laces here a

local Mercury as orshi%%e!, in others they are !eri#e! fro" so"e

function of the go!s.-34 8ne of these titles is Artaios, %erha%s

cognate ith 6rish KartK, go!, or connecte! ith KartosK, bear.

Professor Rhy4s, hoe#er, fin!s its cognate in ?elsh KarK, %loughe!

lan!, as if one of the go!'s functions connecte! hi" ith

agriculture.-F4 This is su%%orte! by another inscri%tion to Mercurius

Cultor at ?urte"berg. ocal go!s of agriculture "ust thus ha#e been

assi"ilate! to Mercury. A go! Moccus, sine, as also i!entifie! ith

Mercury, an! the sine as a freLuent re%resentati#e of the corn&s%iritor of #egetation !i#inities in /uro%e. The flesh of the ani"al as often

"iIe! ith the see! corn or burie! in the fiel!s to %ro"ote fertility.

The sine ha! been a sacre! ani"al a"ong the Celts, but ha! a%%arently

beco"e an anthro%o"or%hic go! of fertility, Moccus, assi"ilate! to

Mercury, %erha%s because the Greek :er"es cause! fertility in flocks an!

her!s. 5uch a go! as one of a class hose i"%ortance as great a"ong

the Celts as an agricultural %eo%le.

Co""erce, "uch !e#elo%e! a"ong the settle! Gauls, ga#e rise to a go! or

go!s ho guar!e! roa!s o#er hich "erchants tra#elle!, an! boun!aries

here their transactions took %lace. :ence e ha#e an inscri%tion fro" $orkshire, To the go! ho in#ente! roa!s an! %aths, hile another

local go! of roa!s, eLuate! ith Mercury, as Ci"iacinus.-4

Another go!, 8g"ios, a nati#e go! of s%eech, ho !ras "en by chains

fastene! to the ti% of his tongue, is i!entifie! in ucian ith

:eracles, an! is i!entical ith the Goi!elic 8g"a.24 /loLuence an!

s%eech are i"%ortant "atters a"ong %ri"iti#e %eo%les, an! this go! has

"ore likeness to Mercury as a culture&go! than to :eracles, Greek

riters s%eaking of eloLuence as bin!ing "en ith the chains of :er"es.

5e#eral local go!s, of agriculture, co""erce, an! culture, ere thusi!entifie! ith Mercury, an! the Celtic Mercury as so"eti"es orshi%%e!

on hillto%s, one of the e%ithets of the go!, )u"ias, being connecte!

ith the Celtic or! for hill or "oun!. 6rish go!s ere also associate!

ith "oun!s.

Many local go!s ere i!entifie! ith A%ollo both in his ca%acity of go!

of healing an! also that of go! of light.2*4 The to functions are not

inco"%atible, an! this is suggeste! by the na"e Grannos, go! of ther"al



s%rings both in Britain an! on the Continent. The na"e is connecte! ith

a root hich gi#es or!s "eaning burning, shining, etc., an! fro"

hich co"es also 6rish KgrianK, sun. The go! is still re"e"bere! in a

chant sung roun! bonfires in Au#ergne. A sheaf of corn is set on fire,

an! calle! Granno "io, hile the %eo%le sing, Granno, "y frien!

Granno, "y father Granno, "y "other.2+4 Another go! of ther"al

s%rings as Bor#o, Bor"o, or Bor"anus, hose na"e is !eri#e! fro"

Kbor#oK, hence ?elsh KberK, boiling, an! is e#i!ently connecte! ith

the bubbling of the s%rings.2E4 oti#e tablets inscribe! Grannos or

Bor#o sho that the offerers !esire! healing for the"sel#es or others.

The na"e Belenos foun! o#er a i!e area, but "ainly in ALuileia, co"es

fro" Kbelo&sK, bright, an! %robably "eans the shining one. 6t is thus

the na"e of a Celtic sun&go!, eLuate! ith A%ollo in that character. 6f

he is the Belinus referre! to by Geoffrey of Mon"outh,214 his cult "ust

ha#e eIten!e! into Britain fro" the Continent, an! he is often "entione!

by classical riters, hile "uch later Ausonius s%eaks of his %riest in

Gaul.2-4 Many %lace an! %ersonal na"es %oint to the %o%ularity of his

cult, an! inscri%tions sho that he, too, as a go! of health an! ofhealing&s%rings. The %lant KBelinuntiaK as calle! after hi" an!

#enerate! for its healing %oers.224 The sun&go!'s functions of light

an! fertility easily %asse! o#er into those of health&gi#ing, as our

stu!y of Celtic festi#als ill sho.

A go! ith the na"e Ma%onos, connecte! ith or!s !enoting

youthfulness, is foun! in /nglan! an! Gaul, eLuate! ith A%ollo, ho

hi"self is calle! KBonus PuerK in a )acian inscri%tion. Another go!

Mogons or Mogounos, hose na"e is !eri#e! fro" KMagoK, to increase,

an! suggests the i!ea of youthful strength, "ay be a for" of the

sun&go!, though so"e e#i!ence %oints to his ha#ing been a sky&go!.234

The Celtic A%ollo is referre! to by classical riters. )io!orus s%eaks

of his circular te"%le in an islan! of the :y%erboreans, a!orne! ith

#oti#e offerings. The kings of the city here the te"%le stoo!, an! its

o#erseers, ere calle! Borea!s, an! e#ery nineteenth year the go!

a%%eare! !ancing in the sky at the s%ring eLuinoI.2F4 The

i!entifications of the te"%le ith 5tonehenge an! of the Borea!s ith

the Bar!s are Luite hy%othetical. A%ollonius says that the Celts

regar!e! the aters of /ri!anus as !ue to the tears of A%ollo&&%robably

a nati#e "yth attributing the creation of s%rings an! ri#ers to the

tears of a go!, eLuate! by the Greeks ith A%ollo.24 The Celticsun&go!, as has been seen, as a go! of healing s%rings.

5o"e siIty na"es or titles of Celtic ar&go!s are knon, generally

eLuate! ith Mars.34 These ere %robably local tribal !i#inities

regar!e! as lea!ing their orshi%%ers to battle. 5o"e of the na"es sho

that these go!s ere thought of as "ighty arriors, e.g. CaturiI,

battle&king, Belatu&Ca!ros&&a co""on na"e in Britain&&%erha%s "eaning

co"ely in slaughter,3*4 an! AlbioriI, orl!&king.3+4 Another na"e,



Rigisa"us, fro" KriIK an! Ksa"usK, like to, gi#es the i!ea of

king&like.3E4

Toutatis, Totatis, an! Tutatis are foun! in inscri%tions fro" 5eckau,

$ork, an! 8l! Carlisle, an! "ay be i!entifie! ith ucan's Teutates, ho

ith Taranis an! /sus "entione! by hi", is regar!e! as one of three

%an&Celtic go!s.314 :a! this been the case e shoul! ha#e eI%ecte! to

fin! "any "ore inscri%tions to the". The scholiast on ucan i!entifies

Teutates no ith Mars, no ith Mercury. :is na"e is connecte! ith

KteutaK, tribe, an! he is thus a tribal ar&go!, regar!e! as the

e"bo!i"ent of the tribe in its arlike ca%acity.

<eton, a ar&go! of the Accetani, has a na"e connecte! ith 6rish KniaK,

arrior, an! "ay be eLuate! ith the 6rish ar&go! <et. Another go!,

Ca"ulos, knon fro" British an! continental inscri%tions, an! figure! on

British coins ith arlike e"ble"s, has %erha%s so"e connection ith

Cu"al, father of 9ionn, though it is uncertain hether Cu"al as an

6rish !i#inity.3-4

Another go! eLuate! ith Mars is the Gaulish Braciaca, go! of "alt.

Accor!ing to classical riters, the Celts ere !runken race, an! besi!es

i"%orting Luantities of ine, they "a!e their on nati#e !rinks, e.g.

Greek( chour"i4, the 6rish Kcuir"K, an! KbraccatK, both "a!e fro" "alt

>[email protected] These or!s, ith the Gaulish KbraceK, s%elt,334 are

connecte! ith the na"e of this go!, ho as a !i#ine %ersonification of

the substance fro" hich the !rink as "a!e hich %ro!uce!, accor!ing to

%ri"iti#e i!eas, the !i#ine frenHy of intoIication. 6t is not clear hy

Mars shoul! ha#e been eLuate! ith this go!.

Caesar says that the Celtic Ju%%iter go#erne! hea#en. A go! ho carries aheel, %robably a sun&go!, an! another, a go! of thun!er, calle!

Taranis, see" to ha#e been eLuate! ith Ju%%iter. The sun&go! ith the

heel as not eLuate! ith A%ollo, ho see"s to ha#e re%resente! Celtic

sun&go!s only in so far as they ere also go!s of healing. 6n so"e cases

the go! ith the heel carries also a thun!erbolt, an! on so"e altars,

!e!icate! to Ju%%iter, both a heel an! a thun!erbolt are figure!. Many

races ha#e sy"bolise! the sun as a circle or heel, an! an ol! Ro"an

go!, 5u""anus, %robably a sun&go!, later assi"ilate! to Ju%%iter, ha! as

his e"ble" a heel. The Celts ha! the sa"e sy"bolis", an! use! the heel

sy"bol as an a"ulet,3F4 hile at the "i!su""er festi#als blaHing

heels, sy"bolising the sun, ere rolle! !on a slo%e. Possibly the go!carries a thun!erbolt because the Celts, like other races, belie#e! that

lightning as a s%ark fro" the sun.

Three !i#inities ha#e clai"s to be the go! ho" Caesar calls )is%ater&&a

go! ith a ha""er, a crouching go! calle! Cernunnos, an! a go! calle!

/sus or 5il#anus. Possibly the nati#e )is%ater as !ifferently en#isage!

in !ifferent !istricts, so that these oul! be local for"s of one go!.



*. The go! Taranis "entione! by ucan is %robably the Taranoos an!

Taranucnos of inscri%tions, so"eti"es eLuate! ith Ju%%iter.34 These

na"es are connecte! ith Celtic or!s for thun!er hence Taranis is a

thun!er&go!. The scholiasts on ucan i!entify hi" no ith Ju%%iter, no

ith )is%ater. This latter i!entification is su%%orte! by "any ho

regar! the go! ith the ha""er as at once Taranis an! )is%ater, though

it cannot be %ro#e! that the go! ith the ha""er is Taranis. 8n one

inscri%tion the ha""er&go! is calle! 5ucellos hence e "ay regar!

Taranis as a !istinct !eity, a thun!er&go!, eLuate! ith Ju%%iter, an!

%ossibly re%resente! by the Taran of the ?elsh tale of K=ulhychK.F4

Pri"iti#e "en, hose only ea%on an! tool as a stone aIe or ha""er,

"ust ha#e regar!e! it as a sy"bol of force, then of su%ernatural force,

hence of !i#inity. 6t is re%resente! on re"ains of the 5tone Age, an!

the aIe as a !i#ine sy"bol to the Mycenaeans, a hierogly%h of <eter to

the /gy%tians, an! a orshi%ful object to Polynesians an! Chal!eans. The

cult of aIe or ha""er "ay ha#e been i!es%rea!, an! to the Celts, as to

"any other %eo%les, it as a !i#ine sy"bol. Thus it !oes not necessarily

!enote a thun!erbolt, but rather %oer an! "ight, an! %ossibly, as thetool hich sha%e! things, creati#e "ight. The Celts "a!e KeI #otoK

ha""ers of lea!, or use! aIe&hea!s as a"ulets, or figure! the" on altars

an! coins, an! they also %lace! the ha""er in the han! of a go!.F*4

The go! ith the ha""er is a gracious bear!e! figure, cla! in Gaulish

!ress, an! he carries also a cu%. :is %lastic ty%e is !eri#e! fro" that

of the AleIan!rian 5era%is, ruler of the un!erorl!, an! that of

:a!es&Pluto.F+4 :is e"ble"s, es%ecially that of the ha""er, are also

those of the Pluto of the /truscans, ith ho" the Celts ha! been in

contact.FE4 :e is thus a Celtic )is%ater, an un!erorl! go!, %ossibly

at one ti"e an /arth&go! an! certainly a go! of fertility, an! ancestorof the Celtic folk. 6n so"e cases, like 5era%is, he carries a K"o!iusK

on his hea!, an! this, like the cu%, is an e"ble" of chthonian go!s, an!

a sy"bol of the fertility of the soil. The go! being bene#olent, his

ha""er, like the tool ith hich "an for"s so "any things, coul! only be

a sy"bol of creati#e force.F14 As an ancestor of the Celts, the go! is

naturally re%resente! in Celtic !ress. 6n one bas&relief he is calle!

5ucellos, an! has a consort, <antos#elta.F-4 arious "eanings ha#e been

assigne! to 5ucellos, but it %robably !enotes the go!'s %oer of

striking ith the ha""er. M. )'Arbois hence regar!s hi" as a go! of

blight an! !eath, like Balor.F24 But though this Celtic )is%ater as a

go! of the !ea! ho li#e! on in the un!erorl!, he as not necessarily a!estructi#e go!. The un!erorl! go! as the go! fro" ho" or fro" hose

king!o" "en ca"e forth, an! he as also a go! of fertility. To this e

shall return.

+. A bear!e! go!, %robably sLuatting, ith horns fro" each of hich

hangs a torLue, is re%resente! on an altar foun! at Paris.F34 :e is

calle! Cernunnos, %erha%s the horne!, fro" KcernaK, horn, an! a

hole grou% of na"eless go!s, ith si"ilar or a!!itional attributes,



ha#e affinities ith hi".

>a@ A bronHe statuette fro" Autun re%resents a si"ilar figure, %robably

horne!, ho %resents a torLue to to ra"'s&hea!e! ser%ents. 9iIe! abo#e

his ears are to s"all hea!s.FF4 8n a "onu"ent fro" an!oeu#res is a

sLuatting horne! go!, %ressing a sack. To genii stan! besi!e hi" on a

ser%ent, hile one of the" hol!s a torLue.F4

>b@ Another sLuatting horne! figure ith a torLue occurs on an altar

fro" Rei"s. :e %resses a bag, fro" hich grain esca%es, an! on it an oI

an! stag are fee!ing. A rat is re%resente! on the %e!i"ent abo#e, an! on

either si!e stan! A%ollo an! Mercury.4 8n the altar of 5aintes is a

sLuatting but hea!less go! ith torLue an! %urse. Besi!e hi" is a

go!!ess ith a cornuco%ia, an! a s"aller !i#inity ith a cornuco%ia an!

an a%%le. A si"ilar sLuatting figure, su%%orte! by "ale an! fe"ale

!eities, is re%resente! on the other si!e of the altar.*4 8n the altar

of Beaune are three figures, one horne! ith a cornuco%ia, another

three&hea!e!, hol!ing a basket.+4 Three figures, one fe"ale an! to

"ale, are foun! on the )enne#y altar. 8ne go! is three&face!, the otherhas a cornuco%ia, hich he offers to a ser%ent.E4

>c@ Another i"age re%resents a three&face! go!, hol!ing a ser%ent ith a

ra"'s hea!.14

>!@ Abo#e a seate! go! an! go!!ess on an altar fro" Mal"aison is a block

car#e! to re%resent three faces. To be co"%are! ith these are se#en

steles fro" Rei"s, each ith a tri%le face but only one %air of eyes.

Abo#e so"e of these is a ra"'s hea!. 8n an eighth stele the hea!s are

se%arate!.-4

Cernunnos "ay thus ha#e been regar!e! as a three&hea!e!, horne!,

sLuatting go!, ith a torLue an! ra"'s&hea!e! ser%ent. But a horne! go!

is so"eti"es a "e"ber of a tria!, %erha%s re%resenting "yths in hich

Cernunnos as associate! ith other go!s. The three&hea!e! go! "ay be

the sa"e as the horne! go!, though on the Beaune altar they are

!istinct. The #arious re%resentations are linke! together, but it is not

certain that all are #arying ty%es of one go!. :orns, torLue, horne!

snake, or e#en the tri%le hea! "ay ha#e been sy"bols %ertaining to "ore

than one go!, though generally associate! ith Cernunnos.

The sLuatting attitu!e of the go! has been !ifferently eI%laine!, an!its affinities regar!e! no as Bu!!hist, no as Greco&/gy%tian.24 But

if the go! is a )is%ater, an! the ancestral go! of the Celts, it is

natural, as M. Moat %oints out, to re%resent hi" in the ty%ical

attitu!e of the Gauls hen sitting, since they !i! not use seats.34

?hile the horns ere %robably sy"bols of %oer an! orn also by chiefs

on their hel"ets,F4 they "ay also sho that the go! as an

anthro%o"or%hic for" of an earlier ani"al go!, like the olf&skin of

other go!s. :ence also horne! ani"als oul! be regar!e! as sy"bols of



the go!, an! this "ay account for their %resence on the Rei"s "onu"ent.

Ani"als are so"eti"es re%resente! besi!e the !i#inities ho ere their

anthro%o"or%hic for"s.4 5i"ilarly the ra"'s&hea!e! ser%ent %oints to

ani"al orshi%. But its %resence ith three&hea!e! an! horne! go!s is

enig"atic, though, as ill be seen later, it "ay ha#e been connecte!

ith a cult of the !ea!, hile the ser%ent as a chthonian ani"al.*4

These go!s ere go!s of fertility an! of the un!erorl! of the !ea!.

?hile the bag or %urse >interchangeable ith the cornuco%ia@ as a

sy"bol of Mercury, it as also a sy"bol of Pluto, an! this "ay %oint to

the fact that the go!s ho bear it ha! the sa"e character as Pluto. The

significance of the torLue is also !oubtful, but the Gauls offere!

torLues to the go!s, an! they "ay ha#e been regar!e! as #ehicles of the

arrior's strength hich %asse! fro" hi" to the go! to ho" the #ictor

%resente! it.

Though "any atte"%ts ha#e been "a!e to %ro#e the non&Celtic origin of

the three&hea!e! !i#inities or of their i"ages,**4 there is no reason

hy the conce%tion shoul! not be Celtic, base! on so"e "yth no lost to

us. The Celts ha! a cult of hu"an hea!s, an! fiIe! the" u% on theirhouses in or!er to obtain the %rotection of the ghost. Bo!ies or hea!s

of !ea! arriors ha! a %rotecti#e influence on their lan! or tribe, an!

"yth tol! ho the hea! of the go! Bran sa#e! his country fro" in#asion.

6n other "yths hu"an hea!s s%eak after being cut off.*+4 6t "ight thus

easily ha#e been belie#e! that the re%resentation of a go!'s hea! ha! a

still "ore %oerful %rotecti#e influence, es%ecially hen it as

tri%licate!, thus looking in all !irections, like Janus.

The significance of the tria! on these "onu"ents is uncertain but since

the su%%orting !i#inities are no "ale, no fe"ale, no "ale an! fe"ale,

it %robably re%resents "yths of hich the horne! or three&hea!e! go! asthe central figure. Perha%s e shall not be far rong in regar!ing such

go!s, on the hole, as Cernunnos, a go! of abun!ance to ju!ge by his

e"ble"s, an! by the cornuco%ia hel! by his co"%anions, %robably

!i#inities of fertility. 6n certain cases figures of sLuatting an!

horne! go!!esses ith cornuco%ia occur.*E4 These "ay be consorts of

Cernunnos, an! %erha%s %rece!e! hi" in origin. ?e "ay also go further

an! see in this go! of abun!ance an! fertility at once an /arth an! an

;n!er&earth go!, since earth an! un!er&earth are "uch the sa"e to

%ri"iti#e thought, an! fertility s%rings fro" belo the earth's surface.

Thus Cernunnos oul! be another for" of the Celtic )is%ater. Generally

s%eaking, the i"ages of Cernunnos are not foun! here those of the go!ith the ha""er >)is%ater@ are "ost nu"erous. These to ty%es "ay thus

be !ifferent local for"s of )is%ater. The sLuatting attitu!e of

Cernunnos is natural in the i"age of the ancestor of a %eo%le ho

sLuatte!. As to the sy"bols of %lenty, e kno that Pluto as confoun!e!

ith Plutus, the go! of riches, because corn an! "inerals ca"e out of

the earth, an! ere thus the gifts of an /arth or ;n!er&earth go!.

Celtic "yth "ay ha#e ha! the sa"e confusion.



8n a Paris altar an! on certain steles a go! attacks a ser%ent ith a

club. The ser%ent is a chthonian ani"al, an! the go!, calle! 5"ertullos,

"ay be a )is%ater.*14 Go!s ho are anthro%o"or%hic for"s of earlier

ani"al !i#inities, so"eti"es ha#e the ani"als as sy"bols or atten!ants,

or are regar!e! as hostile to the". 6n so"e cases )is%ater "ay ha#e

outgron the ser%ent sy"bolis", the ser%ent being regar!e! locally as

his foe this assu"es that the go! ith the club is the sa"e as the go!

ith the ha""er. But in the case of Cernunnos the ani"al re"aine! as his

sy"bol.

)is%ater as a go! of groth an! fertility, an! besi!es being lor! of

the un!erorl! of the !ea!, not necessarily a !ark region or the abo!e

of !ark go!s as is so often assu"e! by riters on Celtic religion, he

as ancestor of the li#ing. This "ay "erely ha#e "eant that, as in other

"ythologies, "en ca"e to the surface of the earth fro" an un!ergroun!

region, like all things hose roots struck !ee% !on into the earth. The

lor! of the un!erorl! oul! then easily be regar!e! as their

ancestor.*-4

E. The ha""er an! the cu% are also the sy"bols of a go! calle! 5il#anus,

i!entifie! by M. Moat ith /sus,*24 a go! re%resente! cutting !on a

tree ith an aIe. AIe an! ha""er, hoe#er, are not necessarily

i!entical, an! the sy"bols are those of )is%ater, as has been seen. A

%urely su%erficial connection beteen the Ro"an 5il#anus an! the Celtic

)is%ater "ay ha#e been foun! by Gallo&Ro"an artists in the fact that

both ear a olf&skin, hile there "ay once ha#e been a Celtic olf

tote"&go! of the !ea!.*34 The Ro"an go! as also associate! ith the

olf. This "ight be regar!e! as one out of "any eIa"%les of a "ere

su%erficial assi"ilation of Ro"an an! Celtic !i#inities, but in this

case they still ke%t certain sy"bols of the nati#e )is%ater&&the cu% an!ha""er. 8f course, since the latter as also a go! of fertility, there

as here another link ith 5il#anus, a go! of oo!s an! #egetation. The

cult of the go! as i!es%rea!&&in 5%ain, 5. Gaul, the Rhine %ro#inces,

Cisal%ine Gaul, Central /uro%e an! Britain. But one inscri%tion gi#es

the na"e 5el#anos, an! it is not i"%ossible that there as a nati#e go!

5el#anus. 6f so, his na"e "ay ha#e been !eri#e! fro" Ksel#aK,

%ossession, 6rish KsealbhK, %ossession, cattle, an! he "ay ha#e

been a chthonian go! of riches, hich in %ri"iti#e co""unities consiste!

of cattle.*F4 )o"estic ani"als, in Celtic "ythology, ere belie#e! to

ha#e co"e fro" the go!'s lan!. 5el#anus oul! thus be easily i!entifie!

ith 5il#anus, a go! of flocks.

Thus the Celtic )is%ater ha! #arious na"es an! for"s in !ifferent

regions, an! coul! be assi"ilate! to !ifferent foreign go!s. 5ince /arth

an! ;n!er&earth are so nearly connecte!, this !i#inity "ay once ha#e

been an /arth&go!, an! as such %erha%s took the %lace of an earlier

/arth&"other, ho no beca"e his consort or his "other. 8n a "onu"ent

fro" 5alHbach, )is%ater is acco"%anie! by a go!!ess calle! Aeracura,

hol!ing a basket of fruit, an! on another "onu"ent fro" 8ber&5eebach,



the co"%anion of )is%ater hol!s a cornuco%ia. 6n the latter instance

)is%ater hol!s a ha""er an! cu%, an! the go!!ess "ay be Aeracura.

Aeracura is also associate! ith )is%ater in se#eral inscri%tions.*4

6t is not yet certain that she is a Celtic go!!ess, but her %resence

ith this e#i!ently Celtic go! is al"ost sufficient %roof of the fact.

5he "ay thus re%resent the ol! /arth&go!!ess, hose %lace the nati#e

)is%ater gra!ually usur%e!.

ucan "entions a go! /sus, ho is re%resente! on a Paris altar as a

oo!"an cutting !on a tree, the branches of hich are carrie! roun! to

the neIt si!e of the altar, on hich is re%resente! a bull ith three

cranes&&Tar#os Trigaranos. The sa"e figure, unna"e!, occurs on another

altar at Tre#es, but in this case the bull's hea! a%%ears in the

branches, an! on the" sit the bir!s. M. Reinach a%%lies one for"ula to

the subjects of these altars&&The !i#ine ?oo!"an hes the Tree of the

Bull ith Three Cranes.**4 The hole re%resents so"e "yth unknon to

us, but M. )'Arbois fin!s in it so"e allusion to e#ents in the

Cuchulainn saga. To this e shall return.***4 Bull an! tree are %erha%s

both !i#ine, an! if the ani"al, like the i"ages of the !i#ine bull, isthree&horne!, then the three cranes >KgaranusK, crane@ "ay be a rebus

for three&horne! >KtrikerasK@, or "ore %robably three&hea!e!

>KtrikarenosK@.**+4 6n this case oo!"an, tree, an! bull "ight all be

re%resentati#es of a go! of #egetation. 6n early ritual, hu"an, ani"al,

or arboreal re%resentati#es of the go! ere %erio!ically !estroye! to

ensure fertility, but hen the go! beca"e se%arate! fro" these

re%resentati#es, the !estruction or slaying as regar!e! as a sacrifice

to the go!, an! "yths arose telling ho he ha! once slain the ani"al. 6n

this case, tree an! bull, really i!entical, oul! be "ythically regar!e!

as !estroye! by the go! ho" they ha! once re%resente!. 6f /sus as a

go! of #egetation, once re%resente! by a tree, this oul! eI%lain hy,as the scholiast on ucan relates, hu"an sacrifices to /sus ere

sus%en!e! fro" a tree. /sus as orshi%%e! at Paris an! at Tre#es a

coin ith the na"e A/sus as foun! in /nglan! an! %ersonal na"es like

/sugenos, son of /sus, an! /sunertus, he ho has the strength of

/sus, occur in /nglan!, 9rance, an! 5itHerlan!.**E4 Thus the cult of

this go! "ay ha#e been co"%arati#ely i!es%rea!. But there is no

e#i!ence that he as a Celtic Jeho#ah or a "e"ber, ith Teutates an!

Taranis, of a %an&Celtic tria!, or that this tria!, intro!uce! by Gauls,

as not acce%te! by the )rui!s.**14 :a! such a great tria! eIiste!,

so"e instance of the occurrence of the three na"es on one inscri%tion

oul! certainly ha#e been foun!. ucan !oes not refer to the go!s as atria!, nor as go!s of all the Celts, or e#en of one tribe. :e lays

stress "erely on the fact that they ere orshi%%e! ith hu"an

sacrifice, an! they ere a%%arently "ore or less ell&knon local

go!s.**-4

The insular Celts belie#e! that so"e of their go!s li#e! on or in hills.

?e !o not kno hether such a belief as entertaine! by the Gauls,

though so"e of their !eities ere orshi%%e! on hills, like the Puy !e



)o"e. There is also e#i!ence of "ountain orshi% a"ong the". 8ne

inscri%tion runs, To the Mountains a go! of the Pennine Al%s,

Poeninus, as eLuate! ith Ju%%iter an! the go! of the osges "ountains

as calle! osegus, %erha%s still sur#i#ing in the giant su%%ose! to

haunt the".**24

Certain grou%e! go!s, K)ii CassesK, ere orshi%%e! by Celts on the

right bank of the Rhine, but nothing is knon regar!ing their functions,

unless they ere roa! go!s. The na"e "eans beautiful or %leasant,

an! KCassiK a%%ears in %ersonal an! tribal na"es, an! also in

KCassiteri!esK, an early na"e of Britain, %erha%s signifying that the

ne lan!s ere "ore beautiful than those the Celts ha! left. ?hen tin

as !isco#ere! in Britain, the Me!iterranean tra!ers calle! it Greek(

chassiteros4, after the na"e of the %lace here it as foun!, as

Kcu%reusK, co%%er, as so calle! fro" Cy%rus.**34

Many local tutelar !i#inities ere also orshi%%e!. ?hen a ne

settle"ent as foun!e!, it as %lace! un!er the %rotection of a tribal

go!, or the na"e of so"e !i#inise! ri#er on hose banks the #illage as%lace!, %asse! to the #illage itself, an! the !i#inity beca"e its

%rotector. Thus )ea Bibracte, <e"ausus, an! asio ere tutelar

!i#inities of Bibracte, <i"es, an! aison. 8ther %laces ere calle!

after Belenos, or a grou% of !i#inities, usually the KMatresK ith a

local e%ithet, atche! o#er a certain !istrict.**F4 The foun!ing of a

ton as celebrate! in an annual festi#al, ith sacrifices an! libations

to the %rotecting !eity, a %ractice co"bate! by 5. /loi in the eighth

century. But the custo" of associating a !i#inity ith a ton or region

as a great hel% to %atriotis". Those ho fought for their ho"es felt

that they ere fighting for their go!s, ho also fought on their si!e.

5e#eral inscri%tions, To the genius of the %lace, occur in Britain,an! there are a fe traces of tutelar go!s in 6rish teIts, but generally

local saints ha! taken their %lace.

The Celtic cult of go!!esses took to for"s, that of in!i#i!ual an! that

of grou%e! go!!esses, the latter "uch "ore nu"erous than the grou%e!

go!s. 6n!i#i!ual go!!esses ere orshi%%e! as consorts of go!s, or as

se%arate %ersonalities, an! in the latter case the cult as so"eti"es

far eIten!e!. 5till "ore %o%ular as the cult of grou%e! go!!esses. 8f

these the KMatresK, like so"e in!i#i!ual go!!esses, ere %robably early

/arth&"others, an! since the %ri"iti#e fertility&cults inclu!e! all that

"ight then be su""e! u% as ci#ilisation, such go!!esses ha! alrea!y"any functions, an! "ight the "ore rea!ily beco"e !i#inities of s%ecial

crafts or e#en of ar. Many in!i#i!ual go!!esses are knon only by their

na"es, an! ere of a %urely local character.**4 5o"e local go!!esses

ith !ifferent na"es but si"ilar functions are eLuate! ith the sa"e

Ro"an go!!ess others ere ne#er so eLuate!.

The Celtic Miner#a, or the go!!esses eLuate! ith her, taught the

ele"ents of in!ustry an! the arts,*+4 an! is thus the eLui#alent of



the 6rish Brigit. :er functions are in kee%ing ith the %osition of

o"an as the first ci#iliser&&!isco#ering agriculture, s%inning, the art

of %ottery, etc. )uring this %erio! go!!esses ere chiefly orshi%%e!,

an! though the Celts ha! long outgron this %ri"iti#e stage, such

culture&go!!esses still retaine! their i"%ortance. A go!!ess eLuate!

ith Miner#a in 5outhern 9rance an! Britain is Belisa"a, %erha%s fro"

KL#alK, to burn or shine.*+*4 :ence she "ay ha#e been associate!

ith a cult of fire, like Brigit an! like another go!!ess 5ul, eLuate!

ith Miner#a at Bath an! in :esse, an! in hose te"%le %er%etual fires

burne!.*++4 5he as also a go!!ess of hot s%rings. Belisa"a ga#e her

na"e to the Mersey,*+E4 an! "any go!!esses in Celtic "yth are

associate! ith ri#ers.

5o"e ar&go!!esses are associate! ith Mars&&<e"etona >in Britain an!

Ger"any@, %erha%s the sa"e as the 6rish <e"on, an! Cathubo!ua, i!entical

ith the 6rish ar&go!!ess Ba!b&catha, battle&cro, ho tore the

bo!ies of the slain.*+14 Another go!!ess An!rasta, in#incible,

%erha%s the sa"e as the An!arta of the oconces, as orshi%%e! by the

%eo%le of Bou!icca ith hu"an sacrifices, like the nati#e Bellona of the5cor!isci.*+-4

A go!!ess of the chase as i!entifie! ith Arte"is in Galatia, here she

ha! a %riestess Ca""a, an! also in the est. At the feast of the

Galatian go!!ess !ogs ere crone! ith floers, her orshi%%ers feaste!

an! a sacrifice as "a!e to her, feast an! sacrifice being %ro#i!e! out

of "oney lai! asi!e for e#ery ani"al taken in the chase.*+24 8ther

go!!esses ere eLuate! ith )iana, an! one of her statues as !estroye!

in Christian ti"es at Tre#es.*+34 These go!!esses "ay ha#e been thought

of as rushing through the forest ith an atten!ant train, since in later

ti"es )iana, ith ho" they ere co"%letely assi"ilate!, beca"e, like:ol!a, the lea!er of the furious host an! also of itches'

re#els.*+F4 The ife of Caesarius of Arles s%eaks of a !e"on calle!

)iana by the rustics. A bronHe statuette re%resents the go!!ess ri!ing a

il! boar,*+4 her sy"bol an!, like herself, a creature of the forest,

but at an earlier ti"e itself a !i#inity of ho" the go!!ess beca"e the

anthro%o"or%hic for".

Go!!esses, the earlier s%irits of the aters, %rotecte! ri#ers an!

s%rings, or ere associate! ith go!s of healing ells. )irona or 5irona

is associate! ith Grannos "ainly in /astern Gaul an! the Rhine

%ro#inces, an! is so"eti"es re%resente! carrying gra%es an! grain.*E4Thus this go!!ess "ay once ha#e been connecte! ith fertility, %erha%s

an /arth&"other, an! if her na"e "eans the long&li#e!,*E*4 this oul!

be an a%%ro%riate title for an /arth&go!!ess. Another go!!ess, 5tanna,

"entione! in an inscri%tion at PerigueuI, is %erha%s the stan!ing or

abi!ing one, an! thus "ay also ha#e been /arth&go!!ess.*E+4 Grannos

as also associate! ith the local go!!esses esunna an! A#entia, ho

ga#e their na"es to esona an! A#anche. :is statue also stoo! in the

te"%le of the go!!ess of the 5eine, 5eLuana.*EE4 ?ith Bor"o ere



associate! Bor"ana in 5outhern Gaul, an! )a"ona in /astern Gaul&&%erha%s

an ani"al go!!ess, since the root of her na"e occurs in 6rish K!a"K,

oI, an! ?elsh K!afa!K, shee%. )ea BriIia as the consort of

uIo#ius, go! of the aters of uIeuil. <a"es of other go!!esses of the

aters are foun! on KeI #otosK an! %laLues hich ere %lace! in or near

the". The Ro"an <y"%hae, so"eti"es associate! ith Bor"o, ere the

eLui#alents of the Celtic ater&go!!esses, ho sur#i#e! in the

ater&fairies of later folk&belief. 5o"e ri#er&go!!esses ga#e their

na"es to "any ri#ers in the Celtic area&&the nu"erous A#ons being na"e!

fro" Abnoba, go!!ess of the sources of the )anube, an! the "any )ees an!

)i#es fro" )i#ona. Clota as go!!ess of the Cly!e, 5abrina ha! her

throne beneath the translucent a#e of the 5e#ern, 6cauna as go!!ess

of the $onne, 5eLuana of the 5eine, an! 5innan of the 5hannon.

6n so"e cases forests ere rule! by go!!esses&&that of the Ar!ennes by

)ea Ar!uinna, an! the Black 9orest, %erha%s because of the "any aters

in it, by )ea Abnoba.*E14 ?hile so"e go!!esses are knon only by being

associate! ith a go!, e.g. =os"erta ith Mercury in /astern Gaul,

others ha#e re"aine! se%arate, like /%ona, %erha%s a ri#er&go!!ess"erge! ith an ani"al !i#inity, an! knon fro" inscri%tions as a

horse&go!!ess.*E-4 But the "ost striking instance is foun! in the

grou%e! go!!esses.

8f these the K)eoe MatresK, hose na"e has taken a atin for" an! hose

cult eIten!e! to the Teutons, are "entione! in "any inscri%tions all

o#er the Celtic area, sa#e in /ast an! <orth&?est Gaul.*E24 6n art they

are usually re%resente! as three in nu"ber, hol!ing fruit, floers, a

cornuco%ia, or an infant. They ere thus go!!esses of fertility, an!

%robably !eri#e! fro" a cult of a great Mother&go!!ess, the /arth

%ersonifie!. 5he "ay ha#e sur#i#e! as a go!!ess Berecynthia orshi%%e!at Autun, here her i"age as borne through the fiel!s to %ro"ote

fertility, or as the go!!esses eLuate! ith )e"eter an! =ore, orshi%%e!

by o"en on an islan! near Britain.*E34 5uch cults of a Mother&go!!ess

lie behin! "any religions, but gra!ually her %lace as taken by an

/arth&go!, the Celtic )is%ater or )ag!a, hose consort the go!!ess

beca"e. 5he "ay therefore be the go!!ess ith the cornuco%ia on

"onu"ents of the horne! go!, or Aeracura, consort of )is%ater, or a

go!!ess on a "onu"ent at /%inal hol!ing a basket of fruit an! a

cornuco%ia, an! acco"%anie! by a ra"'s&hea!e! ser%ent.*EF4 These

sy"bols sho that this go!!ess as akin to the KMatresK. But she

so"eti"es %reser#e! her in!i#i!uality, as in the case of Berecynthia an!the KMatresK, though it is not Luite clear hy she shoul! ha#e been thus

tri%ly "ulti%lie!. A si"ilar %heno"enon is foun! in the close connection

of )e"eter an! Perse%hone, hile the Celts regar!e! three as a sacre!

nu"ber. The %ri"iti#e !i#ision of the year into three seasons&&s%ring,

su""er, an! inter&&"ay ha#e ha! its effect in tri%licating a go!!ess of

fertility ith hich the course of the seasons as connecte!.*E4 6n

other "ythologies grou%s of three go!!esses are foun!, the :athors in

/gy%t, the Moirai, Gorgons, an! Graiae of Greece, the Ro"an 9ates, an!



the <orse <ornae, an! it is noticeable that the KMatresK ere so"eti"es

eLuate! ith the Parcae an! 9ates.*14

6n the KMatresK, %ri"arily go!!esses of fertility an! %lenty, e ha#e

one of the "ost %o%ular an! also %ri"iti#e as%ects of Celtic religion.

They originate! in an age hen o"en culti#ate! the groun!, an! the

/arth as a go!!ess hose cult as %erfor"e! by %riestesses. But in

course of ti"e ne functions ere bestoe! on the KMatresK. Possibly

ri#er&go!!esses an! others are "erely "others hose functions ha#e

beco"e s%ecialise!. The KMatresK are foun! as guar!ians of in!i#i!uals,

fa"ilies, houses, of tons, a %ro#ince, or a hole nation, as their

e%ithets in inscri%tions sho. The KMatres )o"esticaeK are househol!

go!!esses the KMatres Tre#eraeK, or KGallaicaeK, or Ke!iantaeK, are the

"others of Tre#es, of the Gallaecae, of the e!iantii the KMatres

<e"etialesK are guar!ians of gro#es. Besi!es %resi!ing o#er the fiel!s

as KMatres Ca"%estraeK they brought %ros%erity to tons an! %eo%le.*1*4

They guar!e! o"en, es%ecially in chil!birth, as KeI #otosK %ro#e, an!

in this as%ect they are akin to the KJunonesK orshi%%e! also in Gaul

an! Britain. The na"e thus beca"e generic for "ost go!!esses, but allalike ere the lineal !escen!ants of the %ri"iti#e /arth&"other.*1+4

Po%ular su%erstition has %reser#e! the "e"ory of these go!!esses in the

three Kbonnes !a"esK, K!a"es blanchesK, an! ?hite ?o"en, "et by

ayfarers in forests, or in the three fairies or ise o"en of

folk&tales, ho a%%ear at the birth of chil!ren. But so"eti"es they ha#e

beco"e hateful hags. The KMatresK an! other go!!esses %robably sur#i#e!

in the beneficent fairies of rocks an! strea"s, in the fairy Abon!e ho

brought riches to houses, or /sterelle of Pro#ence ho "a!e o"en

fruitful, or Aril ho atche! o#er "ea!os, or in beings like Melusine,

i#iane, an! others.*1E4 6n Gallo&Ro"an Britain the cult of theKMatresK is foun!, but ho far it as in!igenous there is uncertain. A

?elsh na"e for fairies, K$ Ma"auK, the Mothers, an! the %hrase, the

blessing of the Mothers use! of a fairy bene!iction, "ay be a

re"iniscence of such go!!esses.*114 The %resence of si"ilar go!!esses

in 6relan! ill be consi!ere! later.*1-4 6"ages of the KMatresK bearing

a chil! ha#e so"eti"es been taken for those of the irgin, hen foun!

acci!entally, an! as they are of oo! blackene! ith age, they are knon

as Kierges <oiresK, an! occu%y an honoure! %lace in Christian

sanctuaries. Many churches of <otre )a"e ha#e been built on sites here

an i"age of the irgin is sai! to ha#e been "iraculously foun!&&the

i"age %robably being that of a %agan Mother. 5i"ilarly, an altar to theKMatresK at aison is no !e!icate! to the irgin as the goo!

Mother.*124

6n inscri%tions fro" /astern an! Cisal%ine Gaul, an! fro" the Rhine an!

)anube region, the KMatronaeK are "entione!, an! this na"e is %robably

in!icati#e of go!!esses like the KMatresK.*134 6t is akin to that of

"any ri#ers, e.g. the Marne or Meyrone, an! shos that the Mothers ere

associate! ith ri#ers. The Mother ri#er fertilise! a large !istrict,



an! eIhibite! the characteristic of the hole grou% of go!!esses.

Akin also to the KMatresK are the K5ule#iaeK, guar!ian go!!esses calle!

KMatresK in a fe inscri%tions the KCo"e!o#aeK, hose na"e %erha%s

!enotes guar!ianshi% or %oer the K)o"inaeK, ho atche! o#er the ho"e,

%erha%s the K)a"esK of "e!iae#al folk&lore an! the KirginesK, %erha%s

an a%%ellati#e of the KMatresK, an! significant hen e fin! that #irgin

%riestesses eIiste! in Gaul an! 6relan!.*1F4 The KProIu"aeK ere

orshi%%e! in 5outhern Gaul, an! the Kua!ri#iaeK, go!!esses of

cross&roa!s, at Cherbourg.*14

5o"e Ro"an go!s are foun! on inscri%tions ithout being eLuate! ith

nati#e !eities. They "ay ha#e been acce%te! by the Gauls as ne go!s, or

they ha! %erha%s co"%letely ouste! si"ilar nati#e go!s. 8thers, not

"entione! by Caesar, are eLuate! ith nati#e !eities, Juno ith Cli#ana,

5aturn ith Ar#alus, an! to a nati#e ulcan the Celts #oe! s%oils of

ar.*-4 Again, "any nati#e go!s are not eLuate! ith Ro"an !eities on

inscri%tions. A%art fro" the !i#inities of Pyrenaean inscri%tions, ho

"ay not be Celtic, the na"es of o#er 1 nati#e !eities, hether eLuate!ith Ro"an go!s or not, are knon. 5o"e of these na"es are "ere

e%ithets, an! "ost of the go!s are of a local character, knon here by

one na"e, there by another. 8nly in a #ery fe cases can it be asserte!

that a go! as orshi%%e! o#er the hole Celtic area by one na"e, though

so"e go!s in Gaul, Britain, an! 6relan! ith !ifferent na"es ha#e

certainly si"ilar functions.*-*4

The %antheon of the continental Celts as a #arie! one. Traces of the

%ri"iti#e agricultural rites, an! of the %riority of go!!esses to go!s,

are foun!, an! the #aguer as%ects of %ri"iti#e nature orshi% are seen

behin! the cult of !i#inities of sky, sun, thun!er, forests, ri#ers, orin !eities of ani"al origin. ?e co"e neIt to e#i!ence of a higher stage,

in !i#inities of culture, healing, the chase, ar, an! the un!erorl!.

?e see !i#inities of Celtic grou%s&&go!s of in!i#i!uals, the fa"ily, the

tribe. 5o"eti"es ar&go!s assu"e! great %ro"inence, in ti"e of ar, or

a"ong the aristocracy, but ith the !e#elo%"ent of co""erce, go!s

associate! ith tra!e an! the arts of %eace ca"e to the front.*-+4 At

the sa"e ti"e the %o%ular cults of agricultural !istricts "ust ha#e

re"aine! as of ol!. ?ith the a!o%tion of Ro"an ci#ilisation, enlightene!

Celts se%arate! the"sel#es fro" the loer as%ects of their religion, but

this oul! ha#e occurre! ith groing ci#ilisation ha! no Ro"an e#er

entere! Gaul. 6n rural !istricts the "ore sa#age as%ects of the cultoul! still ha#e re"aine!, but that these ere entirely !ue to an

aboriginal %o%ulation is erroneous. The Celts "ust ha#e brought such

cults ith the" or a!o%te! cults si"ilar to their on here#er they

ca"e. The %ersistence of these cults is seen in the fact that though

Christianity "o!ifie! the", it coul! not root the" out, an! in

out&of&the&ay corners, sur#i#als of the ol! ritual "ay still be foun!,

for e#eryhere the ol! religion of the soil !ies har!.



988T<8T/5(

-E4 Caesar, K!e Bell. Gall.K #i. *3, *F.

-14 Bloch >a#isse@, K:ist, !e 9ranceK, i. +, 1* Reinaoh, KB9K *E,

+E.

--4 KTrans. Gaelic 5oc. of 6n#ernessK, II#i. %. 1** f.

-24 allentin, Kes )ieuI !e la cite !es AllobrogesK, *- Pliny, K:<K

IIIi#. 3.

-34 These na"es are Alaunius, Arcecius, Artaius, Ar#ernoriI, Ar#ernus,

A!s"erius, Canetonensis, Cla#ariatis, Cissonius, Ci"brianus, )u"iatis,

Magniacus, Moecus, Toeirenus, assocaletus, ellaunus, isuoius,

Biausius, Ci"iacinus, <aissatis. 5ee :ol!er, Ks.#.K

-F4 Rhy4s, K:K 2.

-4 :uebner, #ii. +3* KC6K iii. -33E.

24 ucian, K:eraclesK, * f. 5o"e Gaulish coins figure a hea! to hich

are boun! s"aller hea!s. 6n one case the cor!s issue fro" the "outh

>Blanchet, i. EF, E*2&E*3@. These "ay re%resent ucian's 8g"ios, but

other inter%retations ha#e been %ut u%on the". 5ee Robert, KRCK #ii.

EFF Jullian, F1.

2*4 The e%ithets an! na"es are AneItio"arus, Belenos, Bor"o, Bor#o, or

Bor"anus, Coble!ulita#us, Cos"is >S@, Grannos, i#icus, Ma%onos, Mogo or

Mogounos, 5ianus, ToutioriI, iu!onnus, irotutis. 5ee :ol!er, Ks.#.K

2+4 Po""erol, KBall. !e 5oc. !'ant. !e ParisK, ii. fasc. 1.

2E4 5ee :ol!er, Ks.#.K Many %lace&na"es are !eri#e! fro" KBor#o, e.g.K

Bourbon l'Archa"baut, hich ga#e its na"e to the Bourbon !ynasty, thus

connecte! ith an ol! Celtic go!.

214 5ee %. *+, KinfraK.

2-4 Jul. Ca%. KMaIi".K ++ :ero!ian, #iii. E Tert. KA%ol.K IIi#. 3

Auson. KProf.K Ii. +1.

224 5tokes !eri#es KbelinuntiaK fro" KbeljoK&, a tree or leaf, 6rish

KbileK, K;5K *31.

234 :ol!er, Ks.#.K 5tokes, K;5K *3 Rhy4s, K:K +E see %. *F,

KinfraK.

2F4 )io!. 5ic. ii. 13.



24 A%oll. Rho!. i#. 2.

34 AlbioriI, Alator, AriIo, Bela!onnis, BarreI, Belatuca!ros,

Bol#innus, Braciaca, Brito#is, BuIenus, Cabetius, Ca"ulus, Cariocecius,

CaturiI, Ce"enelus, Cicollius, Carrus, Cocosus, Coci!uis, Con!atis,

Cnabetius, Corotiacus, )ino"ogeti"arus, )i#anno, )unatis, Glarinus,

:ala"ar!us, :ar"ogius, 6eus!riuus, aca#us, atabius, eucetius,

euci"alacus, enus, Mullo, Me!ocius, Mogetius, <abelcus, <eton, 8celos,

8llon!ios, Ru!ianus, Rigisa"us, Ran!osatis, Riga, 5ego"o, 5inatis,

5"ertatius, Toutates, Tritullus, esucius, incius, ituca!ros,

orocius. 5ee :ol!er, Ks.#.K

3*4 )'Arbois, ii. +*- Rhy4s, K:K E3.

3+4 5o Rhy4s, K:K 1+.

3E4 :uebner, 2*.

314 :ol!er, Ks.#.K ucan, i. 111 f. The o%inions of riters ho take

this #ie are collecte! by Reinach, KRCK I#iii. *E3.

3-4 :ol!er, Ks.#.K The Gaulish na"e Ca"ulogenus, born of Cu"el,

re%resents the sa"e i!ea as in 9ionn's surna"e, MacCu"all.

324 Athen. i#. E2 )ioscori!es, ii. ** Joyce, K5:K ii. **2, *+ K6TK

i. 1E3, 23.

334 Pliny, K:<K I#iii. 3.

3F4 Gai!oH, Ke )ieu Gaulois !e 5oleilK Reinach, KC5K F, KB9K E-

Blanchet, i. +3.

34 ucan, KPhar.K i. 111. Another for", Tanaros, "ay be si"%ly the

Ger"an )onar.

F4 oth, i. +3.

F*4 Gai!oH, KRCK #i. 1-3 Reinach, K85K 2-, *EF Blanchet, i. *2. The

ha""er is also associate! ith another Celtic )is%ater, eLuate! ith

5yl#anus, ho as certainly not a thun!er&go!.

F+4 Reinach, KB9K *E3 f. Courcelle&5eneuil, **- f.

FE4 Barthele"y, KRCK i. l f.

F14 5ee 9louest, KRe#. Arch.K #. *3.

F-4 Reinach, KRCK I#ii. 1-.



F24 )'Arbois, ii. *+2. :e eI%lains <antos#elta as "eaning 5he ho is

brilliant in ar. The go!!ess, hoe#er, has none of the attributes of a

ar&go!!ess. M. )'Arbois also sa in a bas&relief of the ha""er&go!, a

fe"ale figure, an! a chil!, the Gaulish eLui#alents of Balor, /thne, an!

ug >KRCK I#. +E2@. M. Reinach regar!s 5ucellos, <antos#elta, an! a bir!

hich is figure! ith the", as the sa"e trio, because %seu!o&Plutarch

>K!e 9lu#.K #i. 1@ says that KlougosK "eans cro in Celtic. This is

"ore than !oubtful. 6n any case /thne has no arlike traits in 6rish

story, an! as ug an! Balor ere !ea!ly ene"ies, it re"ains to be

eI%laine! hy they a%%ear tranLuilly si!e by si!e. 5ee KRCK II#i. *+.

Perha%s <antos#elta, like other Celtic go!!esses, as a ri#er ny"%h.

K<antoK Gaulish is #alley, an! KnantK in ol! Breton is gorge or

brook. :er na"e "ight "ean shining ri#er. 5ee 5tokes, K;5K *E, E+1.

F34 KRCK I#iii. +-1. Cernunnos "ay be the Ju%%iter Cernenos of an

inscri%tion fro" Pesth, :ol!er, Ks.#.K

FF4 Reinach, KB9K *F2, fig. *33.

F4 KRe#. Arch.K IiI. E++, %l. .

4 Bertran!, KRe#. Arch.K I#. EE, I#i. %l. *+.

*4 6bi!. I#. %l. , *.

+4 6bi!. I#i. .

E4 6bi!. %l. *+ KbisK.

14 Bertran!, KRe#. Arch.K I#i. F.

-4 6bi!. I#i. * f.

24 6bi!. I#., I#i. Reinach, KB9K *3, **.

34 KBull. /%ig.K i. **2 5trabo, i#. E )io!. 5ic. #. +F.

F4 )io!. 5ic. #. E Reinach, KB9K *E.

4 5ee %. +*+, KinfraK.

*4 5ee %. *22, KinfraK.

**4 5ee, e.g., Moat, KBull. /%ig.K i. + !e ?itte, KRe#. Arch.K ii.

EF3, I#i. 3 Bertran!, Kibi!.K I#i. E.

*+4 5ee %%. *+, +1+, KinfraK Joyce, K5:K ii. --1 Curtin, *F+ KRCK

IIii. *+E, IIi#. *F.



*E4 )o" Martin, ii. *F- Reinach, KB9K *+, *.

*14 5ee, hoe#er, %. *E2, KinfraK an! for another inter%retation of

this go! as eLui#alent of the 6rish ug slaying Balor, see )'Arbois, ii.

+F3.

*-4 5ee %. ++, KinfraK.

*24 Reinach, KB9K *2+, *F1 Moat, KBull. /%ig.K i. 2+, KRe#. /%ig.K

*FF3, E*, *F*, F1.

*34 Reinach, KB9K *1*, *-E, *3-, *32, *F* see %. +*F, KinfraK.

9louest, KRe#. Arch.K *FF-, i. +*, thinks that the i!entification as

ith an earlier chthonian 5il#anus. Cf. Jullian, *3, note E, ho

obser#es that the Gallo&Ro"an assi"ilations ere "a!e sur le !oinaine

archaisant !es faits %o%ulaires et rustiLues !e l'6talie. 9or the

inscri%tions, see :ol!er, Ks.#.K

*F4 5tokes, K;5K E+ MacBain, +31 KRCK II#i. +F+.

*4 Gai!oH, KRe#. Arch.K ii. *FF Moat, KBull. /%ig.K i. **

Courcelle&5eneuil, F f. Pauly&?issoa, KReal. eI.K i. 223

)are"berg&5aglio, K)ict.K ii., Ks.#.K )is%ater.

**4 ucan, i. 111 KRCK I#iii. +-1, +-F.

***4 5ee %. *+3, KinfraK.

**+4 9or a su%%ose! connection beteen this bas&relief an! the "yth ofGeryon, see Reinach, KB9K *+ KRCK I#iii. +-F f.

**E4 KCoins of the Ancient BritonsK, EF2 :ol!er, i. *13-, *13F.

**14 9or these theories see )o" Martin, ii. + Bertran!, EE- f.

**-4 Cf. Reinach, KRCK I#iii. *1.

**24 8relli, +*3, +3+ Monnier, -E+ Tacitus, IIi. EF.

**34 :ol!er, i. F+1 Reinach, KRe#. Arch.K II. +2+ )'Arbois, KesCeltesK, +. 8ther grou%e! go!s are the Bacucei, Castoeci, 6cotii,

6fles, ugo#es, <er#ini, an! 5il#ani. 5ee :ol!er, Ks.#.K

**F4 9or all these see :ol!er, Ks.#.K

**4 Professor Anyl gi#es the folloing statistics( There are E-

go!!esses "entione! once, + tice, E thrice, * four ti"es, + siI ti"es,

+ ele#en ti"es, * fourteen ti"es >5irona@, * tenty&one ti"es



>Ros"erta@, * tenty&siI ti"es >/%ona@ >KTrans. Gael. 5oc. 6n#ernessK,

II#i. 1*E@.

*+4 Caesar, #i. *3.

*+*4 )'Arbois, Kes CeltesK, -1 KRe#. Arch.K i. +*. 5ee :ol!er,

Ks.#.K

*++4 5olinus, IIii. * :ol!er, Ks.#.K

*+E4 Ptole"y, ii. +.

*+14 5ee %. 3*, KinfraK.

*+-4 )io Cass. lIii. 3 A"". Mare, II#ii. 1. 1.

*+24 Plutarch, K!e ir. Mul.K + Arrian, KCyneg.K IIIi#. *.

*+34 5. Greg. K:ist.K #iii. *-.

*+F4 Gri"", KTeut. Myth.K +FE, EE Reinach, KRCK I#i. +2*.

*+4 Reinach, KB9K -.

*E4 :ol!er, i. *+F2 Robert, KRCK i#. *EE.

*E*4 Rhy4s, K:K +3.

*E+4 Anyl, KCelt. Re#.K *2, 1E.

*EE4 :ol!er, Ks.#.K Bulliot, KRCK ii. ++.

*E14 :ol!er, i. *, F.

*E-4 :ol!er, Ks.#.K see %. +*E, KinfraK.

*E24 :ol!er, ii. 12E. They are #ery nu"erous in 5outh&/ast Gaul, here

also three&hea!e! go!s are foun!.

*E34 5ee %%. +31&-, KinfraK.

*EF4 Courcelle&5eneuil, F&F*.

*E4 5ee "y article Calen!ar in :astings' K/ncyclo%. of Religion an!

/thicsK, iii. F.

*14 KC6K #. 1+F, -33*, #ii. +3 :ol!er, ii. F.

*1*4 9or all these titles see :ol!er, Ks.#.K



*1+4 There is a large literature !e#ote! to the KMatresK. 5ee )e ?al,

K)ie Mae!er Gottine"K allentin, Ke Culte !es MatraeK )are"berg&5aglio,

K)ict. s.#. MatresK 6h", KJahrbuch. !es ereins #on Alterth. in

Rheinlan!eK, <o. FE Roscher, KeIiconK, ii. +121 f.

*1E4 5ee Maury, K9ees !u Moyen AgeK 5ebillot, i. +2+ Monnier, 1E f.

?right, KCelt, Ro"an, an! 5aIonK, +F2 f. allentin, KRCK i#. +. The

KMatresK "ay alrea!y ha#e ha! a sinister as%ect in Ro"an ti"es, as they

a%%ear to be inten!e! by an inscri%tion Ka"iis TribusK on an altar at

<ecastle. :uebner, -3.

*114 Anyl, KCelt. Re#.K *2, +F. Cf. K$ 9oel 9a"auK, the hill of the

Mothers, in the Cly!ian range.

*1-4 5ee %. 3E, KinfraK.

*124 allentin, Ko%. cit.K i#. + Maury, KCroyances !u Moyen AgeK,

EF+.

*134 :ol!er, Ks.#.K

*1F4 5ee %%. 2, E*3, KinfraK.

*14 9or all these see :ol!er, Ks.#.K Rhy4s, K:K *E KRCK i#. E1.

*-4 9lorus, ii. 1.

*-*4 5ee the table of i!entifications, %. *+-, KinfraK.

*-+4 ?e nee! not assu"e ith Jullian, *F, that there as one su%re"e

go!, no a ar&go!, no a go! of %eace. Any %ro"inent go! "ay ha#e

beco"e a ar&go! on occasion.

C:APT/R 6.

T:/ 6R65: M$T:88G6CA C$C/.

Three !i#ine an! heroic cycles of "yths are knon in 6relan!, one

telling of the Tuatha )e )anann, the others of Cuchulainn an! of the

9ians. They are !istinct in character an! contents, but the go!s of the

first cycle often hel% the heroes of the other grou%s, as the go!s of

Greece an! 6n!ia assiste! the heroes of the e%ics. ?e shall see that

so"e of the %ersonages of these cycles "ay ha#e been knon in Gaul they

are re"e"bere! in ?ales, but, in the :ighlan!s, here stories of



Cuchulainn an! 9ionn are still tol!, the Tuatha )e )anann are less knon

no than in *-23, hen Bisho% Carseell la"ente! the lo#e of the

:ighlan!ers for i!le, turbulent, lying, orl!ly stories concerning the

Tuatha )e!anans.*-E4

As the ne Achaean religion in Greece an! the e!ic sacre! books of 6n!ia

regar!e! the aboriginal go!s an! heroes as !e"ons an! goblins, so !i!

Christianity in 6relan! so"eti"es s%eak of the ol!er go!s there. 8n the

other han!, it as "ainly Christian scribes ho change! the ol!

"ythology into history, an! "a!e the go!s an! heroes kings. )oubtless

"yths alrea!y eIiste!, telling of the !escent of rulers an! %eo%le fro"

!i#inities, just as the Gauls s%oke of their !escent fro" )is%ater, or

as the 6ncas of Peru, the Mika!os of Ja%an, an! the kings of ;gan!a

consi!ere! the"sel#es offs%ring of the go!s. This is a uni#ersal

%ractice, an! "a!e it the "ore easy for Christian chroniclers to

trans"ute "yth into history. 6n 6relan!, as elsehere, "yth !oubtless

tol! of "onstrous races inhabiting the lan! in earlier !ays, of the

strife of the aborigines an! inco"ers, an! of their go!s, though the

aboriginal go!s "ay in so"e cases ha#e been i!entifie! ith Celtic go!s,or orshi%%e! in their on %ersons. Many "ythical ele"ents "ay therefore

be looke! for in the euhe"erise! chronicles of ancient 6relan!. But the

chroniclers the"sel#es ere but the continuers of a %rocess hich "ust

ha#e been at ork as soon as the influence of Christianity began to be

felt.*-14 Their %assion, hoe#er, as to sho the !escent of the 6rish

an! the ol!er %eo%les fro" the ol! Biblical %ersonages, a %rocess !ear

to the "o!ern Anglo&6sraelite, so"e of hose argu"ents are base! on the

il! ro"ancing of the chroniclers.

arious stories ere tol! of the first %eo%ling of 6relan!. Banba, ith

to other !aughters of Cain, arri#e! ith fifty o"en an! three "en,only to !ie of the %lague. Three fisher"en neIt !isco#ere! 6relan!, an!

of the islan! of Banba of 9air ?o"en ith har!ihoo! they took

%ossession. :a#ing gone to fetch their i#es, they %erishe! in the

!eluge at Tuath 6nba.*--4 A "ore %o%ular account as that of the co"ing

of Cessair, <oah's gran!!aughter, ith her father, husban!, a thir! "an,

a!ru, the first !ea! "an of /rin, an! fifty !a"sels. :er co"ing as

the result of the a!#ice of a Klai"h&!hiaK, or han!&go!, but their

shi% as recke!, an! all sa#e her husban!, 9inntain, ho sur#i#e! for

centuries, %erishe! in the floo!.*-24 Cessair's shi% as less

ser#iceable than her gran!%arent's 9olloe! the race of Partholan, no

iser one than the other, ho increase! on the lan! until %lague se%tthe" aay, ith the eIce%tion of Tuan "ac Caraill, ho after "any

transfor"ations, tol! the story of 6relan! to 5. 9innen centuries

after.*-34 The sur#i#al of 9inntain an! Tuan, !oubles of each other,

as an in#ention of the chroniclers, to eI%lain the sur#i#al of the

history of colonists ho ha! all %erishe!. =eating, on the other han!,

rejecting the sole sur#i#or theory as contra!ictory to 5cri%ture,

suggests that aerial !e"ons, folloers of the in#a!ers, re#eale! all

to the chroniclers, unless in!ee! they foun! it engra#e! ith an iron



%en an! lea! in the rocks.*-F4

To hun!re! years before Partholan's co"ing, the 9o"orians ha!

arri#e!,*-4 an! they an! their chief Cichol Gricenchos fought

Partholan at Mag 6tha, here they ere !efeate!. Cichol as footless,

an! so"e of his host ha! but one ar" an! one leg.*24 They ere !e"ons,

accor!ing to the chroniclers, an! !escen!ants of the luckless :a".

<ennius "akes Partholan an! his "en the first 5cots ho ca"e fro" 5%ain

to 6relan!. The neIt arri#als ere the %eo%le of <e"e! ho returne! to

5%ain, hence they ca"e ><ennius@, or !ie! to a "an >Tuan@. They also

ere !escen!ants of the ine#itable <oah, an! their sojourn in 6relan!

as "uch !isturbe! by the 9o"orians ho ha! reco#ere! fro" their !efeat,

an! finally o#er%oere! the <e"e!ians after the !eath of <e"e!.*2*4

9ro" Tory 6slan! the 9o"orians rule! 6relan!, an! force! the <e"e!ians

to %ay the" annually on the e#e of 5a"hain ><o#. *st@ to&thir!s of

their corn an! "ilk an! of the chil!ren born !uring the year. 6f the

9o"orians are go!s of !arkness, or, %referably, aboriginal !eities, the

tribute "ust be eI%laine! as a !i" "e"ory of sacrifice offere! at the

beginning of inter hen the %oers of !arkness an! blight are in theascen!ant. The 9o"orians ha! a toer of glass in Tory 6slan!. This as

one !ay seen by the Milesians, to ho" a%%eare! on its battle"ents hat

see"e! to be "en. A year after they attacke! the toer an! ere

o#erhel"e! in the sea.*2+4 9ro" the sur#i#ors of a %re#iously recke!

#essel of their fleet are !escen!e! the 6rish. Another #ersion "akes the

<e"e!ians the assailants. Thirty of the" sur#i#e! their !efeat, so"e of

the" going to 5cotlan! or Man >the Britons@, so"e to Greece >to return

as the 9irbolgs@, so"e to the north, here they learne! "agic an!

returne! as the Tuatha )e )anann.*2E4 The 9irbolgs, "en of bags,

resenting their igno"inious treat"ent by the Greeks, esca%e! to 6relan!.

They inclu!e! the 9irbolgs %ro%er, the 9ir&)o"nann, an! theGalioin.*214 The 9o"orians are calle! their go!s, an! this, ith the

conte"%tuous e%ithets bestoe! on the", "ay %oint to the fact that the

9irbolgs ere the %re&Celtic folk of 6relan! an! the 9o"orians their

!i#inities, hostile to the go!s of the Celts or regar!e! as !ark

!eities. The 9irbolgs are #assals of Ailill an! Me!b, an! ith the 9ir

)o"nann an! Galioin are hostile to Cuchulainn an! his "en,*2-4 just as

9o"orians ere to the Tuatha )e )anann. The strifes of races an! of

their go!s are ineItricably confuse!.

The Tuatha )e )anann arri#e! fro" hea#en&&an i!ea in kee%ing ith their

character as beneficent go!s, but later legen! tol! ho they ca"e fro"the north. They reache! 6relan! on Beltane, shrou!e! in a "agic "ist,

an! finally, after one or, in other accounts, to battles, !efeate! the

9irbolgs an! 9o"orians at Magture!. The ol!er story of one battle "ay be

regar!e! as a euhe"erise! account of the see"ing conflict of nature

%oers.*224 The first battle is !escribe! in a fifteenth to siIteenth

century M5.,*234 an! is referre! to in a fifteenth century account of

the secon! battle, full of archaic re"iniscences, an! co"%ose! fro"

#arious earlier !ocu"ents.*2F4 The 9irbolgs, !efeate! in the first



battle, join the 9o"orians, after great losses. Meanhile <ua!a, lea!er

of the Tuatha )e )anann, lost his han!, an! as no king ith a ble"ish

coul! sit on the throne, the cron as gi#en to Bres, son of the

9o"orian /latha an! his sister /ri, a o"an of the Tuatha )e )anann. 8ne

!ay /ri es%ie! a sil#er boat s%ee!ing to her across the sea. 9ro" it

ste%%e! forth a "agnificent hero, an! ithout !elay the %air, like the

lo#ers in Theocritus, rejoice! in their e!lock. The hero, /latha,

foretol! the birth of /ri's son, so beautiful that he oul! be a

stan!ar! by hich to try all beautiful things. :e ga#e her his ring, but

she as to %art ith it only to one hose finger it shoul! fit. This as

her chil! Bres, an! by this token he as later, as an eIile, recognise!

by his father, an! obtaine! his hel% against the Tuatha )e )anann. ike

other on!erful chil!ren, Bres gre tice as Luickly as any other chil!

until he as se#en.*24 Though /latha an! /ri are brother an! sister,

she is a"ong the Tuatha )e )anann.*34 There is the usual inconsistency

of "yth here an! in other accounts of 9o"orian an! Tuatha )e )anann

unions. The latter ha! just lan!e!, but alrea!y ha! unite! in "arriage

ith the 9o"orians. This inconsistency esca%e! the chroniclers, but it

%oints to the fact that both ere !i#ine not hu"an, an! that, though inconflict, they unite! in "arriage as "e"bers of hostile tribes often !o.

The secon! battle took %lace tenty&se#en years after the first, on

5a"hain. 6t as fought like the first on the %lain of Mag&ture!, though

later accounts "a!e one battle take %lace at Mag&ture! in Mayo, the

other at Mag&ture! in 5ligo.*3*4 6nconsistently, the conLuering Tuatha

)e )anann in the inter#al, hile Bres is their king, "ust %ay tribute

i"%ose! by the 9o"orians. 8b#iously in ol!er accounts this tribute "ust

ha#e been i"%ose! before the first battle an! ha#e been its cause. But

hy shoul! go!s, like the Tuatha )e )anann, e#er ha#e been in

subjectionS This re"ains to be seen, but the anser %robably lies in%arallel "yths of the subjection or !eath of !i#inities like 6shtar,

A!onis, Perse%hone, an! 8siris. Bres ha#ing eIacte! a tribute of the

"ilk of all hornless !un cos, the cos of 6relan! ere %asse! through

fire an! s"eare! ith ashes&&a "yth base! %erha%s on the Beltane fire

ritual.*3+4 The a#aricious Bres as satirise!, an! nought but !ecay

as on hi" fro" that hour,*3E4 an! hen <ua!a, ha#ing reco#ere!,

clai"e! the throne, he ent to collect an ar"y of the 9o"orians, ho

asse"ble! against the Tuatha )e )anann. 6n the battle 6n!ech oun!e!

8g"a, an! Balor sle <ua!a, but as "ortally oun!e! by ug. Thereu%on

the 9o"orians fle! to their on region.

The Tuatha )e )anann re"aine! "asters of 6relan! until the co"ing of the

Milesians, so na"e! fro" an e%ony"ous Mile, son of Bile. 6th, ha#ing

been sent to reconnoitre, as slain, an! the Milesians no in#a!e!

6relan! in force. 6n s%ite of a "ist raise! by the )rui!s, they lan!e!,

an!, ha#ing "et the three %rinces ho sle 6th, !e"an!e! instant battle

or surren!er of the lan!. The %rinces agree! to abi!e by the !ecision of

the Milesian %oet A"airgen, ho ba!e his frien!s re&e"bark an! retire

for the !istance of nine a#es. 6f they coul! then effect a lan!ing,



6relan! as theirs. A "agic stor" as raise!, hich recke! "any of

their shi%s, but A"airgen recite! #erses, frag"ents, %erha%s, of so"e

ol! ritual, an! o#erca"e the !angers. After their !efeat the sur#i#ors

of the Tuatha )e )anann retire! into the hills to beco"e a fairy folk,

an! the Milesians >the Goi!els or 5cots@ beca"e ancestors of the 6rish.

Throughout the long story of the conLuests of 6relan! there are "any

re!u%lications, the sa"e inci!ents being often ascribe! to !ifferent

%ersonages.*314 )ifferent #ersions of si"ilar occurrences, base! on

ol!er "yths an! tra!itions, "ay alrea!y ha#e been in eIistence, an!

ritual %ractices, !i"ly re"e"bere!, reLuire! eI%lanation. 6n the han!s

of the chroniclers, riting history ith a %ur%ose an! co"bining their

infor"ation ith little regar! to consistency, all this as re!uce! to a

"ore or less connecte! narrati#e. At the han!s of the %rosaic

chroniclers !i#inity %asse! fro" the go!s, though traces of it still

linger.

$e are go!s, an!, behol!, ye shall !ie, an! the a#es be u%on you at

last. 6n the !arkness of ti"e, in the !ee%s of the years, in the changes of

things,

$e shall slee% as a slain "an slee%s, an! the orl! shall forget you for

kings.

9ro" the annalistic %oint of #ie the 9o"orians are sea !e"ons or

%irates, their na"e being !eri#e! fro" K"uirK, sea, hile they are

!escen!e! along ith other "onstrous beings fro" the". Professor

Rhy4s, hile connecting the na"e ith ?elsh KfoarK, giant >Gaelic

Kfa"hairK@, !eri#es the na"e fro" KfoK, un!er, an! K"uirK, an! regar!s

the" as sub"arine beings.*3-4 )r. MacBain connecte! the" ith thefierce %oers of the estern sea %ersonifie!, like the KMuireartachK, a

kin! of sea hag, of a 9ionn balla!.*324 But this association of the

9o"orians ith the ocean "ay be the result of a late folk&ety"ology,

hich rongly !eri#e! their na"e fro" K"uirK. The Celtic eI%erience of

the ochlanners or <orse"en, ith ho" the 9o"orians are

associate!,*334 oul! ai! the conce%tion of the" as sea&%irates of a

"ore or less !e"oniacal character. )r. 5tokes connects the secon!

syllable K"orK ith K"areK in night"are, fro" K"oroK, an! regar!s the"

as subterranean as ell as sub"arine.*3F4 But the "ore %robable

!eri#ation is that of i""er an! )'Arbois, fro" KfoK an! K"orioK >K"orK,

great@,*34 hich oul! thus agree ith the tra!ition hich regar!e!the" as giants. They ere %robably beneficent go!s of the aborigines,

ho" the Celtic conLuerors regar!e! as generally e#il, %erha%s eLuating

the" ith the !ark %oers alrea!y knon to the". They ere still

re"e"bere! as go!s, an! are calle! cha"%ions of the Ksi!K, like the

Tuatha )e )anann.*F4 Thus =ing Bres sought to sa#e his life by

%ro"ising that the kine of 6relan! oul! alays be in "ilk, then that

the "en of 6relan! oul! rea% e#ery Luarter, an! finally by re#ealing

the lucky !ays for %loughing, soing, an! rea%ing.*F*4 8nly an



autochthonous go! coul! kno this, an! the story is suggesti#e of the

true nature of the 9o"orians. The hostile character attribute! to the"

is seen fro" the fact that they !estroye! corn, "ilk, an! fruit. But in

6relan!, as elsehere, this !estructi#e %oer as !e%recate! by begging

the" not to !estroy corn nor "ilk in /rin beyon! their fair

tribute.*F+4 Tribute as also %ai! to the" on 5a"hain, the ti"e hen

the %oers of blight feare! by "en are in the ascen!ant. Again, the

king!o" of Balor, their chief, is still !escribe! as the king!o" of

col!.*FE4 But hen e re"e"ber that a si"ilar tribute as %ai! to

Cro"" Cruaich, a go! of fertility, an! that after the conLuest of the

Tuatha )e )anann they also ere regar!e! as hostile to agriculture,*F14

e realise that the 9o"orians "ust ha#e been aboriginal go!s of

fertility ho" the conLuering Celts regar!e! as hostile to the" an!

their go!s. 5i"ilarly, in folk&belief the beneficent corn&s%irit has

so"eti"es a sinister an! !estructi#e as%ect.*F-4 Thus the stories of

tribute oul! be !istorte! re"iniscences of the ritual of go!s of the

soil, !iffering little in character fro" that of the si"ilar Celtic

!i#inities. ?hat "akes it certain that the 9o"orians ere aboriginal

go!s is that they are foun! in 6relan! before the co"ing of the earlycolonist Partholan. They ere the go!s of the %re&Celtic folk&&9irbolgs,

9ir )o"nann, an! Galioin*F24&&all of the" in 6relan! before the Tuatha

)e )anaan arri#e!, an! all of the" regar!e! as sla#es, s%oken of ith

the ut"ost conte"%t. Another %ossibility, hoe#er, ought to be

consi!ere!. As the Celtic go!s ere local in character, an! as grou%s of

tribes oul! freLuently be hostile to other grou%s, the 9o"orians "ay

ha#e been local go!s of a grou% at en"ity ith another grou%,

orshi%%ing the Tuatha )e )anaan.

The strife of 9o"orians an! Tuatha )e )anann suggests the !ualis" of all

nature religions. )e"ons or giants or "onsters stri#e ith go!s in:in!u, Greek, an! Teutonic "ythology, an! in Persia the %ri"iti#e

!ualis" of beneficent an! hurtful %oers of nature beca"e an ethical

!ualis"&&the eternal o%%osition of goo! an! e#il. The sun is #anLuishe!

by clou! an! stor", but shines forth again in #igour. egetation !ies,

but un!ergoes a yearly reneal. 5o in "yth the i""ortal go!s are oun!e!

an! slain in strife. But e "ust not %ush too far the analogy of the

a%%arent strife of the ele"ents an! the ars of the go!s. The one

suggeste! the other, es%ecially here the go!s ere ele"ental %oers.

But "yth&"aking "an easily !e#elo%e! the suggestion go!s ere like "en

an! coul! ne#er get eneuch o' fechtin'. The Celts kne of !i#ine

co"bats before their arri#al in 6relan!, an! their on hostile %oersere easily assi"ilate! to the hostile go!s of the aborigines.

The %rinci%al 9o"orians are !escribe! as kings. /latha as son of <et,

!escribe! by Cor"ac as a battle go! of the heathen Gael, i.e. he is

one of the Tuatha )e )anann, an! has as i#es to ar&go!!esses, Ba!b

an! <e"ain!.*F34 Thus he rese"bles the 9o"orian Tethra hose ife is a

Kba!bK or battle&cro, %reying on the slain.*FF4 /latha's na"e,

connecte! ith or!s "eaning knole!ge, suggests that he as an



aboriginal culture&go!.*F4 6n the genealogies, 9o"orians an! Tuatha )e

)anann are ineItricably "ingle!. Bres's te"%orary %osition as king of

the Tuatha )ea "ay reflect so"e "yth of the occasional su%re"acy of the

%oers of blight. ?ant an! niggar!liness characterise his reign, an!

after his !efeat a better state of things %re#ails. Bres's consort as

Brigit, an! their son Rua!an, sent to s%y on the Tuatha )e )anann, as

slain. :is "other's ailing for hi" as the first "ourning ail e#er

hear! in /rin.*4 Another go!, 6n!ech, as son of )ea )o"nu, a

9o"orian go!!ess of the !ee%, i.e. of the un!erorl! an! %robably also

of fertility, ho "ay hol! a %osition a"ong the 9o"orians si"ilar to

that of )anu a"ong the Tuatha )e )anann. 6n!ech as slain by 8g"a, ho

hi"self !ie! of oun!s recei#e! fro" his a!#ersary.

Balor ha! a consort Cethlenn, hose #eno" kille! )ag!a. :is one eye ha!

beco"e e#il by contact ith the %oisonous fu"es of a concoction hich

his father's )rui!s ere %re%aring. The eyeli! reLuire! four "en to

raise it, hen his e#il eye !estroye! all on ho" its glance fell. 6n

this ay Balor oul! ha#e slain ug at Mag&ture!, but the go! at once

struck the eye ith a sling&stone an! sle hi".**4 Balor, like theGreek Me!usa, is %erha%s a %ersonification of the e#il eye, so "uch

feare! by the Celts. :ealthful influences an! "agical char"s a#ert it

hence ug, a beneficent go!, !estroys Balor's "aleficence.

Tethra, ith Balor an! /latha, rule! o#er /rin at the co"ing of the

Tuatha )e )anann. 9ro" a %hrase use! in the story of Connla's #isit to

/lysiu", Thou art a hero of the "en of Tethra, M. )'Arbois assu"es

that Tethra as ruler of /lysiu", hich he "akes one ith the lan! of

the !ea!. The %assage, hoe#er, bears a !ifferent inter%retation, an!

though a 9o"orian, Tethra, a go! of ar, "ight be regar!e! as lor! of

all arriors.*+4 /lysiu" as not the lan! of the !ea!, an! hen M.)'Arbois eLuates Tethra ith =ronos, ho after his !efeat beca"e ruler

of a lan! of !ea! heroes, the analogy, like other analogies ith Greek

"ythology, is "islea!ing. :e also eLuates Bres, as te"%orary king of the

Tuatha )e )anann, ith =ronos, king of hea#en in the age of gol!.

=ronos, again, slain by eus, is %arallel to Balor slain by his gran!son

ug. Tethra, Bres, an! Balor are thus se%arate frag"ents of one go!

eLui#alent to =ronos.*E4 $et their %ersonalities are Luite !istinct.

/ach race orks out its "ythology for itself, an!, hile %arallels are

ine#itable, e shoul! not allo these to o#erri!e the actual "yths as

they ha#e co"e !on to us.

Professor Rhy4s "akes Bile, ancestor of the Milesians ho ca"e fro"

5%ain, a Goi!elic counter%art of the Gaulish )is%ater, lor! of the !ea!,

fro" ho" the Gauls clai"e! !escent. But Bile, neither a 9o"orian nor of

the Tuatha )e )anann, is an i"aginary an! sha!oy creation. Bile is neIt

eLuate! ith a Brythonic Beli, assu"e! to be consort of )on, hose

fa"ily are eLui#alent to the Tuatha )e )anann.*14 Beli as a "ythic

king hose reign as a kin! of gol!en age, an! if he as father of )on's

chil!ren, hich is !oubtful, Bile oul! then be father of the Tuatha )e



)anann. But he is ancestor of the Milesians, their o%%onents accor!ing

to the annalists. Beli is also eLuate! ith /latha, an! since )on,

re%ute! consort of Beli, as gran!"other of le, eLuate! ith 6rish

ug, gran!son of Balor, Balor is eLui#alent to Beli, hose na"e is

regar!e! by Professor Rhy4s as relate! ety"ologically to Balor's.*-4

Bile, Balor, an! /latha are thus Goi!elic eLui#alents of the sha!oy

Beli. But they also are Luite !istinct %ersonalities, nor are they e#er

hinte! at as ancestral go!s of the Celts, or go!s of a gloo"y

un!erorl!. 6n Celtic belief the un!erorl! as %robably a fertile

region an! a %lace of light, nor ere its go!s har"ful an! e#il, as

Balor as.

8n the hole, the 9o"orians ca"e to be regar!e! as the %oers of nature

in its hostile as%ect. They %ersonifie! blight, inter, !arkness, an!

!eath, before hich "en tre"ble!, yet ere not holly cast !on, since

the i""ortal go!s of groth an! light, rulers of the bright other&orl!,

ere on their si!e an! fought against their ene"ies. $ear by year the

go!s suffere! !ea!ly har", but returne! as conLuerors to rene the

struggle once "ore. Myth s%oke of this as ha#ing ha%%ene! once for all,but it ent on continuously.*24 Go!s ere i""ortal an! only see"e! to

!ie. The strife as re%resente! in ritual, since "en belie#e that they

can ai! the go!s by "agic, rite, or %rayer. ?hy, then, !o hostile

9o"orians an! Tuatha )e )anann inter"arryS This ha%%ens in all

"ythologies, an! it %robably reflects, in the !i#ine s%here, hat takes

%lace a"ong "en. :ostile %eo%les carry off each the other's o"en, or

they ha#e %erio!s of frien!liness an! conseLuent inter"arriage. Man

"akes his go!s in his on i"age, an! the %roble" is best eI%laine! by

facts like these, eIaggerate! no !oubt by the 6rish annalists.

The Tuatha )e )anann, in s%ite of their euhe"erisation, are "ore thanhu"an. 6n the north here they learne! "agic, they !elt in four cities,

fro" each of hich they brought a "agical treasure&&the stone of 9al,

hich roare! un!er e#ery king, ug's unconLuerable s%ear, <ua!a's

irresistible sor!, the )ag!a's ineIhaustible caul!ron. But they are

"ore than iHar!s or )rui!s. They are re&born as "ortals they ha#e a

!i#ine orl! of their on, they interfere in an! influence hu"an

affairs. The euhe"erists !i! not go far enough, an! "ore than once their

!i#inity is %ractically acknole!ge!. ?hen the 9ian Caoilte an! a o"an

of the Tuatha )e )anann a%%ear before 5. Patrick, he asks, ?hy is she

youthful an! beautiful, hile you are ol! an! rinkle!S An! Caoilte

re%lies, 5he is of the Tuatha )e )anann, ho are unfa!ing an! hose!uration is %erennial. 6 a" of the sons of Milesius, that are %erishable

an! fa!e aay.*34

After their con#ersion, the Celts, sons of Milesius, thought that the

go!s still eIiste! in the hollo hills, their for"er !ellings an!

sanctuaries, or in far&off islan!s, still caring for their for"er

orshi%%ers. This tra!ition ha! its %lace ith that hich "a!e the" a

race of "en conLuere! by the Milesians&&the #ictory of Christianity o#er



%aganis" an! its go!s ha#ing been trans"ute! into a strife of races by

the euhe"erists. The ne faith, not the %eo%le, conLuere! the ol! go!s.

The Tuatha )e )anann beca"e the K)aoine&si!heK, a fairy folk, still

occasionally calle! by their ol! na"e, just as in!i#i!ual fairy kings or

Lueens bear the na"es of the ancient go!s. The euhe"erists ga#e the

9o"orians a "onstrous an! !e"oniac character, hich they !i! not alays

gi#e to the Tuatha )e )anann in this continuing the ol! tra!ition that

9o"orians ere hostile an! the Tuatha )e )anann beneficent an! "il!.

The "ythological cycle is not a co"%lete bo!y of !i#inity its

a%%arent co"%leteness results fro" the chronological or!er of the

annalists. 9rag"ents of other "yths are foun! in the K)in!senchasK

others eIist as ro"antic tales, an! e ha#e no reason to belie#e that

all the ol! "yths ha#e been %reser#e!. But enough re"ains to sho the

true nature of the Tuatha )e )anann&&their su%ernatural character, their

%oers, their !i#ine an! unfailing foo! an! !rink, their "ysterious an!

beautiful abo!e. 6n their contents, their %ersonages, in the actions

that are !escribe! in the", the "aterials of the "ythological cycle,

sho ho i!ely it !iffers fro" the Cuchulainn an! 9ionn cycles.*F4The hite ra!iance of eternity suffuses it the heroic cycles, "agical

an! ro"antic as they are, belong far "ore to earth an! ti"e.

988T<8T/5(

*-E4 9or so"e :ighlan! references to the go!s in saga an! KMaerchenK,

see KBook of the )ean of is"oreK, * Ca"%bell, K?:TK ii. 33. The

sea&go! ir is %robably the iur of 8ssianic balla!s >Ca"%bell, K9K

*, *+-@, an! his son Manannan is %erha%s the 5on of the 5ea in a

Gaelic song >Car"ichael, KCGK ii. *++@. Manannan an! his !aughters are

also knon >Ca"%bell, KitchcraftK, FE@.

*-14 The euhe"erising %rocess is first seen in tenth century %oe"s by

/ochai! hua 9lainn, but as largely the ork of 9lainn Manistrech, Kob.K

*-2. 6t is foun! fully fle!ge! in the KBook of 6n#asionsK.

*--4 =eating, *-&*2.

*-24 =eating, *3 KK 1KbK. Cf. KRCK I#i. *--.

*-34 KK -.

*-F4 =eating, ***. Giral!us Ca"brensis, K:ist. 6rel.K c. +, "akes

Roanus sur#i#e an! tell the tale of Partholan to 5. Patrick. :e is the

Caoilte "ac Ronan of other tales, a sur#i#or of the 9ians, ho hel! "any

racy !ialogues ith the 5aint. =eating abuses Giral!us for eLuating

Roanus ith 9inntain in his lying history, an! for calling hi" Roanus

instea! of Ronanus, a "istake in hich he, the gui!e bull of the her!,

is folloe! by others.



*-4 =eating, *21.

*24 KK -KaK.

*2*4 =eating, *+* KK 2KaK KRCK I#i. *2*.

*2+4 <ennius, K:ist. Brit.K *E.

*2E4 KK 2, FKbK.

*214 KK 2KbK, *+3KaK K6TK iii. EF* KRCK I#i. F*.

*2-4 KK KbK, **KaK.

*224 5ee Cor"ac, Ks.#.K <escoit, K;K -*.

*234 K:arl. M55.K +, *3, %%. &. Cf. frag"ent fro" KBook of

6n#asionsK in KK F.

*2F4 K:arl. M5.K -+F, translate! in KRCK Iii. - f.

*24 KRCK Iii. 2 )'Arbois, #. 1- f.

*34 9or Celtic brother&sister unions see %. ++1.

*3*4 8')ono#an, KAnnalsK, i. *2.

*3+4 KRCK I#. 1E.

*3E4 KRCK Iii. 3*.

*314 Professor Rhy4s thinks the Partholan story is the aboriginal,

the "e!ian the Celtic #ersion of the sa"e e#ent. Partholan, ith initial

K%K cannot be Goi!elic >K5cottish Re#ieK, *F, Myth. Treat"ent of

Celtic /thnology@.

*3-4 K:K -*.

*324 KCMK iI. *E Ca"%bell K9K 2F.

*334 KRCK Iii. 3-.

*3F4 K;5K +**.

*34 )'Arbois, ii. -+ KRCK Iii. 132.

*F4 KRCK Iii. 3E.

*F*4 KRCK Iii. *-.



*F+4 KRCK IIii. *-.

*FE4 ar"i"e, =ian, son of =ontje.

*F14 5ee %. 3F KK +1-KbK.

*F-4 Mannhar!t, KMythol. 9orsch.K E* f.

*F24 9ir )o"nann, "en of )o"na, a go!!ess >Rhy4s, K:K -3@, or a

go! >)'Arbois, ii. *E@. )o"na is connecte! ith 6rish&or!s "eaning

!ee% >?in!isch, K6TK i. 1F 5tokes, K;5K *-E@. )o"na, or )o"nu, "ay

therefore ha#e been a go!!ess of the !ee%, not the sea so "uch as the

un!erorl!, an! so %erha%s an /arth&"other fro" ho" the 9ir )o"nann

trace! their !escent.

*F34 Cor"ac, Ks.#.K <eith )'Arbois, #. 1 KRCK Iii. 2*.

*FF4 K;K -. Tethra is glosse! Kba!bK >K6TK i. F+@.

*F4 K6TK i. -+* Rhy4s, K:K +31 f.

*4 KRCK Iii. -.

**4 KRCK Iii. **.

*+4 5ee %. E31.

*E4 )'Arbois, ii. *F, E3-.

*14 K:K &*.

*-4 K:K +31, E*, 21E. 9or Beli, see %. **+, KinfraK.

*24 ?hate#er the signification of the battle of Mag&ture! "ay be, the

%lace hich it as localise! is cro!e! ith <eolithic "egaliths,

!ol"ens, etc. To later fancy these ere the gra#es of arriors slain in

a great battle fought there, an! that battle beca"e the fight beteen

9o"orians an! Tuatha )e )ananns. Mag&ture! "ay ha#e been the scene of a

battle beteen their res%ecti#e orshi%%ers.

*34 8'Gra!y, ii. +E.

*F4 6t shoul! be obser#e! that, as in the e!as, the 8!yssey, the

Ja%anese K=o&ji&kiK, as ell as in barbaric an! sa#age "ythologies,

KMaerchenK for"ulae aboun! in the 6rish "ythological cycle.



C:APT/R .

T:/ T;AT:A )/ )A<A<<

The "eaning for"erly gi#en to KTuatha )e )anannK as the "en of science

ho ere go!s, K!anannK being here connecte! ith K!anK, knole!ge.

But the true "eaning is the tribes KorK folk of the go!!ess )anu,*4

hich agrees ith the cognates KTuathaK or K9ir )eaK, tribes KorK "en

of the go!!ess. The na"e as gi#en to the grou%, though )anu ha! only

three sons, Brian, 6uchar, an! 6ucharbar. :ence the grou% is also calle!

Kfir tri n!eaK, "en of the three go!s.+4 The eLui#alents in ?elsh

story of )anu an! her folk are )on an! her chil!ren. ?e ha#e seen that

though they are !escribe! as kings an! arriors by the annalists, traces

of their !i#inity a%%ear. 6n the Cuchulainn cycle they are su%ernatural

beings an! so"eti"es !e"ons, hel%ing or har"ing "en, an! in the 9ionn

cycle all these characteristics are ascribe! to the". But the theory

hich %re#aile! "ost is that hich connecte! the" ith the hills or"oun!s, the last resting&%laces of the "ighty !ea!. 5o"e of these bore

their na"es, hile other beings ere also associate! ith the "oun!s

>Ksi!K@&&9o"orians an! Milesian chiefs, heroes of the sagas, or those

ho ha! actually been burie! in the".+*4 egen! tol! ho, after the

!efeat of the go!s, the "oun!s ere !i#i!e! a"ong the", the "etho! of

!i#ision #arying in !ifferent #ersions. 6n an early #ersion the Tuatha

)e )anann are i""ortal an! the )ag!a !i#i!es the Ksi!K.++4 But in a

%oe" of 9lann Manistrech >Kob.K *-2@ they are "ortals an! !ie.+E4 <o

follos a regular chronology gi#ing the !ates of their reigns an! their

!eaths, as in the %oe" of Gilla Coe"ain >ele#enth century@.+14 :ence

another legen! tol! ho, )ag!a being !ea!, Bo!b )earg !i#i!e! the Ksi!K,yet e#en here Manannan is sai! to ha#e conferre! i""ortality u%on the

Tuatha )e )anann.+-4 The ol! %agan "yths ha! shon that go!s "ight

!ie, hile in ritual their re%resentati#es ere slain, an! this "ay ha#e

been the starting&%oint of the euhe"erising %rocess. But the !i#inity of

the Tuatha )e )anann is still recalle!. /ochai! 8'9lynn >tenth century@,

!oubtful hether they are "en or !e"ons, conclu!es, though 6 ha#e

treate! of these !eities in or!er, yet ha#e 6 not a!ore! the".+24

/#en in later ti"es they ere still thought of as go!s in eIile, a #ie

hich a%%ears in the ro"antic tales an! sagas eIisting si!e by si!e ith

the notices of the annalists. They ere also regar!e! as fairy kings an!

Lueens, an! yet fairies of a !ifferent or!er fro" those of or!inarytra!ition. They are fairies or s%rites ith cor%oreal for"s, en!oe!

ith i""ortality, an! yet also K!ei terreniK or Ksi!eK orshi%%e! by

the folk before the co"ing of 5. Patrick. /#en the saint an! se#eral

bisho%s ere calle! by the fair %agan !aughters of =ing oegaire, Kfir

si!eK, "en of the Ksi!K, that is, go!s.+34 The Ksi!K ere na"e!

after the na"es of the Tuatha )e )anann ho reigne! in the", but the

tra!ition being localise! in !ifferent %laces, se#eral "oun!s ere

so"eti"es connecte! ith one go!. The Ksi!K ere "ar#ellous un!ergroun!



to associate tu"uli or other structures not ith the !ea! or ith their

buil!ers, but ith su%ernatural or "ythical or e#en historical

%ersonages. 6f Ksi!eK e#er "eant ghosts, it oul! be easy to call the

!ea! go!s by this na"e, an! to connect the" ith the %laces of the

!ea!.+*34

Many stran!s ent to the ea#ing of the later conce%tion of the go!s,

but there still hung aroun! the" an air of "ystery, an! the belief that

they ere a race of "en as ne#er consistent ith itself.

)anu ga#e her na"e to the hole grou% of go!s, an! is calle! their

"other, like the /gy%tian <eith or the 5e"itic 6shtar.+*F4 6n the

annalists she is !aughter of )ag!a, an! has three sons. 5he "ay be akin

to the go!!ess Anu, ho" Cor"ac !escribes as K"ater !eoru"

hibernensiu"K. 6t as ell she nurse! the go!s. 9ro" her na"e he

!eri#es KanaK, %lenty, an! to hills in =erry are calle! the Pa%s of

Anu.+*4 Thus as a go!!ess of %lenty )anu or Anu "ay ha#e been an

early /arth&"other, an! hat "ay be a !i" "e"ory of Anu in

eicestershire confir"s this #ie. A ca#e on the )ane :ills is calle!Black Annis' Boer, an! she is sai! to ha#e been a sa#age o"an ho

!e#oure! hu"an #icti"s.++4 /arth&go!!esses usually ha#e hu"an #icti"s,

an! Anu oul! be no eIce%tion. 6n the cult of /arth !i#inities /arth an!

un!er&/arth are %ractically i!entical, hile /arth&go!!esses like

)e"eter an! Perse%hone ere associate! ith the un!erorl!, the !ea!

being )e"eter's folk. The fruits of the earth ith their roots belo the

surface are then gifts of the earth& or un!er&earth go!!ess. This "ay

ha#e been the case ith )anu, for in Celtic belief the gifts of

ci#ilisation ca"e fro" the un!erorl! or fro" the go!s. Professor

Rhy4s fin!s the na"e Anu in the !at. KAnonire!iK, chariot of Anu, in

an inscri%tion fro" aucluse, an! the i!entification is %erha%sestablishe! by the fact that go!!esses of fertility ere !ran through

the fiel!s in a #ehicle.++*4 Cor"ac also "entions Buanann as "other an!

nurse of heroes, %erha%s a go!!ess orshi%%e! by heroes.+++4

)anu is also i!entifie! ith Brigit, go!!ess of knole!ge >K!anK@,

%erha%s through a folk&ety"ology. 5he as orshi%%e! by %oets, an! ha!

to sisters of the sa"e na"e connecte! ith leechcraft an!

s"ithork.++E4 They are !u%licates or local for"s of Brigit, a go!!ess

of culture an! of %oetry, so "uch lo#e! by the Celts. 5he is thus the

eLui#alent of the Gaulish go!!ess eLuate! ith Miner#a by Caesar, an!

foun! on inscri%tions as Miner#a Belisa"a an! Brigin!o. 5he is the )eaBrigantia of British inscri%tions.++14 8ne of the seats of her orshi%

as the lan! of the Brigantes, of ho" she as the e%ony"ous go!!ess,

an! her na"e >cf. 6r. KbrigK, %oer or craft ?elsh KbriK, honour,

renon@ suggests her high functions. But her %o%ularity is seen in the

continuation of her %ersonality an! cult in those of 5. Brigit, at hose

shrine in =il!are a sacre! fire, hich "ust not be breathe! on, or

a%%roache! by a "ale, as atche! !aily by nineteen nuns in turn, an! on

the tentieth !ay by the saint herself.++-4 5i"ilar sacre! fires ere



ke%t u% in other "onasteries,++24 an! they %oint to the ol! cult of a

go!!ess of fire, the nuns being successors of a #irgin %riesthoo! like

the #estals, %riestesses of esta. As has been seen, the go!!esses

Belisa"a an! 5ul, %robably go!!esses of fire, rese"ble! Brigit in

this.++34 But Brigit, like esta, as at once a go!!ess of fire an! of

fertility, as her connection ith Can!le"as an! certain ritual sur#i#als

also suggest. 6n the :ebri!es on 5. Bri!e's !ay >Can!le"as&e#e@ o"en

!resse! a sheaf of oats in fe"ale clothes an! set it ith a club in a

basket calle! Brii!'s be!. Then they calle!, Brii! is co"e, Brii! is

elco"e. 8r a be! as "a!e of corn an! hay ith can!les burning besi!e

it, an! Bri!e as in#ite! to co"e as her be! as rea!y. 6f the "ark of

the club as seen in the ashes, this as an o"en of a goo! har#est an! a

%ros%erous year.++F4 6t is also noteorthy that if cattle cro%%e! the

grass near 5. Brigit's shrine, neIt !ay it as as luIuriant as e#er.

Brigit, or go!!esses ith si"ilar functions, as regar!e! by the Celts

as an early teacher of ci#ilisation, ins%irer of the artistic, %oetic,

an! "echanical faculties, as ell as a go!!ess of fire an! fertility. As

such she far eIcelle! her sons, go!s of knole!ge. 5he "ust ha#eoriginate! in the %erio! hen the Celts orshi%%e! go!!esses rather than

go!s, an! hen knole!ge&&leechcraft, agriculture, ins%iration&&ere

o"en's rather than "en's. 5he ha! a fe"ale %riesthoo!, an! "en ere

%erha%s eIclu!e! fro" her cult, as the tabue! shrine at =il!are

suggests. Perha%s her fire as fe! fro" sacre! oak oo!, for "any

shrines of 5. Brigit ere built un!er oaks, !oubtless !is%lacing %agan

shrines of the go!!ess.++4 As a go!!ess, Brigit is "ore %ro"inent than

)anu, also a go!!ess of fertility, e#en though )anu is "other of the

go!s.

8ther go!!esses re"e"bere! in tra!ition are Cleena an! era, celebrate!in fairy an! itch lore, the for"er %erha%s akin to a ri#er&go!!ess

Clota, the Clutoi!a >a fountain&ny"%h@ of the continental Celts the

latter, un!er her alternati#e na"e )irra, %erha%s a for" of a go!!ess of

Gaul, )irona.+E4 Aine, one of the great fairy&Lueens of 6relan!, has

her seat at =nockainy in i"erick, here rites connecte! ith her for"er

cult are still %erfor"e! for fertility on Mi!su""er e#e. 6f they ere

neglecte! she an! her troo%s %erfor"e! the", accor!ing to local

legen!.+E*4 5he is thus an ol! go!!ess of fertility, hose cult, e#en

at a festi#al in hich go!s ere latterly "ore %ro"inent, is still

re"e"bere!. 5he is also associate! ith the aters as a ater&ny"%h

ca%ture! for a ti"e as a fairy&bri!e by the /arl of )es"on!.+E+4 Butol!er legen!s connect her ith the Ksi!K. 5he as !aughter of /ogabal,

king of the Ksi!K of =nockainy, the grass on hich as annually

!estroye! at 5a"hain by his %eo%le, because it ha! been taken fro" the",

its rightful oners. 8ilill 8lo"" an! 9erchus resol#e! to atch the

Ksi!K on 5a"hain&e#e. They sa /ogabal an! Aine e"erge fro" it. 9erchus

kille! /ogabal, an! 8ilill trie! to outrage Aine, ho bit the flesh fro"

his ear. :ence his na"e of Bare /ar.+EE4 6n this legen! e see ho

earlier go!s of fertility co"e to be regar!e! as hostile to groth.



Another story tells of the lo#e of Aillen, /ogabal's son, for Manannan's

ife an! that of Aine for Manannan. Aine offere! her fa#ours to the go!

if he oul! gi#e his ife to her brother, an! the co"%licate! bit of

ro"ance, as 5. Patrick calls it, as thus arrange!.+E14

Although the 6rish go!s are arriors, an! there are s%ecial ar&go!s,

yet ar&go!!esses are "ore %ro"inent, usually as a grou% of

three&&Morrigan, <e"an, an! Macha. A fourth, Ba!b, so"eti"es takes the

%lace of one of these, or is i!entical ith Morrigan, or her na"e, like

that of Morrigan, "ay be generic.+E-4 KBa!bK "eans a scal!&cro,

un!er hich for" the ar&go!!esses a%%eare!, %robably because these

bir!s ere seen near the slain. 5he is also calle! Ba!bcatha,

battle&Ba!b, an! is thus the eLui#alent of K&athubo!ua,K or, "ore

%robably, KCathubo!uaK, "entione! in an inscri%tion fro" :aute&5a#oie,

hile this, as ell as %ersonal na"es like KBo!uogenosK, shos that a

go!!ess Bo!ua as knon to the Gauls.+E24 The Kba!bK or battle&cro is

associate! ith the 9o"orian Tethra, but Ba!b herself is consort of a

ar&go! <et, one of the Tuatha )e )anann, ho "ay be the eLui#alent of

<eton, "entione! in 5%anish inscri%tions an! eLuate! ith Mars./lsehere <e"an is <et's consort, an! she "ay be the <e"etona of

inscri%tions, e.g. at Bath, the consort of Mars. Cor"ac calls <et an!

<e"an a #eno"ous cou%le, hich e "ay ell belie#e the" to ha#e

been.+E34 To Macha ere !e#ote! the hea!s of slain ene"ies, Macha's

"ast, but she, accor!ing to the annalists, as slain at Mag&ture!,

though she rea%%ears in the Cuchulainn saga as the Macha hose

ill&treat"ent le! to the !ebility of the ;lster"en.+EF4 The na"e

Morrigan "ay "ean great Lueen, though )r. 5tokes, connecting K"orK

ith the sa"e syllable in 9o"orian, eI%lains it as

night"are&Lueen.+E4 5he orks great har" to the 9o"orians at

Mag&ture!, an! afterar!s %roclai"s the #ictory to the hills, ri#ers,an! fairy&hosts, uttering also a %ro%hecy of the e#ils to co"e at the

en! of ti"e.+14 5he rea%%ears %ro"inently in the Cuchulainn saga,

hostile to the hero because he rejects her lo#e, yet ai!ing the hosts of

;lster an! the Bron Bull, an! in the en! trying to %re#ent the hero's

!eath.+1*4

The %ro"inent %osition of these go!!esses "ust be connecte! ith the

fact that o"en ent out to ar&&a custo" sai! to ha#e been sto%%e! by

A!a"nan at his "other's reLuest, an! that "any %ro"inent heroines of the

heroic cycles are arriors, like the British Bou!icca, hose na"e "ay be

connecte! ith Kbou!iK, #ictory. 5%ecific titles ere gi#en to suchclasses of fe"ale arriors&&Kbangaisge!aigK, Kbanfeinni!iK, etc.+1+4

But it is %ossible that these go!!esses ere at first connecte! ith

fertility, their functions changing ith the groing arlike ten!encies

of the Celts. Their nu"ber recalls that of the threefol! KMatresK, an!

%ossibly the change in their character is hinte! in the Ro"ano&British

inscri%tion at Benell to the Ka"iis TribusK, since Morrigan's na"e is

glosse! Kla"iaK.+1E4 5he is also i!entifie! ith Anu, an! is "istress

of )ag!a, an /arth&go!, an! ith Ba!b an! others eI%els the 9o"orians



hen they !estroye! the agricultural %ro!uce of 6relan!.+114 Probably

the scal!&cro as at once the sy"bol an! the incarnation of the

ar&go!!esses, ho rese"ble the <orse alkyries, a%%earing so"eti"es as

cros, an! the Greek =eres, bir!&like beings hich !rank the bloo! of

the slain. 6t is also interesting to note that Ba!b, ho has the

character of a %ro%hetess of e#il, is often i!entifie! ith the ?asher

at the 9or!, hose %resence in!icates !eath to hi" hose ar"our or

gar"ents she see"s to cleanse.+1-4

The KMatresK, go!!esses of fertility, !o not a%%ear by na"e in 6relan!,

but the tri%lication of such go!!esses as Morrigan an! Brigit, the

threefol! na"e of )ag!a's ife, or the fact that Ar", )anu, an! Buanan

are calle! "others, hile Buanan's na"e is so"eti"es ren!ere! goo!

"other, "ay suggest that such grou%e! go!!esses ere not unknon. ater

legen! knos of hite o"en ho assist in s%inning, or three hags ith

%oer o#er nature, or, as in the KBattle of entryK, of three

su%ernatural o"en ho fall in lo#e ith Conncrithir, ai! hi" in fight,

an! heal his oun!s. 6n this !ocu"ent an! elsehere is "entione! the

Ksi!K of the ?hite ?o"en.+124 Go!!esses of fertility are usuallygo!!esses of lo#e, an! the %ro"inence gi#en to fe"ales a"ong the Ksi!eK,

the fact that they are often calle! KBe fin!K, ?hite ?o"en, like

fairies ho re%resent the KMatresK elsehere, an! that they freely offer

their lo#e to "ortals, "ay connect the" ith this grou% of go!!esses.

Again, hen the Milesians arri#e! in 6relan!, three kings of the Tuatha

)ea ha! i#es calle! /riu, Banba, an! 9otla, ho begge! that 6relan!

shoul! be calle! after the". This as grante!, but only /riu >/rin@

re"aine! in general use.+134 The story is an aetiological "yth

eI%laining the na"es of 6relan!, but the three i#es "ay be a grou% like

the KMatresK, guar!ians of the lan! hich took its na"e fro" the".

Brian, 6uchar, an! 6ucharba, ho gi#e a title to the hole grou%, are

calle! Ktri !ee )onan!K, the three go!s >sons of@ )anu, or, again,

go!s of K!anK >knole!ge@, %erha%s as the result of a folk&ety"ology,

associating K!anK ith their "other's na"e )anu.+1F4 arious attributes

are %ersonifie! as their !escen!ants, ?is!o" being son of all

three.+14 Though so"e of these attributes "ay ha#e been actual go!s,

es%ecially /cne or ?is!o", yet it is "ore %robable that the

%ersonification is the result of the subtleties of bar!ic science, of

hich si"ilar eIa"%les occur.+-4 8n the other han!, the fact that /cne

is the son of three brothers, "ay recall so"e early %ractice of

%olyan!ry of hich instances are "et ith in the sagas.+-*4 M. )'Arboishas suggeste! that 6uchar an! 6ucharba are "ere !u%licates of Brian, ho

usually takes the lea!ing %lace, an! he i!entifies the" ith three kings

of the Tuatha )ea reigning at the ti"e of the Milesian in#asion&&

MacCuill, MacCecht, an! MacGrainne, so calle!, accor!ing to =eating,

because the haHel >KcollK@, the %lough >KcechtK@, an! the sun >KgrianK@

ere go!s of orshi% to the". Both grou%s are gran!sons of )ag!a, an!

M. )'Arbois regar!s this secon! grou% as also tri%licates of one go!,

because their i#es 9otla, Banba, an! /riu all bear na"es of 6relan!



itself, are %ersonifications of the lan!, an! thus "ay be re!uce! to

unity.+-+4 ?hile this reasoning is ingenious, it shoul! be re"e"bere!

that e "ust not lay too "uch stress u%on 6rish !i#ine genealogies,

hile each grou% of three "ay ha#e been si"ilar local go!s associate! at

a later ti"e as brothers. Their se%arate %ersonality is suggeste! by the

fact that the Tuatha )e )anann are calle! after the" the Men of the

Three Go!s, an! their su%re"acy a%%ears in the inci!ent of )ag!a, ug,

an! 8g"a consulting the" before the fight at Mag&ture!&&a natural

%rocee!ing if they ere go!s of knole!ge or !estiny.+-E4 The brothers

are sai! to ha#e slain the go! Cian, an! to ha#e been the"sel#es slain

by ug, an! on this see"s to ha#e been base! the story of KThe Chil!ren

of TuirennK, in hich they %erish through their eIertions in obtaining

the KericK !e"an!e! by ug.+-14 :ere they are sons of Tuirenn, but "ore

usually their "other )anu or Brigit is "entione!.

Another son of Brigit's as 8g"a, "aster of %oetry an! in#entor of

Kogha"K riting, the or! being !eri#e! fro" his na"e.+--4 6t is "ore

%robable that 8g"a's na"e is a !eri#ati#e fro" so"e or! signifying

s%eech or riting, an! that the connection ith ogha" "ay be a"ere folk&ety"ology. 8g"a a%%ears as the cha"%ion of the go!s,+-24 a

%osition gi#en hi" %erha%s fro" the %ri"iti#e custo" of rousing the

arriors' e"otions by eloLuent s%eeches before a battle. 5i"ilarly the

Babylonian Mar!uk, seer of the go!s, as also their cha"%ion in fight.

8g"a fought an! !ie! at Mag&ture! but in other accounts he sur#i#es,

ca%tures Tethra's sor!, goes on the Luest for )ag!a's har%, an! is

gi#en a Ksi!K after the Milesian #ictory. 8g"a's counter%art in Gaul is

8g"ios, a :erakles an! a go! of eloLuence, thus bearing the !ual

character of 8g"a, hile 8g"a's e%ithet KgrianainechK, of the s"iling

countenance, recalls ucian's account of the s"iling face of

8g"ios.+-34 8g"a's high %osition is the result of the a!"iration ofbar!ic eloLuence a"ong the Celts, hose loLuacity as %ro#erbial, an! to

hi" its origin as !oubtless ascribe!, as ell as that of %oetry. The

genealogists eI%lain his relationshi% to the other !i#inities in

!ifferent ays, but these confusions "ay result fro" the fact that go!s

ha! "ore than one na"e, of hich the annalists "a!e se%arate

%ersonalities. Most usually 8g"a is calle! Brigit's son. :er functions

ere like his on, but in s%ite of the increasing su%re"acy of go!s o#er

go!!esses, he ne#er really ecli%se! her.

A"ong other culture go!s ere those associate! ith the arts an!

crafts&&the !e#elo%"ent of Celtic art in "etal&ork necessitating theeIistence of go!s of this art. 5uch a go! is Goibniu, e%ony"ous go! of

s"iths >8l! 6r. KgobaK, s"ith@, an! the !i#ine crafts"an at the battle

of Mag&ture!, "aking s%ears hich ne#er faile! to kill.+-F4 5"iths ha#e

e#eryhere been regar!e! as uncanny&&a tra!ition sur#i#ing fro" the

first intro!uction of "etal a"ong those hitherto accusto"e! to stone

ea%ons an! tools. 5. Patrick %raye! against the s%ells of o"en,

s"iths, an! )rui!s, an! it is thus not sur%rising to fin! that Goibniu

ha! a re%utation for "agic, e#en a"ong Christians. A s%ell for "aking



butter, in an eighth century M5. %reser#e! at 5. Gall, a%%eals to his

science.+-4 Curiously enough, Goibniu is also connecte! ith the

culinary art in "yth, an!, like :e%haistos, %re%ares the feast of the

go!s, hile his ale %reser#es their i""ortality.+24 The elation

%ro!uce! by hea!y liLuors cause! the" to be regar!e! as !raughts of

i""ortality, like 5o"a, :ao"a, or nectar. Goibniu sur#i#es in tra!ition

as the KGobhan 5aerK, to ho" the buil!ing of roun! toers is ascribe!.

Another go! of crafts as Crei!ne the braHier >6r. Kcer!K, artificer

cf. 5cots Kcair!K, tinker@, ho assiste! in "aking a sil#er han! for

<ua!a, an! su%%lie! ith "agical ra%i!ity %arts of the ea%ons use! at

Mag&ture!.+2*4 Accor!ing to the annalists, he as !rone! hile

bringing gol!en ore fro" 5%ain.+2+4 uchtine, go! of car%enters,

%ro#i!e! s%ear&han!les for the battle, an! ith "ar#ellous skill flung

the" into the sockets of the s%ear&hea!s.+2E4

)iancecht, hose na"e "ay "ean sift in %oer, as go! of "e!icine,

an!, ith Crei!ne's hel%, fashione! a sil#er han! for <ua!a.+214 :is

son Miach re%lace! this by a "agic restoration of the real han!, an! in jealousy his father sle hi"&&a #ersion of the KMaerchenK for"ula of the

jealous "aster. Three hun!re! an! siIty&fi#e herbs gre fro" his gra#e,

an! ere arrange! accor!ing to their %ro%erties by his sister Air"e!,

but )iancecht again confuse! the", so that no one knos their %ro%er

cures.+2-4 At the secon! battle of Mag&ture!, )iancecht %resi!e! o#er

a healing&ell containing "agic herbs. These an! the %oer of s%ells

cause! the "ortally oun!e! ho ere %lace! in it to reco#er. :ence it

as calle! the s%ring of health.+224 )iancecht, associate! ith a

healing&ell, "ay be cognate ith Grannos. :e is also referre! to in the

5. Gall M5., here his healing %oers are eItolle!.

An early chief of the go!s is )ag!a, ho, in the story of the battle of

Mag&ture!, is sai! to be so calle! because he %ro"ise! to !o "ore than

all the other go!s together. :ence they sai!, 6t is thou art the Kgoo!

han!K >K!ag&!aeK@. The KCoir An"annK eI%lains K)ag!aK as fire of go!

>K!aigK an! K!eaK@. The true !eri#ation is fro" K!agosK, goo!, an!

K!ei#osK, go!, though )r. 5tokes consi!ers K)ag!aK as connecte! ith

K!aghK, hence K!agh!aK, cunning.+234 )ag!a is also calle! Cera, a

or! %erha%s !eri#e! fro" KkarK an! connecte! ith at. KcerusK,

creator an! other na"es of his are KRua!&rofhessaK, lor! of great

knole!ge, an! K/ochai! 8llathairK, great father, for a great father

to the Tuatha )e )anann as he.+2F4 :e is also calle! a beautifulgo!, an! the %rinci%al go! of the %agans.+24 After the battle he

!i#i!es the KbrugsK or Ksi!K a"ong the go!s, but his son 8engus, ha#ing

been o"itte!, by a stratage" succee!e! in ousting his father fro"

his Ksi!K, o#er hich he no hi"self reigne!+34&&%ossibly the sur#i#al

of an ol! "yth telling of a su%erse!ing of )ag!a's cult by that of

8engus, a co""on enough occurrence in all religions. 6n another #ersion,

)ag!a being !ea!, Bo!b )earg !i#i!es the Ksi!K, an! Manannan "akes the

Tuatha )ea in#isible an! i""ortal. :e also hel%s 8engus to !ri#e out his



foster&father /le"ar fro" his KbrugK, here 8engus no li#es as a

go!.+3*4 The un!ergroun! KbrugsK are the go!s' lan!, in all res%ects

rese"bling the o#ersea /lysiu", an! at once burial&%laces of the

euhe"erise! go!s an! local for"s of the !i#ine lan!. Professor Rhy4s

regar!s )ag!a as an at"os%heric go! )r. MacBain sees in hi" a sky&go!.

More %robably he is an early /arth&go! an! a go! of agriculture. :e has

%oer o#er corn an! "ilk, an! agrees to %re#ent the other go!s fro"

!estroying these after their !efeat by the Milesians&&for"er beneficent

go!s being regar!e! as hurtful, a not unco""on result of the triu"%h of

a ne faith.+3+4 )ag!a is calle! the go! of the earth because of the

greatness of his %oer.+3E4 Mythical objects associate! ith hi"

suggest %lenty an! fertility&&his caul!ron hich satisfie! all co"ers,

his unfailing sine, one alays li#ing, the other rea!y for cooking, a

#essel of ale, an! three trees alays la!en ith fruit. These ere in

his Ksi!K, here none e#er taste! !eath+314 hence his Ksi!K as a

local /lysiu", not a gloo"y lan! of !eath, but the un!erorl! in its

%ri"iti#e as%ect as the %lace of go!s of fertility. 6n so"e "yths he

a%%ears ith a huge club or fork, an! M. )'Arbois suggests that he "ay

thus be an eLui#alent of the Gaulish go! ith the "allet.+3-4 This is%robable, since the Gaulish go! "ay ha#e been a for" of )is%ater, an

/arth or un!er&/arth go! of fertility.

6f )ag!a as a go! of fertility, he "ay ha#e been an eLui#alent of a go!

hose i"age as calle! KCennK or KCro"" CruaichK, :ea! KorK Crooke! 8ne

of the Moun!, or Bloo!y :ea! KorK Crescent.+324 allancey, citing a

teIt no lost, says that KCro"&eochaK as a na"e of )ag!a, an! that a

"otto at the sacrificial %lace at Tara rea!, et the altar e#er blaHe

to )ag!a.+334 These state"ents "ay su%%ort this i!entification. The

cult of Cro"" is %reser#e! in so"e #erses(

:e as their go!,

The ithere! Cro"" ith "any "ists...

To hi" ithout glory

They oul! kill their %iteous retche! offs%ring,

?ith "uch ailing an! %eril,

To %our their bloo! aroun! Cro"" Cruaich.

Milk an! corn

They oul! ask fro" hi" s%ee!ily

6n return for a thir! of their healthy issue,

Great as the horror an! fear of hi".

To hi" noble Gaels oul! %rostrate the"sel#es.+3F4

/lsehere e learn that this sacrifice in return for the gifts of corn

an! "ilk fro" the go! took %lace at 5a"hain, an! that on one occasion

the #iolent %rostrations of the orshi%%ers cause! three&fourths of the"

to !ie. Again, they beat their %al"s, they %oun!e! their bo!ies ...

they she! falling shoers of tears.+34 These are re"iniscences of

orgiastic rites in hich %ain an! %leasure "elt into one. The go! "ust

ha#e been a go! of fertility the bloo! of the #icti"s as %oure! on the



i"age, the flesh, as in analogous sa#age rites an! folk&sur#i#als, "ay

ha#e been burie! in the fiel!s to %ro"ote fertility. 6f so, the #icti"s'

flesh as instinct ith the %oer of the !i#inity, an!, though their

nu"ber is ob#iously eIaggerate!, se#eral #icti"s "ay ha#e taken the

%lace of an earlier slain re%resentati#e of the go!. A "ythic KCro"

)ubhK, Black Cro", hose festi#al occurs on the first 5un!ay in

August, "ay be another for" of Cro"" Cruaich. 6n one story the na"e is

transferre! to 5. Patrick's ser#ant, ho is aske! by the fairies hen

they ill go to Para!ise. <ot till the !ay of ju!g"ent, is the anser,

an! for this they cease to hel% "en in the %rocesses of agriculture. But

in a #ariant Manannan bi!s Cro" ask this Luestion, an! the sa"e result

follos.+F4 These tales thus enshrine the i!ea that Cro" an! the

fairies ere ancient go!s of groth ho cease! to hel% "en hen they

!eserte! the" for the Christian faith. 6f the sacrifice as offere! at

the August festi#al, or, as the teIts suggest, at 5a"hain, after

har#est, it "ust ha#e been on account of the neIt year's cro%, an! the

flesh "ay ha#e been "ingle! ith the see! corn.

)ag!a "ay thus ha#e been a go! of groth an! fertility. :is ife or"istress as the ri#er&go!!ess, Boan! >the Boyne@,+F*4 an! the chil!ren

ascribe! to hi" ere 8engus, Bo!b )earg, )anu, Brigit, an! %erha%s 8g"a.

The euhe"erists "a!e hi" !ie of Cethlenn's #eno", long after the battle

of Mag&ture! in hich he encountere! her.+F+4 6rish "ythology is

re"arkably free fro" obscene an! grotesLue "yths, but so"e of these

cluster roun! )ag!a. ?e hear of the Gargantuan "eal %ro#i!e! for hi" in

s%ort by the 9o"orians, an! of hich he ate so "uch that not easy as

it for hi" to "o#e an! unsee"ly as his a%%arel, as ell as his con!uct

ith a 9o"orian beauty. Another a"our of his as ith Morrigan, the

%lace here it occurre! being still knon as The Cou%le's Be!.+FE4 6n

another tale )ag!a acts as cook to Conaire the great.+F14

The beautiful an! fascinating 8engus is so"eti"es calle! KMac 6n! 8cK,

5on of the $oung 8nes, i.e. )ag!a an! Boan!, or K6n Mac 8cK, The

$oung 5on. This na"e, like the "yth of his !isinheriting his father,

"ay %oint to his cult su%erse!ing that of )ag!a. 6f so, he "ay then ha#e

been affiliate! to the ol!er go!, as as freLuently !one in %arallel

cases, e.g. in Babylon. 8engus "ay thus ha#e been the high go! of so"e

tribe ho assu"e! su%re"acy, ousting the high go! of another tribe,

unless e su%%ose that )ag!a as a %re&Celtic go! ith functions si"ilar

to those of 8engus, an! that the Celts a!o%te! his cult but ga#e that of

8engus a higher %lace. 6n one "yth the su%re"acy of 8engus is seen.After the first battle of Mag&ture!, )ag!a is force! to beco"e the sla#e

of Bres, an! is "uch annoye! by a la"%ooner ho eItorts the best %ieces

of his rations. 9olloing the a!#ice of 8engus, he not only causes the

la"%ooner's !eath, but triu"%hs o#er the 9o"orians.+F-4 8n insufficient

groun!s, "ainly because he as %atron of )iar"ai!, belo#e! of o"en, an!

because his kisses beca"e bir!s hich his%ere! lo#e thoughts to youths

an! "ai!ens, 8engus has been calle! the /ros of the Gaels. More %robably

he as %ri"arily a su%re"e go! of groth, ho occasionally suffere!



ecli%se !uring the ti"e of !eath in nature, like Ta""uH an! A!onis, an!

this "ay eI%lain his absence fro" Mag&ture!. The beautiful story of his

#ision of a "ai!en ith ho" he fell #iolently in lo#e contains too "any

KMaerchenK for"ulae to be of any "ythological or religious #alue. :is

"other Boan! cause! search to be "a!e for her, but ithout a#ail. At

last she as !isco#ere! to be the !aughter of a se"i&!i#ine lor! of a

Ksi!K, but only through the hel% of "ortals as the secret of ho she

coul! be taken rung fro" hi". 5he as a san&"ai!en, an! on a certain

!ay only oul! 8engus obtain her. ;lti"ately she beca"e his ife. The

story is interesting because it shos ho the go!s occasionally reLuire!

"ortal ai!.+F24

/Lually influence! by KMaerchenK for"ulae is the story of 8engus an!

/tain. /tain an! 9ua"nach ere i#es of Mi!er, but 9ua"nach as jealous

of /tain, an! transfor"e! her into an insect. 6n this sha%e 8engus foun!

her, an! %lace! her in a glass KgriananK or boer fille! ith floers,

the %erfu"e of hich sustaine! her. :e carrie! the KgriananK ith hi"

here#er he ent, but 9ua"nach raise! a "agic in! hich ble /tain aay

to the roof of /tair, a noble of ;lster. 5he fell through a s"oke&holeinto a gol!en cu% of ine, an! as salloe! by /tair's ife, of ho"

she as reborn.+F34 Professor Rhy4s resol#es all this into a sun an!

!an "yth. 8engus is the sun, /tain the !an, the KgriananK the eI%anse

of the sky.+FF4 But the !an !oes not gro stronger ith the sun's

influence, as /tain !i! un!er that of 8engus. At the sun's a%%earance

the !an begins

to faint in the light of the sun she lo#es,

To faint in his light an! to !ie.

The hole story is built u% on the ell&knon KMarchenK for"ulae of theTrue Bri!e an! the To Brothers, but acco""o!ate! to ell&knon

"ythic %ersonages, an! the KgriananK is the Celtic eLui#alent of #arious

objects in stories of the Cin!erella ty%e, in hich the heroine

conceals herself, the object being bought by the hero an! ke%t in his

roo".+F4 Thus the tale re#eals nothing of /tain's !i#ine functions,

but it illustrates the "etho! of the "ythological school in

!isco#ering sun&heroes an! !an&"ai!ens in any inci!ent, "ythical or

not.

8engus a%%ears in the 9ionn cycle as the fosterer an! %rotector of

)iar"ai!.+4 ?ith Mi!er, Bo!b, an! Morrigan, he eI%els the 9o"orianshen they !estroy the corn, fruit, an! "ilk of the Tuatha )e

)anann.+*4 This "ay %oint to his functions as a go! of fertility.

Although Mi!er a%%ears "ainly as a king of the Ksi!eK an! ruler of the

KbrugK of Bri eith, he is also connecte! ith the Tuatha )ea.++4

earning that /tain ha! been reborn an! as no "arrie! to =ing /ochai!,

he reco#ere! her fro" hi", but lost her again hen /ochai! attacke! his

KbrugK. :e as ulti"ately a#enge! in the series of tragic e#ents hich



le! to the !eath of /ochai!'s !escen!ant Conaire. Though his Ksi!K is

locate! in 6relan!, it has so "uch rese"blance to /lysiu" that Mi!er

"ust be regar!e! as one of its lor!s. :ence he a%%ears as ruler of the

6sle of 9alga, i.e. the 6sle of Man regar!e! as /lysiu". Thence his

!aughter Blathnat, his "agical cos an! caul!ron, ere stolen by

Cuchulainn an! Curoi, an! his three cranes fro" Bri eith by

Aitherne+E4&&%erha%s !istorte! #ersions of the "yths hich tol! ho

#arious ani"als an! gifts ca"e fro" the go!'s lan!. Mi!er "ay be the

6rish eLui#alent of a local Gaulish go!, Me!ros, !e%icte! on bas&reliefs

ith a co or bull.+14

The #ictory of the Tuatha )ea at the first battle of Mag&ture!, in June,

their #ictory folloe!, hoe#er, by the !eaths of "any of the" at the

secon! battle in <o#e"ber, "ay %oint to ol! "yths !ra"atising the

%heno"ena of nature, an! connecte! ith the ritual of su""er an! inter

festi#als. The %oers of light an! groth are in the ascen!ant in

su""er they see" to !ie in inter. Christian euhe"erists "a!e use of

these "yths, but regar!e! the go!s as arriors ho ere slain, not as

those ho !ie an! re#i#e again. At the secon! battle, <ua!a loses hislife at the first, though his forces are #ictorious, his han! as cut

off by the 9o"orian 5reng, for e#en hen #ictorious the go!s "ust

suffer. A sil#er han! as "a!e for hi" by )iancecht, an! hence he as

calle! <ua!a KArgetla"K, of the sil#er han!. Professor Rhy4s regar!s

hi" as a Celtic eus, %artly because he is king of the Tuatha )e )anann,

%artly because he, like eus or Tyr, ho lost ten!ons or a han! through

the iles of e#il go!s, is also "ai"e!.+-4 5i"ilarly in the KRig&e!aK

the Ac#ins substitute a leg of iron for the leg of is%ala, cut off in

battle, an! the sun is calle! gol!en&han!e! because 5a#itri cut off

his han! an! the %riests re%lace! it by one of gol!. The "yth of <ua!a's

han! "ay ha#e arisen fro" %ri"iti#e atte"%ts at re%lacing lo%%e!&offli"bs, as ell as fro" the fact that no 6rish king "ust ha#e any bo!ily

!efect, or %ossibly because an i"age of <ua!a "ay ha#e lacke! a han! or

%ossesse! one of sil#er. 6"ages ere often "ai"e! or gi#en artificial

li"bs, an! "yths then arose to eI%lain the custo".+24 <ua!a a%%ears to

be a go! of life an! groth, but he is not a sun&go!. :is ?elsh

eLui#alent is lu! laereint, or sil#er&han!e!, ho !eli#ers his

%eo%le fro" #arious scourges. :is !aughter Crei!yla! is to be e!!e! to

Gythur, but is ki!na%%e! by Gyn. Arthur !eci!es that they "ust fight

for her yearly on *st May until the !ay of ju!g"ent, hen the #ictor

oul! gain her han!.+34 Professor Rhy4s regar!s Crei!yla! as a

Perse%hone, e!!e! alternately to light an! !ark !i#inities.+F4 Butthe story "ay rather be eI%lanatory of such ritual acts as are foun! in

folk&sur#i#als in the for" of fights beteen su""er an! inter, in hich

a ueen of May figures, an! inten!e! to assist the conflict of the go!s

of groth ith those of blight.+4 Crei!yla! is !aughter of a %robable

go! of groth, nor is it i"%ossible that the story of the battle of

Mag&ture! is base! on "ythic eI%lanations of such ritual co"bats.

The Brythons orshi%%e! <ua!a as <o!ons in Ro"ano&British ti"es. The



re"ains of his te"%le eIist near the "outh of the 5e#ern, an! the go!

"ay ha#e been eLuate! ith Mars, though certain sy"bols see" to connect

hi" ith the aters as a kin! of <e%tune.E4 An 6rish "ythic %oet

<ua!a <echt "ay be the <echtan ho one! a "agic ell hence issue! the

Boyne, an! as %erha%s a ater&go!. 6f such a ater&go! as associate!

ith <ua!a, he an! <o!ons "ight be a Celtic <e%tune.E*4 But the

relationshi% an! functions of these #arious %ersonages are obscure, nor

is it certain that <o!ons as eLuate! ith <e%tune or that <ua!a as a

ater&go!. :is na"e "ay be cognate ith or!s "eaning groth,

%ossession, har#est, an! this su%%orts the #ie taken here of his

functions.E+4 The ?elsh <u!! :ael, or the Generous, ho %ossesse! a

her! of +*, "ilch kine, "ay be a "e"ory of this go!, an! it is

%ossible that, as a go! of groth, <ua!a ha! hu"an incarnations calle!

by his na"e.EE4

er, hose na"e "eans sea, an! ho as a go! of the sea, is father of

Manannan as ell as of the %ersonages of the beautiful story calle! KThe

Chil!ren of irK, fro" hich e learn %ractically all that is knon of

hi". :e resente! not being "a!e ruler of the Tuatha )ea, but as laterreconcile! hen the !aughter of Bo!b )earg as gi#en to hi" as his ife.

8n her !eath, he "arrie! her sister, ho transfor"e! her ste%&chil!ren

into sans.E14 er is the eLui#alent of the Brythonic lyr, later

i""ortalise! by 5hakes%eare as =ing ear.

The greatness of Manannan "ac ir, son of the sea, is %ro#e! by the

fact that he a%%ears in "any of the heroic tales, an! is still

re"e"bere! in tra!ition an! folk&tale. :e is a sea&go! ho has beco"e

"ore %ro"inent than the ol!er go! of the sea, an! though not a su%re"e

go!, he "ust ha#e ha! a far&s%rea!ing cult. ?ith Bo!b )earg he as

electe! king of the Tuatha )e )anann. :e "a!e the go!s in#isible an!i""ortal, ga#e the" "agical foo!, an! assiste! 8engus in !ri#ing out

/le"ar fro" his Ksi!K. ater tra!ition s%oke of four Manannans, %robably

local for"s of the go!, as is suggeste! by the fact that the true na"e

of one of the" is sai! to be 8rbsen, son of Allot. Another, the son of

er, is !escribe! as a renone! tra!er ho !elt in the 6sle of Man, the

best of %ilots, eather&ise, an! able to transfor" hi"self as he

%lease!. The KCoir An"annK a!!s that the Britons an! the "en of /rin

!ee"e! hi" go! of the sea.E-4 That %osition is %lainly seen in "any

tales, e.g. in the "agnificent %assage of KThe oyage of BranK, here he

su!!enly see%s into sight, ri!ing in a chariot across the a#es fro"

the an! of Pro"ise or in the tale of KCuchulainn's 5icknessK, herehis ife 9an! sees hi", the horse"an of the creste! sea, co"ing across

the a#es. 6n the KAgalla"h na 5enorachK he a%%ears as a ca#alier

breasting the a#es. 9or the s%ace of nine a#es he oul! be sub"erge!

in the sea, but oul! rise on the crest of the tenth ithout etting

chest or breast.E24 6n one archaic tale he is i!entifie! ith a great

sea a#e hich se%t aay Tuag, hile the a#es are so"eti"es calle!

the son of ir's horses&&a na"e still current in 6relan!, or, again,

the locks of Manannan's ife.E34 :is %osition as go! of the sea "ay



ha#e gi#en rise to the belief that he as ruler of the o#ersea /lysiu",

an!, later, of the other&orl! as a "agical !o"ain coter"inous ith this

earth. :e is still re"e"bere! in the 6sle of Man, hich "ay oe its na"e

to hi", an! hich, like "any another islan!, as regar!e! by the Goi!els

as the islan! /lysiu" un!er its na"e of 6sle of 9alga. :e is also the

Manay!!an of ?elsh story.

Manannan a%%ears in the Cuchulainn an! 9ionn cycles, usually as a ruler

of the 8ther&orl!. :is ife 9an! as Cuchulainn's "istress, )iar"ai!

as his %u%il in fairylan!, an! Cor"ac as his guest there. /#en in

Christian ti"es sur#i#ing %agan beliefs cause! legen! to be busy ith

his na"e. =ing 9iachna as fighting the 5cots an! in great !anger, hen

a stranger a%%eare! to his ife an! announce! that he oul! sa#e her

husban!'s life if she oul! consent to aban!on herself to hi". 5he

reluctantly agree!, an! the chil! of the Ka"ourK as the se#enth&century

=ing Mongan, of ho" the annalist says, e#ery one knos that his real

father as Manannan.EF4 Mongan as also belie#e! to be a rebirth of

9ionn. Manannan is still re"e"bere! in folk&tra!ition, an! in the 6sle

of Man, here his gra#e is to be seen, so"e of his ritual sur#i#e! untillately, bun!les of rushes being %lace! for hi" on "i!su""er e#e on to

hills.E4 Barintus, ho steers Arthur to the fortunate isles, an! 5.

Barri, ho crosse! the sea on horseback, "ay ha#e been legen!ary for"s

of a local sea&go! akin to Manannan, or of Manannan hi"self.E*4 :is

stee! as /nbarr, ater foa" KorK hair, an! Manannan as the horse"an

of the "ane! sea. Barintus, %erha%s connecte! ith Kbarr fin!K,

hite&to%%e!, oul! thus be a surna"e of the go! ho ro!e on /nbarr,

the foa"ing a#e, or ho as hi"self the a#e, hile his "ythic

sea&ri!ing as transferre! to the legen! of 5. Barri, if such a %erson

e#er eIiste!.

arious "agical %ossessions ere ascribe! to Manannan&&his ar"our an!

sor!, the one "aking the earer in#ulnerable, the other terrifying all

ho behel! it his horse an! canoe his sine, hich ca"e to life again

hen kille! his "agic cloak his cu% hich broke hen a lie as s%oken

his tablecloth, hich, hen a#e!, %ro!uce! foo!. Many of these are

foun! e#eryhere in KMaerchenK, an! there is nothing %eculiarly Celtic in

the". ?e nee! not, therefore, ith the "ythologists, see in his ar"our

the #a%oury clou!s or in his sor! lightning or the sun's rays. But

their "agical nature as ell as the fact that so "uch iHar!ry is

attribute! to Manannan, %oints to a co%ious "ythology clustering roun!

the go!, no for e#er lost.

The %arentage of ug is !ifferently state!, but that account hich "akes

hi" son of Cian an! of /thne, !aughter of Balor, is best atteste!.E**4

9olk&tra!ition still recalls the relation of ug an! Balor. Balor, a

robber li#ing in Tory 6slan!, ha! a !aughter hose son as to kill her

father. :e therefore shut her u% in an inaccessible %lace, but in

re#enge for Balor's stealing Mac6neely's co, the latter gaine! access

to her, ith the result that /thne bore three sons, ho" Balor cast into



the sea. 8ne of the", ug, as reco#ere! by Mac6neely an! fostere! by

his brother Ga#i!a. Balor no sle Mac6neely, but as hi"self slain by

ug, ho %ierce! his single eye ith a re!&hot iron.E*+4 6n another

#ersion, =ian takes Mac6neely's %lace an! is ai!e! by Manannan, in

accor!ance ith ol!er legen!s.E*E4 But ug's birth&story has been

influence! in these tales by the KMaerchenK for"ula of the girl hi!!en

aay because it has been foretol! that she ill ha#e a son ho ill slay

her father.

ug is associate! ith Manannan, fro" hose lan! he co"es to assist the

Tuatha )ea against the 9o"orians. :is a%%earance as that of the sun,

an! by this brilliant arrior's %roess the hosts ere utterly

!efeate!.E*14 This #ersion, foun! in KThe Chil!ren of TuirennK, !iffers

fro" the account in the story of Mag&ture!. :ere ug arri#es at the

gates of Tara an! offers his ser#ices as a crafts"an. /ach offer is

refuse!, until he %roclai"s hi"self the "an of each an! e#ery art, or

Ksa"il!anachK, %ossessing "any arts. <ua!a resigns his throne to hi"

for thirteen !ays, an! ug %asses in re#ie the #arious crafts"en >i.e.

the go!s@, an! though they try to %re#ent such a "ar#ellous %ersonrisking hi"self in fight, he esca%es, hea!s the arriors, an! sings his

ar&song. Balor, the e#il&eye!, he slays ith a sling&stone, an! his

!eath !eci!e! the !ay against the 9o"orians. 6n this account ug

Ksa"il!anachK is a %atron of the !i#ine %atrons of crafts in other

or!s, he is su%erior to a hole grou% of go!s. :e as also in#entor of

!raughts, ball&%lay, an! horse"anshi%. But, as M. )'Arbois shos,

Ksa"il!anachK is the eLui#alent of in#entor of all arts, a%%lie! by

Caesar to the Gallo&Ro"an Mercury, ho is thus an eLui#alent of ug.E*-4

This is atteste! on other groun!s. As ug's na"e a%%ears in 6rish outh

>Kug&"aghK@ an! in British ugu&#allu", near :a!rian's ?all, so in Gaul

the na"es ugu!unu" >yons@, ugu!iacus, an! ugsel#a >!e#ote! tougus@ sho that a go! ugus as orshi%%e! there. A Gaulish feast of

ugus in August&&the "onth of ug's festi#al in 6relan!&&as %erha%s

su%erse!e! by one in honour of Augustus. <o !e!ication to ugus has yet

been foun!, but i"ages of an! inscri%tions to Mercury aboun! at

ugu!unu" Con#enaru".E*24 As there ere three Brigits, so there "ay

ha#e been se#eral for"s of ugus, an! to !e!ications to the Kugo#esK

ha#e been foun! in 5%ain an! 5itHerlan!, one of the" inscribe! by the

shoe"akers of ;Ia"a.E*34 Thus the ugo#es "ay ha#e been "ulti%lie!

for"s of ugus or Kugo#osK, a hero, the "eaning gi#en to ug by

8')a#oren.E*F4 5hoe&"aking as not one of the arts %rofesse! by ug,

but Professor Rhy4s recalls the fact that the ?elsh leu, ho" heeLuates ith ug, !isguise! hi"self as a shoe"aker.E*4 ugus, besi!es

being a "ighty hero, as a great Celtic culture&go!, su%erior to all

other culture !i#inities.

The euhe"erists assigne! a !efinite !ate to ug's !eath, but si!e by

si!e ith this the "e"ory of his !i#inity %re#aile!, an! he a%%ears as

the father an! hel%er of Cuchulainn, ho as %ossibly a rebirth of the

go!.E+4 :is high %osition a%%ears in the fact that the Gaulish



asse"bly at ugu!unu" as hel! in his honour, like the festi#al of

ugnasa! in 6relan!. Crafts"en brought their ares to sell at this

festi#al of the go! of crafts, hile it "ay also ha#e been a har#est

festi#al.E+*4 ?hether it as a strictly solar feast is !oubtful, though

Professor Rhy4s an! others insist that ug is a sun&go!. The na"e of

the ?elsh leu, light, is eLuate! ith ug, an! the sa"e "eaning

assigne! to the latter.E++4 This eLuation has been conteste! an! is

!oubtful, ugus %robably "eaning hero.E+E4 5till the sun&like traits

ascribe! to ug before Mag&ture! suggest that he as a sun&go!, an!

solar go!s elsehere, e.g. the Polynesian Maui, are culture&go!s as

ell. But it shoul! be re"e"bere! that ug is not associate! ith the

true solar festi#als of Beltane an! Mi!su""er.

?hile our knole!ge of the Tuatha )e )anann is base! u%on a series of

"ythic tales an! other recor!s, that of the go!s of the continental

Celts, a%art fro" a fe notices in classical authors an! elsehere,

co"es fro" inscri%tions. But as far as can be ju!ge!, though the na"es

of the to grou%s sel!o" coinci!e, their functions "ust ha#e been "uch

alike, an! their origins certainly the sa"e. The Tuatha )e )anann erenature !i#inities of groth, light, agriculture&&their sy"bols an!

%ossessions suggesting fertility, e.g. the caul!ron. They ere

!i#inities of culture an! crafts, an! of ar. There "ust ha#e been "any

other go!s in 6relan! than those !escribe! here, hile so"e of those "ay

not ha#e been orshi%%e! all o#er 6relan!. Generally s%eaking, there

ere "any local go!s in Gaul ith si"ilar functions but !ifferent na"es,

an! this "ay ha#e been true of 6relan!. Perha%s the !ifferent na"es

gi#en to )ag!a, Manannan, an! others ere si"%ly na"es of si"ilar local

go!s, one of ho" beca"e %ro"inent, an! attracte! to hi"self the na"es

of the others. 5o, too, the i!entity of )anu an! Brigit "ight be

eI%laine!, or the fact that there ere three Brigits. ?e rea! also inthe teIts of the go! of Connaught, or of ;lster, an! these ere

a%%arently regional !i#inities, or of the go! of )rui!is"&&%erha%s a

go! orshi%%e! s%ecially by )rui!s.E+14 The re"ote origin of so"e of

these !i#inities "ay be sought in the %ri"iti#e cult of the /arth

%ersonifie! as a fertile being, an! in that of #egetation an!

corn&s%irits, an! the #ague s%irits of nature in all its as%ects. 5o"e

of these still continue! to be orshi%%e! hen the greater go!s ha! been

e#ol#e!. Though ani"al orshi% as not lacking in 6relan!, !i#inities

ho are anthro%o"or%hic for"s of earlier ani"al&go!s are less in

e#i!ence than on the Continent. The !i#inities of culture, crafts, an!

ar, an! of !e%art"ents of nature, "ust ha#e sloly assu"e! the !efinite%ersonality assigne! the" in 6rish religion. But, !oubtless, they

alrea!y %ossesse! that before the Goi!els reache! 6relan!. 5trictly

s%eaking, the un!ergroun! !o"ain assigne! later to the Tuatha )e )anann

belongs only to such of the" as ere associate! ith fertility. But in

course of ti"e "ost of the grou%, as un!ergroun! !ellers, ere

connecte! ith groth an! increase. These coul! be blighte! by their

ene"ies, or they the"sel#es coul! ithhol! the" hen their orshi%%ers

offen!e! the".E+-4



6rish "ythology %oints to the early %re&e"inence of go!!esses. As

agriculture an! "any of the arts ere first in the han!s of o"en,

go!!esses of fertility an! culture %rece!e! go!s, an! still hel! their

%lace hen go!s ere e#ol#e!. /#en ar&go!!esses are %ro"inent in

6relan!. Celtic go!s an! heroes are often calle! after their "others,

not their fathers, an! o"en loo" largely in the tales of 6rish

colonisation, hile in "any legen!s they %lay a "ost i"%ortant %art.

Go!!esses gi#e their na"e to !i#ine grou%s, an!, e#en here go!s are

%ro"inent, their actions are free, their %ersonalities still clearly

!efine!. The su%re"acy of the !i#ine o"en of 6rish tra!ition is once

"ore seen in the fact that they the"sel#es oo an! in heroes hile

their ca%acity for lo#e, their %assion, their eternal youthfulness an!

beauty are suggesti#e of their early character as go!!esses of

e#er&s%ringing fertility.E+24

This su%re"acy of go!!esses is eI%laine! by Professor Rhy4s as

non&Celtic, as borroe! by the Celts fro" the aborigines.E+34 But it is

too !ee%ly i"%resse! on the fabric of Celtic tra!ition to be other thannati#e, an! e ha#e no reason to su%%ose that the Celts ha! not %asse!

through a stage in hich such a state of things as nor"al. Their innate

conser#atis" cause! the" to %reser#e it "ore than other races ho ha!

long outgron such a state of things.

988T<8T/5(

*4 K:K F 5tokes, KRCK Iii. *+. )'Arbois, ii. *+-, eI%lains it as

9olk of the go! hose "other is calle! )anu.

+4 KRCK Iii. 33. The usual 6rish or! for go! is K!iaK other na"esare K9ia!uK, KArtK, K)essK.

+*4 5ee Joyce, K566K. i. +-+, +2+ KP<K i. *FE.

++4 KK +1-KbK.

+E4 KK **.

+14 KK *+3. The "oun!s ere the se%ulchres of the euhe"erise! go!s.

+-4 KBook of 9er"oyK, fifteenth century.

+24 KK **KbK.

+34 K6TK i. *1, 331 5tokes, KTK i. , E*1, E*. K5i!K is a fairy

hill, the hill itself or the !elling ithin it. :ence those ho !ell

in it are KAesK or K9ir si!eK, "en of the "oun!, or Ksi!eK, fairy

folk. The %ri"iti#e for" is %robably Kse!osK, fro" Kse!K, abo!e or

seat cf. Greek Greek( e!os4 a te"%le. Thurneysen suggests a



Gri"", KTeut. Myth.K +-* ff., an! %. +3-, KinfraK.

+++4 Rhy4s, Kibi!.K ii. +*E. :e fin!s her na"e in the %lace&na"e

KBononiaK an! its !eri#ati#es.

++E4 Cor"ac, +E.

++14 Caesar, #i. *3 :ol!er, Ks.#.K 5tokes, KT6GK EE.

++-4 Giral!. Ca"br. KTo%. :ib.K ii. E1 f. engeance folloe! u%on rash

intrusion. 9or the breath tabu see 9raHer, K/arly :ist. of the

=ingshi%K, ++1.

++24 Joyce, K5:K i. EE-.

++34 P. 1*, Ksu%raK.

++F4 Martin, ** Ca"%bell, K?itchcraftK, +1F.

++4 9raHer, Ko%. cit.K ++-.

+E4 Joyce, KP<K i. *- 8'Gra!y, ii. *F ?oo!&Martin, i. E22 see %.

1+, Ksu%raK.

+E*4 9itHgeral!, KRCK i#. *. Aine has no connection ith Anu, nor is

she a "oon&go!!ess, as is so"eti"es su%%ose!.

+E+4 KRCK i#. *F.

+EE4 =eating, E*F K6TK iii. E- KRCK Iiii. 1E-.

+E14 8'Gra!y, ii. *3.

+E-4 KRCK Iii. *, IIii. +- Cor"ac, F3 5tokes, KT6GK IIIiii.

+E24 :ol!er, i. E1* KC6K #ii. *++ Caesar, ii. +E.

+E34 KK **KbK Cor"ac, s.#. K<eitK KRCK i#. E2 KArch. Re#.K i. +E*

:ol!er, ii. 3*1, 3EF.

+EF4 5tokes, KT6G, K **KaK.

+E4 Rhy4s, K:K 1E 5tokes, KRCK Iii. *+F.

+14 KRCK Iii. *, **.

+1*4 5ee %. *E*.

+1+4 Petrie, KTaraK, *13 5tokes, K;5K *3- Meyer, KCath 9inntragaK,



8Ifor!, *FF-, 32 f. KRCK I#i. -2, *2E, IIi. E2.

+1E4 KC6K #ii. -3 5tokes, K;5K +**.

+114 KRCK i. 1*, Iii. F1.

+1-4 KRCK IIi. *-3, E*- Miss :ull, +13. A KbaobhK >a co""on Gaelic

na"e for itch@ a%%ears to 8scar an! %ro%hesies his !eath in a 9ionn

balla! >Ca"%bell, KThe 9iansK, EE@. 6n Brittany the night&ashers,

once ater&fairies, are no regar!e! as Kre#enantsK >e BraH, i. -+@.

+124 Joyce, K5:K i. +2* Miss :ull, *F2 Meyer, KCath 9inntragaK, 2,

*E K6TK i. *E*, F3*.

+134 KK *KaK.

+1F4 KK *KaK, EKbK, *F3KcK.

+14 KRCK II#i. *E KK *F3KcK.

+-4 Cf. the %ersonification of the three strains of )ag!a's har%

>eahy, ii. +-@.

+-*4 5ee %. ++E, KinfraK.

+-+4 )'Arbois, ii. E3+.

+-E4 KRCK Iii. 33, FE.

+-14 KK ** KAtlantisK, on!on, *F-F&3, i#. *-.

+--4 8')ono#an, KGra""arK, )ublin, *F1-, Il#ii.

+-24 KRCK Iii. 33.

+-34 ucian, K:eraklesK.

+-F4 KRCK Iii. F. The na"e is foun! in Gaulish Gobannicnos, an! in

?elsh Aberga#enny.

+-4 K6TK i. -2 i""er, KGlossae :ibernicaeK, *FF*, +3.

+24 KAtlantisK, *F2, iii. EF.

+2*4 KRCK Iii. F.

+2+4 KK llKaK.

+2E4 KRCK Iii. E.



+214 Connac, -2, an! KCoir An"annK >K6TK iii. E-3@ !i#i!e the na"e as

K!ia&na&cechtK an! eI%lain it as go! of the %oers.

+2-4 KRCK Iii. 23. 9or si"ilar stories of %lants s%ringing fro" gra#es,

see "y KChil!hoo! of 9ictionK, **-.

+224 KRCK Iii, F, -.

+234 KRCK #i. E2 Cor"ac, +E.

+2F4 Cor"ac, 13, *11 K6TK iii. E--, E-3.

+24 K6TK iii. E-- )'Arbois, i. ++.

+34 KK +12KaK.

+3*4 K6rish M55. 5eriesK, i. 12 )'Arbois, ii. +32. 6n a M5. e!ite! by

)r. 5tirn, 8engus as )ag!a's son by /le"ar's ife, the a"our taking%lace in her husban!'s absence. This inci!ent is a %arallel to the

birth&stories of Mongan an! Arthur, an! has also the 9atherless Chil!

the"e, since 8engus goes in tears to Mi!er because he has been taunte!

ith ha#ing no father or "other. 6n the sa"e M5. it is the )ag!a ho

instructs 8engus ho to obtain /le"ar's Ksi!K. 5ee KRCK II#ii. EE+,

II#iii. EE.

+3+4 KK +1-KbK.

+3E4 K6TK iii. E--.

+314 8')ono#an, KBattle of Mag&RathK, )ublin, *F1+, - KK +12KaK.

+3-4 )'Arbois, #. 1+3, 11F.

+324 The for"er is Rhy4s's inter%retation >K:K +*@ connecting

KCruaichK ith KcruachK, a hea% the latter is that of )'Arbois >ii.

*2@, !eri#ing KCruaichK fro" KcruK, bloo!. The i!ea of the i"age

being bent or crooke! "ay ha#e been !ue to the fact that it long stoo!

rea!y to to%%le o#er, as a result of 5. Patrick's "iracle. 5ee %. +F2,

KinfraK.

+334 allancey, in KColl. !e Rebus :ib.K *3F2, i#. 1-.

+3F4 KK +*EKbK. )'Arbois thinks Cro"" as a 9o"orian, the eLui#alent

of Taranis >ii. 2+@. But he is orshi%%e! by Gaels. KCrinK, ithere!,

%robably refers to the i!ol's %osition after 5. Patrick's "iracle, no

longer u%right but bent like an ol! "an. )r. :y!e, Kit. :ist. of

6relan!K, F3, ith eIaggerate! %atriotis", thinks the sacrificial

!etails are co%ie! by a Christian scribe fro" the 8l! Testa"ent, an! are



no %art of the ol! ritual.

+34 KRCK I#i. E-, *2E.

+F4 9itHgeral!, KRK i#. *3-.

+F*4 KRCK II#i. *.

+F+4 KAnnals of the 9our MastersK, A.M. E1-.

+FE4 KRCK Iii. FE, F- :y!e, Ko%. cit.K +FF.

+F14 K;K 1.

+F-4 KRCK Iii. 2-. /lsehere three su%re"e ignorances are ascribe! to

8engus >KRK II#i. E*@.

+F24 KRCK iii. E1+.

+F34 KK **KcK K;K *+ K6TK i. *E. Cf. the glass house, %lace!

beteen sky an! "oon, to hich Tristan con!ucts the Lueen. Be!ier,

KTristan et 6seutK, +-+. 6n a frag"entary #ersion of the story 8engus is

/tain's ooer, but Mi!er is %referre! by her father, an! "arries her. 6n

the latter half of the story, 8engus !oes not a%%ear >see %. E2E,

KinfraK@. Mr. <utt >KRCK II#ii. EE@ suggests that 8engus, not Mi!er,

as the real hero of the story, but that its Christian re!actors ga#e

Mi!er his %lace in the secon! %art. The frag"ents are e!ite! by 5tirn

>KCPK #ol. #.@.

+FF4 K:K *12.

+F4 5ee "y KChil!hoo! of 9ictionK, **1, *-E. The tale has so"e uniLue

features, as it alone a"ong ?estern KMaerchenK an! saga #ariants of the

True Bri!e !escribes the "alicious o"an as the ife of Mi!er. 6n

other or!s, the story i"%lies %olyga"y, rarely foun! in /uro%ean

folk&tales.

+4 8'Gra!y, KT85K iii.

+*4 KRCK i. 1*.

++4 8'Curry, KMCK i. 3*.

+E4 KK **3KaK. 5ee %. EF*, KinfraK.

+14 Cu"ont, KRCK II#i. 13 )'Arbois, KRCK II#ii. *+3, notes the

!ifficulty of eI%laining the change of KeK to KiK in the na"es.

+-4 K:K *+*.



+24 5ee Crooke, K9olk&oreK, #iii. E1*. Cf. :ero!, ii. *E*.

+34 oth, i. +2.

+F4 K:K -2E.

+4 Train, K6sle of ManK, )ouglas, *F1-, ii. **F Gri"", KTeut. Myth.K

ii. ch. +1 9raHer, KGBKO+ ii. f.

E4 Bathurst, KRo"an AntiLuities at y!ney ParkK, *F3 :ol!er, Ks.#.K

<o!ons.

E*4 5ee Rhy4s, K:K *++ Cook, K9olk&oreK, I#ii. E.

E+4 5tokes, K;5K *1&*- Rhy4s, K:K, *+F, K6TK i. 3*+.

EE4 oth, ii. +E-, +2. 5ee %. *2, KinfraK.

E14 Joyce, K8CRK.

E-4 9or these four Manannans see Cor"ac **1, KRCK IIi#. +3, K6TK iii.

E-3.

E24 8'Gra!y, ii.

E34 KBo!ley )in!senchasK, <o. *, KRCK Iii. *- Joyce, K5:K i. +-

K8tia MerseianaK, ii. 5ong of the 5ea.

EF4 K;K *EE.

E4 Moore, 2.

E*4 Geoffrey, Kita MerliniK, E3 Rees, 1E-. 8ther saintly legen!s are

!eri#e! fro" "yths, e.g. that of 5. Barri in his boat "eeting 5.

5cuithne alking on the sea. 5cuithne "aintains he is alking on a

fiel!, an! %lucks a floer to %ro#e it, hile Barri confutes hi" by

%ulling a sal"on out of the sea. This rese"bles an e%iso!e in the

"eeting of Bran an! Manannan >5tokes, K9elireK, IIIiI. <utt&Meyer, i.

E@. 5aints are often sai! to assist "en just as the go!s !i!.

Colu"cille an! Brigit a%%eare! o#er the hosts of /rin assisting an!encouraging the" K>RCK IIi#. 1@.

E**4 KRCK Iii. -.

E*+4 K9olk&ore JournalK, #. 22 Rhy4s, K:K E*1.

E*E4 ar"inie, =ian, son of =ontje.



E*14 Joyce, K8CRK E3.

E*-4 )'Arbois, #i. **2, Kes CeltesK, E, KRCK Iii. 3-, **, *+3, I#i.

33. 6s the !eface! inscri%tion at Geitershof, K)eo M ... 5a" ...K

>:ol!er, ii. *EE-@, a !e!ication to Mercury 5a"il!anachS An echo of

ug's story is foun! in the ife of 5. :er#e, ho foun! a !e#il in his

"onastery in the for" of a "an ho sai! he as a goo! car%enter, "ason,

locks"ith, etc., but ho coul! not "ake the sign of the cross. Albert le

Gran!, K5aints !e la BretagneK, 1, KRCK #ii. +E*.

E*24 :ol!er, Ks.#.K )'Arbois, Kes CeltesK, 11, KRCK #ii. 1.

E*34 :ol!er, Ks.#.K ugus.

E*F4 5tokes, KT6GK *E. Gai!oH contests the i!entification of the

ugo#es an! of ug ith Mercury, an! to hi" the ugo#es are grou%e!

!i#inities like the KMatresK >KRCK #i. 1F@.

E*4 K:K 1+-.

E+4 5ee %. E1, KinfraK.

E+*4 5ee %. +3+, KinfraK.

E++4 K:K 1.

E+E4 5ee oth, KRCK I. 1.

E+14 eahy, i. *EF, ii. -, -+, K;K *+1KbK.

E+-4 KK +*-KaK see %. 3F, Ksu%raK.

E+24 5ee, further, %. EF-, KinfraK.

E+34 KThe ?elsh Peo%leK, 2*. Professor Rhy4s a!"its that the theory

of borroing cannot easily be %ro#e!.

C:APT/R 6.

T:/ G8)5 89 T:/ BR$T:8<5

8ur knole!ge of the go!s of the Brythons, i.e. as far as ?ales is

concerne!, is !eri#e!, a%art fro" inscri%tions, fro" the KMabinogionK,

hich, though foun! in a fourteenth century M5., as co"%ose! "uch

earlier, an! contains ele"ents fro" a re"ote %ast. Besi!es this, the



KTria!sK, %robably of telfth&century origin, the KTaliesinK, an! other

%oe"s, though obscure an! artificial, the ork of "any a confuse! bar!

!ri#elling >to cite the or!s of one of the"@, %reser#e echoes of the

ol! "ythology.E+F4 5o"e of the go!s "ay lurk behin! the %ersonages of

Geoffrey of Mon"outh's K:istoria Britonu"K an! of the Arthurian cycle,

though here great caution is reLuire!. The !i#inities ha#e beco"e heroes

an! heroines, kings an! %rincesses, an! if so"e of the e%iso!es are

base! on ancient "yths, they are treate! in a ro"antic s%irit. 8ther

e%iso!es are "ere KMaerchenK for"ulae. ike the reckage of so"e rich

galleon, the K!ebrisK of the ol! "ythology has been use! to construct a

ne fabric, an! the ol! !i#inities ha#e e#en less of the go!&like traits

of the %ersonages of the 6rish teIts.

5o"e of the %ersonages bear si"ilar na"es to the 6rish !i#inities, an!

in so"e cases there is a certain si"ilarity of inci!ents to those of the

6rish tales.E+4 Are, then, the go!s !i"ly re#eale! in ?elsh literature

as "uch Goi!elic as BrythonicS Analysing the inci!ents of the

KMabinogionK, Professor Anyl has shon that they ha#e an entirely local

character, an! are "ainly associate! ith the !istricts of )yfe! an!Gent, of Anglesey, an! of Gyne!!, of hich Pry!eri, Branen, an!

Gy!ion are res%ecti#ely the heroic characters.EE4 These are the

!istricts here a strong Goi!elic ele"ent %re#aile!, hether these

Goi!els ere the original inhabitants of Britain, !ri#en there by

Brythons,EE*4 or tribes ho ha! settle! there fro" 6relan!,EE+4 or

%erha%s a "iIture of both. 6n any case they ha! been conLuere! by

Brythons an! ha! beco"e Brythonic in s%eech fro" the fifth century

onar!s. 8n account of this Goi!elic ele"ent, it has been clai"e! that

the %ersonages of the KMabinogionK are %urely Goi!elic. But eIa"ination

%ro#es that only a fe are !irectly %arallel in na"e ith 6rish

!i#inities, an! hile here there are fun!a"ental likenesses, theKinci!entsK ith 6rish %arallels "ay be !ue to "ere su%erficial

borroings, to that interchange of KMaerchenK an! "ythical K!onneesK

hich has e#eryhere occurre!. Many inci!ents ha#e no 6rish %arallels,

an! "ost of the characters are entirely !ifferent in na"e fro" 6rish

!i#inities. :ence any theory hich oul! account for the likenesses,

"ust also account for the !ifferences, an! "ust eI%lain hy, if the

KMabinogionK is !ue to 6rish Goi!els, there shoul! ha#e been fe or no

borroings in ?elsh literature fro" the %o%ular Cuchulainn an! 8ssianic

sagas,EEE4 an! hy, at a ti"e hen Brythonic ele"ents ere u%%er"ost,

such care shoul! ha#e been taken to %reser#e Goi!elic "yths. 6f the

tales e"anate! fro" nati#e ?elsh Goi!els, the eI%lanation "ight be thatthey, the kin!re! of the 6rish Goi!els, "ust ha#e ha! a certain

co""unity ith the" in !i#ine na"es an! "yths, hile others of their

go!s, "ore local in character, oul! !iffer in na"e. 8r if they are

Brythonic, the likenesses "ight be accounte! for by an early co""unity

in "yth an! cult a"ong the co""on ancestors of Brythons an!

Goi!els.EE14 But as the !ate of the co"%osition of the KMabinogionK is

co"%arati#ely late, at a ti"e hen Brythons ha! o#errun these Goi!elic

!istricts, "ore %robably the tales contain a "ingling of Goi!elic >6rish



or ?elsh@ an! Brythonic !i#inities, though so"e of these "ay be

sur#i#als of the co""on Celtic heritage.EE-4 Celtic !i#inities ere

"ainly of a local, tribal character. :ence so"e oul! be local Goi!elic

!i#inities, others, classe! ith these, local Brythonic !i#inities. This

oul! eI%lain the absence of !i#inities an! heroes of other local

Brythonic grou%s, e.g. Arthur, fro" the KMabinogionK. But ith the

groing i"%ortance of these, they attracte! to their legen! the folk of

the KMabinogionK an! other tales. These are associate! ith Arthur in

K=ulhychK, an! the )on grou% "ingles ith that of Taliesin in the

KTaliesinK %oe"s.EE24 :ence ?elsh literature, as far as concerns the

ol! religion, "ay be regar!e! as inclu!ing both local Goi!elic an!

Brythonic !i#inities, of ho" the "ore %urely Brythonic are Arthur,

Gynn, Taliesin, etc.EE34 They are regar!e! as kings an! Lueens, or as

fairies, or they ha#e "agical %oers. They are "ortal an! !ie, an! the

%lace of their burial is %ointe! out, or eIisting tu"uli are associate!

ith the", All this is %arallel to the history of the Tuatha )e )anann,

an! shos ho the sa"e %rocess of !egra!ation ha! been at ork in ?ales

as in 6relan!.

The story of the lyr grou% is tol! in the KMabinogionK of Branen an!

of Manay!!an. They are associate! ith the Pyll grou%, an! a%%arently

o%%ose! to that of )on. Branen is "arrie! to Matholych, king of

6relan!, but is ill&treate! by hi" on account of the insults of the

"ischie#ous /#nissyen, in s%ite of the fact that Bran ha! atone! for the

insult by "any gifts, inclu!ing that of a caul!ron of regeneration. <o

he crosses ith an ar"y to 6relan!, here /#nissyen thros Branen's

chil!, to ho" the king!o" is gi#en, on the fire. A fight ensues the

!ea! 6rish arriors are resuscitate! in the caul!ron, but /#nissyen, at

the cost of his life, !estroys it. Bran is slain, an! by his !irections

his hea! is cut off an! carrie! first to :arlech, then to Gales, hereit ill entertain its bearers for eighty years. At the en! of that ti"e

it is to be taken to on!on an! burie!. Branen, !e%arting ith the

bearers, !ies of a broken heart at Anglesey, an! "eanhile Casallyn,

son of Beli, seiHes the king!o".EEF4 To of the bearers of the hea! are

Manay!!an an! Pry!eri, hose fortunes e follo in the KMabinogiK of

the for"er. Pry!eri gi#es his "other Rhiannon to Manay!!an as his ife,

along ith so"e lan! hich by "agic art is "a!e barren. After folloing

!ifferent crafts, they are le! by a boar to a strange castle, here

Rhiannon an! Pry!eri !isa%%ear along ith the buil!ing. Manay!!an, ith

Pry!eri's ife =ie#a, set out as shoe"akers, but are force! to aban!on

this craft on account of the en#y of the crafts"en. 9inally, e learnho Manay!!an o#erca"e the enchanter lyt, ho, because of an insult

offere! by Pry!eri's father to his frien! Gal, ha! "a!e Rhiannon an!

Pry!eri !isa%%ear. They are no restore!, an! lyt seeks no further

re#enge.

The story of Branen is si"ilar to a tale of hich there are #ariants in

Teutonic an! 5can!ina#ian sagas, but the rese"blance is closer to the

latter.EE4 Possibly a si"ilar story ith their res%ecti#e !i#inities



or heroes for its characters eIiste! a"ong Celts, Teutons, an! <orse"en,

but "ore likely it as borroe! fro" <orse"en ho occu%ie! both si!es of

the 6rish 5ea in the ninth an! tenth century, an! then naturalise! by

furnishing it ith Celtic characters. But into this fra"eork "any

nati#e ele"ents ere set, an! e "ay therefore scrutinise the story for

Celtic "ythical ele"ents utilise! by its re!actor, ho %robably !i! not

stri% its Celtic %ersonages of their earlier !i#ine attributes. 6n the

to KMabinogiK these %ersonages are lyr, his sons Bran an! Manay!!an,

his !aughter Branen, their half&brothers <issyen an! /#nissyen, sons of

lyr's ife Penar!i", !aughter of Beli, by a %re#ious "arriage ith

/urossy!.

lyr is the eLui#alent of the 6rish er, the sea&go!, but to other

lyrs, %robably !u%licates of hi"self, are knon to ?elsh story&&lyr

Marini, an! the lyr, father of Cor!elia, of the chroniclers.E14 :e is

constantly confuse! ith lu!! laereint, e.g. both are !escribe! as

one of three notable %risoners of Britain, an! both are calle! fathers

of Cor!elia or Crei!!yla!.E1*4 Perha%s the to ere once i!entical, for

Manannan is so"eti"es calle! son of Alloi! >N lu!!@, in 6rish teIts, asell as son of er.E1+4 But the confusion "ay be acci!ental, nor is it

certain that <o!ons or lu!! as a sea&go!. lyr's %rison as that of

/urossy!,E1E4 hose ife he "ay ha#e ab!ucte! an! hence suffere!

i"%rison"ent. 6n the KBlack Book of Caer"arthenK Bran is calle! son of $

?ery!! or 8cean, accor!ing to M. oth's inter%retation of the na"e,

hich oul! thus %oint to lyr's %osition as a sea&go!. But this is

conteste! by Professor Rhy4s ho "akes $erit ife of lyr, the na"e

being in his #ie a for" of the ?elsh or! for 6relan!. 6n Geoffrey an!

the chroniclers lyr beco"es a king of Britain hose history an! that of

his !aughters as i""ortalise! by 5hakes%eare. Geoffrey also refers to

lyr's burial in a #ault built in honour of Janus.E114 8n thisProfessor Rhy4s buil!s a theory that lyr as a for" of the Celtic )is

ith to faces an! ruler of a orl! of !arkness.E1-4 But there is no

e#i!ence that the Celtic )is%ater as lor! of a gloo"y un!erorl!, an!

it is best to regar! lyr as a sea&!i#inity.

Manay!!an is not go!&like in these tales in the sense in hich the

"ajestic Manannan of 6rish story is, though elsehere e learn that

!ee% as his counsel.E124 Though not a "agician, he baffles one of

the great iHar!s of ?elsh story, an! he is also a "aster crafts"an, ho

instructs Pry!eri in the arts of shoe&"aking, shiel!&"aking, an!

sa!!lery. 6n this he is akin to Manannan, the teacher of )iar"ai!.6nci!ents of his career are reflecte! in the KTria!sK, an! his union

ith Rhiannon "ay %oint to an ol! "yth in hich they ere fro" the first

a !i#ine %air, %arents of Pry!eri. This oul! gi#e %oint to his

!eli#erance of Pry!eri an! Rhiannon fro" the hostile "agician.E134

Rhiannon rese"bles the 6rish /lysiu" go!!esses, an! Manay!!an, like

Manannan, is lor! of /lysiu" in a KTaliesinK %oe".E1F4 :e is a

crafts"an an! follos agriculture, %erha%s a re"iniscence of the ol!

belief that fertility an! culture co"e fro" the go!'s lan!. Manay!!an,



like other !i#inities, as !ran into the Arthurian cycle, an! is one of

those ho ca%ture the fa"ous boar, the KTrch TrythK.E14

Bran, or Ben!igeit ran >Bran the Blesse!@, %robably an ol! %agan

title hich a%%ro%riately enough !enotes one ho figure! later in

Christian hagiology, is so huge that no house or shi% can hol! hi".

:ence he a!es o#er to 6relan!, an! as he !ras near is thought to be a

"ountain. This "ay be an archaic "etho! of eI%ressing his !i#inity&&a

gigantic non&natural "an like so"e of the Tuatha )ea an! 8ssianic

heroes. But Bran also a%%ears as the K;r!al BenK, or <oble :ea!,

hich "akes ti"e %ass to its bearers like a !rea", an! hen burie!

%rotects the lan! fro" in#asion. Both as a giant sLuatting on a rock an!

as a hea!, Bran is eLuate! by Professor Rhy4s ith Cernunnos, the

sLuatting go!, re%resente! also as a hea!, an! also ith the ?elsh ;rien

hose attribute as a ra#en, the su%%ose! "eaning of Bran's na"e.E-4

:e further eLuates hi" ith ;thr Ben, ?on!erful :ea!, the su%erior

bar!, har%er an! %i%er of a KTaliesinK %oe".E-*4 ;rien, Bran, an! ;thr

are three for"s of a go! orshi%%e! by bar!s, an! a !ark !i#inity,

hose a!ing o#er to 6relan! signifies crossing to :a!es, of hich he,like $a"a, ho first crosse! the ra%i! aters to the lan! of !eath, is

the ruler.E-+4 But Bran is not a !ark go! in the sense i"%lie! here.

Cernunnos is go! of a ha%%y un!erorl!, an! there is nothing !ark or

e#il in hi" or in Bran an! his congeners. Professor Rhy4s's !ark

!i#inities are so"eti"es, in his #ie, light go!s, but they cannot be

both. The Celtic lor!s of the !ea! ha! no !ark character, an! as go!s

of fertility they ere, so to s%eak, in league ith the sun&go!, the

slayer of Bran, accor!ing to Professor Rhy4s's ingenious theory. An!

although to !istracte! 6rish secretaries 6relan! "ay be :a!es, its

intro!uction into this KMabinogiK "erely %oints to the inter%retation of

a "ythico&historic connection beteen ?ales an! 6relan!. Thus if Bran isCernunnos, this is because he is a lor! of the un!erorl! of fertility,

the counter%art of hich is the !istant /lysiu", to hich Bran see"s

rather to belong. Thus, in %resence of his hea!, ti"e %asses as a !rea"

in feasting an! joy. This is a true /lysian note, an! the tabue! !oor of

the story is also suggesti#e of the tabus of /lysiu", hich hen broken

rob "en of ha%%iness.E-E4 As to the %oer of the hea! in %rotecting the

lan!, this %oints to actual custo" an! belief regar!ing the relics of

the !ea! an! the %oer of !i#ine i"ages or scul%ture! hea!s.E-14 The

go! Bran has beco"e a king an! la&gi#er in the KMabinogionK an! the

KTria!sK,E--4 hile Geoffrey of Mon"outh !escribes ho Belinus an!

Brennus, in the ?elsh #ersion Beli an! Bran, !is%ute the cron ofBritain, are reconcile!, an! finally conLuer Gaul an! Ro"e.E-24 The

"ythic Bran is confuse! ith Brennus, lea!er of the Gauls against Ro"e

in E B.C., an! Belinus "ay be the go! Belenos, as ell as Beli, father

of lu!! an! Casallan. But Bran also figures as a Christian

"issionary. :e is !escribe! as hostage at Ro"e for his son Cara!ac,

returning thence as %reacher of Christianity to the Cy"ry&&a legen!

arising out of a "isun!erstan!ing of his e%ithet Blesse! an! a

confusing of his son ith the historic Caractacus.E-34 :ence Bran's



fa"ily is s%oken of as one of the three saintly fa"ilies of Pry!ein, an!

he is ancestor of "any saints.E-F4

Branen, ?hite Boso", !aughter of a sea&go!, "ay be a sea&go!!ess,

enus of the northern sea,E-4 unless ith Mr. <utt e connect her

ith the caul!ron !escribe! in her legen!,E24 sy"bol of an orgiastic

cult, an! regar! her as a go!!ess of fertility. But the connection is

not clear in the story, though in so"e earlier "yth the caul!ron "ay

ha#e been her %ro%erty. As Brangaine, she rea%%ears in ro"ance, gi#ing

a lo#e&%otion to Tristra"&&%erha%s a re"iniscence of her for"er

functions as a go!!ess of lo#e, or earlier of fertility. 6n the

KMabinogionK she is burie! in Anglesey at $nys Bronen, here a cairn

ith bones !isco#ere! in *F*E as hel! to be the gra#e an! re"ains of

Branen.E2*4

The chil!ren of )on, the eLui#alent of )anu, an! %robably like her, a

go!!ess of fertility, are Gy!ion, Gil#aethy, A"aethon, Go#annon, an!

Arianrho!, ith her sons, )ylan an! le.E2+4 These corres%on!,

therefore, in %art to the Tuatha )ea, though the only "e"bers of thegrou% ho bear na"es si"ilar to the 6rish go!s are Go#annon >N Goibniu@

an! %ossibly le >N ug@. Gy!ion as a culture&go! corres%on!s to 8g"a.

6n the KTria!sK Beli is calle! father of Arianrho!,E2E4 an! assu"ing

that this Arianrho! is i!entical ith the !aughter of )on, Professor

Rhy4s regar!s Beli as husban! of )on. But the i!entification is far

fro" certain, an! the theory built u%on it that Beli is one ith the

6rish Bile, an! that both are lor!s of a !ark un!erorl!, has alrea!y

been foun! %recarious.E214 6n later belief )on as associate! ith the

stars, the constellation Cassio%eia being calle! her court. 5he is

!escribe! as ise in a KTaliesinK %oe".E2-4

This grou% of !i#inities is "et ith "ainly in the KMabinogiK of Math,

hich turns u%on Gil#aethy's illicit lo#e of Math's foot&hol!er

Goein. To assist hi" in his Ka"ourK, Gy!ion, by a "agical trick,

%rocures for Math fro" the court of Pry!eri certain sine sent hi" by

Aran, king of Annfn. 6n the battle hich follos hen the trick is

!isco#ere!, Gy!ion slays Pry!eri by enchant"ent. Math no !isco#ers

that Gil#aethy has se!uce! Goein, an! transfor"s hi" an! Gy!ion

successi#ely into !eer, sine, an! ol#es. Restore! to hu"an for",

Gy!ion %ro%oses that Arianrho! shoul! be Math's foot&hol!er, but Math

by a "agic test !isco#ers that she is not a #irgin. 5he bears to sons,

)ylan, fostere! by Math, an! another ho" Gy!ion nurtures an! for ho"he afterar!s by a trick obtains a na"e fro" Arianrho!, ho ha! sorn

ne#er to na"e hi". The na"e is le la Gyffes, ion of the 5ure

:an!. By "agic, Math an! Gy!ion for" a ife for le out of floers.

5he is calle! Blo!eue!!, an! later, at the instigation of a lo#er,

Gron, she !isco#ers ho le can be kille!. Gron attacks an! oun!s

hi", an! he flies off as an eagle. Gy!ion seeks for le, !isco#ers

hi", an! retransfor"s hi" to hu"an sha%e. Then he changes Blo!eue!!

into an ol, an! slays Gron.E224 5e#eral in!e%en!ent tales ha#e gone



rests each night at a %lace one of the syllables of hich is KMochK,

sine&&an aetiological "yth eI%laining hy %laces hich ere once sites

of the cult of a sine&go!, afterar!s orshi%%e! as Gy!ion, ere so

calle!.

Gy!ion has also a tricky, frau!ulent character in the KMabinogiK, an!

although in his life there as counsel, yet he ha! a #icious

"use.E3-4 6t is also i"%lie! that he is lo#er of his sister Arianrho!

an! father of )ylan an! le&&the "ythic reflections of a ti"e hen such

unions, %erha%s only in royal houses, ere %er"issible. 6nstances occur

in 6rish tales, an! Arthur as also his sister's lo#er.E324 6n later

belief Gy!ion as associate! ith the stars an! the Milky ?ay as

calle! Caer Gy!ion. Across it he ha! chase! the faithless

Blo!eue!!.E334 Professor Rhy4s eLuates hi" ith 8!inn, an! regar!s

both as re%resenting an ol!er Celto&Teutonic hero, though "any of the

allege! si"ilarities in their res%ecti#e "ythologies are not too

ob#ious.E3F4

A"aethon the goo! is !escribe! in K=ulhychK as the only husban!"an hocoul! till or !ress a certain %iece of lan!, though =ulhych ill not be

able to force hi" or to "ake hi" follo hi".E34 This, together ith

the na"e A"aethon, fro" Cy"ric Ka"aethK, labourer or %lough"an, thros

so"e light on his functions.EF4 :e as a go! associate! ith

agriculture, either as one ho "a!e aste %laces fruitful, or %ossibly

as an anthro%o"or%hic corn !i#inity. But elsehere his taking a roebuck

an! a hel%, an! in a KTria!K, a la%ing fro" Aran, king of Annfn, le!

to the battle of Go!eu, in hich he fought Aran, ai!e! by Gy!ion, ho

#anLuishe! one of Aran's arriors, Bran, by !isco#ering his na"e.EF*4

A"aethon, ho brings useful ani"als fro" the go!s' lan!, %lays the sa"e

%art as Gy!ion, bringer of the sine. The !og an! !eer are freLuentre%resentati#es of the corn&s%irit, of hich A"aethon "ay ha#e been an

anthro%o"or%hic for", or they, ith the la%ing, "ay ha#e been earlier

orshi%ful ani"als, associate! ith A"aethon as his sy"bols, hile later

"yth tol! ho he ha! %rocure! the" fro" Annfn.

The !i#ine functions of le la Gyffes are har!ly a%%arent in the

KMabinogiK. The inci!ent of Blo!eue!!'s unfaithfulness is si"%ly that

of the KMaerchenK for"ula of the treacherous ife ho !isco#ers the

secret of her husban!'s life, an! thus %uts hi" at her lo#er's

"ercy.EF+4 But since le is not slain, but changes to eagle for", this

unusual en!ing "ay "ean that he as once a bir! !i#inity, the eaglelater beco"ing his sy"bol. 5o"e "yth "ust ha#e tol! of his !eath, or he

as afterar!s regar!e! as a "ortal ho !ie!, for a %oe" "entions his

to"b, an! a!!s, he as a "an ho ne#er ga#e justice to any one. )r.

5kene suggests that truth, not justice, is here "eant, an! fin!s in this

a reference to le's !isguises.EFE4 Professor Rhy4s, for reasons not

hel! con#incing by M. oth, hol!s that KleK, lion, as a

"isa%%rehension for his true na"e KleuK, inter%rete! by hi"

light.EF14 This "eaning he also gi#es to KugK, eLuating ug an!



le, an! regar!ing both as sun&go!s. :e also eLuates Kla GyffesK,

stea!y KorK strong han!, ith ug's e%ithet Ka" fa!aK, long han!,

suggesting that KgyffesK "ay ha#e "eant long, although it as le's

stea!iness of han! in shooting hich earne! hi" the title.EF-4 Again,

le's ra%i! groth nee! not "ake hi" the sun, for this as a %ri#ilege

of "any heroes ho ha! no connection ith the sun. le's unfortunate

"atri"onial affairs are also regar!e! as a sun "yth. Blo!eue!! is a

!an go!!ess !i#i!ing her lo#e beteen the sun&go! an! the %rince of

!arkness. le as the sun is o#erco"e by the latter, but is restore! by

the culture&hero Gy!ion, ho slays the !ark ri#al. The transfor"ation

of Blo!eue!! into an ol "eans that the )an has beco"e the )usk.EF24

As e ha#e seen, all this is a KMaerchenK for"ula ith no "ythical

significance. /#i!ence of the %recariousness of such an inter%retation

is furnishe! fro" the si"ilar inter%retation of the story of Curoi's

ife, Blathnat, hose lo#er Cuchulainn sle Curoi.EF34 :ere a su%%ose!

sun&go! is the treacherous #illain ho kills a !ark !i#inity, husban! of

a !an go!!ess.

6f le is a sun&go!, the eLui#alent of ug, it is curious that he isne#er connecte! ith the August festi#al in ?ales hich corres%on!s to

ugnasa! in 6relan!. There "ay be so"e su%%ort to the theory hich "akes

hi" a sun&go! in a KTria!K here he is one of the three Kru!!roacK ho

cause a year's sterility here#er they set their feet, though in this

Arthur eIcels the", for he causes se#en years' sterilityEFF4 )oes this

%oint to the scorching of #egetation by the su""er sunS The "ythologists

ha#e not "a!e use of this inci!ent. 8n the hole the e#i!ence for le

as a sun&go! is not con#incing. The strongest reason for i!entifying hi"

ith ug rests on the fact that both ha#e uncles ho are s"iths an! ha#e

si"ilar na"es&&Go#annon an! Ga#i!a >Goibniu@. ike A"aethon, Go#annon,

the artificer or s"ith >KgofK, s"ith@, is "entione! in K=ulhychK asone hose hel% "ust be gaine! to ait at the en! of the furros to

cleanse the iron of the %lough.EF4 :ere he is brought into connection

ith the %lough, but the "yth to hich the or!s refer is lost. A

KTaliesinK %oe" associates hi" ith Math&&6 ha#e been ith artificers,

ith the ol! Math an! ith Go#annon, an! refers to his KCaerK or

castle.E4

Arianrho!, sil#er heel, has a tofol! character. 5he %reten!s to be a

#irgin, an! !isclai"s all knole!ge of her son le, yet she is "istress

of Gy!ion. 6n the KTria!sK she a%%ears as one of the three blesse! >or

hite@ la!ies of Britain.E*4 Perha%s these to as%ects of hercharacter "ay %oint to a !i#ergence beteen religion an! "ythology, the

cult of a #irgin go!!ess of ho" "yth tol! !iscre!itable things. More

likely she as an ol! /arth&go!!ess, at once a #irgin an! a fruitful

"other, like Arte"is, the #irgin go!!ess, yet neither chaste nor fair,

or like a Babylonian go!!ess a!!resse! as at once "other, ife, an!

"ai!. Arianrho!, beauty fa"e! beyon! su""er's !an, is "entione! in a

KTaliesinK %oe", an! she as later associate! ith the constellation

Corona Borealis.E+4 Possibly her real na"e as forgotten, an! that of



Arianrho! !eri#e! fro" a %lace&na"e, Caer Arianrho!, associate! ith

her. The inter%retation hich "akes her a !an go!!ess, "other of light,

leu, an! !arkness, )ylan, is far fro" ob#ious.EE4 )ylan, after his

ba%tis", rushe! into the sea, the nature of hich beca"e his. <o a#e

e#er broke un!er hi" he sa" like a fish an! hence as calle! )ylan

/il Ton or son of the a#e. Go#annon, his uncle, sle hi", an inci!ent

inter%rete! as the !efeat of !arkness, hich hies aay to lurk in the

sea. )ylan, hoe#er, has no !ark traits an! is !escribe! as a blon!e.

The a#es la"ent his !eath, an!, as they !ash against the shore, seek to

a#enge it. :is gra#e is here the a#e "akes a sullen soun!, but

%o%ular belief i!entifies hi" ith the a#es, an! their noise as they

%ress into the Conay is his !ying groan. <ot only is he K/il TonK, son

of the a#e, but also K/il MorK, son of the sea.E14 :e is thus a

local sea&go!, an! like Manannan i!entifie! ith the a#es, an! yet

se%arate fro" the", since they "ourn his !eath. The KMabinogiK gi#es us

the K!ebrisK of "yths eI%laining ho an anthro%o"or%hic sea&go! as

connecte! ith the go!!ess Arianrho! an! slain by a go! Go#annon.

Another KMabinogionK grou% is that of Pyll, %rince of )y#e!, his ifeRhiannon, an! their son Pry!eri.E-4 Pyll agrees ith Aran, king of

Annfn >/lysiu"@, to reign o#er his king!o" for a year. At the en! of

that ti"e he slays Aran's ri#al :a#gan. Aran sen!s hi" gifts, an!

Pyll is no knon as Pen or :ea! of Annfn, a title shoing that he as

once a go!, belonging to the go!s' lan!, later i!entifie! ith the

Christian :a!es. Pyll no agrees ith Rhiannon,E24 ho a%%ears

"ysteriously on a "agic hillock, an! ho" he ca%tures, to ri! her of an

unelco"e suitor Gal. :e i"%risons hi" in a "agical bag, an! Rhiannon

e!s Pyll. The story thus resol#es itself into the for"ula of the 9airy

Bri!e, but it %a#es the ay for the #engeance taken on Pry!eri an!

Rhiannon by Gal's frien! lyt. Rhiannon has a son ho is stolen assoon as born. 5he is accuse! of slaying hi" an! is !egra!e!, but Teyrnon

reco#ers the chil! fro" its su%er&hu"an robber an! calls hi" Gri. As he

gros u%, Teyrnon notices his rese"blance to Pyll, an! takes hi" to his

court. Rhiannon is reinstate!, an! because she cries that her anguish

>K%ry!eriK@ is gone, the boy is no calle! Pry!eri. :ere, again, e ha#e

KMaerchenK inci!ents, hich also a%%ear in the 9ionn saga.E34

Though there is little that is "ythological here, it is e#i!ent that

Pyll is a go! an! Rhiannon a go!!ess, hose early i"%ortance, like that

of other Celtic go!!esses, a%%ears fro" her na"e, a corru%tion of

Rigantona, great Lueen. /lsehere e hear of her "agic bir!s hosesong char"e! Bran's co"%anions for se#en years, an! of her "arriage to

Manay!!an&&an ol! "yth in hich Manay!!an "ay ha#e been Pry!eri's

father, hile %ossibly in so"e other "yth Pry!eri "ay ha#e been chil! of

Rigantona an! Teyrnon >NTigernonos, [email protected] ?e "ay %ostulate an

ol! Rhiannon saga, frag"ents of hich are to be foun! in the KMabinogiK,

an! there "ay ha#e been "ore than one go!!ess calle! Rigantona, later

fuse! into one. But in the tales she is "erely a Lueen of ol! ro"ance.



Pry!eri, as has been seen, as !es%oile! of his sine by Gy!ion. They

ere the gift of Aran, but in the KTria!sK they see" to ha#e been

brought fro" Annfn by Pyll, hile Pry!eri acte! as sineher!.E4

Both Pyll an! Pry!eri are thus connecte! ith those "yths hich tol! of

the bringing of !o"estic ani"als fro" the go!s' lan!. But since they are

certainly go!s, associate! ith the go!s' lan!, this is %erha%s the

result of "isun!erstan!ing. A %oe" s%eaks of the "agic caul!ron of Pen

Annfn, i.e. Pyll, an! this %oints to a "yth eI%laining his connection

ith Annfn in a !ifferent ay fro" the account in the KMabinogiK. The

%oe" also tells ho Geir as i"%risone! in Caer 5i!i >NAnnfn@ through

the "essenger of Pyll an! Pry!eri.14 They are thus lor!s of Annfn,

hose sine Geir >Gy!ion@ tries to steal. /lsehere Caer 5i!i is

associate! ith Manay!!an an! Pry!eri, %erha%s a reference to their

connection as father an! son.1*4 Thus Pry!eri an! Pyll belong to the

bright /lysiu", an! "ay once ha#e been go!s of fertility associate! ith

the un!er&earth region, hich as by no "eans a orl! of !arkness.

?hate#er be the "eaning of the !eath of Pry!eri at the han!s of Gy!ion,

it is connecte! ith later references to his gra#e.1+4

A fourth grou% is that of Beli an! his sons, referre! to in the

KMabinogiK of Branen, here one of the", Casallan, usur%s the throne,

an! thus "akes Manay!!an, like MacGregor, lan!less. 6n the K)rea" of

MaIenK, the sons of Beli are lu!!, Casallan, <ynnya, an!

le#elys.1E4 Geoffrey calls Beli :eli, an! s%eaks of an earlier king

Belinus, at en"ity ith his brother Brennius.114 But %robably Beli or

:eli an! Belinus are one an! the sa"e, an! both re%resent the earlier

go! Belenos. Casellan beco"es Cassi#ellaunus, o%%onent of Caesar, but

in the KMabinogiK he is hostile to the race of lyr, an! this "ay be

connecte! ith hate#er un!erlies Geoffrey's account of the hostility of

Belinus an! Brennius >NBran, son of lyr@, %erha%s, like the en"ity ofthe race of )o4n to Pry!eri, a re"iniscence of the strife of ri#al

tribes or of Goi!el an! Brython.1-4 As has been seen, the e#i!ence for

regar!ing Beli as )o4n's consort or the eLui#alent of Bile is slen!er.

<or, if he is Belenos, the eLui#alent of A%ollo, is he in any sense a

!ark go!. :e is regar!e! as a #ictorious cha"%ion, %reser#er of his

honey isle an! of the stability of his king!o", in a KTaliesinK %oe"

an! in the KTria!sK.124

The %ersonality of Cassallan is lost in that of the historic

Cassi#ellaunus, but in a reference to hi" in the KTria!sK here, ith

Cara!ac an! Geiry!!, he bears the title ar king, e "ay see agli"%se of his !i#ine character, that of a go! of ar, in#isibly lea!ing

on ar"ies to battle, an! as such e"bo!ie! in great chiefs ho bore his

na"e.134 <ynnya a%%ears in Geoffrey's %ages as <ennius, ho !ies of

oun!s inflicte! by Caesar, to the great grief of Cassi#ellaunus.1F4

The theory that lu!! la /reint or Ko!ens a"argentiosK re%resents

K<o!ensK ><ua!a@ KNa4"argentiosK, the change being the result of

alliteration, has been conteste!,14 hile if the ?elsh lu!! an! <u!!



ere i!entical it is strange that they shoul! ha#e beco"e !istinct

%ersonalities, Gyn, son of <u!!, being the lo#er of Crei!!yla!,

!aughter of lu!!,1*4 unless in so"e earlier "yth their lo#e as that

of brother an! sister. lu!! is also confuse! or is i!entical ith lyr,

just as the 6rish er is ith Alloi!. :e is %robably the son of Beli

ho, in the tale of Klu!! an! le#elysK, by the a!#ice of le#elys ri!s

his country of three %lagues.1**4 These are, first, the Coranians ho

hear e#ery his%er, an! ho" he !estroys by throing o#er the" ater in

hich certain insects gi#en hi" by e#elys ha#e been bruise!. The secon!

is a shriek on May&e#e hich "akes lan! an! ater barren, an! is cause!

by a !ragon hich attacks the !ragon of the lan!. These lu!! ca%tures

an! i"%risons at )inas /"reis, here they afterar!s cause trouble to

ortigern at the buil!ing of his castle. The thir! is that of the

!isa%%earance of a year's su%%ly of foo! by a "agician, ho lulls e#ery

one to slee% an! ho is ca%ture! by lu!!. Though the Coranians a%%ear

in the KTria!sK as a hostile tribe,1*+4 they "ay ha#e been a

su%ernatural folk, since their na"e is %erha%s !eri#e! fro" KcorK,

!arf, an! they are no regar!e! as "ischie#ous fairies.1*E4 They "ay

thus be analogous to the 9o"orians, an! their story, like that of the!ragon an! the "agician ho %ro!uce blight an! loss of foo!, "ay be

base! on ol!er "yth or ritual e"bo!ying the belief in %oers hostile to

fertility, though it is not clear hy those %oers shoul! be "ost acti#e

on May&!ay. But this "ay be a "isun!erstan!ing, an! the !ragons are

o#erco"e on May&e#e. The references in the tale to lu!!'s generosity

an! liberality in gi#ing foo! "ay reflect his function as a go! of

groth, but, like other euhe"erise! go!s, he is also calle! a "ighty

arrior, an! is sai! to ha#e rebuilt the alls of Caer u!! >on!on@,

his na"e still sur#i#ing in u!gate :ill, here he as burie!.1*14

This legen! !oubtless %oints to so"e ancient cult of lu!! at this s%ot.

<u!! alrea!y !iscusse! un!er his title <o!ons, is less %ro"inent than

his son Gyn, hose fight ith Gthur e ha#e eI%laine! as a "ythic

eI%lanation of ritual co"bats for the increase of fertility. :e also

a%%ears as a hunter an! as a great arrior,1*-4 the ho%e of ar"ies,

an! thus he "ay be a go! of fertility ho beca"e a go! of ar an! the

chase. But legen! associate! hi" ith Annfn, an! regar!e! hi", like the

Tuatha )ea, as a king of fairylan!.1*24 6n the legen! of 5. Collen, the

saint tells to "en, ho" he o#erhears s%eaking of Gyn an! the fairies,

that these are !e"ons. Thou shalt recei#e a re%roof fro" Gyn, sai!

one of the", an! soon after Collen as su""one! to "eet the king of

Annfn on Glastonbury Tor. :e cli"be! the hill ith a flask of holyater, an! sa on its to% a s%len!i! castle, ith cro!s of beautiful

an! youthful folk, hile the air resoun!e! ith "usic. :e as brought to

Gyn, ho %olitely offere! hi" foo!, but 6 ill not eat of the lea#es

of the tree, crie! the saint an! hen he as aske! to a!"ire the

!resses of the cro!, all he oul! say as that the re! signifie!

burning, the blue col!ness. Then he thre the holy ater o#er the", an!

nothing as left but the bare hillsi!e.1*34 Though Gyn's court on

Glastonbury is a local Celtic /lysiu", hich as actually locate! there,



anthro%o"or%hic corn&go!!ess.

Taliesin as %robably an ol! go! of %oetic ins%iration confuse! ith the

siIth century %oet of the sa"e na"e, %erha%s because this boastful %oet

i!entifie! hi"self or as i!entifie! by other bar!s ith the go!s. :e

s%eaks of his s%len!i! chair, ins%iration of fluent an! urgent song in

Caer 5i!i or /lysiu", an!, s%eaking in the go!'s na"e or i!entifying

hi"self ith hi", !escribes his %resence ith le, Bran, Gy!ion, an!

others, as ell as his creation an! his enchant"ent before he beca"e

i""ortal.1+24 :e as %resent ith Arthur hen a caul!ron as stolen

fro" Aunfn, an! basing his #erses on the "ythic transfor"ations an!

rebirths of the go!s, recounts in highly inflate! language his on

nu"erous for"s an! rebirths.1+34 :is clai"s rese"ble those of the

K5ha"anK ho has the entree of the s%irit&orl! an! can transfor"

hi"self at ill. Taliesin's rebirth is connecte! ith his acLuiring of

ins%iration. These inci!ents a%%ear se%arately in the story of 9ionn,

ho acLuire! his ins%iration by an acci!ent, an! as also sai! to ha#e

been reborn as Mongan. They are "yths co""on to #arious branches of the

Celtic %eo%le, an! a%%lie! in !ifferent co"binations to outstan!ing go!sor heroes.1+F4 The KTaliesinK %oe"s sho that there "ay ha#e been to

go!s or to "ythic as%ects of one go!, later co"bine! together. :e is

the son of the go!!ess an! !ells in the !i#ine lan!, but he is also a

culture&hero stealing fro" the !i#ine lan!. Perha%s the "yths reflect

the encroach"ent of the cult of a go! on that of a go!!ess, his

orshi%%ers regar!ing hi" as her son, her orshi%%ers reflecting their

hostility to the ne go! in a "yth of her en"ity to hi". 9inally, the

legen! of the rescue of Taliesin the %oet fro" the a#es beca"e a "yth

of the !i#ine outcast chil! rescue! by /l%hin, an! %ro#ing hi"self a

bar! hen nor"al infants are "erely babbling.

The occasional an! obscure references to the other "e"bers of this grou%

thro little light on their functions, sa#e that Mor#ran, sea&cro, is

!escribe! in K=ulhychK as so ugly an! terrible that no one oul! strike

hi" at the battle of Ca"lan. :e "ay ha#e been a ar&go!, like the

scal!&cro go!!esses of 6relan!, an! he is also s%oken of in the

KTria!sK as an obstructor of slaughter or su%%ort of battle.1+4

6ngenuity an! s%eculation ha#e busie! the"sel#es ith trying to %ro#e

that the %ersonages of the Arthurian cycle are the ol! go!s of the

Brythons, an! the inci!ents of the ro"ances frag"ents of the ol!

"ythology. ?hile so"e of these %ersonages&&those alrea!y %resent ingenuinely ol! ?elsh tales an! %oe"s or in Geoffrey's K:istoryK&&are

re"iniscent of the ol! go!s, the ro"antic %resent"ent of the" in the

cycle itself is so largely i"aginati#e, that nothing certain can be

gaine! fro" it for the un!erstan!ing of the ol! "ythology, "uch less the

ol! religion. 6nci!ents hich are the co""on stock of real life as ell

as of ro"ance are inter%rete! "ythologically, an! it is ne#er Luite

ob#ious hy the slaying of one hero by another shoul! signify the

conLuest of a !ark !i#inity by a solar hero, or hy the ca%ture of a



heroine by one knight hen she is belo#e! of another, shoul! "ake her a

!an&go!!ess sharing her fa#ours, no ith the sun&go!, no ith a

!ark !i#inity. 8r, e#en granting the truth of this "etho!, hat light

!oes it thro on Celtic religionS

?e "ay %ostulate a local Arthur saga fusing an ol! Brythonic go! ith

the historic siIth century Arthur. 9ro" this or fro" Geoffrey's han!ling

of it s%rang the great ro"antic cycle. 6n the ninth century <ennius

Arthur is the historic ar&chief, %ossibly Count of Britain, but in the

reference to his hunting the KPorcus TroitK >the KTrch TrythK@ the

"ythic Arthur "o"entarily a%%ears.1E4 Geoffrey's Arthur !iffers fro"

the later Arthur of ro"ance, an! he "ay ha#e %artially rationalise! the

saga, hich as either of recent for"ation or else local an! obscure,

since there is no reference to Arthur in the KMabinogionK&&a fact hich

shos that in the legen!s of Gyne!! an! )yfe!! he ha! no %lace

hate#er,1E*4 an! also that Arthur the go! or "ythic hero as also

%urely local. 6n Geoffrey Arthur is the fruit of 6gerna's Ka"ourK ith

;ther, to ho" Merlin has gi#en her husban!'s sha%e. Arthur conLuers

"any hosts as ell as giants, an! his court is the resort of all#alorous %ersons. But he is at last oun!e! by his ife's se!ucer, an!

carrie! to the 6sle of A#allon to be cure! of his oun!s, an! nothing

"ore is e#er hear! of hi".1E+4 5o"e of these inci!ents occur also in

the stories of 9ionn an! Mongan, an! those of the "ysterious begetting

of a on!er chil! an! his final !isa%%earance into fairylan! are local

for"s of a tale co""on to all branches of the Celts.1EE4 This as

fitte! to the history of the local go! or hero Arthur, gi#ing rise to

the local saga, to hich as afterar!s a!!e! e#ents fro" the life of

the historic Arthur. This co"%leI saga "ust then ha#e acLuire! a i!er

fa"e long before the ro"antic cycle took its %lace, as is suggeste! by

the %urely ?elsh tales of K=ulhychK an! the K)rea" of RhonabyK, in thefor"er of hich the %ersonages >go!s@ of the KMabinogionK figure in

Arthur's train, though he is far fro" being the Arthur of the ro"ances.

5%ora!ic references to Arthur occur also in ?elsh literature, an! to the

earlier saga belongs the Arthur ho s%oils /lysiu" of its caul!ron in a

KTaliesinK %oe".1E14 6n the KTria!sK there is a "ingling of the

historic, the saga, an! the later ro"ance Arthur, but %robably as a

result of the groing %o%ularity of the saga Arthur he is a!!e! to "any

Tria!s as a "ore re"arkable %erson than the three ho" they

!escribe.1E-4 Arthurian %lace&na"es o#er the Brythonic area are "ore

%robably the result of the %o%ularity of the saga than that of the later

ro"antic cycle, a %arallel instance being foun! in the eItent of8ssianic %lace&na"es o#er the Goi!elic area as a result of the s%rea! of

the 9ionn saga.

The character of the ro"ance Arthur&&the floer of knighthoo! an! a

great arrior&&an! the blen!ing of the historic ar&lea!er Arthur ith

the "ythic Arthur, suggest that the latter as the i!eal hero of certain

Brythonic grou%s, as 9ionn an! Cuchulainn of certain Goi!elic grou%s. :e

"ay ha#e been the object of a cult as these heroes %erha%s ere, or he



"ay ha#e been a go! "ore an! "ore i!ealise! as a hero. 6f the earlier

for" of his na"e as Artor, a %lough"an, but %erha%s ith a i!er

significance, an! ha#ing an eLui#alent in Artaius, a Gaulish go! eLuate!

ith Mercury,1E24 he "ay ha#e been a go! of agriculture ho beca"e a

ar&go!. But he as also regar!e! as a culture&hero, stealing a caul!ron

an! also sine fro" the go!s' lan!, the last inci!ent euhe"erise! into

the tale of an unsuccessful theft fro" March, son of Meirchion,1E34

hile, like other culture&heroes, he is a bar!. To his story as easily

fitte! that of the on!er&chil!, ho, ha#ing finally !isa%%eare! into

/lysiu" >later locate! at Glastonbury@, oul! rea%%ear one !ay, like

9ionn, as the 5a#iour of his %eo%le. The local Arthur finally attaine! a

fa"e far eIcee!ing that of any Brythonic go! or hero.

Merlin, or Myr!!in, a%%ears in the ro"ances as a great "agician ho is

finally o#erco"e by the a!y of the ake, an! is in Geoffrey son of a

"ysterious in#isible %ersonage ho #isits a o"an, an!, finally taking

hu"an sha%e, begets Merlin. As a son ho ne#er ha! a father he is chosen

as the foun!ation sacrifice for ortigern's toer by his "agicians, but

he confutes the" an! shos hy the toer can ne#er be built, na"ely,because of the !ragons in the %ool beneath it. Then follo his

%ro%hecies regar!ing the !ragons an! the future of the country, an! the

story of his re"o#al of the Giant's )ance, or 5tonehenge, fro" 6relan!

to its %resent site&&an aetiological "yth eI%laining the origin of the

great stone circle. :is !escri%tion of ho the giants use! the ater

ith hich they ashe! the stones for the cure of sickness or oun!s,

%robably %oints to so"e ritual for healing in connection ith these

"egaliths. 9inally, e hear of his transfor"ation of the lo#elorn ;ther

an! of his confi!ant ;lfin, as ell as of hi"self.1EF4 :ere he a%%ears

as little "ore than an i!eal "agician, %ossibly an ol! go!, like the

6rish go! of )rui!is", to hose legen! ha! been attache! a story ofsu%ernatural conce%tion. Professor Rhy4s regar!s hi" as a Celtic eus

or as the sun, because late legen!s tell of his !isa%%earance in a glass

house into the sea. The glass house is the eI%anse of light tra#elling

ith the sun >Merlin@, hile the a!y of the ake ho co"es !aily to

solace Merlin in his enchante! %rison is a !an&go!!ess. 5tonehenge as

%robably a te"%le of this Celtic eus hose late legen!ary self e ha#e

in Merlin.1E4 5uch late ro"antic e%iso!es an! an aetiological "yth can

har!ly be regar!e! as affor!ing safe basis for these #ies, an! their

"ythological inter%retation is "ore than !oubtful. The sun is ne#er

%risoner of the !an as Merlin is of i#iane. Merlin an! his glass house

!isa%%ear for e#er, but the sun rea%%ears e#ery "orning. /#en the "ost%oetic "ythology "ust confor" in so"e !egree to actual %heno"ena, but

this cannot be sai! of the syste"s of "ythological inter%retation. 6f

Merlin belongs to the %agan %erio! at all, he as %robably an i!eal

"agician or go! of "agicians, %ro"inent, %erha%s, in the Arthur saga as

in the later ro"ances, an! cre!ite! ith a "ysterious origin an! an

eLually "ysterious en!ing, the latter !escribe! in "any !ifferent ays.

The boastful =ei of the ro"ances a%%ears alrea!y in K=ulhychK, hile in



Geoffrey he is Arthur's seneschal.114 <obler traits are his in later

?elsh %oetry he is a "ighty arrior, fighting e#en against a hun!re!,

though his %oers as a to%er are also great. :ere, too, his !eath is

la"ente!.11*4 :e "ay thus ha#e been a go! of ar, an! his battle&fury

"ay be %oetically !escribe! in a curious %assage referring to hi" in

K=ulhychK( :is breath laste! nine !ays an! nine nights un!er ater. :e

coul! re"ain ithout slee% for the sa"e %erio!. <o %hysician coul! heal

a oun! inflicte! by his sor!. ?hen he %lease! he coul! "ake hi"self as

tall as the tallest tree in the oo!. An! hen it raine! har!est,

hate#er he carrie! re"aine! !ry abo#e an! belo his han! to the

!istance of a han!brea!th, so great as his natural heat. ?hen it as

col!est he as as gloing fuel to his co"%anions.11+4 This al"ost

eIactly rese"bles Cuchulainn's as%ect in his battle&fury. 6n a curious

%oe" Genhy#ar >Guine#ere@ eItols his %roess as a arrior abo#e that of

Arthur, an! in K=ulhychK an! elsehere there is en"ity beteen the

to.11E4 This "ay %oint to =ei's ha#ing been a go! of tribes hostile to

those of ho" Arthur as hero.

Mabon, one of Arthur's heroes in K=ulhychK an! the K)rea" of RhonabyK,hose na"e, fro" K"abK >K"a%K@, "eans a youth, "ay be one ith the go!

Ma%onos eLuate! ith A%ollo in Britain an! Gaul, %erha%s as a go! of

healing s%rings.1114 :is "other's na"e, Mo!ron, is a local for" of

KMatronaK, a ri#er&go!!ess an! %robably one of the "other&go!!esses as

her na"e i"%lies. 6n the KTria!sK Mabon is one of the three e"inent

%risoners of Pry!ein. To obtain his hel% in hunting the "agic boar his

%rison "ust be foun!, an! this is !one by ani"als, in accor!ance ith a

KMaerchenK for"ula, hile the or!s s%oken by the" sho the i""ense

!uration of his i"%rison"ent&&%erha%s a hint of his i""ortality.11-4

But he as also sai! to ha#e !ie! an! been burie! at <antlle,1124

hich, like Gloucester, the %lace of his %rison, "ay ha#e been a site ofhis i!ely eIten!e! cult.1134

7 7 7 7 7

Taken as a hole the #arious go!s an! heroes of the Brythons, so far as

they are knon to us, just as they rese"ble the 6rish !i#inities in

ha#ing been later regar!e! as "ortals, "agicians, an! fairies, so they

rese"ble the" in their functions, !i"ly as these are %ercei#e!. They are

associate! ith /lysiu", they are lor!s of fertility an! groth, of the

sea, of the arts of culture an! of ar. The %ro"inent %osition of

certain go!!esses "ay %oint to hat has alrea!y been !isco#ere! of the"in Gaul an! 6relan!&&their %re&e"inence an! in!e%en!ence. But, like the

!i#inities of Gaul an! 6relan!, those of ?ales ere "ainly local in

character, an! only in a fe cases attaine! a i!er %o%ularity an! cult.

Certain British go!s "entione! on inscri%tions "ay be i!entifie! ith

so"e of those just consi!ere!&&<o!ons ith <u!! or lu!!, Belenos ith

Belinus or Beli, Ma%onos ith Mabon, Taranos >in continental

inscri%tions only@, ith a Taran "entione! in K=ulhychK.11F4 8thers



are referre! to in classical ritings&&An!rasta, a go!!ess of #ictory,

to ho" Bou!icca %raye!114 5ul, a go!!ess of hot s%rings, eLuate!

ith Miner#a at Bath.1-4 6nscri%tions also "ention /%ona, the

horse&go!!ess Brigantia, %erha%s a for" of Brigit Belisa"a >the Mersey

in Ptole"y@,1-*4 a go!!ess in Gaulish inscri%tions. 8thers refer to the

grou% go!!esses, the KMatresK. 5o"e go!s are eLuate! ith Mars&&Ca"ulos,

knon also on the Continent an! %erha%s the sa"e as Cu"al, father of

9ionn Belatuca!ros, co"ely in slaughter Coci!ius, Corotiacus,

BarreI, an! Totatis >%erha%s ucan's Teutates@. 8thers are eLuate! ith

A%ollo in his character as a go! of healing&&AneItio"arus, Grannos >at

Musselburgh an! in "any continental inscri%tions@, Ar#alus, Mogons, etc.

Most of these an! "any others foun! on isolate! inscri%tions ere

%robably local in character, though so"e, occurring also on the

Continent, ha! attaine! a i!er %o%ularity.1-+4 But so"e of the

inscri%tions referring to the latter "ay be !ue to Gaulish sol!iers

Luartere! in Britain.

C8MPARAT6/ TAB/ 89 )66<6T6/5 ?6T: 56M6AR <AM/5 6< 6R/A<), BR6TA6<,

A<) GA;.

K6talics !enote na"es foun! in 6nscri%tions.K

6R/A<). BR6TA6<. GA;.

KAneItio"arusK KAneItio"arusK

Anu Anna >S@ KAnonire!iK, chariot of Anu

Ba!b KBo!uaK

Beli, Belinus KBelenosK

Belisa"a KBelisa"aK

Brigit KBrigantiaK KBrigin!uK

Bron Bran Brennus >S@Buanann KBuanuK

Cu"al KCa"ulosK KCa"ulosK

)anu )on

K/%onaK K/%onaK

Goibniu Go#annon

KGrannosK KGrannosK

er lyr

ug le or leu >S@ ugus, KugoresK

Mabon, KMa%onosK KMa%onosK

Manannan Manay!!an

KMatresK KMatresKMi!er KMe!rosK >S@

Mo!ron KMatronaK >S@

<e"on K<e"etonaK

<et K<etonK

<ua!a K<o!onsK, <u!!

:ael, lu!! >S@

8g"a 8g"ios

K5il#anusK K5il#anusK



Taran KTaranisK

KTotatis, TutatisK Teutates

988T<8T/5(

E+F4 The teIt of the KMabinogionK has been e!ite! by Rhy4s an! /#ans,

*FF3, an! it has been translate! into /nglish by a!y Guest, an! "ore

critically, into 9rench, by oth. Many of the KTria!sK ill be foun! in

oth's secon! #olu"e. 9or the %oetry see 5kene, K9our Ancient Books of

?alesK.

E+4 These inci!ents are foun! "ainly in the story of Branen, e.g.

those of the caul!ron, a freLuent accessory in 6rish tales the

regeneration of the arriors, also foun! in the story of Mag&ture!,

though no caul!ron is use! the re!&hot house, occurring also in KMesca

;la!K the !escri%tion of Bran %arallele! by that of MacCecht.

EE4 Anyl, KCPK i. +33, ii. *+1, iii. *++.

EE*4 B%. of 5. )a#i!s, Kestiges of the Gael in Gynne!K, *F-*

Rhy4s, KT5CK *F1&*F-, +*.

EE+4 5kene, i. 1- Meyer, KT5CK *F-&*F2, --.

EEE4 Cf. John, KThe MabinogionK, **, *. Curoi a%%ears as =ubert, an!

Conchobar as =nychur in K=ulhychK >oth, i. ++@. A %oe" of KTaliesinK

has for subject the !eath of Corroi, son of )ayry >Curoi "ac )aire@,

5kene, i. +-1.

EE14 oth, KRCK I. E-2 John, Ko%. cit.K * <utt, KArch. Re#.K i. EE*.

EE-4 The giant $s%%a!!en in K=ulhychK rese"bles Balor, but has no e#il

eye.

EE24 Anyl, KCPK ii. *+3&*+F, The "erging of the to legen!s of )on

an! Taliesin4 "ay ha#e arisen through the fusion of Penllyn ith Ar!u!y

an! Ar#on.

EE34 Professor Rhy4s thinks that the lyr fa"ily "ay be %re&Celtic,

KT5CK *F1&*F-, + f. KC9K --+.

EEF4 oth, i. 3 f. a!y Guest, iii. *1E f.

EE4 5ee <utt, K9olk&lore Recor!K, #. * f.

E14 oth, i. +F, ii. +1E&+11 Geoffrey, K:ist. Brit.K ii. **.

E1*4 oth, i. ++1, +2-, ii. +*-, +11 Geoff. ii. **.



E1+4 5kene, i. F* Rhy4s, KAca!e"yK, Jan. 3, *FF+.

E1E4 KTria!sK, oth, ii. +E <utt, K9olk&lore Recor!K, #. .

E114 K:ist. Brit.K ii. **&*1.

E1-4 KAK *E*.

E124 5kene, i. +2+.

E134 5ee <utt&Meyer, ii. *3.

E1F4 5kene, i. +32.

E14 oth, i. +F, +F see also i. *3, ii. +1-, +1.

E-4 5ee 5kene i. E--. The ra#en is rather the bir! of %rey co"e to

!e#our ;rien than his attribute.

E-*4 5kene, i. +F.

E-+4 9or these theories see Rhy4s, K:K KfK. KAK ch. ** KC9K

--+.

E-E4 5ee Ch. QQ6.

E-14 5ee %. +1+.

E--4 oth, i. 2-, ii. +F-.

E-24 K:ist. Brit.K iii. *KfK. Geoffrey says that Billingsgate as

calle! after Belinus, an! that his ashes ere %reser#e! in the gate, a

tra!ition recalling so"e connection of the go! ith the gate.

E-34 An early Cara!ac saga "ay ha#e beco"e "ingle! ith the story of

Caractacus.

E-F4 Rees, 33.

E-4 5o /lton, +*.

E24 K9olk&lore Recor!K, #. +.

E2*4 a!y Guest, iii. *E1.

E2+4 )on is so"eti"es hel! to be "ale, but she is !istinctly calle!

sister of Math >oth, i. *E1@, an! as the eLui#alent of )anu she "ust be

fe"ale.



E2E4 oth, ii. +.

E214 5ee %. 2, Ksu%raK, an! Rhy4s, K:K KfK.

E2-4 a!y Guest, iii. +-- 5kene, i. +3, E-.

E224 9or this KMabinogiK see oth, i. **3f. Guest, iii. *Ff.

E234 5kene, i. +F2.

E2F4 oth, ii. ++, +-3 an! for other references to Math, 5kene, i.

+F*, +2, +.

E24 5kene, i. +2, +F*.

E34 oth, ii. +3 Rhy4s, K:K +32.

E3*4 5kene, i. +21.

E3+4 Rhy4s, K:K +3. 5kene, i. 1E, -E3, gi#es a !ifferent "eaning

to KseonK.

E3E4 5kene, i. +21.

E314 oth, ii. +2.

E3-4 5kene, i. +, -E*.

E324 5ee %. ++1, KinfraK.

E334 Guest, iii. +-- Morris, KCeltic Re"ainsK, +E*.

E3F4 K:K +FE KfK. 5ee also Gri"", KTeut. Myth.K i. *E*.

E34 oth, i. +1.

EF4 5tokes, K;5K E1.

EF*4 KMy#yrian Archaeol.K i. *2F 5kene, i. +3-, +3F f. oth, ii. +-.

EF+4 5ee "y KChil!hoo! of 9ictionK, *+3. le's #ulnerability !oes not!e%en! on the !isco#ery of his se%arable soul, as is usual. The earliest

for" of this KMaerchenK is the /gy%tian story of the To Brothers, an!

that of 5a"son an! )elilah is another ol! for" of it.

EFE4 5kene, i. E*1, ii. E1+.

EF14 K:K 1F KRCK I. 1.



EF-4 K:K +E3, E*, EF, 1F.

EF24 K:K EF1.

EF34 K:K 131, 1+1.

EFF4 oth, ii. +E*.

EF4 oth, i. +1.

E4 5kene, i, +F2&+F3.

E*4 oth, ii. +2E.

E+4 5kene, ii. *- Rhy4s, K:K *-3 Guest, iii. +--.

EE4 Rhy4s, K:K *2*, -22.

E14 5kene, i. +F+, +FF, E*, -1E, ii. *1- oth, i. *E- Rhy4s, K:KEF3.

E-4 oth, i. +3 f. Guest, iii. 3 f.

E24 Rhiannon is !aughter of :e#ei!! :en or the Ancient, %robably an

ol! !i#inity.

E34 6n the KMabinogiK an! in 9ionn tales a "ysterious han! snatches

aay nely&born chil!ren. Cf. KCPK i. *-E.

EF4 Anyl, KCPK i. +FF.

E4 oth, ii. +13.

14 5kene, i. +21.

1*4 6bi!. i. +32.

1+4 6bi!. i. E*.

1E4 oth, i. *22.

114 K:ist. Brit.K ii. **, iii. *, +, i#. E.

1-4 Cf. Anyl, KCPK i. +F3.

124 5kene, i. 1E* oth, ii. +3F. 5o"e %hrases see" to connect Beli

ith the sea&&the a#es are his cattle, the brine his liLuor.

134 oth, ii. +, +1, +2, +FE.



1F4 Geoffrey, KBrit. :ist.K i#. E. 1.

14 Rhy4s, K:K *+- f. oth, i. +2- MacBain, KCMK iI. 22.

1*4 5ee oth, i. +2 an! 5kene, i. +E.

1**4 oth, i. *3E f.

1*+4 oth, ii. +-2, +31.

1*E4 Rhy4s, K:K 22. Cf. the Breton fairies, the K=orrK an!

K=orriganK.

1*14 Geoffrey, iii. +.

1*-4 oth, i. +-E&+-1 5kene, i. +E.

1*24 Guest, iii. E+E.

1*34 6bi!. E+-.

1*F4 oth, i. +-E, ii. +3.

1*4 5ee %. E-E, KinfraK. 5kene, i. -E+.

1+4 Anyl, KCPK i. +E.

1+*4 Guest, iii. E-2 f.

1++4 5kene, i. +3-, +2.

1+E4 6bi!. i. 1F, -.

1+14 5ee %. EF+, KinfraK.

1+-4 KMon. :ist. Brit.K i. 2F, ii. Tho"as, KRe#ue !e l'hist. !es

ReligionsK, III#iii. EE.

1+24 5kene, i. +2E, +31&+32, +3F, +F*&+F+, +F2&+F3. :is chair bestos

i""ortal youth an! free!o" fro" sickness.

1+34 5kene, i. +21, E32 f., E, -E+. 5ee %. E-2, KinfraK.

1+F4 5ee %%. E-&*, KinfraK. 9ionn an! Taliesin are eIa"%les of the

KMaerchenK for"ula of a hero eI%elle! an! brought back to honour,

<utt&Meyer, ii. FF.

1+4 oth, i. +, ii. +EF 5kene, ii. 1-.



1E4 <ennius, ch. -, 3.

1E*4 Anyl, KCPK i. +E.

1E+4 Geoffrey, #iii. &Ii. E.

1EE4 <utt&Meyer, ii. ++ f.

1E14 5ee %. EF*, KinfraK.

1E-4 oth, ii. +E+, +1-.

1E24 Rhy4s, KAK, E f. 8thers !eri#e the na"e fro" Karto&sK, bear.

MacBain, E-3.

1E34 oth. ii. +13 5kene, ii. 1-.

1EF4 Geoffrey, #i. *3&*, #ii. #iii. *, *&*+, *. 6n a %oe" >5kene, i.13F@, Myr!!in is calle! the "an ho s%eaks fro" the gra#e&&a

conce%tion fa"iliar to the Celts, ho thought of the !ea! as li#ing on

in the gra#e. 5ee %. E1, KinfraK.

1E4 Rhy4s, K:K, *-1 f., *-F&*-, *1.

114 Geoffrey, iI. *+, etc.

11*4 5kene, ii. -*.

11+4 oth. i. ++- cf. %. *E*, KinfraK. 9ro" this !escri%tion /ltonsu%%oses =ei to ha#e been a go! of fire.

11E4 KMy#. Arch.K i. *3- oth, i. +2. Rhy4s, KAK -, thinks Merlin

"ay ha#e been Guine#ere's ra#isher.

1114 :ol!er, i. 1*1.

11-4 oth i. +-, +2 f., +F, ii. +*-, +11.

1124 5kene, i. E2E, ii. 12 KMy#. Arch.K i. 3F.

1134 :u Ga!arn is "entione! in the KTria!sK as a lea!er of the Cy"ry

fro" the east an! their teacher in %loughing. :e !i#i!e! the" into

clans, an! in#ente! "usic an! song. The "onster Ka#ancK as !ran by hi"

fro" the lake hich ha! burst an! cause! the floo! >see %. +E*,

KinfraK@. Perha%s :u is an ol! culture&go! of so"e tribes, but the

KTria!sK referring to hi" are of late !ate >oth, ii. +3*, +F, +&+*,

+F&+@. 9or the ri!iculous <eo&)rui!ic s%eculations base! on :u, see

)a#ies, KCeltic ResearchesK an! KMythology an! Rites of the )rui!sK.



Gurgiunt, son of Belinus, in Geoffrey, iii. **, "ay be the 9rench

legen!ary Gargantua, %erha%s an ol! go!. 5ee the orks of 5ebillot an!

Gai!oH on KGargantuaK.

11F4 oth, i. +3.

114 )io Cassius, lIii. 2.

1-4 5olinus, IIii. *. 5ee %. +, Ksu%raK.

1-*4 Ptol. ii. E. +.

1-+4 9or all these see :ol!er, Ks.#.K

C:APT/R 66.

T:/ C;C:;A6<< C$C/.

The e#ents of the Cuchulainn cycle are su%%ose! to !ate fro" the

beginning of the Christian era&&=ing Conchobar's !eath synchronising

ith the crucifiIion. But though so"e %ersonages ho are "entione! in

the Annals figure in the tales, on the hole they !eal ith %ersons ho

ne#er eIiste!. They belong to a orl! of ro"ance an! "yth, an! e"bo!y

the i!eals of Celtic %aganis", "o!ifie! by Christian influences an!

those of classical tales an! ro"antic sagas of other regions, "ainly5can!ina#ian. The %resent for" of the tales as they eIist in the KBook

of the )un CoK an! the KBook of einsterK "ust ha#e been gi#en the" in

the se#enth or eighth century, but they e"bo!y "aterials of a far ol!er

!ate. At an early ti"e the saga "ay ha#e ha! a "ore or less !efinite

for", but ne tales ere being constantly a!!e! to it, an! so"e of the

longer tales are co"%ose! of inci!ents hich once ha! no connection ith

each other.

Cuchulainn is the central figure of the cycle, an! its central e%iso!e

is that of the KTain bo CuailgneK, or Cattle 5%oil of Cooley. 8ther

%ersonages are Conchobar an! )echtire, Ailill an! Me!b, 9ergus, ConallCernach, Curoi, )eir!re, an! the sons of ;snach. 5o"e of these are of

!i#ine !escent, so"e are %erha%s euhe"erise! !i#inities Conchobar is

calle! K!ia tal"ai!eK, a terrestrial go!, an! )echtire a go!!ess. The

cycle o%ens ith the birth of Conchobar, son of Cathba! an! of <essa,

!aughter of one of the Tuatha )e )anann, though in an ol!er rescension

of the tale he is <essa's son by the go! ug. )uring Conchobar's reign

o#er ;lster Cuchulainn as born. :e as son of )echtire, either by

5ualtai", or by her brother Conchobar, or by the go! ug, of ho" he "ay



also be a reincarnation.1-E4 ike other heroes of saga, he %ossesses

great strength an! skill at a ten!er age, an!, setting out for

Conchobar's court, o#er%oers the king's boy cor%s, an! then beco"es

their chief. :is neIt a!#enture is the slaying of the atch&!og of

Culann the s"ith, an! his a%%easing the anger of its oner by offering

to act as his atch&!og. Cathba! no announce! that his na"e oul!

henceforth be Cu Chulainn, Culann's houn!.1-14 At the "ature age of

se#en he obtaine! Conchobar's s%ears, sor!, shiel!, an! chariot, an!

ith these he o#erca"e three "ighty cha"%ions, returning in the

!istortion of his battle&fury to /"ania. To %re#ent "ischief fro" his

rage, the o"en ent forth nake! to "eet hi". :e "o!estly co#ere! his

eyes, for it as one of his KgeasaK not to look on a o"an's breast.

Thus taken unaares, he as %lunge! into three successi#e #ats of col!

ater until his natural a%%earance as restore! to hi", although the

ater boile! an! hisse! fro" his heat.1--4

As Cuchulainn gre u%, his strength, skill, is!o", an! beauty ere

unsur%asse!. All o"en fell in lo#e ith hi", an! to forestall a series

of Kbonnes fortunesK, the "en of ;lster sought a ife for hi". But thehero's heart as set on /"er, !aughter of 9orgall, ho" he ooe! in a

strange language hich none but she coul! un!erstan!. At last she

consente! to be his ife if he oul! slay a nu"ber of arriors. 9orgall

as o%%ose! to the "atch, an! ith a #ie to Cuchulainn's !estruction

suggeste! that he shoul! go to )onall in Alba to increase his skill, an!

to 5cathach if he oul! eIcel all other arriors. :e agree!, %ro#i!e!

that 9orgall oul! gi#e hi" hate#er he aske! for on his return. Arri#e!

in Alba, he refuse! the lo#e of )onall's !aughter, )ornolla, ho sore

to be a#enge!. Thence he ent to 5cathach, o#erco"ing all the !angers of

the ay, lea%ing in safety the gulf surroun!ing her islan!, after

essaying in #ain to cross a narro, singing bri!ge. 9ro" 5cathach helearne! su%re"e skill in ar"s, an! o#erca"e her A"aHonian ri#al Aife. :e

begat a son by Aife, an! instructe! her to call hi" Conla, to gi#e hi"

his father's ring, to sen! hi" to seek Cuchulainn, an! to forbi! hi" to

re#eal his na"e. 6n the seLuel, Cuchulainn, unaare that Conla as his

son, sle hi" in single co"bat, too late !isco#ering his i!entity fro"

the ring hich he ore. This is the ell&knon saga for"ula of 5ohrab

an! Rustu", of Theseus an! :i%%olytus. 8n his return fro" 5cathach's

isle Cuchulainn !estroye! 9orgall's KrathK ith "any of its in"ates,

inclu!ing 9orgall, an! carrie! off /"er. To the ten years hich

folloe!, !uring hich he as the great cha"%ion of ;lster, belong "any

tales in hich he figures %ro"inently. 8ne of these is KThe )ebility ofthe ;ltoniansK. This as cause! by Macha, ho, !uring her %regnancy, as

force! to run a race ith Conchobar's horses. 5he outran the", but ga#e

birth i""e!iately to tins, an!, in her %angs, curse! the "en of ;lster,

ith a curse that, in ti"e of o%%ression, they oul! be o#erco"e ith

the eakness of chil!birth. 9ro" this Cuchulainn as eIe"%t, for he as

not of ;lster, but a son of ug.1-24 arious atte"%ts ha#e been "a!e to

eI%lain this !ebility. 6t "ay be a "yth eI%laining a Celtic use of the

cou#a!e, though no eIa"%le of a si"ultaneous tribal cou#a!e is knon,



unless e ha#e here an instance of ?ester"arck's hu"an %airing season

in %ri"iti#e ti"es, ith its conseLuent si"ultaneous birth&%erio! for

o"en an! cou#a!e for "en.1-34 8thers, ith less likelihoo!, eI%lain it

as a %erio! of tabu, ith cessation fro" ork an! arfare, at a funeral

or festi#al.1-F4 6n any case Macha's curse is a "yth eI%lanatory of the

origin of so"e eIisting custo", the !uration of hich is "uch

eIaggerate! by the narrator. To this %erio! belong also the tale of

Cuchulainn's #isit to /lysiu", an! others to be referre! to later.

Another story !escribes his attack u%on Morrigan because she oul!

neither yiel! u% the cos hich she as !ri#ing aay nor tell her true

na"e&&an instance of the ell&knon na"e tabu. Morrigan took the for" of

a bir!, an! as then recognise! by Cuchulainn, ho %oure! scorn u%on

her, hile she %ro"ise! to o%%ose hi" !uring the fight of the KTainK in

the for"s of an eel, a olf, an! a co, all of hich he #oe! to

!estroy.1-4 ike "any others in the saga, this story is intro!uctory

to the "ain e%iso!e of the KTainK. To this e no turn.

Me!b ha! been ife of Conchobar, but, lea#ing hi", ha! "arrie! in

succession to chiefs calle! Ailill, the secon! of ho" ha! a bull,9in!bennach, the ?hite&horne!, hich she resol#e! to "atch by one in

e#ery ay its eLual. :a#ing been refuse! the Bron Bull of Cuailgne, she

su""one! all her forces to in#a!e ;lster. The "o"ent as inaus%icious

for ;lster, for all its "en ere suffering fro" their !ebility.

Cuchulainn, therefore, ent out to encounter the host, an! force! Me!b

to agree that a succession of her arriors shoul! engage hi" in single

co"bat. A"ong these as his ol! frien! 9er!ia, an! nothing is so

touching as his reluctance to fight hi" or so %athetic as his grief hen

9er!ia falls. The reluctance is %ri"arily !ue to the tie of

bloo!&brotherhoo! eIisting beteen the". 9inally, the ;lster"en rose in

force an! !efeate! Me!b, but not before she ha! alrea!y ca%ture! thebull an! sent it into her on lan!. There it as fought by the

9in!bennach an! sle it, rushing back to ;lster ith the "angle! bo!y on

its horns. But in its frenHy a rock see"e! to be another bull, hich it

charge! its brains ere !ashe! out, an! it fell !ea!.

The Morrigan ha! arne! the bull of the a%%roach of Me!b's ar"y, an! she

ha! also a%%eare! in the for" of a beautiful o"an to Cuchulainn

offering hi" her lo#e, only to be re%ulse!. :ence she turne! against

hi", an! !escribe! ho she oul! o%%ose hi" as an eel, a olf, an! a re!

heifer&&an inci!ent hich is %robably a #ariant of that alrea!y

!escribe!.124 6n each of these sha%es she as conLuere! an! oun!e! bythe hero, an! knoing that none ho" he hurt coul! be heale! sa#e by

hi"self, she a%%eare! to hi" as an ol! crone "ilking a co. At each

!raught of the "ilk hich he recei#e! fro" her he blesse! her ith the

blessing of go!s an! not&go!s, an! so her oun!s ere heale!.12*4 9or

this, at a later ti"e, she trie! to ar! off his !eath, but

unsuccessfully. )uring the %rogress of the KTainK, one of Cuchulainn's

fairy kins"en, na"ely, ug, ho announce! hi"self as his father,

a%%eare! to ai! hi", hile others of the Tuatha )ea thre herbs of



6t as ine#itable that the "ythological school shoul! regar!

Cuchulainn as a solar hero. Thus he reaches his full !e#elo%"ent at an

unusually early age, as the sun !oes,12F4 but also as !o "any other

heroes of saga an! KMaerchenK ho are not solar. The three colours of

Cuchulainn's hair, !ark near the skin, re! in the "i!!le, gol!en near

the to%, are clai"e! to be a !escri%tion of the sun's rays, or of the

three %arts into hich the Celts !i#i!e! the !ay.124 /lsehere his

tresses are yello, like Prince Charlie's in fact an! in song, yet he

as not a solar hero. Again, the se#en %u%ils of his eyes %erha%s

referre! to the !ays of the eek.134 Blin!ness befell all o"en ho

lo#e! hi", a reference to the !ifficulty of gaHing at the sun.13*4 This

is %rosaic The blin!ness as a co"%li"ent %ai! to Cuchulainn the blin!,

by o"en ho "a!e the"sel#es blin! hile talking to hi", just as Conall

Cernach's "istresses sLuinte! as he !i!.13+4 Cuchulainn's blin!ness

arose fro" his habit of sinking one eye into his hea! an! %rotru!ing the

other&&a ell&knon solar trait :is !istortion, !uring hich, besi!es

this blin!ness, bloo! shot u%ar!s fro" his hea! an! for"e! a "agic

"ist, an! his anger cause! shoers of s%arks to "ount abo#e hi", %oints

to !an or sunset,13E4 though the setting sun oul! rather suggest ahero sinking cal"ly to rest than a "a! giant setting out to slaughter

frien! an! foe. The !istortion, as alrea!y %ointe! out, is the

eIaggerate! !escri%tion of the "a! arrior rage, just as the fear hich

%ro!uce! !eath to those ho sa hi" bran!ish his ea%ons, as also

%ro!uce! by Maori arrior "etho!s.1314 ug, ho "ay be a sun&go!, has

no such !istortion. The cooling of the hero in three #ats, the aters

of hich boil o#er, an! his e"ergence fro" the" %inky re! in colour,

sy"bolise the sun sinking into the aters an! rea%%earing at !an.13-4

Might it not !escribe in an eIaggerate! ay the refreshing bath taken by

frenHie! arriors, the ater being su%%ose! to gro ar" fro" the heat

of their bo!iesS1324 8ne of the hero's KgeasaK as not to seeManannan's horses, the a#es hich, being inter%rete!, "eans that the

sun is near its !eath as it a%%roaches the sea. $et ug, a sun&go!,

ri!es the stee! /nbarr, a %ersonification of the a#es, hile Cuchulainn

hi"self often crosse! the sea, an! also li#e! ith the sea&go!'s ife,

9an!, ithout co"ing to grief. Again, the "agic horses hich he !ri#es,

black an! grey in colour, are sy"bols of !ay an! night,1334 though it

is not ob#ious hy a grey horse shoul! sy"bolise !ay, hich is not

alays grey e#en in the isles of the est. ;nlike a solar hero, too,

Cuchulainn is "ost acti#e in inter, an! rests for a brief s%ace fro"

slaughtering at "i!!ay&&the ti"e of the sun's greatest acti#ity both in

su""er an! inter.

Another theory is that e#ery #isit of the hero to a strange lan!

signifies a !escent to :a!es, suggeste! by the sun sinking in the est.

5cathach's islan! "ay be :a!es, but it is "ore %robably /lysiu" ith

so"e traits borroe! fro" the Christian i!ea of hell. But /"er's lan!,

also #isite! by Cuchulainn, suggests neither :a!es nor /lysiu". /"er

calls herself Kingen rig richis gartaK, translate! by Professor Rhy4s

as !aughter of the coal&face! king, i.e. she is !aughter of !arkness.



:ence she is a !an&"ai!en an! beco"es the sun&hero's ife.13F4 There

is nothing in the story to corroborate this theory, a%art fro" the fact

that it is not clear, e#en to the hy%othetical %ri"iti#e "in!, hy !an

an! sun shoul! be a !i#ine %air. /"er's or!s %robably "ean that she is

!aughter of a king an! a fla"e of hos%itality >Krichis gartaK.@134

Cuchulainn, in #isiting her, ent fro" est to east, contrary to the

a%%arent course of the sun. The eItra#agance of the solar theory is

further seen in the hy%othesis that because Cuchulainn has other i#es,

the sun&go! "a!e lo#e to as "any !an&"ai!ens as there are !ays in the

year,1F4 like the king in ouys' ro"ance ith his E22 i#es, one for

each !ay of the year, lea%&year inclu!e!.

9urther eIa"%les of the solar theory nee! not be cite!. 6t is enough to

see in Cuchulainn the i!eal arrior, hose traits are bo"bastic an!

obscure eIaggerations of actual custo" an! arfare, or are borroe! fro"

folk&tale K"otifsK not eIclusi#ely Celtic. Possibly he "ay ha#e been a

ar&go!, since he is associate! ith Ba!b1F*4 an! also ith Morrigan.

But he has also so"e traits of a culture hero. :e clai"s su%eriority in

is!o", in la, in %olitics, in the art of the K9ili!K, an! in )rui!is",hile he brings #arious things fro" the orl! of the go!s1F+4. 6n any

case the Celts %ai! !i#ine honours to heroes, li#ing or !ea!,1FE4 an!

Cuchulainn, go! or i!eal hero, "ay ha#e been the subject of a cult. This

len!s %oint to the theory of M. )'Arbois that Cuchulainn an! Conall

Cernach are the eLui#alents of Castor an! PolluI, the )ioscuri, sai! by

)io!orus to be orshi%%e! a"ong the Celts near the 8cean.1F14

Cuchulainn, like PolluI, as son of a go!, an! as nurse!, accor!ing to

so"e accounts, by 9in!choe", "other of Conall,1F-4 just as e!a as

"other of Castor as ell as of PolluI. But, on the other han!,

Cuchulainn, unlike PolluI, as "ortal. M. )'Arbois then i!entifies the

to %airs of heroes ith certain figures on an altar at Cluny. These areCastor an! PolluI Cernunnos an! 5"ertullos. :e eLuates Castor ith

Cernunnos, an! PolluI ith 5"ertullos. 5"ertullos is Cuchulainn, an! the

na"e is eI%laine! fro" an inci!ent in the KTainK, in hich the hero,

re%roache! for his youth, %uts on a false bear! before attacking

Morrigan in her for" as an eel. This is eI%resse! by Ks"erthainK, to

attach, an! is thus connecte! ith an! ga#e rise to the na"e

5"ertullos. 8n the altar 5"ertullos is attacking an eel or ser%ent.

:ence PolluI is 5"ertullos&Cuchulainn.1F24 Again, the na"e Cernunnos

signifies the horne! one, fro" KcernuK, horn, a or! foun! in

Conall's e%ithet Cernach. But this as not gi#en hi" because he as

horne!, but because of the angular sha%e of his hea!, the angle >KcernK@being the result of a blo.1F34 The e%ithet "ay "ean #ictorious.1FF4

8n the hole, the theory is "ore ingenious than con#incing, an! e ha#e

no %roof that the figures of Castor an! PolluI on the altar ere

!u%licates of the Celtic %air. Cernunnos as an un!erorl! go!, an!

Conall has no trace of such a character.

M. )'Arbois also traces the saga in Gaul in the fact that on the "enhir

of =er#a!el Mercury is figure! ith a chil!, Mercury, in his o%inion,



being ug, an! the chil! Cuchulainn.1F4 8n another altar are !e%icte!

>*@ a oo!"an, /sus, cutting !on a tree, an! >+@ a bull on hich are

%erche! three bir!s&&Tar#os Trigaranos. The to subjects, as M. Reinach

%oints out, are co"bine! on another altar at Tre#es, on hich a oo!"an

is cutting !on a tree in hich are %erche! three bir!s, hile a bull's

hea! a%%ears in the branches.14 These re%resent, accor!ing to M.

)'Arbois, inci!ents of the KTainK&&the cutting !on of trees by

Cuchulainn an! %lacing the" in the ay of his ene"ies, an! the arning

of the bull by Morrigan in the bir! for" hich she share! ith her

sisters Ba!b an! Macha.1*4 ?hy, then, is Cuchulainn calle! /susS

/sus co"es fro" a root hich gi#es or!s "eaning ra%i! "otion,

anger, strength&&all shon by the hero.1+4 The altars ere foun!

in the lan! of the Belgic Tre#eri, an! so"e Belgic tribes "ay ha#e

%asse! into Britain an! 6relan! carrying the /sus&Cuchulainn legen!

there in the secon! century B.C., e.g. the 5etantii, !elling by the

Mersey, an! bearing a na"e si"ilar to that of the hero in his

chil!hoo!&&5etanta >K5etantiosK@ as ell as the Mena%ii an! Brigantes,

locate! in 6relan! by Ptole"y.1E4 6n other or!s, the !i#ine /sus,

ith his surna"e 5"ertullos, as calle! in 6relan! 5etanta, after the5etantii, an! at a later !ate, Cuchulainn. The %rincely na"e )onnotaurus

rese"bles K)on! tarbK, the Bron Bull of the saga, an! also suggests

its %resence in Gaul, hile the na"e Greek( !eiotaros4, %erha%s the

eLui#alent of K)eu4io&taruosK, )i#ine Bull, is foun! in

Galatia.114 Thus the "ain ele"ents of the saga "ay ha#e been knon to

the continental Celts before it as localise! in 6relan!,1-4 an!, it

"ay be a!!e!, if it as brought there by Gallo&British tribes, this

"ight account for the greater %o%ularity of the nati#e, %ossibly

%re&Celtic, 9ionn saga a"ong the folk, as ell as for the finer literary

Luality of the Cuchulainn saga. But the i!entification of /sus ith

Cuchulainn rests on slight groun!s the na"es /sus an! 5"ertullos arenot foun! in 6relan!, an! the Gaulish /sus, orshi%%e! ith hu"an

sacrifice, has little affinity ith the hero, unless his !ee!s of

slaughter are re"iniscent of such rites. 6t is %ossible, hoe#er, that

the e%iso!e of the KTainK ca"e fro" a "yth eI%laining ritual acts. This

"yth "ay ha#e been the subject of the bas&reliefs, carrie! to 6relan!,

an! there orke! into the saga.

The folk&#ersions of the saga, though rese"bling the literary #ersions,

are less elaborate an! generally il!er, an! %erha%s re%resent its

%ri"iti#e for".124 The greatest !ifferences are foun! in #ersions of

the KTainK an! of Cuchulainn's !eath, hich, se%arate in the saga, are%arts of one folk&tale, the !eath occurring !uring the fighting o#er the

bull. The bull is his %ro%erty, an! Me!b sen!s Garbh "ac 5tairn to take

it fro" hi". :e %reten!s to be a chil!, goes to be!, an! tricks Garbh,

ho goes off to get the bull. Cuchulainn arri#es before hi" an!

%ersonates the her!s"an. /ach seiHes a horn, an! the bull is torn in

to.134 )oes this re%resent the %ri"iti#e for" of the KTainK, an!,

further, ere the bull an! Cuchulainn once one an! the sa"e&&a bull, the

incarnation of a go! or #egetation s%irit, being later "a!e



Cuchulainn saga as intro!uce! by conLuerors fro" Britain or Gaul, it

oul! not be looke! on ith fa#our by the folk. 8r if it is the saga of

;lster as o%%ose! to that of einster, ri#alry oul! again ensue. The

9ionn saga li#es "ore in the hearts of the %eo%le, though it so"eti"es

borros fro" the other. This borroing, hoe#er, is less than so"e

critics, e.g. i""er, "aintain. Many of the likenesses are the result of

the fact that here#er a hero eIists a co""on stock of inci!ents beco"es

his. :ence there is "uch si"ilarity in all sagas here#er foun!.

988T<8T/5(

1-E4 K6TK i. *E1 <utt&Meyer, ii. EF f. ?in!isch, KTainK, E1+ .

)u#au, a egen!e !e la Conce%tion !e Cuchulainn, KRCK iI. * f.

1-14 ?in!isch, KTainK, **F f. 9or a si"ilar reason 9inncha! as calle!

Cu Cerca, the houn! of Cerc >K6TK iii. E33@.

1--4 9or the boyish eI%loits, see ?in!isch, KTainK, *2 f.

1-24 KRCK #ii. ++- ?in!isch, KTainK, +. Macha is a gran!!aughter of

er, but elsehere she is calle! Mi!er's !aughter >KRCK I#i. 12@.

1-34 Rhy4s, KC9K ii. 2-1 ?ester"arck, K:ist. of :u"an MarriageK,

ch. +.

1-F4 Miss :ull, K9olk&oreK, Iii. 2, citing instances fro" Je#ons,

K:ist. of ReligionK, 2-.

1-4 ?in!isch, K6TK ii. +E.

124 ?in!isch, *F1, E*+, EE cf. K6TK iii. E-- Miss :ull, *21 f.

Rhy4s, K:K 12F.

12*4 KK **KaK KRCK iii. *3-.

12+4 ?in!isch, E1+.

12E4 KRCK iii. *3- f.

1214 6bi!. *F-.

12-4 Croe, KJour. =ilkenny Arch. 5oc.K *F3&*F3*, E3* f.

1224 KK 3KaK 8'Curry, KM5. MatK, 21.

1234 KK *+-KaK. 5ee "y KChil!hoo! of fictionK, ch. *1.

12F4 Miss :ull, lII#i.



124 )a )erga's :ostel, KRCK IIii. +FE Rhy4s, K:K 1EF.

134 KK 2FKaK Rhy4s, 1E3 6ngcel the one&eye! has also "any %u%ils

>KRCK IIii. -F@.

13*4 Miss :ull, lIiii.

13+4 KRCK #iii. 1.

13E4 KK 33KbK Miss :ull, lIii.

1314 8ther Celtic heroes un!ergo this !istortion, hich rese"bles the

5can!ina#ian arrior rage folloe! by languor, as in the case of

Cuchulainn.

13-4 Miss :ull, %. lI#i.

1324 6rish saints, stan!ing neck !ee% in freeHing ater, "a!e it hot.

1334 K6TK i. +2F )'Arbois, #. *E Miss :ull, lI#i.

13F4 K:K 11F.

134 5ee Meyer, KRC IiK. 1E- ?in!isch, K6TK i. -F, 31. Though

KrichisK "eans charcoal, it is also glosse! fla"e, hence it coul!

only be gloing charcoal, ithout any i!ea of !arkness.

1F4 K:K 1-F.

1F*4 K6TK i. *3.

1F+4 KArch. Re#.K i. * f. K6TK i. +*E see %. EF*, KinfraK.

1FE4 5ee %. *21, KinfraK.

1F14 )io!. 5iculus, i#. -2.

1F-4 K6TK iii. EE.

1F24 Kes CeltesK, -F f. 9or"erly M. )'Arbois i!entifie! 5"ertullos

ith ug, ii. +*3 :ol!er, i. 12, +2+. 9or the inci!ent of the bear!,see ?in!isch, KTainK, EF.

1F34 K6TK iii. E-.

1FF4 K6TK i. 1+.

1F4 KRCK II#ii. E* f.



14 KRCK I#iii. +-2.

1*4 Kes CeltesK, 2E KRCK IiI. +12.

1+4 )'Arbois, KRCK II. F.

1E4 )'Arbois, KRCK II#ii. E+* Kes CeltesK, 2-.

114 Kes CeltesK, 1 Caesar, #i. *1.

1-4 6n contra!iction to this, M. )'Arbois elsehere thinks that )rui!s

fro" Britain "ay ha#e taught the Cuchulainn legen! in Gaul >KRCK II#ii.

E*@.

124 5ee #ersions in KBook of the )ean of is"oreK KCMK Iiii.

Ca"%bell, KThe 9iansK, 2 f.

134 KCMK Iiii. E+3, -*1. The sa"e story is tol! of 9ionn, Kibi!.K -*+.

5ee also balla! #ersions in Ca"%bell, K9K E f.

1F4 5ee %. +*+, KinfraK.

14 A Galatian king as calle! Brogitaros, %robably a for" of

KBrogitaruosK, bull of the %ro#ince, a title borne by Conchobar, Ktarb

in choici!K >K6TK i. 3+@. This ith the e%ithets a%%lie! to heroes in

the KTria!sK, bull&%hanto", %rince bull of co"bat >oth, ii. +E+,

+1E@, "ay be an a%%ellati#e !enoting great strength.

-4 K6TK ii. +1* f. )'Arbois, Kes )rui!esK, *2F.

-*4 Miss :ull, -F.

-+4 5ee %. +*+, KinfraK.

-E4 5ee %. +F, KinfraK.

-14 9itHgeral!, KRCK #i. +-1.

--4 5ee %. +1E, KinfraK.

C:APT/R 666.

T:/ 968<< 5AGA.

The "ost %ro"inent characters in the 9ionn saga, after the !eath of



9ionn's father Cu"al, are 9ionn, his son 8isin, his gran!son 8scar, his

ne%he )iar"ai! ith his Kball&seireK, or beauty&s%ot, hich no o"an

coul! resist 9ergus fa"e! for is!o" an! eloLuence Caoilte "ac Ronan,

the sift Conan, the co"ic character of the saga Goll "ac Morna, the

slayer of Cu"al, but later the !e#ote! frien! of 9ionn, besi!es a host

of less i"%ortant %ersonages. Their !oings, like those of the heroes of

saga an! e%os e#eryhere, are "ainly hunting, fighting, an! lo#e&"aking.

They e"bo!y "uch of the Celtic character&&#i#acity, #alour, kin!ness,

ten!erness, as ell as boastfulness an! fiery te"%er. Though !ating fro"

%agan ti"es, the saga thros little light u%on %agan beliefs, but

re#eals "uch concerning the "anners of the %erio!. :ere, as alays in

early Celt!o", o"an is "ore than a "ere chattel, an! occu%ies a

co"%arati#ely high %lace. The #arious %arts of the saga, like those of

the 9innish K=ale#alaK, alays eIiste! se%arately, ne#er as one co"%lete

e%os, though alays bearing a certain relation to each other. onnrot,

in 9inlan!, as able, by a!!ing a fe connecting links of his on, to

gi#e unity to the K=ale#alaK, an! ha! MacPherson been content to !o this

for the 9ionn saga, instea! of in#enting, transfor"ing, an! ser#ing u%

the hole in the "anner of the senti"ental eighteenth century, hat aboon oul! he ha#e conferre! on Celtic literature. The #arious %arts of

the saga belong to !ifferent centuries an! co"e fro" !ifferent authors,

all, hoe#er, i"bue! ith the s%irit of the 9ionn tra!ition.

A !ate cannot be gi#en to the beginnings of the saga, an! a!!itions ha#e

been "a!e to it e#en !on to the eighteenth century, Michael Co"yn's

%oe" of 8isin in Tir na n&8g being as genuine a %art of it as any of the

earlier %ieces. 6ts contents are in %art ritten, but "uch "ore oral.

Much of it is in %rose, an! there is a large %oetic literature of the

balla! kin!, as ell as KMaerchenK of the uni#ersal stock "a!e %urely

Celtic, ith 9ionn an! the rest of the heroic ban! as %rotagonists. Thesaga e"bo!ies Celtic i!eals an! ho%es it as the literature of the

Celtic folk on hich as s%ent all the riches of the Celtic i"agination

a orl! of !rea" an! fancy into hich they coul! enter at all ti"es an!

!is%ort the"sel#es. $et, in s%ite of its i""ense #ariety, the saga

%reser#es a certain unity, an! it is %ro#i!e! ith a !efinite fra"eork,

recounting the origin of the heroes, the great e#ents in hich they ere

concerne!, their !eaths or final a%%earances, an! the breaking u% of the

9ionn ban!.

The historic #ie of the 9ians is taken by the annalists, by =eating,

8'Curry, )r. Joyce, an! )r. )ouglas :y!e.-24 Accor!ing to this #ie,they ere a s%ecies of "ilitia "aintaine! by the 6rish kings for the

su%%ort of the throne an! the !efence of the country. 9ro" 5a"hain to

Beltane they ere Luartere! on the %eo%le, an! fro" Beltane to 5a"hain

they li#e! by hunting. :o far the %eo%le elco"e! this billeting, e

are not tol!. Their "etho! of cooking the ga"e hich they hunte! as one

ell knon to all %ri"iti#e %eo%les. :oles ere !ug in the groun! in

the" re!&hot stones ere %lace!, an! on the stones as lai! #enison

ra%%e! in se!ge. All as then co#ere! o#er, an! in !ue ti"e the "eat



as !one to a turn. Meanhile the heroes engage! in an elaborate

toilette before sitting !on to eat. Their be!s ere co"%ose! of

alternate layers of brushoo!, "oss, an! rushes. The 9ians ere !i#i!e!

into KCathaK of three thousan! "en, each ith its co""an!er, an!

officers to each hun!re!, each fifty, an! each nine, a syste" not unlike

that of the ancient Peru#ians. /ach can!i!ate for a!"ission to the ban!

ha! to un!ergo the "ost trying or!eals, ri#alling in se#erity those of

the A"erican 6n!ians, an! not i"%robably genuine though eIaggerate!

re"iniscences of actual tests of en!urance an! agility. 8nce a!"itte! he

ha! to obser#e certain KgeasaK or tabus, e.g. not to choose his ife

for her !ory like other Celts, but solely for her goo! "anners, not to

offer #iolence to a o"an, not to flee hen attacke! before less than

nine arriors, an! the like.

All this "ay re%resent so"e genuine tra!ition ith res%ect to a arrior

ban!, ith "any eIaggerations in !etails an! nu"bers. 5o"e of its

outstan!ing heroes "ay ha#e ha! na"es !eri#e! fro" or corres%on!ing to

those of the heroes of an eIisting saga. But as ti"e ent on they beca"e

as unhistorical as their i!eal %rototy%es roun! their na"escrystallise! floating "yths an! tales things hich ha! been tol! of the

saga heroes ere tol! of the" their na"es ere gi#en to the %ersonages

of eIisting folk&tales. This "ight eI%lain the great !i#ergence beteen

the historical an! the ro"antic as%ects of the saga as it no eIists.

$et e cannot fail to see that hat is clai"e! as historical is full of

eIaggeration, an!, in s%ite of the %lea!ing of )r. :y!e an! other

%atriots, little historic fact can be foun! in it. /#en if this eIists,

it is the least i"%ortant %art of the saga. ?hat is i"%ortant is that

%art&&nine&tenths of the hole&&hich is not true because it cannot be

true. 6t belongs to the region of the su%ernatural an! the unreal. But

%ersonages, nine&tenths of hose actions belong to this region, "ustbear the sa"e character the"sel#es, an! for that reason are all the "ore

interesting, es%ecially hen e re"e"ber that the Celts fir"ly belie#e!

in the" an! in their eI%loits. A 9ionn "yth arose as all "yths !o,

increasing as ti"e ent on, an! the historical nucleus, if it e#er

eIiste!, as sa"%e! an! lost. Throughout the saga the 9ians are "ore

than "ere "ortals, e#en in those #ery %arts hich are clai"e! as

historical. They are giants their story bristles ith the

su%ernatural they are the i!eal figures of Celtic legen! throing

their gigantic sha!os u%on the !i" an! "isty backgroun! of the %ast. ?e

"ust therefore be content to assu"e that hether %ersonages calle!

9ionn, 8isin, )iar"ai!, or Conan, e#er eIiste!, hat e kno of the" nois %urely "ythical.

Bearing in "in! that they are the cherishe! heroes of %o%ular fancy in

6relan! an! the 5cottish :ighlan!s, e ha#e no to inLuire hether they

ere Celtic in origin. ?e ha#e seen that the Celts ere a conLuering

%eo%le in 6relan!, bringing ith the" their on religion an! "ythology,

their on sagas an! tales reflecte! no in the "ythological an!

Cuchulainn cycles, hich foun! a local habitation in 6relan!. Cuchulainn



as the hero of a saga hich flourishe! "ore a"ong the aristocratic an!

lettere! classes than a"ong the folk, an! there are fe %o%ular tales

about hi". But it is a"ong the folk that the 9ionn saga has alays been

%o%ular, an! for e#ery %easant ho coul! tell a story of Cuchulainn a

thousan! coul! tell one of 9ionn. ConLuerors often a!o%t beliefs,

tra!itions, an! custo"s of the aboriginal folk, after hostilities ha#e

cease!, an! if the %re&Celtic %eo%le ha! a %o%ular hero an! a saga

concerning hi", it is %ossible that in ti"e it as acce%te! by the Celts

or by the loer classes a"ong the". But in the %rocess it "ust ha#e been

co"%letely Celticise!, like the aborigines the"sel#es to its heroes

ere gi#en Celtic na"es, or they "ay ha#e been associate! ith eIisting

Celtic %ersonages like Cu"al, an! the hole saga as in ti"e a!a%te! to

the conce%tions an! legen!ary history of the Celts. Thus e "ight

account for the fact that it has so largely re"aine! ithout a!"iIture

ith the "ythological an! Cuchulainn cycles, though its heroes are

brought into relation ith the ol!er go!s. Thus also e "ight account

for its %o%ularity as co"%are! ith the Cuchulainn saga a"ong the

%easantry in hose #eins "ust flo so "uch of the aboriginal bloo! both

in 6relan! an! the :ighlan!s. 6n other or!s, it as the saga of anon&Celtic %eo%le occu%ying both 6relan! an! 5cotlan!. 6f Celts fro"

?estern /uro%e occu%ie! the est of 5cotlan! at an early !ate, they "ay

ha#e been so fe in nu"ber that their on saga or sagas !ie! out. 8r if

the Celtic occu%ation of the ?est :ighlan!s originate! first fro"

6relan!, the 6rish "ay ha#e been unable to i"%ose their Cuchulainn saga

there, or if they the"sel#es ha! alrea!y a!o%te! the 9ionn saga an!

foun! it again in the :ighlan!s, they oul! but be the "ore attache! to

hat as alrea!y localise! there. This oul! cut the groun! fro" the

theory that the 9ionn saga as brought to 5cotlan! fro" 6relan!, an! it

oul! account for its %o%ularity in the :ighlan!s, as ell as for the

fact that "any 9ionn stories are attache! to :ighlan! as ell as to6rish localities, hile "any %lace&na"es in both countries ha#e a 9ian

origin. 9inally, the theory oul! eI%lain the eIistence of so "any

KMaerchenK about 9ionn an! his "en, so fe about Cuchulainn.

Returning to the theory of the historic as%ect of the 9ians, it shoul!

be note! that, hile, hen seen through the eyes of the annalists, the

saga belongs to a !efinite historical %erio!, hen #iee! by itself it

belongs to a "ythic age, an! though the 9ians are regar!e! as cha"%ions

of 6relan!, their foes are usually of a su%ernatural kin!, an! they

the"sel#es "o#e in a "agic at"os%here. They are also brought into

connection ith the unhistoric Tuatha )e )anann they fight ith the" orfor the" they ha#e a"ours ith or e! their o"en an! so"e of the go!s

e#en beco"e "e"bers of the 9ian ban!. )iar"ai! as the !arling of the

go!s 8engus an! Manannan, an! in his !irest straits as assiste! by the

for"er. 6n all this e are in the on!erlan! of "yth, not the Kterra

fir"aK of history. There is a certain rese"blance beteen the Cuchulainn

an! 9ionn sagas, but no "ore than that hich obtains beteen all sagas

e#eryhere. Both contain si"ilar inci!ents, but these are the stock

e%iso!es of uni#ersal saga belief, fitte! to the %ersonages of



in!i#i!ual sagas. :ence e nee! not su%%ose ith Professor ?in!isch that

the "ythic inci!ents of the 9ionn saga are !eri#e! fro" the Cuchulainn

cycle.

The %ersonages against ho" 9ionn an! his "en fight sho the "ythic

nature of the saga. As cha"%ions of einster they fight the "en of

;lster an! Connaught, but they also ar against o#ersea in#a!ers&&the

ochlanners. ?hile ochlann "ay "ean any lan! beyon! the sea, like the

?elsh KlychlynK it %robably "eant the fabulous lan! beneath the lakes

or the a#es of the sea, or si"%ly the abo!e of hostile, su%ernatural

beings. ochlanners oul! thus be counter%arts of the 9o"orians, an! the

conflicts of the 9ians ith the" oul! reflect ol! "yths. But ith the

<orse in#asions, the <orse"en beca"e the true ochlanners, against ho"

9ionn an! his "en fight as Charle"agne fought Muha""a!ans&&a sheer

i"%ossibility. Professor i""er, hoe#er, su%%oses that the 9ionn saga

took sha%e !uring the <orse occu%ation fro" the ninth century onar!s.

9ionn is half <orse, half 6rish, an! eLui#alent to Caittil 9in!, ho

co""an!e! the a%ostate 6rish in the ninth century, hile 8isin an! 8scar

are the <orse As#in an! Asgeirr. But it is !ifficult to un!erstan! hyone ho as half a <orse"an shoul! beco"e the chosen hero of the Celts

in the #ery age in hich <orse"en ere their bitter ene"ies, an! hy

9ionn, if of <orse origin, fights against ochlanners, i.e. <orse"en. 6t

"ay also be inLuire! hy the borroing shoul! ha#e affecte! the saga

only, not the "yths of the go!s. <o other Celtic scholar has gi#en the

slightest su%%ort to this brilliant but au!acious theory. 8n the other

han!, if the saga has <orse affinities, an! if it is, in origin,

%re&Celtic, these "ay be sought in an earlier connection of 6relan! ith

5can!ina#ia in the early BronHe Age. 6relan! ha! a flourishing

ci#ilisation then, an! eI%orte! beautiful gol! orna"ents to 5can!ina#ia,

here they are still foun! in BronHe Age !e%osits.-34 This flourishingci#ilisation as o#erhel"e! by the in#asion of the Celtic barbarians.

But if the 5can!ina#ians borroe! gol! an! artistic !ecorations fro"

6relan!, an! if the 9ionn saga or %art of it as alrea!y in eIistence,

hy shoul! they not ha#e borroe! so"e of its inci!ents, or hy, on the

other han!, shoul! not so"e e%iso!es ha#e foun! their ay fro" the north

to 6relan!S ?e shoul! also consi!er, hoe#er, that si"ilar inci!ents "ay

ha#e been e#ol#e! in both countries on si"ilar lines an! Luite

in!e%en!ently.

The #arious contents of the saga can only be allu!e! to in the briefest

"anner. 9ionn's birth&story belongs to the ell&knon /I%ulsion an!Return for"ula, a%%lie! to so "any heroes of saga an! folk&tale, but

highly elaborate! in his case at the han!s of the annalists. Thus his

father Cu"al, uncle of Conn the :un!re! 9ighter, *++&*-3 A.)., ishe! to

e! Muirne, !aughter of Conn's chief !rui!, Ta!g. Ta!g refuse!, knoing

that through this "arriage he oul! lose his ancestral seat. Cu"al

seiHe! Muirne an! "arrie! her, an! the king, on Ta!g's a%%eal, sent an

ar"y against hi". Cu"al as slain Muirne fle! to his sister, an! ga#e

birth to )e"ni, afterar!s knon as 9ionn. Perha%s in accor!ance ith



ol! "atriarchal usage, 9ionn's !escent through his "other is e"%hasise!,

hile he is relate! to the ancient go!s, Ta!g being son of <ua!a. This

at once %oints to the "ythical as%ect of the saga. Cu"al "ay be

i!entical ith the go! Ca"ulos. 6n a short ti"e, 9ionn, no a "arau!er

an! an outla, a%%eare! at Conn's Court, an! that sa"e night sle one of

the Tuatha )ea, ho ca"e yearly an! !estroye! the %alace. 9or this he

recei#e! his rightful heritage&&the lea!ershi% of the 9ians, for"erly

co""an!e! by Cu"al.-F4 Another inci!ent of 9ionn's youth tells ho he

obtaine! his thu"b of knole!ge. The eating of certain sal"on of

knole!ge as belie#e! to gi#e ins%iration, an i!ea %erha%s !eri#e!

fro" earlier tote"istic beliefs. The bar! 9inneces, ha#ing caught one of

the co#ete! sal"on, set his %u%il 9ionn to cook it, forbi!!ing hi" to

taste it. But as he as turning the fish 9ionn burnt his thu"b an!

thrust it into his "outh, thus recei#ing the gift of ins%iration.

:ereafter he ha! only to suck his thu"b in or!er to obtain secret

infor"ation.-4 6n another story the ins%iration is alrea!y in his

thu"b, as 5a"son's strength as in his hair, but the %oer is also

%artly in his tooth, un!er hich, after ritual %re%aration, he has to

%lace his thu"b an! che it.-*4

9ionn ha! "any i#es an! seethearts, one of the", 5aar, being "other of

8isin. 5aar as turne! into a fan by a )rui!, an! fle! fro" 9ionn's

house. ong after he foun! a beast&chil! in the forest an! recognise!

hi" as his son. :e nourishe! hi" until his beast nature !isa%%eare!, an!

calle! hi" 8isin, little fan. Roun! this birth legen! "any stories

s%rang u%&&a sure sign of its %o%ularity.-**4 8isin's fa"e as a %oet

far eIcelle! that of 9ionn, an! he beca"e the i!eal bar! of the Gaels.

By far the "ost %assionate an! tragic story of the saga is that of

)iar"ai! an! Grainne, to ho" 9ionn as betrothe!. Grainne %ut KgeasaKu%on )iar"ai! to elo%e ith her, an! these he coul! not break. They

fle!, an! for "any !ays ere %ursue! by 9ionn, ho at last o#ertook

the", but as force! by the 9ians to %ar!on the belo#e! hero. Meanhile

9ionn aite! for his re#enge. =noing that it as one of )iar"ai!'s

KgeasaK ne#er to hunt a il! boar, he in#ite! hi" to the chase of the

boar of Gulban. )iar"ai! sle it, an! 9ionn then ba!e hi" "easure its

length ith his foot. A bristle %ierce! his heel, an! he fell !on in

agony, beseeching 9ionn to bring hi" ater in his han!, for if he !i!

this he oul! heal hi". 6n s%ite of re%eate! a%%eals, 9ionn, after

bringing the ater, let it !ri% fro" his han!s. )iar"ai!'s bra#e soul

%asse! aay, an! on 9ionn's character this !ire blot as fiIe! fore#er.-*+4

8ther tales relate ho se#eral of the 9ians ere s%irite! aay to the

an! beyon! the 5eas, ho they ere rescue!, ho )iar"ai! ent to an!

un!er ?a#es, an! ho 9ionn an! his "en ere entra%%e! in a 9airy Palace.

8f greater i"%ortance are those hich tell the en! of the 9ian ban!.

This, accor!ing to the annalists, as the result of their eIactions an!

!e"an!s. 9ionn as tol! by his ife, a ise o"an, ne#er to !rink out of



a horn, but co"ing one !ay thirsty to a ell, he forgot this tabu, an!

so brought the en! near. :e encountere! the sons of ;irgrenn, ho" he

ha! slain, an! in the fight ith the" he fell.-*E4 5oon after ere

fought se#eral battles, cul"inating in that of Gabhra in hich all but a

fe 9ians %erishe!. A"ong the sur#i#ors ere 8isin an! Caoilte, ho

lingere! on until the co"ing of 5. Patrick. Caoilte re"aine! on earth,

but 8isin, hose "other as of the Ksi!K folk, ent to fairylan! for a

ti"e, ulti"ately returning an! joining 5. Patrick's co"%any.-*14 But a

!ifferent #ersion is gi#en in the eighteenth century %oe" of Michael

Co"yn, un!oubte!ly base! on %o%ular tales. 8isin "et the ueen of Tir na

n&8g an! ent ith her to fairylan!, here ti"e %asse! as a !rea" until

one !ay he stoo! on a stone against hich she ha! arne! hi". :e sa his

nati#e lan! an! as fille! ith ho"e&sickness. The Lueen trie! to

!issua!e hi", but in #ain. Then she ga#e hi" a horse, arning hi" not to

set foot on 6rish soil. :e ca"e to 6relan! an! foun! it all change!.

5o"e %uny %eo%le ere trying in #ain to raise a great stone, an! begge!

the huge stranger to hel% the". :e s%rang fro" his horse an! flung the

stone fro" its resting&%lace. But hen he turne!, his horse as gone,

an! he ha! beco"e a !ecre%it ol! "an. 5oon after he "et 5. Patrick an!relate! the tale to hi".

8f "ost of the tales %reser#e! in telfth to fifteenth century M55. it

"ay be sai! that in essence they co"e !on to us fro" a re"ote

antiLuity, like stars %ulsing their clear light out of the hi!!en !e%ths

of s%ace. Many of the" eIist as folk&tales, often il! an! eir! in

for", hile so"e folk&tales ha#e no literary %arallels. 5o"e are

KMaerchenK ith "e"bers of the 9ian ban! as heroes, an! of these there

are "any /uro%ean %arallels. But it is not unlikely that, as in the case

of the Cuchulainn cycle, the folk #ersions "ay be truer to the original

for"s of the saga than the roun!e! an! %olishe! literary #ersions.?hate#er the 9ians ere in origin&&go!s, "ythic heroes, or actual

%ersonages&&it is %robable that a short K:el!ensageK as for"e! in early

ti"es. This sloly eI%an!e!, ne tales ere a!!e!, an! eIisting

KMaerchenK for"ulae ere freely "a!e use of by "aking their heroes the

heroes of the saga. Then ca"e the ti"e hen "any of the tales ere

ritten !on, hile later they ere a!a%te! to a sche"e of 6rish

history, the heroes beco"ing arriors of a !efinite historic %erio!, or

%erha%s connecte! ith such arriors. But these heroes belonge! to a

ti"eless orl!, hose "argins are the shore of ol! ro"ance, an! it as

as if they, ho ere not for an age but for all ti"e, scorne! to beco"e

the %u%%ets of the %age of history.

The earliest e#i!ence of the attitu!e of the ecclesiastical orl! to

these heroes is foun! in the KAgalla"h na 5enorachK, or ColloLuy of the

Ancients.-*-4 This "ay ha#e been co"%ose! in the thirteenth century,

an! its author kne scores of 9ionn legen!s. Making use of the tra!ition

that Caoilte an! 8isin ha! "et 5. Patrick, he "akes Caoilte relate "any

of the tales, usually in connection ith so"e %lace&na"e of 9ian origin.

The saint an! his folloers are a"aHe! at the huge stature of the 9ians,



but Patrick as%erges the" ith holy ater, an! hosts of !e"ons flee fro"

the". At each tale hich Caoilte tells, the saint says, 5uccess an!

bene!iction, Caoilte. All this is to us a recreation of s%irit an! of

"in!, ere it only not a !estruction of !e#otion an! a !ereliction of

%rayer. But %resently his guar!ian angel a%%ears, an! bi!s hi" not only

listen to the tales but cause the" to be ritten !on. :e an! his

atten!ant clerics no len! a illing ear to the recital an! encourage

the narrator ith their a%%lause. 9inally, ba%tis" is a!"inistere! to

Caoilte an! his "en, an! by Patrick's intercessions Caoilte's relations

an! 9ionn hi"self are brought out of hell. 6n this ork the

re%resentati#es of %aganis" are shon to be on ter"s of frien!liness

ith the re%resentati#es of Christianity.

But in :ighlan! balla!s collecte! in the siIteenth century by the )ean

of is"ore, as ell as in 6rish balla!s foun! in M55. !ating fro" the

se#enteenth century onar!s, the saint is a sour an! intolerant cleric,

an! the 9ians are eLually intolerant an! blas%he"ous %agans. There is no

atte"%t at co"%ro"ise the saint rejoices that the 9ian ban! are in

hell, an! 8isin thros conte"%t on the Go! of the sha#en %riests. Butso"eti"es this conte"%t is "ingle! ith hu"our an! %athos. ?ere the

heroes of 8isin's ban! no ali#e, scant ork oul! be "a!e of the "onks'

bells, books, an! %sal"&singing. 6t is true that the saint gi#es the

eary ol! "an hos%itality, but 8isin's eyes are blin!e! ith tears as he

thinks of the !e%arte! glories of the 9ians, an! his ears are tor"ente!

by jangling bells, !roning %sal"s, an! holing clerics. These balla!s

%robably re%resent one "ain as%ect of the attitu!e of the Church to

Celtic %aganis". :o, then, !i! the "ore generous KColloLuyK co"e into

beingS ?e "ust note first that so"e of the balla!s ha#e a "il!er tone.

8isin is urge! to acce%t the faith, an! he %rays for sal#ation. Probably

these re%resent the beginning of a reaction in fa#our of the ol! heroes,!ating fro" a ti"e hen the faith as ell establishe!. There as no

!anger of a %agan re#i#al, an!, %ro#i!e! the 9ians ere Christianise!,

it "ight be legiti"ate to re%resent the" as heroic an! noble. The

KColloLuyK oul! re%resent the high&ater "ark of this reaction a"ong

the lettere! classes, for a"ong the folk, to ju!ge by %o%ular tales, the

9ians ha! ne#er been regar!e! in other than a fa#ourable light. The

KColloLuyK re&establishe! the !ignity of the 9ian ban! in the eyes of

official Christianity. They are ba%tiHe! or release! fro" hell, an! in

their on nature they are #irtuous an! follo lofty i!eals. ?ho or hat

as it that "aintaine! you in lifeS asks Patrick. An! Caoilte gi#es the

noble re%ly, Truth that as in our hearts, an! strength in our ar"s,an! fulfil"ent in our tongues. Patrick says of 9ionn( :e as a king, a

seer, a %oet, a lor! ith a "anifol! an! great train our "agician, our

knole!geable one, our soothsayer all hatsoe#er he sai! as seet ith

hi". /Icessi#e, %erchance, as ye !ee" "y testi"ony of 9ionn, although ye

hol! that hich 6 say to be o#erstraine!, ne#ertheless, an! by the =ing

that is abo#e "e, he as three ti"es better still. <ot only so, but

Caoilte "aintains that 9ionn an! his "en ere aare of the eIistence of

the true Go!. They %ossesse! the Kani"a naturaliter ChristianaK. The



groing a%%reciation of a i!er outlook on life, an! %ossibly

acLuaintance ith the ro"ances of chi#alry, "a!e the co"%osition of the

KColloLuyK %ossible, but, again, it "ay re%resent a "ore generous

conce%tion of %aganis" eIisting fro" the ti"e of the first encounter of

Christianity ith it in 6relan!.

The strife of cree!s in 6relan!, the ol! or!er changing, gi#ing %lace to

ne, ha! e#i!ently i"%resse! itself on the "in!s of Celtic %oets an!

ro"ancers. 6t suggeste! itself to the" as %ro#i!ing an eIcellent

situation hence e constantly hear of the "eeting of go!s, !e"igo!s,

or heroes ith the saints of the ne era. 9reLuently they bo before the

Cross, they are ba%tiHe! an! recei#e the Christian #erity, as in the

KColloLuyK an! in so"e !ocu"ents of the Cuchulainn cycle. Probably no

other /uro%ean folk&literature so takes a!#antage of just this

situation, this "eeting of cree!s, one ol! an! rea!y to #anish aay, the

other ith all the buoyant freshness of youth.

?as MacPherson's a genuine Celtic e%ic unearthe! by hi" an! by no one

elseS <o "ortal eye sa#e his has e#er seen the original, but no one hoknos anything of the contents of the saga can !eny that "uch of his

ork is base! on "aterials collecte! by hi". :e kne so"e of the tales

an! balla!s current a"ong the folk, %ossibly also so"e of the 6rish M5.

#ersions. :e sa that there as a certain unity a"ong the", an! he sa

that it as %ossible to "ake it "ore e#i!ent still. :e fitte! the

floating inci!ents into an e%ic fra"eork, a!!ing, in#enting, altering,

an! "oul!ing the hole into an /nglish style of his on. ater he see"s

to ha#e translate! the hole into Gaelic. :e ga#e his #ersion to the

orl!, an! foun! hi"self fa"ous, but he ga#e it as the genuine

translation of a genuine Celtic e%ic. :ere as his craft here he as

the charlatan of genius. :is genius lay in %ro!ucing an e%ic hich%eo%le ere illing to rea!, an! in "aking the" belie#e it to be not his

ork but that of the Celtic heroic age. Any one can rite an e%ic, but

fe can rite one hich thousan!s ill rea!, hich "en like

Chateaubrian!, Goethe, <a%oleon, Byron, an! Coleri!ge ill a!"ire an!

lo#e, an! hich ill, as it ere, crystallise the as%irations of an age

eary ith classical for"alis". MacPherson intro!uce! his rea!ers to a

ne orl! of heroic !ee!s, ro"antic a!#enture, !eathless lo#e, eILuisite

senti"ents senti"entally eI%resse!. :e change! the rough arriors an!

beautiful but so"ehat unabashe! heroines of the saga into senti"ental

%ersonages, ho suite! the taste of an age %oise! beteen the beigge!

an! %o!ere! for"alis" of the eighteenth century, an! the outburst ofne i!eals hich as to follo. :is K8ssianK is a cross beteen Po%e's

K:o"erK an! Byron's KChil!e :arol!K. :is heroes an! heroines are not on

their nati#e heath, an! are uncertain hether to "ince an! strut ith

Po%e or to follo nature ith Rousseau's noble sa#ages an! 5aint

Pierre's Paul an! irginia. The ti"e has gone hen it as heresy to cast

!oubt u%on the genuineness of MacPherson's e%ic, but if any one is still

!oubtful, let hi" rea! it an! then turn to the eIisting #ersions,

balla!s, an! tales. :e ill fin! hi"self in a totally !ifferent



at"os%here, an! ill recognise in the latter the true e%ic note&&the

arrior's rage an! the arrior's generosity, !ire cruelty yet infinite

ten!erness, il! lust yet also true lo#e, a orl! of "agic

su%ernaturalis", but an eIact co%y of things as they ere in that

far&off age. The barbaris" of the ti"e is in these ol! tales&&!ee!s

hich "ake one shi#er, custo"s regar!ing the relations of the seIes no

foun! only a"ong sa#ages, social an! !o"estic arrange"ents hich are

so"ehat luri! an! !isgusting. An! yet, ithal, the note of bra#ery, of

%assion, of authentic life is there e are hel! in the gri% of genuine

"anhoo! an! o"anhoo!. MacPherson gi#es a %icture of the 8ssianic age as

he concei#e! it, an age of Celtic history that ne#er as on sea or

lan!. /#en his ghosts are un&Celtic, "isty an! unsubstantial %hantas"s,

unlike the e"bo!ie! Kre#enantsK of the saga hich are in agree"ent ith

the Celtic belief that the soul assu"e! a bo!y in the other orl!.

MacPherson "akes 9ionn in#ariably successful, but in the saga tales he

is often !efeate!. :e "ingles the Cuchulainn an! 8ssianic cycles, but

these, sa#e in a fe casual instances, are Luite !istinct in the ol!

literature. $et ha! not his %oe" been so great as it is, though so

un&Celtic, it coul! not ha#e influence! all /uro%ean literature. Butthose ho care for genuine Celtic literature, the %ro!uct of a %eo%le

ho lo#e! nature, ro"ance, !oughty !ee!s, the beauty of the orl!, the

"usic of the sea an! the bir!s, the "ountains, #alour in "en, beauty in

o"en, ill fin! all these in the saga, hether in its literary or its

%o%ular for"s. An! through it all soun!s the un!ertone of Celtic %athos

an! "elancholy, the !istant echo

8f ol! unha%%y, far&off things

An! battles long ago.

988T<8T/5(

-24 5ee Joyce, K8CRK 113.

-34 Montelius, Kes Te"%s PrehistoriLuesK, -3, *-* Reinach, KRCK IIi.

F.

-F4 The %o%ular #ersions of this early %art of the saga !iffer "uch in

!etail, but follo the "ain outlines in "uch the sa"e ay. 5ee Curtin,

K:T6K +1 Ca"%bell, K9K EE f. K?:TK iii. E1F.

-4 6n a i!es%rea! grou% of tales su%ernatural knole!ge is obtaine!by eating %art of so"e ani"al, usually a certain snake. 6n "any of these

tales the foo! is eaten by another %erson than he ho obtaine! it, as in

the case of 9ionn. Cf. the ?elsh story of Gion, %. **2, an! the

5can!ina#ian of 5igur!, an! other %arallels in Miss CoI, KCin!erellaK,

12 9raHer, KArch. Re#.K i. *3+ f. The story is thus a folk&tale

for"ula a%%lie! to 9ionn, !oubtless because it har"onise! ith Celtic or

%re&Celtic tote"istic i!eas. But it is base! on ancient i!eas regar!ing

the su%ernatural knole!ge %ossesse! by re%tiles or fish, an! a"ong



so"eti"es an inherent Luality so"eti"es it is the result of eating

i""ortal foo!&&Manannan's sine, Goibniu's feast of age an! his i""ortal

ale, or the a%%les of /lysiu". The stories telling of the !eaths of the

go!s in the annalists "ay be base! on ol! "yths in hich they ere sai!

to !ie, these "yths being connecte! ith ritual acts in hich the hu"an

re%resentati#es of go!s ere slain. 5uch rites ere an inherent %art of

Celtic religion. /lsehere the ritual of go!s like 8siris or A!onis,

base! on their functions as go!s of #egetation, as connecte! ith

elaborate "yths telling of their !eath an! re#i#al. 5o"ething akin to

this "ay ha#e occurre! a"ong the Celts.

The !i#inities often unite! ith "ortals. Go!!esses sought the lo#e of

heroes ho ere then so"eti"es nu"bere! a"ong the go!s, an! go!s ha!

a"ours ith the !aughters of "en.-*F4 9reLuently the heroes of the

sagas are chil!ren of a go! or go!!ess an! a "ortal,-*4 an! this

!i#ine %arentage as fir"ly belie#e! in by the Celts, since %ersonal

na"es for"e! of a !i#ine na"e an! K&genosK or K&gnatosK, born of, son

of, are foun! in inscri%tions o#er the hole Celtic area, or in Celtic

!ocu"ents&&Bo!uogenos, Ca"ulognata, etc. Those ho first bore thesena"es ere belie#e! to be of !i#ine !escent on one si!e. 5%irits of

nature or the ele"ents of nature %ersonifie! "ight also be %arents of

"ortals, as a na"e like Morgen, fro" KMorigenosK, 5on of the 5ea, an!

"any others suggest. 9or this an! for other reasons the go!s freLuently

interfere in hu"an affairs, assisting their chil!ren or their

fa#ourites. 8r, again, they seek the ai! of "ortals or of the heroes of

the sagas in their conflicts or in ti"e of !istress, as hen Morrigan

besought healing fro" Cuchulainn.

As in the case of early Greek an! Ro"an kings, Celtic kings ho bore

!i#ine na"es ere %robably belie#e! to be re%resentati#es orincarnations of go!s. Perha%s this eI%lains hy a chief of the Boii

calle! hi"self a go! an! as re#ere! after his !eath, an! hy the Gauls

so rea!ily acce%te! the !i#inity of Augustus. 6rish kings bear !i#ine

na"es, an! of these <ua!a occurs freLuently, one king, 6rel 9aith, being

i!entifie! ith <ua!a Airgetla", hile in one teIt Knua!atK is glosse!

Kin rigK, of the king, as if K<ua!aK ha! co"e to be a title "eaning

king. ?elsh kings bear the na"e <u!! ><o!ons@, an! both the actual an!

the "ythic lea!er Brennus took their na"e fro" the go! Bran. =ing

Conchobar is calle! K!ia tal"ai!eK, a terrestrial go!. 6f kings ere

thought to be go!&"en like the Pharaohs, this "ight account for the

freLuency of tales about !i#ine fatherhoo! or reincarnation, hile itoul! also eI%lain the nu"erous KgeasaK hich 6rish kings "ust obser#e,

unlike or!inary "ortals. Pros%erity as connecte! ith their obser#ance,

though this %ros%erity as later thought to !e%en! on the king's

goo!ness. The nature of the %ros%erity&&"il! seasons, abun!ant cro%s,

fruit, fish, an! cattle&&shos that the king as associate! ith

fertility, like the go!s of groth.-+4 :ence they ha! %robably been

once regar!e! as incarnations of such go!s. ?here#er !i#ine kings are

foun!, fertility is boun! u% ith the" an! ith the !ue obser#ance of



their tabus. To %re#ent "isfortune to the lan!, they are slain before

they gro ol! an! eak, an! their #igour %asses on to their successors.

Their !eath benefits their %eo%le.-+*4 But freLuently the king "ight

reign as long as he coul! hol! his on against all co"ers, or, again, a

sla#e or cri"inal as for a ti"e treate! as a "ock king, an! slain as

the !i#ine king's substitute. 5cattere! hints in 6rish literature an! in

folk sur#i#als sho that so"e such course as this ha! been %ursue! by

the Celts ith regar! to their !i#ine kings, as it as also

elsehere.-++4 6t is not i"%ossible that so"e at least of the )rui!s

stoo! in a si"ilar relation to the go!s. =ings an! %riests ere %robably

at first not !ifferentiate!. 6n Galatia tel#e tetrarchs "et annually

ith three hun!re! assistants at )rune"eton as the great national

council.-+E4 This council at a consecrate! %lace >Kne"etonK@, its

likeness to the annual )rui!ic gathering in Gaul, an! the %ossibility

that K)ruK& has so"e connection ith the na"e )rui!, %oint to a

religious as ell as %olitical as%ect of this council. The tetrarchs

"ay ha#e been a kin! of %riest&kings they ha! the kingly %rerogati#e of

acting as ju!ges as ha! the )rui!s of Gaul. The ife of one of the" as

a %riestess,-+14 the office being here!itary in her fa"ily, an! it "ayha#e been necessary that her husban! shoul! also be a %riest. 8ne

tetrarch, )eiotarus, !i#ine bull, as skille! in augury, an! the

%riest&kingshi% of Pessinus as conferre! on certain Celts in the secon!

century B.C., as if the !ouble office ere alrea!y a Celtic

institution.-+-4 Mythic Celtic kings consulte! the go!s ithout any

%riestly inter#ention, an! ueen Bou!icca ha! %riestly functions.-+24

?ithout gi#ing these hints un!ue e"%hasis, e "ay su%%ose that the

!ifferentiation of the to offices oul! not be si"ultaneous o#er the

Celtic area. But hen it !i! take effect %riests oul! %robably lay

clai" to the %rerogati#es of the %riest&king as incarnate go!. =ings

ere not likely to gi#e these u%, an! here they retaine! the" %riestsoul! be content ith seeing that the tabus an! ritual an! the slaying

of the "ock king ere !uly obser#e!. 6rish kings ere %erha%s still

regar!e! as go!s, though certain )rui!s "ay ha#e been !i#ine %riests,

since they calle! the"sel#es creators of the uni#erse, an! both

continental an! 6rish )rui!s clai"e! su%eriority to kings. 9urther, the

na"e Greek( se"notheoi4, a%%lie! along ith the na"e )rui!s to Celtic

%riests, though its "eaning is obscure, %oints to !i#ine %retensions on

their %art.-+34

The incarnate go! as %robably re%resentati#e of a go! or s%irit of

earth, groth, or #egetation, re%resente! also by a tree. A sy"bolicbranch of such a tree as borne by kings, an! %erha%s by )rui!s, ho

use! oak branches in their rites.-+F4 =ing an! tree oul! be connecte!,

the king's life being boun! u% ith that of the tree, an! %erha%s at one

ti"e both %erishe! together. But as kings ere re%resente! by a

substitute, so the sacre! tree, regar!e! as too sacre! to be cut !on,

"ay also ha#e ha! its Ksucce!aneu"K. The 6rish KbileK or sacre! tree,

connecte! ith the kings, "ust not be touche! by any i"%ious han!, an!

it as sacrilege to cut it !on.-+4 Probably before cutting !on the



tree a branch or so"ething groing u%on it, e.g. "istletoe, ha! to be

cut, or the king's sy"bolic branch secure! before he coul! be slain.

This "ay eI%lain Pliny's account of the "istletoe rite. The "istletoe or

branch as the soul of the tree, an! also containe! the life of the

!i#ine re%resentati#e. 6t "ust be %lucke! before the tree coul! be cut

!on or the #icti" slain. :y%othetical as this "ay be, Pliny's account

is inco"%lete, or he is relating so"ething of hich all the !etails ere

not knon to hi". The rite "ust ha#e ha! so"e other %ur%ose than that of

the "agico&"e!ical use of the "istletoe hich he !escribes, an! though

he says nothing of cutting !on the tree or slaying a hu"an #icti", it

is not unlikely that, as hu"an sacrifice ha! been %rohibite! in his

ti"e, the oIen hich ere slain !uring the rite took the %lace of the

latter. ater ro"antic tales suggest that, before slaying so"e

%ersonage, the "ythico&ro"antic sur#i#or of a !i#ine %riest or king, a

branch carrie! by hi" ha! to be ca%ture! by his assailant, or %lucke!

fro" the tree hich he !efen!e!.-E4 These "ay %oint to an ol! belief

in tree an! king as !i#ine re%resentati#es, an! to a ritual like that

associate! ith the Priest of <e"i. The !i#ine tree beca"e the "ystic

tree of /lysiu", ith gol! an! sil#er branches an! "ar#ellous fruits.Ar"e! ith such a branch, the gift of one of its %eo%le, "ortals "ight

%enetrate unhin!ere! to the !i#ine lan!. Perha%s they "ay be regar!e! as

ro"antic for"s of the ol! !i#ine kings ith the branch of the !i#ine

tree.

6f in early ti"es the s%irit of #egetation as fe"inine, her

re%resentati#e oul! be a o"an, %robably slain at recurring festi#als

by the fe"ale orshi%%ers. This oul! eI%lain the slaying of one of

their nu"ber at a festi#al by <a"nite o"en. But hen "ale s%irits or

go!s su%erse!e! go!!esses, the !i#ine %riest&king oul! take the %lace

of the fe"ale re%resentati#e. 8n the other han!, just as the go!!essbeca"e the consort of the go!, a fe"ale re%resentati#e oul! continue as

the !i#ine bri!e in the ritual of the sacre! "arriage, the May ueen of

later folk&custo". 5%ora!ically, too, conser#atis" oul! retain fe"ale

cults ith fe"ale !i#ine incarnations, as is seen by the %resence of the

May ueen alone in certain folk&sur#i#als, an! by "any Celtic rituals

fro" hich "en ere eIclu!e!.-E*4

988T<8T/5(

-*24 8'Gra!y, ii. ++F.

-*34 6bi!. ii. +E. Cf. Caesar, #i. *1, the i""ortal go!s of Gaul.

-*F4 Cf. Ch. QQ6. 8'Gra!y, ii. **, *3+ <utt&Meyer, i. 1+.

-*4 eahy, ii. 2.

-+4 K6TK iii. +E KTri%. ifeK, -3 KAnnals of the 9our MastersK,

A.). *1 KRCK IIii. +F, *2F. Chiefs as ell as kings %robably influence!



fertility. A curious sur#i#al of this is foun! in the belief that

herrings aboun!e! in )un#egan och hen Maceo! arri#e! at his castle

there, an! in the !esire of the %eo%le in 5kye !uring the %otato fa"ine

that his fairy banner shoul! be a#e!.

-+*4 An echo of this "ay un!erlie the or!s attribute! to =ing Ailill,

6f 6 a" slain, it ill be the re!e"%tion of "any >8'Gra!y, ii. 1*2@.

-++4 5ee 9raHer, K=ingshi%K Cook, K9olk&oreK, *2, The /uro%ean

5ky&Go!. Mr. Cook gi#es a"%le e#i!ence for the eIistence of Celtic

incarnate go!s. ?ith his "ain conclusions 6 agree, though so"e of his

inferences see" far&fetche!. The !i#ine king as, in his #ie, a

sky&go! he as "ore likely to ha#e been the re%resentati#e of a go! or

s%irit of groth or #egetation.

-+E4 5trabo, Iii. -. +.

-+14 Plutarch, K!e irt. Mul.K +.

-+-4 Cicero, K!e )i#.K i. *-, ii. E2 5trabo, Iii. -. E 5tachelin,

KGesch. !er =leinasiat. Galater.K

-+24 i#y, #. E1 )io Cass. lIii. 2.

-+34 KAncient as of 6relan!K, i. ++ )iog. aert. i. %roe" * see %.

E*, KinfraK.

-+F4 Pliny, I#i. -.

-+4 P. +*, KinfraK.

-E4 Cf. the tales of Gaain an! the Green =night ith his holly bough,

an! of Gaain's atte"%ting to %luck the bough of a tree guar!e! by

Gra"o%lanH >?eston, Kegen! of 5ir GaainK, ++, F2@. Cf. also the tale

of )iar"ai!'s attacking the !efen!er of a tree to obtain its fruit, an!

the subseLuent slaughter of each "an ho attacks the hero hi!!en in its

branches >KT85K #ol. iii.@. Cf. Cook, K9olk&oreK, I#ii. 11*.

-E*4 5ee Cha%. Q666.

C:APT/R Q.

T:/ C;T 89 T:/ )/A).

The custo" of burying gra#e&goo!s ith the !ea!, or slaying ife or



sla#es on the to"b, !oes not necessarily %oint to a cult of the !ea!,

yet hen such %ractices sur#i#e o#er a long %erio! they assu"e the for"

of a cult. These custo"s flourishe! a"ong the Celts, an!, taken in

connection ith the re#erence for the se%ulchres of the !ea!, they %oint

to a orshi% of ancestral s%irits as ell as of great !e%arte! heroes.

:ea!s of the slain ere offere! to the strong sha!es&&the ghosts of

tribal heroes hose %raises ere sung by bar!s.-E+4 ?hen such hea!s

ere %lace! on houses, they "ay ha#e been !e#ote! to the fa"ily ghosts.

The honour in hich "ythic or real heroes ere hel! "ay %oint to an

actual cult, the hero being orshi%%e! hen !ea!, hile he still

continue! his guar!ianshi% of the tribe. ?e kno also that the to"b of

=ing Cottius in the Al%s as a sacre! %lace, that 6rish kings ere often

inaugurate! on ancestral burial cairns, an! that 6rish go!s ere

associate! ith barros of the !ea!.-EE4

The cult of the !ea! cul"inate! at the fa"ily hearth, aroun! hich the

!ea! ere e#en burie!, as a"ong the Ae!uii this latter custo" "ay ha#e

been general.-E14 6n any case the belief in the %resence of ancestral

ghosts aroun! the hearth as i!es%rea!, as eIisting su%erstitions sho.6n Brittany the !ea! seek ar"th at the hearth by night, an! a feast is

s%rea! for the" on All 5ouls' e#e, or cru"bs are left for the" after a

fa"ily gathering.-E-4 But generally the fa"ily ghost has beco"e a

bronie, lutin, or %ooka, haunting the hearth an! !oing the househol!

ork.-E24 9airy corres%on!s in all res%ects to ol! ancestral ghost, an!

the one has succee!e! to the %lace of the other, hile the fairy is e#en

sai! to be the ghost of a !ea! %erson.-E34 Certain archaeological

re"ains ha#e also a connection ith this ancient cult. A"ong Celtic

re"ains in Gaul are foun! an!irons of clay, orna"ente! ith a ra"'s

hea!. M. )echelette sees in this the sy"bol of sacrifice offere! to the

souls of ancestors on the altar of the hearth.-EF4 The ra" as alrea!yassociate! as a sacrificial ani"al ith the cult of fire on the hearth,

an! by an easy transition it as connecte! ith the cult of the !ea!

there. 6t is foun! as an e"ble" on ancient to"bs, an! the !o"estic ar

as %urifie! by the i""olation of a ra".-E4 9igurines of a ra" ha#e

been foun! in Gaulish to"bs, an! it is associate! ith the go! of the

un!erorl!.-14 The ra" of the an!irons as thus a %er"anent

re%resentati#e of the #icti" offere! in the cult of the !ea!. A

"utilate! inscri%tion on one of the" "ay stan! for Karibus augustisK,

an! certain "arkings on others "ay re%resent the garlan!s tine! roun!

the #icti".-1*4 5er%ents ith ra"s' hea!s occur on the "onu"ents of the

un!erorl! go!. The ser%ent as a chthonian go! or the e"ble" of such ago!, an! it "ay ha#e been thought a%%ro%riate to gi#e it the hea! of an

ani"al associate! ith the cult of the !ea!.

The !ea! ere also fe! at the gra#e or in the house. Thus cu%s ere

%lace! in the recess of a ell in the churchyar! of =ilranelagh by those

interring a chil! un!er fi#e, an! the ghost of the chil! as su%%ose! to

su%%ly the other s%irits ith ater fro" these cu%s.-1+4 6n 6relan!,

after a !eath, foo! is %lace! out for the s%irits, or, at a burial, nuts



are %lace! in the coffin.-1E4 6n so"e %arts of 9rance, "ilk is %oure!

out on the gra#e, an! both in Brittany an! in 5cotlan! the !ea! are

su%%ose! to %artake of the funeral feast.-114 These are sur#i#als fro"

%agan ti"es an! corres%on! to the rites in use a"ong those ho still

orshi% ancestors. 6n Celtic !istricts a cairn or a cross is %lace! o#er

the s%ot here a #iolent or acci!ental !eath has occurre!, the %ur%ose

being to a%%ease the ghost, an! a stone is often a!!e! to the cairn by

all %assers&by.-1-4

9esti#als ere hel! in 6relan! on the anni#ersaries of the !eath of

kings or chiefs, an! these ere also utilise! for %ur%oses of tra!e,

%leasure, or %olitics. They so"eti"es occurre! on the great festi#als,

e.g. ugnasa! an! 5a"hain, an! ere occasionally hel! at the great

burial&%laces.-124 Thus the gathering at Taillti on ugnasa! as sai!

to ha#e been foun!e! by ug in "e"ory of his foster&"other, Tailtiu, an!

the einster"en "et at Car"an on the sa"e !ay to co""e"orate =ing

Gar"an, or in a #ariant account, a o"an calle! Car"an. 5he an! her sons

ha! trie! to blight the corn of the Tuatha )e )anann, but the sons ere

!ri#en off an! she !ie! of grief, begging that a fair shoul! alays behel! in her na"e, an! %ro"ising abun!ance of "ilk, fruit, an! fish for

its obser#ance.-134 These "ay be aetiological "yths eI%laining the

origin of these festi#als on the analogy of funeral festi#als, but "ore

likely, since ugnasa! as a har#est festi#al, they are connecte! ith

the custo" of slaying a re%resentati#e of the corn&s%irit. The festi#al

oul! beco"e a co""e"oration of all such #icti"s, but hen the custo"

itself ha! cease! it oul! be associate! ith one %articular %ersonage,

the corn&go!!ess regar!e! as a "ortal.

This oul! be the case here the #icti" as a o"an, but here a "ale

as slain, the analogy of the slaying of the !i#ine king or hisKsucce!aneu"K oul! lea! to the festi#als being regar!e! as

co""e"orati#e of a king, e.g. Gar"an. This agrees ith the state"ent

that obser#ance of the festi#al %ro!uce! %lenty non&obser#ance, !earth.

The #icti"s ere slain to obtain %lenty, an! the festi#al oul! also

co""e"orate those ho ha! !ie! for this goo! cause, hile it oul! also

a%%ease their ghosts shoul! these be angry at their #iolent !eaths.

Certain of the !ea! ere thus co""e"orate! at ugnasa!, a festi#al of

fertility. Both the corn&s%irit or !i#inity slain in the rea%ing of the

corn, an! the hu"an #icti"s, ere a%%ease! by its obser#ance.-1F4 The

legen! of Car"an "akes her hostile to the corn&&a curious ay of

regar!ing a corn&go!!ess. But e ha#e alrea!y seen that go!s offertility ere so"eti"es thought of as causing blight, an! in

folk&belief the corn&s%irit is occasionally belie#e! to be !angerous.

5uch in#ersions occur here#er re#olutions in religion take %lace.

The great co""e"oration of the !ea! as hel! on 5a"hain e#e, a festi#al

inten!e! to ai! the !ying %oers of #egetation, hose life, hoe#er, as

still "anifeste! in e#ergreen shrubs, in the "istletoe, in the sheaf of

corn fro" last har#est&&the abo!e of the corn&s%irit.-14 Probably,



also, hu"an re%resentati#es of the #egetation or corn&s%irit ere slain,

an! this "ay ha#e suggeste! the belief in the %resence of their ghosts

at this festi#al. 8r the festi#al being hel! at the ti"e of the !eath of

#egetation, the !ea! oul! naturally be co""e"orate! then. 8r, as in

5can!ina#ia, they "ay ha#e been hel! to ha#e an influence on fertility,

as an eItension of the belief that certain slain %ersons re%resente!

s%irits of fertility, or because trees an! %lants groing on the barros

of the !ea! ere thought to be tenante! by their s%irits.--4 6n

5can!ina#ia, the !ea! ere associate! ith fe"ale s%irits or KfylgjurK,

i!entifie! ith the K!isirK, a kin! of earth&go!!esses, li#ing in hollo

hills.--*4 The nearest Celtic analogy to these is the KMatresK,

go!!esses of fertility. Be!e says that Christ"as e#e as calle!

KMo!ranichtK, Mothers' <ight,--+4 an! as "any of the rites of 5a"hain

ere transferre! to $ule, the for"er !ate of KMo!ranichtK "ay ha#e been

5a"hain, just as the 5can!ina#ian K)isablotK, hel! in <o#e"ber, as a

festi#al of the K!isirK an! of the !ea!.--E4 6t has been seen that the

Celtic /arth&go! as lor! of the !ea!, an! that he %robably took the

%lace of an /arth&go!!ess or go!!esses, to ho" the KMatresK certainly

corres%on!. :ence the connection of the !ea! ith fe"ale /arth&s%iritsoul! be eI%laine!. Mother /arth ha! recei#e! the !ea! before her %lace

as taken by the Celtic )is%ater. :ence the ti"e of /arth's !ecay as

the season hen the !ea!, her chil!ren, oul! be co""e"orate!. ?hate#er

be the reason, Celts, Teutons, an! others ha#e co""e"orate! the !ea! at

the beginning of inter, hich as the beginning of a ne year, hile a

si"ilar festi#al of the !ea! at <e $ear is hel! in "any other lan!s.

Both in 6relan! an! in Brittany, on <o#e"ber e#e foo! is lai! out for

the !ea! ho co"e to #isit the houses an! to ar" the"sel#es at the fire

in the stillness of the night, an! in Brittany a huge log burns on the

hearth. ?e ha#e here returne! to the cult of the !ea! at thehearth.--14 Possibly the $ule log as once a log burne! on the

hearth&&the %lace of the fa"ily ghosts&&at 5a"hain, hen ne fire as

kin!le! in each house. 8n it libations ere %oure!, hich oul! then

ha#e been "eant for the !ea!. The $ule log an! the log of the Breton

%easants oul! thus be the !o"estic as%ect of the fire ritual, hich ha!

its %ublic as%ect in the 5a"hain bonfires.

All this has been in %art affecte! by the Christian feast of All 5ouls.

)r. 9raHer thinks that the feast of All 5aints ><o#e"ber *st@ as

inten!e! to take the %lace of the %agan cult of the !ea!. As it faile!

to !o this, All 5ouls, a festi#al of all the !ea!, as a!!e! on <o#e"ber+n!.---4 To so"e eItent, but not entirely, it has neutralise! the %agan

rites, for the ol! i!eas connecte! ith 5a"hain still sur#i#e here an!

there. 6t is also to be note! that in so"e cases the frien!ly as%ect of

the !ea! has been lost sight of, an!, like the Ksi!K&folk, they are

%o%ularly connecte! ith e#il %oers hich are in the ascen!ant on

5a"hain e#e.

988T<8T/5(



-E+4 5ilius 6talicus, #. 2-+ ucan, i. 113. Cf. %. +1*, KinfraK.

-EE4 A""ian. Marcell. I#. *. 3 Joyce, K5:K i. 1-.

-E14 Bulliot, K9ouilles !u Mont Beu#rayK, Autun, *F, i. 32, E2.

-E-4 e BraH, ii. 23 5au#e, K9olk&lore !es :autes osgesK, +-

Berenger&9erau!, K5u%erstitions et 5ur#i#ancesK, i. **.

-E24 :earn, KAryan :ousehol!K, 1E f. Berenger&9erau!, i. EE KRe#. !es

Tra!.K i. *1+ Car"ichael, ii. E+ CosLuin, KTra!. Po%. !e la

orraineK, i. F+.

-E34 =enne!y, *+2. The "ischie#ous bronie ho o#erturns furniture an!

s"ashes crockery is an eIact re%ro!uction of the Poltergeist.

-EF4 )echelette, KRe#. Arch.K IIIiii, >*FF@, 2E, +1-, +-+.

-E4 Cicero, K)e eg.K ii. ++.

-14 )echelette, +-2 Reinach, KB9K *F.

-1*4 )echelette, +-3&+-F. 6n another instance the ra" is "arke! ith

crosses like those engra#e! on i"ages of the un!erorl! go! ith the

ha""er.

-1+4 =enne!y, *F3.

-1E4 a!y ?il!e, **F Curtin, KTalesK, -1.

-114 e BraH, i. ++ Gregor, +* Ca"bry, Koyage !ans le 9inistereK,

i. ++.

-1-4 e BraH, ii. 13 K9olk&oreK, i#. E-3 MacCulloch, KMisty 6sle of

5kyeK, +-1 5ebillot, i. +E-&+E2.

-124 <a"es of %laces associate! ith the great festi#als are also those

of the chief %agan ce"eteries, Tara, Car"an, Taillti, etc. >8'Curry,

KMCK ii. -+E@.

-134 KRennes )in!senchasK, KRCK I#. E*E&E*1.

-1F4 Cf. 9raHer, KA!onisK, *E1.

-14 Cf. Cha"bers, KMe!iae#al 5tageK, i. +-, +-E.

--4 5ee igfusson&Poell, KCor%us Poet. BorealeK, i. 1-, 1*. Perha%s

for a si"ilar reason a cult of the !ea! "ay ha#e occurre! at the



Mi!su""er festi#al.

--*4 Miss 9ara!ay, K9olk&oreK, I#ii. EF f.

--+4 Be!e, K!e Te"%. Rat.K c. I#.

--E4 igfusson&Poell, i. 1*.

--14 Curtin, KTalesK, *-3 :a!!on, K9olk&oreK, i#. E- e BraH, ii.

**- Ket %assi".K

---4 9raHer, KA!onisK, +-E f.

C:APT/R Q6.

PR6M6T6/ <AT;R/ ?8R5:6P.

6n early thought e#erything as a %erson, in the loose "eaning then

%ossesse! by %ersonality, an! "any such %ersons ere orshi%%e!&&

earth, sun, "oon, sea, in!, etc. This le! later to "ore co"%lete

%ersonification, an! the sun or earth !i#inity or s%irit as "ore or

less se%arate! fro" the sun or earth the"sel#es. 5o"e Celtic !i#inities

ere thus e#ol#e!, but there still continue! a #eneration of the objects

of nature in the"sel#es, as ell as a cult of nature s%irits or

secon!ary !i#inities ho %eo%le! e#ery %art of nature. <or ill 6 call

out u%on the "ountains, fountains, or hills, or u%on the ri#ers, hichare no subser#ient to the use of "an, but once ere an abo"ination an!

!estruction to the", an! to hich the blin! %eo%le %ai! !i#ine honours,

cries Gil!as.--24 This as the true cult of the folk, the blin!

%eo%le, e#en hen the greater go!s ere organise!, an! it has sur#i#e!

ith "o!ifications in out&of&the&ay %laces, in s%ite of the co"ing of

Christianity.

5. =entigern rebuke! the Ca"brians for orshi%%ing the ele"ents, hich

Go! "a!e for "an's use.--34 The Luestion of the !aughters of oegaire

also thros "uch light on Celtic nature orshi%. :as your go! sons or

!aughtersS... :a#e "any fostere! his sonsS Are his !aughters !ear an!beautiful to "enS 6s he in hea#en or on earth, in the sea, in the

ri#ers, in the "ountains, in the #alleysS--F4 The or!s suggest a

belief in !i#ine beings filling hea#en, earth, sea, air, hills, glens,

lochs, an! ri#ers, an! folloing hu"an custo"s. A nai#e faith, full of

beauty an! %oetry, e#en if it ha! its !ark an! gri" as%ects These

%oers or %ersonalities ha! been in#oke! fro" ti"e i""e"orial, but the

in#ocations ere soon stereoty%e! into !efinite for"ulas. 5uch a for"ula

is %ut into the "outh of A"airgen, the %oet of the Milesians, hen they



ere about to in#a!e /rin, an! it "ay ha#e been a "agical in#ocation of

the %oers of nature at the beginning of an un!ertaking or in ti"es of

!anger(

6 in#oke the lan! of 6relan!

5hining, shining sea

9ertile, fertile "ountain

?oo!e! #ale

Abun!ant ri#er, abun!ant in aters

9ish aboun!ing lake

9ish aboun!ing sea

9ertile earth

6rru%tion of fish 9ish there

Bir! un!er a#e Great fish

Crab hole 6rru%tion of fish

9ish aboun!ing sea--4

A si"ilar for"ula as s%oken after the !estruction of )a )erga's :ostel

by MacCecht on his fin!ing ater. :e bathe! in it an! sang&&

Col! fountain 5urface of stran! ...

5ea of lake, ater of Gara, strea" of ri#er

:igh s%ring ell col! fountain-24

The go!!ess Morrigan, after the !efeat of the 9o"orians, in#okes the

%oers of nature an! %roclai"s the #ictory to the royal "ountains of

6relan!, to its chief aters, an! its ri#er "ouths.-2*4 6t as also

custo"ary to take oaths by the ele"ents&&hea#en, earth, sun, fire, "oon,

sea, lan!, !ay, night, etc., an! these %unishe! the breaker of the

oath.-2+4 /#en the go!s eIacte! such an oath of each other. Bres soreby sun, "oon, sea, an! lan!, to fulfil the engage"ent i"%ose! on hi" by

ug.-2E4 The for"ulae sur#i#e! into Christian ti"es, an! the faithful

ere forbi!!en to call the sun an! "oon go!s or to sear by the", hile

in Breton folk&custo" at the %resent !ay oaths by sun, "oon, or earth,

folloe! by %unish"ent of the oath&breaker by the "oon, are still in

use.-214 These oaths ha! originate! in a ti"e hen the ele"ents

the"sel#es ere thought to be !i#ine, an! si"ilar a!jurations ere use!

by Greeks an! 5can!ina#ians.

?hile the greater objects of nature ere orshi%%e! for the"sel#es

alone, the Celts also %eo%le! the earth ith s%irits, bene#olent or"ale#olent, of rocks, hills, !ales, forests, lakes, an! strea"s,-2-4

an! hile greater !i#inities of groth ha! been e#ol#e!, they still

belie#e! in lesser s%irits of #egetation, of the corn, an! of fertility,

connecte!, hoe#er, ith these go!s. 5o"e of these still sur#i#e as

fairies seen in "ea!os, oo!lan!s, or strea"s, or as !e"oniac beings

haunting lonely %laces. An! e#en no, in 9rench folk&belief, sun, "oon,

in!s, etc., are regar!e! as actual %ersonages. 5un an! "oon are husban!

an! ife the in!s ha#e i#es they are a!!resse! by %ersonal na"es an!



re#erence!.-224 5o"e s%irits "ay alrea!y ha#e ha! a !e"oniac as%ect in

%agan ti"es. The Tuatha )ea conjure! u% K"eisiK, s%ectral bo!ies that

rise fro" the groun!, against the Milesians, an! at their ser#ice ere

"alignant s%rites&&KurtrochtaK, an! for"s, s%ectres, an! great Lueens

calle! Kgui!e"ainK >false !e"ons@. The )rui!s also sent forth

"ischie#ous s%irits calle! KsiabraK. 6n the KTainK there are references

to KbocanachsK, KbananaichsK, an! Kgeniti&glinniK, goblins, el!ritch

beings, an! glen&folk.-234 These are tice calle! Tuatha )e )anann,

an! this suggests that they ere nature&s%irits akin to the greater

go!s.-2F4 The Kgeniti&glinniK oul! be s%irits haunting glen an!

#alley. They are frien!ly to Cuchulainn in the KTainK, but in the K9east

of BricriuK he an! other heroes fight an! !estroy the".-24 6n "o!ern

6rish belief they are !e"ons of the air, %erha%s fallen angels.-34

Much of this is %robably %re&Celtic as ell as Celtic, but it hel! its

groun! because it as !ear to the Celts the"sel#es. They u%hel! the

aboriginal cults rese"bling those hich, in the lan!s hence they ca"e,

ha! been nati#e an! local ith the"sel#es. 5uch cults are as ol! as the

orl!, an! hen Christianity eI%elle! the orshi% of the greater go!s,younger in groth, the ancient nature orshi%, !oere! ith i""ortal

youth,

boe! lo before the blast

6n %atient !ee% !is!ain,

to rise again in #igour. Preachers, councils, an! las in#eighe! against

it. The ol! rites continue! to be %ractise!, or sur#i#e! un!er a

Christian !ress an! colouring. They are foun! in Breton #illages, in

:ighlan! glens, in ?elsh an! Cornish #alleys, in 6rish tonshi%s, an!

only the s%rea! of school&boar! e!ucation, ith its "aterialis" an!unin#iting co""on sense, is forcing the" at last to yiel!.

The !enunciations of these cults thro so"e light u%on the". 8fferings

at trees, stones, fountains, an! cross&roa!s, the lighting of fires or

can!les there, an! #os or incantations a!!resse! to the", are

forbi!!en, as is also the orshi% of trees, gro#es, stones, ri#ers, an!

ells. The sun an! "oon are not to be calle! lor!s. ?iHar!ry, an!

!i#ination, an! the lea%ings an! !ancings, songs an! choruses of the

%agans, i.e. their orgiastic cults, are not to be %ractise!.

Te"%est&raisers are not to %ly their !iabolical craft.-3*4 These

!enunciations, of course, ere not ithout their effect, an! legen! tol!ho the s%irits of nature ere hear! beailing the %oer of the

Christian saints, their "ournful cries echoing in oo!e! hollos,

seclu!e! #alleys, an! shores of lake an! ri#er.-3+4 Their %oer, though

li"ite!, as not annihilate!, but the secrecy in hich the ol! cults

often continue! to be %ractise! ga#e the" a !arker colour. They ere

i!entifie! ith the orks of the !e#il, an! the s%irits of %aganis" ith

!ark an! grisly !e"ons.-3E4 This cul"inate! in the "e!iae#al itch

%ersecutions, for itchcraft as in %art the ol! %aganis" in a ne



guise. $et e#en that !i! not annihilate su%erstition, hich still li#es

an! flourishes a"ong the folk, though the actual orshi% of

nature&s%irits has no !isa%%eare!.

7 7 7 7 7

Perha%s the "ost i"%ortant object in nature to the early Celts as to

"ost %ri"iti#e folk as the "oon. The %hases of the "oon ere a%%arent

before "en obser#e! the solstices an! eLuinoIes, an! they for"e! an easy

"etho! of "easuring ti"e. The Celtic year as at first lunar&&Pliny

s%eaks of the Celtic "etho! of counting the beginning of "onths an!

years by the "oon&&an! night as su%%ose! to %rece!e !ay.-314 The

festi#als of groth began, not at sunrise, but on the %re#ious e#ening

ith the rising of the "oon, an! the na"e Ka una!eK is still gi#en to

the Mi!su""er festi#al in %arts of 9rance.-3-4 At allon !e la 5uille a

oo! on the slo%e here the festi#al is hel! is calle! KBois !e la

uneK an! in 6relan!, here the festi#al begins on the %re#ious

e#ening, in the !istrict here an ascent of Cnoc Aine is "a!e, the

%osition of the "oon "ust be obser#e!. A si"ilar co"bination of sun an!"oon cults is foun! in an inscri%tion at ausanne&&KTo the genius of the

sun an! "oon.K-324

Possibly sun festi#als took the %lace of those of the "oon. Traces of

the connection of the "oon ith agriculture occur in !ifferent regions,

the connection being establishe! through the %ri"iti#e la of

sy"%athetic "agic. The "oon aIes an! anes, therefore it "ust affect

all %rocesses of groth or !ecay. )r. 9raHer has cite! "any instances of

this belief, an! has shon that the "oon ha! a %riority to the sun in

orshi%, e.g. in /gy%t an! Babylon.-334 5oing is !one ith a aIing

"oon, so that, through sy"%athy, there "ay be a large increase. Buthar#esting, cutting ti"ber, etc., shoul! be !one ith a aning "oon,

because "oisture being cause! by a aIing "oon, it as necessary to

a#oi! cutting such things as oul! s%oil by "oisture at that ti"e.

5i"ilar beliefs are foun! a"ong the Celts. Mistletoe an! other "agical

%lants ere culle! ith a aIing "oon, %robably because their %oer

oul! thus be greater. )r. Johnson note! the fact that the :ighlan!ers

soe! their see! ith a aIing "oon, in the eI%ectation of a better

har#est. 9or si"ilar occult reasons, it is thought in Brittany that

conce%tion !uring a aIing "oon %ro!uces a "ale chil!, !uring a aning

"oon a fe"ale, hile Kaccouche"entsK at the latter ti"e are !angerous.

5hee% an! cos shoul! be kille! at the ne "oon, else their flesh illshrink, but %eats shoul! be cut in the last Luarter, otherise they ill

re"ain "oist an! gi#e out a %oer of s"oke.-3F4

These i!eas take us back to a ti"e hen it as hel! that the "oon as

not "erely the "easurer of ti"e, but ha! %oerful effects on the

%rocesses of groth an! !ecay. Arte"is an! )iana, "oon&go!!esses, ha!

%oer o#er all groing things, an! as so"e Celtic go!!esses ere eLuate!

ith )iana, they "ay ha#e been connecte! ith the "oon, "ore es%ecially



as Gallo&Ro"an i"ages of )iana ha#e the hea! a!orne! ith a crescent

"oon. 6n so"e cases festi#als of the "oon re"aine! intact, as a"ong the

Celtiberians an! other %eo%les to the north of the", ho at the ti"e of

full "oon celebrate! the festi#al of a na"eless go!, !ancing all night

before the !oors of their houses.-34 The na"eless go! "ay ha#e been

the "oon, orshi%%e! at the ti"e of her intensest light. Moonlight

!ances roun! a great stone, ith singing, on the first !ay of the year,

occurre! in the :ighlan!s in the eighteenth century.-F4 8ther

sur#i#als of cult are seen in the %ractices of boing or baring the hea!

at ne "oon, or a!!ressing it ith or!s of a!oration or su%%lication.

6n 6relan!, Ca"!en foun! the custo" at ne "oon of saying the or!'s

Prayer ith the a!!ition of the or!s, ea#e us hole an! soun! as Thou

hast foun! us. 5i"ilar custo"s eIist in Brittany, here girls %ray to

the "oon to grant the" !rea"s of their future husban!s.-F*4 ike other

races, the Celts thought that ecli%ses ere cause! by a "onster

attacking the "oon, hile it coul! be !ri#en off ith cries an! shouts.

6n +*F B.C. the Celtic allies of Attalus ere frightene! by an ecli%se,

an! "uch later Christian legislation forba!e the %eo%le to asse"ble at

an ecli%se an! shout, Kince, unaK-F+4 5uch a %ractice as obser#e!in 6relan! in the se#enteenth century. At an earlier ti"e, 6rish %oets

a!!resse! sun an! "oon as !i#inities, an! they ere re%resente! on

altars e#en in Christian ti"es.-FE4

?hile the Celts belie#e! in sea&go!s&&Manannan, Morgen, )ylan&&the sea

itself as still %ersonifie! an! regar!e! as !i#ine. 6t as thought to

be a hostile being, an! high ti!es ere "et by Celtic arriors, ho

a!#ance! against the" ith sor! an! s%ear, often %erishing in the

rushing aters rather than retreat. The ancients regar!e! this as

bra#a!o. M. Jullian sees in it a sacrifice by #oluntary suici!e M.

)'Arbois, a tranLuil aiting for !eath an! the intro!uction to anotherlife.-F14 But the %assages gi#e the sense of an actual attack on the

a#es&&li#ing things hich "en "ight terrify, an! %erha%s ith this as

co"bine! the belief that no one coul! !ie !uring a rising ti!e.

5i"ilarly 9rench fisher"en threaten to cut a fog in to ith a knife,

hile the legen! of 5. unaire tells ho he thre a knife at a fog, thus

causing its !isa%%earance.-F-4 9ighting the a#es is also referre! to

in 6rish teIts. Thus Tuirbe Trag"ar oul! hurl a cast of his aIe in the

face of the floo!&ti!e, so that he forba!e the sea, hich then oul! not

co"e o#er the aIe. Cuchulainn, in one of his fits of anger, fought the

a#es for se#en !ays, an! 9ionn fought an! conLuere! the Muireartach, a

%ersonification of the il! estern sea.-F24 8n the 9rench coastfisher"en thro har%oons at certain har"ful a#es calle! the Three ?itch

?a#es, thus !raing their bloo! an! causing the" to subsi!e.-F34 6n

so"e cases hu"an #icti"s "ay ha#e been offere! to the rising aters,

since certain tales s%eak of a chil! set floating on the a#es, an!

this, re%eate! e#ery se#en years, ke%t the" in their %lace.-FF4

The sea ha! also its beneficent as%ects. The shore as a %lace of

re#elation of science, an! the sea sy"%athise! ith hu"an griefs. At



the Battle of entry the sea chattere!, telling the losses, an! the

a#es raise! a hea#y, oeful great "oan in ailing the".-F4 6n other

cases in 6relan!, by a s%ell %ut on the a#es, or by the intuiti#e

knole!ge of the listener, it as re#eale! that they ere ailing for a

!eath or !escribing so"e !istant e#ent.-4 6n the beautiful song sung

by the ife of Cael, the a#e ails against the shore for his !eath,

an! in ?elsh "yth the a#es beaile! the !eath of )ylan, son of the

a#e, an! ere eager to a#enge it. The noise of the a#es rushing into

the #ale of Cony ere his !ying groans.-*4 6n 6relan! the roaring of

the sea as thought to be %ro%hetic of a king's !eath or the co"ing of

i"%ortant nes an! there, too, certain great a#es ere celebrate! in

story&&Cli!na's, Tuaithe's, an! Ru!hrai!he's.-+4 <ine a#es, or the

ninth a#e, %artly because of the sacre! nature of the nu"ber nine,

%artly because of the beneficent character of the a#es, ha! a great

i"%ortance. They for"e! a barrier against in#asion, !anger, or

%estilence, or they ha! a healing effect.-E4

The in! as also regar!e! as a li#ing being hose %oer as to be

!rea!e!. 6t %unishe! =ing oegaire for breaking his oath. But it asalso %ersonifie! as a go! intius, eLuate! ith PolluI an! orshi%%e! by

Celtic sailors, or ith Mars, the ar&go! ho, in his !estructi#e

as%ect, as %erha%s regar!e! as the nearest analogue to a go! of stor"y

in!s.-14 )rui!s an! Celtic %riestesses clai"e! the %oer of

controlling the in!s, as !i! iHar!s an! itches in later !ays. This

they !i!, accor!ing to Christian riters, by the ai! of !e"ons, %erha%s

the ol! !i#inities of the air. Bisho% Agobar! !escribes ho the

Kte"%estariiK raise! te"%ests hich !estroye! the fruits of the earth,

an! !re aerial shi%s fro" Magonia, hither the shi%s carrie! these

fruits.--4 Magonia "ay be the u%%er air rule! o#er by a sky go!

Magounos or Mogounos, eLuate! ith A%ollo.-24 The in!s "ay ha#e beenhis ser#ants, rule! also by earthly "agicians. ike $aheh, as concei#e!

by :ebre %oets, he bringeth the in!s out of his treasures, an!

"aketh lightnings ith rain.

988T<8T/5(

--24 Gil!as ii. 1.

--34 Jocelyn, Kila =entig.K c. IIIii.

--F4 KTri%. ifeK, E*-.

--4 KK *+KbK. The translation is fro" )'Arbois, ii. +- f cf.

8'Curry, KMCK ii. *.

-24 KRCK IIii. 1.

-2*4 KRCK Iii. *.



-2+4 Petrie, KTaraK, E1 KRCK #i. *2F K;K **F.

-2E4 Joyce, K8CRK -.

-214 )'Achery, K5%icelegiu"K, #. +*2 5ebillot, i. *2 f., -2, +**.

-2-4 Gregory of Tours, K:ist.K ii. *, s%eaks of the current belief in

the !i#inity of aters, bir!s, an! beasts.

-224 5ebillot, i. , E-, 3-, +13, etc.

-234 Joyce, K5:K ii. +3E Cor"ac, F3 5tokes, KT6GK IIIiii., KRCK I#.

E3.

-2F4 Miss :ull, *3, *F3, *E K6TK i. +*1 eahy, i. *+2.

-24 K6TK i. +F3.

-34 :en!erson, K6rish TeItsK, ii. +*.

-3*4 KCa%it. =aroli MagniK, i. 2+ Keges uit%ran!.K ii. EF Canon +E,

+n! Coun. of Arles, :efele, KCouncilsK, iii. 13* )'Achery, #. +*-. 5o"e

of these attacks ere "a!e against Teutonic su%erstitions, but si"ilar

su%erstitions eIiste! a"ong the Celts.

-3+4 5ee Gri"", KTeut. Myth.K ii. 1F.

-3E4 A "ore tolerant note is hear!, e.g., in an 6rish teIt hich says

that the s%irits hich a%%eare! of ol! ere !i#ine "inistrants not

!e"oniacal, hile angels hel%e! the ancients because they folloe!natural truth. Cor"ac's 5or!, K6TK iii. ++&++*. Cf. %. *-+, Ksu%raK.

-314 Caesar, #i. *F Pliny IIii. *1. Pliny s%eaks of culling "istletoe

on the siIth !ay of the "oon, hich is to the" the beginning of "onths

an! years >KseIta luna, Luae %rinci%iaK, etc.@. This see"s to "ake the

siIth, not the first, !ay of the "oon that fro" hich the calculation

as "a!e. But the "eaning is that "istletoe as culle! on the siIth !ay

of the "oon, an! that the "oon as that by hich "onths an! years ere

"easure!. KunaK, not KseIta lunaK, is in a%%osition ith KLuaeK. Traces

of the "etho! of counting by nights or by the "oon sur#i#e locally in

9rance, an! the usage is freLuent in 6rish an! ?elsh literature. 5ee "yarticle Calen!ar >Celtic@ in :astings' K/ncyclo%. of Religion an!

/thicsK, iii. 3F f.

-3-4 )elocke, a Procession !ite a una!e, KRCK iI. 1+-.

-324 Monnier, *31, +++ 9itHgeral!, KRCK i#. *F.

-334 9raHer, KGol!en BoughKO+, ii. *-1 f.



-3F4 Pliny, I#i. 1- Johnson, KJourneyK, *FE Ra"say, K5cotlan! in the

/ighteenth CenturyK, ii. 11 5ebillot, i. 1* f. MacCulloch, KMisty

6sle of 5kyeK, +E2. 6n Brittany it is thought that girls "ay concei#e by

the "oon's %oer >KRCK iii. 1-+@.

-34 5trabo, iii. 1. *2.

-F4 Bran!, Ks.#.K <e $ear's )ay.

-F*4 Cha"bers, KPo%ular Rhy"esK, E- 5ebillot, i. 12, -3 f.

-F+4 Polybius, #. 3F Kita 5. /ligiiK, ii. *-.

-FE4 8sborne, KA!#ice to his 5onK >*2-2@, 3 KRCK II. 1*, 1+F.

-F14 Aristotle, K<ic. /th.K iii. 33 K/u!. /th.K iii. *. +- 5tobaeus,

#ii. 1 A/lian, Iii. ++ Jullian, -1 )'Arbois, #i. +*F.

-F-4 5ebillot, i. **. The custo" of throing so"ething at a fairy

e!!y, i.e. a !ust stor", is ell knon on Celtic groun! an! elsehere.

-F24 K9olk&ore,K i#. 1FF Curtin, K:T6K E+1 Ca"%bell, KThe 9iansK,

*-F. 9ian arriors attacke! the sea hen tol! it as laughing at the".

-F34 KMelusineK, ii. +.

-FF4 5ebillot, ii. *3.

-F4 Meyer, KCath. 9inntragaK, 1.

-4 KRCK I#i. KBK E+KbK, --.

-*4 Meyer, Ko%. cit.K -- 5kene, i. +F+, +FF, -1E Rhy4s, K:K EF3.

-+4 Meyer, -* Joyce, KP<K i. *-, ii. +-3 KRCK I#. 1EF.

-E4 5ee %. --, Ksu%raK K6TK i. FEF, iii. +3 KRCK ii. +*, iI. **F.

-14 :ol!er, Ks.#.K intius.

--4 Agobar!, i. *12.

-24 5ee 5tokes, KRCK #i. +23.

C:APT/R Q66.



R6/R A<) ?/ ?8R5:6P.

A"ong the Celts the testi"ony of conte"%orary itnesses, inscri%tions,

#oti#e offerings, an! sur#i#als, shos the i"%ortance of the cult of

aters an! of ater !i#inities. Mr. Go""e argues that Celtic

ater&orshi% as !eri#e! fro" the %re&Celtic aborigines,-34 but if

so, the Celts "ust ha#e ha! a %eculiar a%titu!e for it, since they ere

so enthusiastic in its obser#ance. ?hat %robably ha%%ene! as that the

Celts, alrea!y orshi%%ers of the aters, freely a!o%te! local cults of

ater here#er they ca"e. 5o"e ri#ers or ri#er&go!!esses in Celtic

regions see" to %osses %re&Celtic na"es.-F4

Treasures ere flung into a sacre! lake near Toulouse to cause a

%estilence to cease. Cae%ion, ho afterar!s fishe! u% this treasure,

fell soon after in battle&&a %unish"ent for cu%i!ity, an! Kauru"

Tolosanu"K no beca"e an eI%ression for goo!s !ishonestly acLuire!.-4

A yearly festi#al, lasting three !ays, took %lace at ake Ge#au!an.Gar"ents, foo!, an! aI ere thron into the aters, an! ani"als ere

sacrifice!. 8n the fourth !ay, it is sai!, there ne#er faile! to s%ring

u% a te"%est of rain, thun!er, an! lightning&&a strange rear! for this

orshi% of the lake.24 5. Colu"ba route! the s%irits of a 5cottish

fountain hich as orshi%%e! as a go!, an! the ell no beca"e sacre!,

%erha%s to the saint hi"self, ho ashe! in it an! blesse! it so that it

cure! !iseases.2*4

8n inscri%tions a ri#er na"e is %refiIe! by so"e !i#ine e%ithet&&K!eaK,

KaugustaK, an! the orshi%%er recor!s his gratitu!e for benefits

recei#e! fro" the !i#inity or the ri#er itself. Bor"anus, Bor"o orBor#o, )anu#ius >the )anube@, an! uIo#ius are foun! on inscri%tions as

na"es of ri#er or fountain go!s, but go!!esses are "ore

nu"erous&&Acionna, A#entia, Bor"ana, BriIia, Car%un!ia, Clutoi!a,

)i#ona, 5irona, ;ra&&ell&ny"%hs an! 6cauna >the $onne@, Matrona, an!

5eLuana >the 5eine@&&ri#er&go!!esses.2+4 <o inscri%tion to the go!!ess

of a lake has yet been foun!. 5o"e %ersonal na"es like )ubrogenos >son

of the )ubron@, /nigenus >son of the Aenus@, an! the belief of

ir!u"arus that one of his ancestors as the Rhine,2E4 %oint to the

i!ea that ri#er&!i#inities "ight ha#e a"ours ith "ortals an! beget

%rogeny calle! by their na"es. 6n 6relan!, Conchobar as so na"e! fro"

the ri#er hence his "other <essa !re ater, %erha%s because he as achil! of the ri#er&go!.214

The na"e of the ater&!i#inity as so"eti"es gi#en to the %lace of his

or her cult, or to the tons hich s%rang u% on the banks of ri#ers&&the

!i#inity thus beco"ing a tutelary go!. Many tons >e.g. )i#onne or

)yonne, etc.@ ha#e na"es !eri#e! fro" a co""on Celtic ri#er na"e )euona,

!i#ine. This na"e in #arious for"s is foun! all o#er the Celtic

area,2-4 an! there is little !oubt that the Celts, in their onar!



%rogress, na"e! ri#er after ri#er by the na"e of the sa"e !i#inity,

belie#ing that each ne ri#er as a %art of his or her king!o". The na"e

as %robably first an a%%ellati#e, then a %ersonal na"e, the !i#ine

ri#er beco"ing a !i#inity. )eus <e"ausus occurs on #oti#e tablets at

<i"es, the na"e <e"ausus being that of the clear an! abun!ant s%ring

there hence floe! the ri#er of the sa"e na"e. A si"ilar na"e occurs in

other regions&&<e"esa, a tributary of the Moselle <e"h, the source of

the Tara an! the for"er na"e of the Blackater an! <i"is, a 5%anish

ri#er "entione! by A%%ian. Another grou% inclu!es the Matrona >Marne@,

the Mo!er, the Ma!!er, the Maronne an! Maronna, an! others, %robably

!eri#e! fro" a or! signifying "other.224 The "other&ri#er as that

hich atere! a hole region, just as in the :in!u sacre! books the

aters are "others, sources of fertility. The Celtic "other&ri#ers ere

%robably go!!esses, akin to the KMatresK, gi#ers of %lenty an!

fertility. 6n Gaul, 5irona, a ri#er&go!!ess, is re%resente! like the

KMatresK. 5he as associate! ith Grannos, %erha%s as his "other, an!

Professor Rhy4s eLuates the %air ith the ?elsh Mo!ron an! Mabon

Mo!ron is %robably connecte! ith Matrona.234 6n any case the Celts

regar!e! ri#ers as bestoers of life, health, an! %lenty, an! offere!the" rich gifts an! sacrifices.2F4

Go!s like Grannos, Bor#o, an! others, eLuate! ith A%ollo, %resi!e! o#er

healing s%rings, an! they are usually associate! ith go!!esses, as

their husban!s or sons. But as the go!!esses are "ore nu"erous, an! as

"ost Celtic ri#er na"es are fe"inine, fe"ale !i#inities of ri#ers an!

s%rings !oubtless ha! the earlier an! fore"ost %lace, es%ecially as

their cult as connecte! ith fertility. The go!s, feer in nu"ber, ere

all eLuate! ith A%ollo, but the go!!esses ere not "erge! by the Ro"ans

into the %ersonality of one go!!ess, since they the"sel#es ha! their

grou%s of ri#er&go!!esses, <y"%hs an! <aia!s. Before the Ro"an conLuestthe cult of ater&!i#inities, frien!s of "ankin!, "ust ha#e for"e! a

large %art of the %o%ular religion of Gaul, an! their na"es "ay be

counte! by hun!re!s. Ther"al s%rings ha! also their genii, an! they ere

a%%ro%riate! by the Ro"ans, so that the local go!s no share! their

healing %oers ith A%ollo, A/scula%ius, an! the <y"%hs. Thus e#ery

s%ring, e#ery oo!lan! brook, e#ery ri#er in glen or #alley, the roaring

cataract, an! the lake ere haunte! by !i#ine beings, "ainly thought of

as beautiful fe"ales ith ho" the KMatresK ere un!oubte!ly associate!.

There they re#eale! the"sel#es to their orshi%%ers, an! hen %aganis"

ha! %asse! aay, they re"aine! as KfeesK or fairies haunting s%ring, or

ell, or ri#er.24 5cores of fairy ells still eIist, an! by the""e!iae#al knights ha! "any a fable! a"our ith those beautiful beings

still seen by the ignorant but ro"antic %easant.

5anctuaries ere erecte! at these s%rings by grateful orshi%%ers, an!

at so"e of the" festi#als ere hel!, or they ere the resort of

%ilgri"s. As sources of fertility they ha! a %lace in the ritual of the

great festi#als, an! sacre! ells ere #isite! on Mi!su""er !ay, hen

also the ri#er&go!s clai"e! their hu"an #icti"s. 5o"e of the go!!esses



ere re%resente! by statues or busts in Gallo&Ro"an ti"es, if not

earlier, an! other i"ages of the" hich ha#e been foun! ere of the

nature of KeI #otosK, %resente! by orshi%%ers in gratitu!e for the

go!!ess's healing gifts. Money, ingots of gol! or sil#er, an! "o!els of

li"bs or other %arts of the bo!y hich ha! been or ere !esire! to be

heale!, ere also %resente!. Gregory of Tours says of the Gauls that

they re%resent in oo! or bronHe the "e"bers in hich they suffer, an!

hose healing they !esire, an! %lace the" in a te"%le.2*4 Contact of

the "o!el ith the !i#inity brought healing to the actual li"bs on the

%rinci%le of sy"%athetic "agic. Many such "o!els ha#e been !isco#ere!.

Thus in the shrine of )ea 5eLuana as foun! a #ase ith o#er a hun!re!

another containe! o#er eight hun!re!. 6nscri%tions ere engra#e! on

%laLues hich ere fastene! to the alls of te"%les, or %lace! in

s%rings.2**4 ea!en tablets ith inscri%tions ere %lace! in s%rings by

those ho !esire! healing or hen the aters ere lo, an! on so"e the

actual aters are har!ly !iscri"inate! fro" the !i#inities. The latter

are aske! to heal or flo or sell&&or!s hich a%%ly "ore to the aters

than to the", hile the tablets, ith their frank ani"is", also sho

that, in so"e cases, there ere "any ele"ental s%irits of a ell, onlyso"e of ho" ere rising to the rank of a go!!ess. They are calle!

collecti#ely K<iskasK&&the <iIies of later tra!ition, but so"e ha#e

%ersonal na"es&&erano, )ibona, )ea&&shoing that they ere ten!ing to

beco"e se%arate !i#ine %ersonalities. The Peisgi are also a%%eale! to,

%erha%s the later Piskies, unless the or! is a corru%t for" of a Celtic

K%eiskosK, or the atin K%iscusK, fish.2*+4 This is unlikely, as fish

coul! not eIist in a ar" sul%hurous s%ring, though the Celts belie#e!

in the sacre! fish of ells or strea"s. The fairies no associate! ith

ells or ith a ater&orl! beneath the", are usually na"eless, an! only

in a fe cases ha#e a !efinite na"e. They, like the ol!er s%irits of the

ells, ha#e generally a beneficent character.2*E4 Thus in the fountainsof ogres !elt !a"sels ho fe! the ayfarer ith "eat an! brea!, until

grie#ous rong as !one the", hen they !isa%%eare! an! the lan! beca"e

aste.2*14 8ccasionally, hoe#er, they ha#e a "ore "ale#olent

character.2*-4

The s%irit of the aters as often e"bo!ie! in an ani"al, usually a

fish. /#en no in Brittany the fairy !eller in a s%ring has the for" of

an eel, hile in the se#enteenth century :ighlan! ells containe! fish

so sacre! that no one !are! to catch the".2*24 6n ?ales 5. Cybi's ell

containe! a huge eel in hose #irtues the #illagers belie#e!, an! terror

%re#aile! hen any one !are! to take it fro" the ater. To sacre! fishstill eIist in a holy ell at <ant Peris, an! are re%lace! by others

hen they !ie, the !ea! fish being burie!.2*34 This latter act,

sole"nly %erfor"e!, is a true sign of the !i#ine or sacre! character of

the ani"al. Many ells ith sacre! fish eIist in 6relan!, an! the fish

ha#e usually so"e su%ernatural Luality&&they ne#er alter in siHe, they

beco"e in#isible, or they take the for" of beautiful o"en.2*F4 Any one

!estroying such fish as regar!e! as a sacrilegious %erson, an!

so"eti"es a hostile tribe kille! an! ate the sacre! fish of a !istrict



ater&horse as force! to !rag the chariot of 5. 9echin of 9ore, an!

un!er his influence beca"e gentler than any other horse.2+14 Many

:ighlan! lochs are still haunte! by this !rea!e! being, an! he is also

knon in 6relan! an! 9rance, here, hoe#er, he has "ore of a tricky an!

less of a !e"oniac nature.2+-4 :is horse for" is %erha%s connecte! ith

the si"ilar for" ascribe! to Celtic ater&!i#inities. Manannan's horses

ere the a#es, an! he as in#ariably associate! ith a horse. /%ona,

the horse&go!!ess, as %erha%s originally go!!ess of a s%ring, an!, like

the KMatresK, she is so"eti"es connecte! ith the aters.2+24 :orses

ere also sacrifice! to ri#er&!i#inities.2+34 But the beneficent

ater&!i#inities in their horse for" ha#e un!ergone a curious

!istortion, %erha%s as the result of later Christian influences. The

na"e of one branch of the 9o"orians, the Goborchinn, "eans the

:orse&hea!e!, an! one of their kings as /ochai! /chchenn, or

:orse&hea!.2+F4 ?hether these ha#e any connection ith the

ater&horse is uncertain.

The foa"ing aters "ay ha#e suggeste! another ani"al %ersonification,

since the na"e of the Boyne in Ptole"y, Greek( bououin!a4, is !eri#e!fro" a %ri"iti#e Kbou&sK, oI, an! K#in!o&sK, hite, in 6rish Kbo

fin!K, hite co.2+4 But it is not certain that this or the Celtic

cult of the bull as connecte! ith the belief in the KTarbh ;isgeK, or

?ater&bull, hich ha! no ears an! coul! assu"e other sha%es. 6t !ells

in lochs an! is generally frien!ly to "an, occasionally e"erging to "ate

ith or!inary cos. 6n the 6sle of Man the KTarroo ;shteyK, hoe#er,

begets "onsters.2E4 These Celtic ater&"onsters ha#e a curious

rese"blance to the Australian KBunyi%K.

The K;ruisgK, often confuse! ith the bronie, haunts lonely %laces an!

aterfalls, an!, accor!ing to his "oo!, hel%s or har"s the ayfarer. :isa%%earance is that of a "an ith shaggy hair an! bear!.2E*4 6n ?ales

the KafancK is a ater&"onster, though the or! first "eant !arf,

then ater&!arf, of ho" "any kin!s eIiste!. They corres%on! to the

6rish ater&!arfs, the Kuchor%ainK, !escen!e! ith the 9o"orians an!

Goborchinn fro" :a".2E+4

6n other cases the ol! ater beings ha#e a "ore %leasing for", like the

syrens an! other fairy beings ho haunt 9rench ri#ers, or the "er"ai!s

of 6rish estuaries.2EE4 6n Celtic 9rance an! Britain lake fairies are

connecte! ith a ater&orl! like that of /lysiu" tales, the region of

earlier !i#inities.2E14 They unite ith "ortals, ho, as in the5an&"ai!en tales, lose their fairy bri!es through breaking a tabu. 6n

"any ?elsh tales the bri!e is obtaine! by throing brea! an! cheese on

the aters, hen she a%%ears ith an ol! "an ho has all the strength of

youth. :e %resents his !aughter an! a nu"ber of fairy ani"als to the

"ortal. ?hen she !isa%%ears into the aters after the breaking of the

tabu, the lake is so"eti"es !raine! in or!er to reco#er her the father

then a%%ears an! threatens to sub"erge the hole !istrict. 9ather an!

!aughters are earlier lake !i#inities, an! in the brea! an! cheese e



"ay see a relic of the offerings to these.2E-4

:u"an sacrifice to ater&!i#inities is suggeste! by the belief that

ater&"onsters !e#our hu"an beings, an! by the tra!ition that a ri#er

clai"s its toll of #icti"s e#ery year. 6n %o%ular rhy"es the annual

character of the sacrifice is hinte! at, an! ?elsh legen! tells of a

#oice hear! once a year fro" ri#ers or lakes, crying, The hour is co"e,

but the "an is not.2E24 :ere there is the trace of an aban!one! custo"

of sacrifice an! of the tra!itional i!ea of the anger of the !i#inity at

being neglecte!. 5uch s%irits or go!s, like the ater&"onsters, oul! be

e#er on the atch to ca%ture those ho tres%asse! on their !o"ain. 6n

so"e cases the #icti" is su%%ose! to be clai"e! on Mi!su""er e#e, the

ti"e of the sacrifice in the %agan %erio!.2E34 The s%irits of ells ha!

also a har"ful as%ect to those, at least, ho shoe! irre#erence in

a%%roaching the". This is seen in legen!s about the !anger of looking

rashly into a ell or neglecting to co#er it, or in the belief that one

"ust not look back after #isiting the ell. 5%irits of ells ere also

besought to !o har" to ene"ies.

egen!s telling of the !anger of re"o#ing or altering a ell, or of the

ell "o#ing elsehere because a o"an ashe! her han!s in it, %oint to

ol! tabus concerning ells. Boan!, ife of <echtain, ent to the fairy

ell hich he an! his cu%&bearers alone "ight #isit, an! hen she shoe!

her conte"%t for it, the aters rose an! !estroye! her. They no flo as

the ri#er Boyne. 5inen! "et ith a si"ilar fate for intru!ing on

Connla's ell, in this case the %ursuing aters beca"e the 5hannon.2EF4

These are #ariants of a story hich "ight be use! to eI%lain the origin

of any ri#er, but the legen!s suggest that certain ells ere tabu to

o"en because certain branches of knole!ge, taught by the ell, "ust be

reser#e! for "en.2E4 The legen!s sai! in effect, 5ee hat ca"e ofo"en obtru!ing beyon! their %ro%er s%here. 5a#age "ysteries are

usually tabu to o"en, ho also eIclu!e "en fro" their sacre! rites. 8n

the other han!, as all tribal lore as once in the han!s of the ise

o"an, such tabus an! legen!s "ay ha#e arisen hen "en began to clai"

such lore. 6n other legen!s o"en are connecte! ith ells, as the

guar!ians ho "ust kee% the" locke! u% sa#e hen ater as !ran. ?hen

the o"an neglecte! to re%lace the co#er, the aters burst forth,

o#erhel"ing her, an! for"e! a loch.214 The o"an is the %riestess of

the ell ho, neglecting %art of its ritual, is %unishe!. /#en in recent

ti"es e fin! sacre! ells in charge of a o"an ho instructs the

#isitors in the !ue ritual to be %erfor"e!.21*4 6f such legen!s an!sur#i#als thus %oint to for"er Celtic %riestesses of ells, these are

%arallele! by the <orse :orgabru!ar, guar!ians of ells, no el#es

li#ing in the aters.21+4 That such legen!s are base! on the ritual of

ell&orshi% is suggeste! by Boan!'s alking three ti"es Ki!!ershinsK

roun! the ell, instea! of the custo"ary K!eiseilK. The !ue ritual "ust

be obser#e!, an! the stories are a arning against its neglect.

6n s%ite of tenty centuries of Christianity an! the anathe"as of saints



an! councils, the ol! %agan %ractices at healing ells ha#e sur#i#e!&&a

striking instance of hu"an conser#atis". 5. Patrick foun! the %agans of

his !ay orshi%%ing a ell calle! K5lanK, health&gi#ing, an! offering

sacrifices to it,21E4 an! the 6rish %easant to&!ay has no !oubt that

there is so"ething !i#ine about his holy ells. The Celts brought the

belief in the !i#inity of s%rings an! ells ith the", but oul!

naturally a!o%t local cults here#er they foun! the". Afterar!s the

Church %lace! the ol! %agan ells un!er the %rotection of saints, but

%art of the ritual often re"aine! unchange!. :ence "any ells ha#e been

#enerate! for ages by !ifferent races an! through changes in religion

an! %olity. Thus at the ther"al s%rings of icarello offerings ha#e been

foun! hich sho that their cult has continue! fro" the 5tone Age,

through the BronHe Age, to the !ays of Ro"an ci#ilisation, an! so into

"o!ern ti"es nor is this a solitary instance.2114 But it ser#es to

sho that all races, high an! lo, %reser#e the great outlines of

%ri"iti#e nature religion unchange!. 6n all %robability the ritual of

the healing ells has also re"aine! in great %art unaltere!, an!

here#er it is foun! it follos the sa"e general ty%e. The %atient

%era"bulate! the ell three ti"es K!eiseilK or sun&ise, taking care notto utter a or!. Then he knelt at the ell an! %raye! to the !i#inity

for his healing. 6n "o!ern ti"es the saint, but occasionally the ell

itself, is %raye! to.21-4 Then he !rank of the aters, bathe! in the",

or la#e! his li"bs or sores, %robably atten!e! by the %riestess of the

ell. :a#ing %ai! her !ues, he "a!e an offering to the !i#inity of the

ell, an! affiIe! the ban!age or %art of his clothing to the ell or a

tree near by, that through it he "ight be in continuous Kra%%ortK ith

the healing influences. Ritual for"ulae %robably acco"%anie! these acts,

but otherise no or! as s%oken, an! the %atient "ust not look back on

lea#ing the ell. 5%ecial ti"es, Beltane, Mi!su""er, or August *st, ere

fa#ourable for such #isits,2124 an! here a %atient as too ill to%resent hi"self at the ell, another "ight %erfor" the ritual for

hi".2134

The rag or clothing hung on the tree see"s to connect the s%irit of the

tree ith that of the ell, an! tree an! ell are often foun! together.

But so"eti"es it is thron into the ell, just as the Gaulish #illagers

of 5. Gregory's !ay thre offerings of cloth an! ool into a sacre!

lake.21F4 The rag is e#en no regar!e! in the light of an offering, an!

such offerings, #arying fro" #aluable articles of clothing to "ere rags,

are still hung on sacre! trees by the folk. 6t thus %robably has alays

ha! a sacrificial as%ect in the ritual of the ell, but as "agic an!religion constantly blen!, it ha! also its "agical as%ect. The rag, once

in contact ith the %atient, transferre! his !isease to the tree, or,

being still subtly connecte! ith hi", through it the healing %ro%erties

%asse! o#er to hi".

The offering thron into the ell&&a %in, coin, etc., "ay also ha#e this

!ouble as%ect. The sore is often %ricke! or rubbe! ith the %in as if to

transfer the !isease to the ell, an! if %icke! u% by another %erson,



the !isease "ay %ass to hi". This is also true of the coin.214 But

other eIa"%les sho the sacrificial nature of the %in or other trifle,

hich is %robably sy"bolic or a sur#i#al of a "ore costly offering. 6n

so"e cases it is thought that those ho !o not lea#e it at the ell fro"

hich they ha#e !runk ill !ie of thirst, an! here a coin is offere! it

is often su%%ose! to !isa%%ear, being taken by the s%irit of the

ell.2-4 The coin has clearly the nature of an offering, an! so"eti"es

it "ust be of gol! or sil#er, hile the antiLuity of the custo" on

Celtic groun! is seen by the classical !escri%tions of the coins

glittering in the %ool of Clitu"nus an! of the gol! of Toulouse hi! in

sacre! tanks.2-*4 6t is also an ol! an! i!es%rea! belief that all

ater belongs to so"e !i#ine or "onstrous guar!ian, ho ill not %art

ith any of it ithout a KLui! %ro LuoK. 6n "any cases the to rites of

rag an! %in are not both use!, an! this "ay sho that originally they

ha! the sa"e %ur%ose&&"agical or sacrificial, or %erha%s both. 8ther

sacrifices ere also "a!e&&an ani"al, foo!, or an KeI #otoK, the last

occurring e#en in late sur#i#als as at 5. Thene's ?ell, Glasgo, here

e#en in the eighteenth century tin cut to re%resent the !isease! "e"ber

as %lace! on the tree, or at 5. ?inifre!'s ?ell in ?ales, herecrutches ere left.

Certain aters ha! the %oer of ejecting the !e"on of "a!ness. Besi!es

!rinking, the %atient as thron into the aters, the shock being

inten!e! to !ri#e the !e"on aay, as elsehere !e"ons are eIorcise! by

flagellation or beating. The !i#inity of the aters ai!e! the %rocess,

an! an offering as usually "a!e to hi". 6n other cases the sacre!

aters ere su%%ose! to ar! off !isease fro" the !istrict or fro" those

ho !rank of the". 8r, again, they ha! the %oer of conferring

fertility. ?o"en "a!e %ilgri"ages to ells, !rank or bathe! in the

aters, i"%lore! the s%irit or saint to grant the" offs%ring, an! "a!e a!ue offering.2-+4 5%irit or saint, by a transfer of his %oer, %ro!uce!

fruitfulness, but the i!ea as in har"ony ith the recognise! %oer of

ater to %urify, strengthen, an! heal. ?o"en, for a si"ilar reason,

!rank or ashe! in the aters or ore so"e articles !i%%e! in the", in

or!er to ha#e an easy !eli#ery or abun!ance of "ilk.2-E4

The aters also ga#e oracles, their "etho! of floing, the a"ount of

ater in the ell, the a%%earance or non&a%%earance of bubbles at the

surface hen an offering as thron in, the sinking or floating of

#arious articles, all in!icating hether a cure as likely to occur,

hether fortune or "isfortune aaite! the inLuirer, or, in the case ofgirls, hether their lo#ers oul! be faithful. The "o#e"ents of the

ani"al guar!ian of the ell ere also o"inous to the #isitor.2-14

Ri#ers or ri#er !i#inities ere also a%%eale! to. 6n cases of sus%ecte!

fi!elity the Celts !elling by the Rhine %lace! the nely&born chil! in

a shiel! on the aters. 6f it floate! the "other as innocent if it

sank it as alloe! to !ron, an! she as %ut to !eath.2--4 Girls hose

%urity as sus%ecte! ere si"ilarly teste!, an! 5. Gregory of Tours

tells ho a o"an accuse! of a!ultery as %ro#e! by being thron into



the 5aone.2-24 The "e!iae#al itch or!eal by ater is connecte! ith

this custo", hich is, hoe#er, i!es%rea!.2-34

The "ale#olent as%ect of the s%irit of the ell is seen in the cursing

ells of hich it as thought that hen so"e article inscribe! ith an

ene"y's na"e as thron into the" ith the acco"%ani"ent of a curse, the

s%irit of the ell oul! cause his !eath. 6n so"e cases the curse as

inscribe! on a lea!en tablet thron into the aters, just as, in other

cases, a %rayer for the offerer's benefit as engra#e! on it. 8r, again,

objects o#er hich a char" ha! been sai! ere %lace! in a ell that the

#icti" ho !re ater "ight be injure!. An eIcellent instance of a

cursing&ell is that of 9ynnon /lian in )enbigh, hich "ust once ha#e

ha! a guar!ian %riestess, for in *F*- an ol! o"an ho ha! charge of it

%resi!e! at the cere"ony. 5he rote the na"e of the #icti" in a book,

recei#ing a gift at the sa"e ti"e. A %in as !ro%%e! into the ell in

the na"e of the #icti", an! through it an! through knole!ge of his

na"e, the s%irit of the ell acte! u%on hi" to his hurt.2-F4 8b#iously

rites like these, in hich "agic an! religion "ingle, are not %urely

Celtic, but it is of interest to note their eIistence in Celtic lan!san! a"ong Celtic folk.

988T<8T/5(

-34 K/thnol. in 9olkloreK, *1 f.

-F4 )'Arbois, KP:K ii. *E+, *2 )ottin, +1.

-4 Justin, IIIii. E 5trabo, i#. *. *E.

24 5. Gregory, K6n Glor. Conf.K ch. +. Perha%s the feast an!offerings ere inten!e! to cause rain in ti"e of !rought. 5ee %. E+*,

KinfraK.

2*4 A!a""an, Kita Colu".K ii. *.

2+4 5ee :ol!er, Ks.#.K

2E4 )'Arbois, KRCK I. *2F, Ii#. E33 KC6K Iii. EE Pro%ertius, i#.

*. 1*.

214 5ee %. E1, KinfraK.

2-4 Cf. Ptole"y's Greek( )eouana4 an! Greek( )eouna4 >ii. E. *, **.

+@ the 5cots an! /nglish )ee the )i#y in ?ales )e#e, )i#e, an!

)i#ette in 9rance )e#on in /nglan! )e#a in 5%ain >Ptole"y's Greek(

)eoua4, ii. 2. F@. The 5hannon is surna"e! e#en in the se#enth century

the go!!ess >KTri%. ifeK, E*E@.

224 :ol!er, Ks.#.K )'Arbois, KP:K ii. **, thinks KMatronaK is



igurian. But it see"s to ha#e strong Celtic affinities.

234 Rhy4s, K:K +3&+, KRCK i#. *E3.

2F4 8n the hole subject see Pictet, uelLues no"s celtiLues !e

ri#ieres, KRCK ii. * f. 8rosius, #. *-. 2, !escribes the sacrifices of

gol!, sil#er, an! horses, "a!e to the Rhone.

24 Maury, *F. By eItension of this belief any !i#inity "ight a%%ear

by the haunte! s%ring. 5. Patrick an! his syno! of bisho%s at an 6rish

ell ere su%%ose! to be Ksi!K or go!s >%. 21, Ksu%raK.@ By a fairy ell

Jeanne !'Arc ha! her first #ision.

2*4 Greg. Tours, Kita Patr.K c. 2.

2**4 5ee Reinach, KCatal. 5o""aireK, +E, **- Bau!ot, KRa%%ort sur les

fouilles faits auI sources !e la 5eineK, ii. *+ KRCK ii. +2.

2*+4 9or these tablets see <icolson, K=eltic 5tu!iesK, *E* f. Jullian,KRCK *FF.

2*E4 5ebillot, ii. *-.

2*14 Prologue to Chrestien's KConte !u GraalK.

2*-4 5ebillot, ii. ++ f.

2*24 6bi!. *2&*3 Martin, *1&*1* )alyell, 1**.

2*34 Rhy4s, KC9K i. E22 K9olk&oreK, #iii. +F*. 6f the fisha%%eare! hen an in#ali! !rank of the ell, this as a goo! o"en. 9or

the custo" of burying sacre! ani"als, see :ero!, ii. 31 A/lian, Iiii.

+2.

2*F4 Go""e, K/thnol. in 9olkloreK, +.

2*4 KTri%. ifeK, **E Tigernach, KAnnalsK, A.). *2*.

2+4 Mackinley, *F1.

2+*4 Burne, K5hro%shire 9olk&oreK, 1*2 Ca"%bell, K?:TK ii. *1-.

2++4 K8l! 5tat. AccountK, Iii. 12-.

2+E4 5. Patrick, hen he cleare! 6relan! of ser%ents, !ealt in this ay

ith the orst s%eci"ens. 5. Colu"ba Luelle! a "onster hich terrifie!

the !ellers by the <ess. Joyce, KP<K i. *3 A!a"nan, Kita Colu"b.K

ii. +F =enne!y, *+, F+, +12 KRCK i#. *3+, *F2.



2+14 KRCK Iii. E13.

2+-4 9or the ater&horse, see Ca"%bell, K?:TK i#. E3 Mac!ongall, +1

Ca"%bell, K5u%erstitionsK, +E an! for the ManI KGlashtynK, a kin! of

ater&horse, see Rhy4s, KC9K i. +F-. 9or 9rench cognates, see

Berenger&9erau!, K5u%erstitions et 5ur#i#ancesK, i. E1 f.

2+24 Reinach, KCMRK i. 2E.

2+34 8rosius, #. *-. 2.

2+F4 K;K +KaK. 8f /ochai! is tol! a #ariant of the Mi!as story&&the

!isco#ery of his horse's ears. This is also tol! of abrai! ore >KRCK

ii. F =enne!y, +-2@ an! of =ing Marc'h in Brittany an! in ?ales >e

BraH, ii. 2 Rhy4s, KC9K +EE@. 8ther #ariants are foun! in

non&Celtic regions, so the story has no "ythological significance on

Celtic groun!.

2+4 Ptol. ii. +. 3.

2E4 Ca"%bell, K?:TK i#. E f. Rhy4s, KC9K i. +F1 ?al!ron, K6sle

of ManK, *13.

2E*4 Mac!ougall, +2 Ca"%bell, K5u%erstitionsK, *-. 9or the ;ruisg as

Bronie, see K?:TK ii. Graha", K5cenery of PerthshireK, *.

2E+4 Rhy4s, KC9K ii. 1E*, 12, K:K, -+ KBook of TaliesinK, #ii.

*E-.

2EE4 5ebillot, ii. E1 KK *2- K6TK i. 2.

2E14 5ebillot, ii. 1.

2E-4 5ee Pughe, KThe Physicians of My!!faiK, *F2* >these ere

!escen!ants of a ater&fairy@ Rhy4s, K$ Cy""ro!orK, i#. *21

:artlan!, KArch. Re#.K i. ++. 5uch ater&go!s ith lo#ely !aughters are

knon in "ost "ythologies&&the Greek <ereus an! the <erei!s, the

5la#onic ?ater&king, an! the Ja%anese go! 8cean&Possessor >Ralston,

K5ongs of the Russian Peo%leK, *1F Cha"berlain, K=o&ji&kiK, *+@.

Manannan ha! nine !aughters >?oo!&Martin, i. *E-@.

2E24 5ebillot, ii. EEF, E11 Rhy4s, KC9K i. +1E :en!erson,

K9olk&ore of the <. CountiesK, +2+. Cf. the rhy"es, 'Arguenon #eut

chaLue annee son %oisson, the fish being a hu"an #icti", an!

Bloo!&thirsty )ee

/ach year nee!s three,

But bonny )on,

5he nee!s none.



2E34 5ebillot, ii. EE.

2EF4 KRen!es )in!senchasK, KRCK I#. E*-, 1-3. 8ther instances of

%unish"ent folloing "isuse of a ell are gi#en in 5ebillot, ii. *+

Rees, -+, -+E. An 6rish lake no longer heale! after a hunter sa" his

"angy houn!s through it >Joyce, KP<K ii. @. A si"ilar legen! occurs

ith the otiaks, one of hose sacre! lakes as re"o#e! to its %resent

%osition because a o"an ashe! !irty clothes in it >K'Anthro%ologieK,

I#. *3@.

2E4 Rhy4s, KC9K i. E+.

214 Giral!. Ca"br. K6tin. :ib.K ii. Joyce, K8CRK 3 =enne!y, +F*

8'Gra!y, i. +EE 5kene, ii. - Ca"%bell, K?:TK ii. *13. The aters

often sub"erge a ton, no seen belo the a#es&&the ton of 6s in

Ar"orica >e BraH, i. %. IIIiI@, or the toers un!er ough <eagh. 6n

so"e ?elsh instances a "an is the cul%rit >Rhy4s, KC9K i. E3@. 6n

the case of ough <eagh the kee%er of the ell as iban, ho li#e! onin the aters as a "er"ai!. ater she as caught an! recei#e! the

ba%tis"al na"e of Muirghenn, sea&birth. :ere the "yth of a

ater&go!!ess, sai! to ha#e been ba%tiHe!, is attache! to the legen! of

the careless guar!ian of a s%ring, ith ho" she is i!entifie! >8'Gra!y,

ii. *F1, +2-@.

21*4 Roberts, KCa"brian Po%. AntiL.K +12 :unt, KPo%ular Ro"ancesK,

+* K<e 5tat. AccountK, I. E*E.

21+4 Thor%e, K<orthern Myth.K ii. 3F.

21E4 Joyce, KP<K ii. F1. K5lanK occurs in "any na"es of ells.

?ell&orshi% is !enounce! in the canons of the 9ourth Council of Arles.

2114 Cartailhac, K'Age !e PierreK, 31 Bulliot et Thiollier, KMission

!e 5. MartinK, 2.

21-4 5ebillot, ii. +F1.

2124 )alyell, 3&F 5ebillot, ii. +F+, E31 see %. +22, KinfraK.

2134 6 ha#e co"%ile! this account of the ritual fro" notices of the"o!ern usages in #arious orks. 5ee, e.g., Moore, K9olk&oreK, #. +*+

Mackinley, K%assi"K :o%e, K:oly ?ellsK Rhy4s, KC9K 5ebillot, *3-

f. )iIon, KGairlochK, *- f.

21F4 Bran!, ii. 2F Greg. K6n Glor. Conf.K c. +.

214 5ebillot, ii. +E, +2 K9olk&oreK, i#. --.



2-4 Mackinley, *1 5ebillot, ii. +2.

2-*4 K9olk&oreK, iii. 23 KAthenaeu"K, *FE, 1*- Pliny, K/%.K #iii. F

5trabo, i#. +F3 )io!. 5ic. #. .

2-+4 ?alker, KProc. 5oc. Ant. 5cot.K #ol. #. 5ebillot, ii. +E+. 6n

so"e early 6rish instances a or" salloe! ith the aters by a o"an

causes %regnancy. 5ee %. E-+, KinfraK.

2-E4 5ebillot, ii. +E-&+E2.

2-14 5ee e BraH, i. 2* K9olk&oreK, #. +*1 Rhy4s, KC9K i. E21

)alyell, -2&-3 5cott, KMinstrelsyK, 6ntro!. Iliii Martin, 3

5ebillot, ii. +1+ f. KRCK ii. 1F2.

2--4 Jullian, K/%. to MaIi"inK, *2. The %ractice "ay ha#e been

connecte! ith that note! by Aristotle, of %lunging the nely&born into

a ri#er, to strengthen it, as he says >KPol.K #ii. *-. +@, but "ore

%robably as a ba%tis"al or %urificatory rite. 5ee %. E, KinfraK.

2-24 efe#re, Kes GauloisK, * Michelet, K8rigines !u !roit

francaisK, +2F.

2-34 5ee eIa"%les of its use in Post, KGrun!riss !er /thnol.

Juris%ru!enHK, ii. 1- f.

2-F4 Roberts, KCa"brian Po%ular AntiLuitiesK, +12.

C:APT/R Q666.

TR// A<) PA<T ?8R5:6P.

The Celts ha! their on cult of trees, but they a!o%te! local

cults&&igurian, 6berian, an! others. The K9agus )eusK >the !i#ine

beech@, the K5eI arborK or K5eI arboresK of Pyrenean inscri%tions, an!

an anony"ous go! re%resente! by a conifer on an altar at Toulouse,

%robably %oint to local igurian tree cults continue! by the Celts intoRo"an ti"es.2-4 9orests ere also %ersonifie! or rule! by a single

go!!ess, like K)ea Ar!uinnaK of the Ar!ennes an! K)ea AbnobaK of the

Black 9orest.224 But "ore %ri"iti#e i!eas %re#aile!, like that hich

assigne! a hole class of tree&!i#inities to a forest, e.g. the K9atae

)er#onesK, s%irits of the oak&oo!s of <orthern 6taly.22*4 Grou%s of

trees like K5eI arboresK ere #enerate!, %erha%s for their height,

isolation, or so"e other %eculiarity.



)r. /#ans argues that the original holy object ithin the central

triliths of 5tonehenge as a sacre! tree, an oak, i"age of the Celtic

eus. The tree an! the stones, once associate! ith ancestor orshi%,

ha! beco"e sy"bols of a "ore celestial 5%irit or 5%irits than those of

!e%arte! hu"an beings.234 But 5tonehenge has no been %ro#e! to ha#e

been in eIistence before the arri#al of the Celts, hence such a cult

"ust ha#e been %re&Celtic, though it "ay Luite ell ha#e been a!o%te! by

the Celts. ?hether this hy%othetical cult as %ractise! by a tribe, a

grou% of tribes, or by the hole %eo%le, "ust re"ain obscure, an!,

in!ee!, it "ay ell be Luestione! hether 5tonehenge as e#er "ore than

the scene of so"e ancestral rites.

8ther trees&&the ye, the cy%ress, the al!er, an! the ash, ere

#enerate!, to ju!ge by hat ucan relates of the sacre! gro#e at

Marseilles. The 6rish )rui!s attribute! s%ecial #irtues to the haHel,

roan, an! ye, the oo! of hich as use! in "agical cere"onies

!escribe! in 6rish teIts.23*4 9ires of roan ere lit by the )rui!s of

ri#al ar"ies, an! incantations sai! o#er the" in or!er to !isco"fit the

o%%osing host,23+4 an! the oo! of all these trees is still belie#e! tobe efficacious against fairies an! itches.

The 6rish KbileK as a sacre! tree, of great age, groing o#er a holy

ell or fort. 9i#e of the" are !escribe! in the K)in!senchasK, an! one

as an oak, hich not only yiel!e! acorns, but nuts an! a%%les.23E4 The

"ythic trees of /lysiu" ha! the sa"e #arie! fruitage, an! the reason in

both cases is %erha%s the fact that hen the culti#ate! a%%le took the

%lace of acorns an! nuts as a foo! sta%le, or!s signifying nut or

acorn ere transferre! to the a%%le. A "yth of trees on hich all

these fruits gre "ight then easily arise. Another 6rish KbileK as a

ye !escribe! in a %oe" as a fir" strong go!, hile such %hrases inthis %oe" as or!&%ure "an, ju!g"ent of origin, s%ell of

knole!ge, "ay ha#e so"e reference to the custo" of riting !i#inations

in ogha" on ro!s of ye. The other KbileK ere ash&trees, an! fro" one

of the" the K9ir BileK, "en of the tree, ere na"e!&&%erha%s a

tote"&clan.2314 The li#es of kings an! chiefs a%%ear to ha#e been

connecte! ith these trees, %robably as re%resentati#es of the s%irit of

#egetation e"bo!ie! in the tree, an! un!er their sha!o they ere

inaugurate!. But as a substitute for the king as slain, so !oubtless

these %re&e"inent sacre! trees ere too sacre!, too "uch charge! ith

su%ernatural force, to be cut !on an! burne!, an! the yearly ritual

oul! be %erfor"e! ith another tree. But in ti"e of feu! one tribeglorie! in !estroying the KbileK of another an! e#en in the tenth

century, hen the Kbile "aighe A!airK as !estroye! by Maelocohlen the

act as regar!e! ith horror. But, 8 rea!er, this !ee! !i! not %ass

un%unishe!.23-4 8f another KbileK, that of Borrisokane, it as sai!

that any house in hich a frag"ent of it as burne! oul! itself be

!estroye! by fire.2324

Tribal an! %ersonal na"es %oint to belief in !escent fro" tree go!s or



se"i&Christian inhabitants hung ani"als' hea!s ith "uch ribal!ry. At

last 5. Ger"anus !estroye! it, but at the risk of his life. 5. Martin of

Tours as alloe! to !estroy a te"%le, but the %eo%le oul! not %er"it

hi" to attack a "uch #enerate! %ine&tree hich stoo! besi!e it&&an

eIcellent eIa"%le of the ay in hich the "ore official %aganis" fell

before Christianity, hile the ol!er religion of the soil, fro" hich it

s%rang, coul! not be entirely era!icate!.2F14 The Church often effecte!

a co"%ro"ise. 6"ages of the go!s affiIe! to trees ere re%lace! by those

of the irgin, but ith curious results. egen!s arose telling ho the

faithful ha! been le! to such trees an! there !isco#ere! the i"age of

the Ma!onna "iraculously %lace! a"ong the branches.2F-4 These are

analogous to the legen!s of the !isco#ery of i"ages of the irgin in the

earth, such i"ages being really those of the KMatresK.

Re%resentations of sacre! trees are occasionally "et ith on coins,

altars, an! KeI #otosK.2F24 6f the inter%retation be correct hich sees

a re%resentation of %art of the Cuchulainn legen! on the Paris an!

Tre#es altars, the trees figure! there oul! not necessarily be sacre!.

But otherise they "ay !e%ict sacre! trees.

?e no turn to Pliny's account of the "istletoe rite. The )rui!s hel!

nothing "ore sacre! than this %lant an! the tree on hich it gre,

%robably an oak. 8f it gro#es ere for"e!, hile branches of the oak

ere use! in all religious rites. /#erything groing on the oak ha! been

sent fro" hea#en, an! the %resence of the "istletoe shoe! that Go! ha!

selecte! the tree for es%ecial fa#our. Rare as it as, hen foun! the

"istletoe as the object of a careful ritual. 8n the siIth !ay of the

"oon it as culle!. Pre%arations for a sacrifice an! feast ere "a!e

beneath the tree, an! to hite bulls hose horns ha! ne#er been boun!

ere brought there. A )rui!, cla! in hite, ascen!e! the tree an! cutthe "istletoe ith a gol!en sickle. As it fell it as caught in a hite

cloth the bulls ere then sacrifice!, an! %rayer as "a!e that Go!

oul! "ake :is gift %ros%erous to those on ho" :e ha! bestoe! it. The

"istletoe as calle! the uni#ersal healer, an! a %otion "a!e fro" it

cause! barren ani"als to be fruitful. 6t as also a re"e!y against all

%oisons.2F34 ?e can har!ly belie#e that such an elaborate ritual "erely

le! u% to the "e!ico&"agical use of the "istletoe. Possibly, of course,

the rite as an attenuate! sur#i#al of so"ething hich ha! once been

"ore i"%ortant, but it is "ore likely that Pliny gi#es only a fe

%icturesLue !etails an! %asses by the KrationaleK of the ritual. :e !oes

not tell us ho the Go! of ho" he s%eaks as, %erha%s the sun&go! orthe go! of #egetation. As to the gift, it as %robably in his "in! the

"istletoe, but it "ay Luite ell ha#e "eant the gift of groth in fiel!

an! fol!. The tree as %erha%s cut !on an! burne! the oIen "ay ha#e

been incarnations of a go! of #egetation, as the tree also "ay ha#e

been. ?e nee! not here re%eat the "eaning hich has been gi#en to the

ritual,2FF4 but it "ay be a!!e! that if this "eaning is correct, the

rite %robably took %lace at the ti"e of the Mi!su""er festi#al, a

festi#al of groth an! fertility. Mistletoe is still gathere! on



Mi!su""er e#e an! use! as an anti!ote to %oisons or for the cure of

oun!s. 6ts )rui!ic na"e is still %reser#e! in Celtic s%eech in or!s

signifying all&healer, hile it is also calle! Ksugh an !araichK, sa%

of the oak, an! K)rui!h lusK, )rui!'s ee!.2F4

Pliny !escribes other Celtic herbs of grace. K5elagoK as culle! ithout

use of iron after a sacrifice of brea! an! ine&&%robably to the s%irit

of the %lant. The %erson gathering it ore a hite robe, an! ent ith

unsho! feet after ashing the". Accor!ing to the )rui!s, K5elagoK

%reser#e! one fro" acci!ent, an! its s"oke hen burne! heale! "ala!ies

of the eye.24 K5a"olusK as %lace! in !rinking troughs as a re"e!y

against !isease in cattle. 6t as culle! by a %erson fasting, ith the

left han! it "ust be holly u%roote!, an! the gatherer "ust not look

behin! hi".2*4 Ker#ainK as gathere! at sunrise after a sacrifice to

the earth as an eI%iation&&%erha%s because its surface as about to be

!isturbe!. ?hen it as rubbe! on the bo!y all ishes ere gratifie! it

!is%elle! fe#ers an! other "ala!ies it as an anti!ote against

ser%ents an! it conciliate! hearts. A branch of the !rie! herb use! to

as%erge a banLuet&hall "a!e the guests "ore con#i#ial2+4

The ritual use! in gathering these %lants&&silence, #arious tabus,

ritual %urity, sacrifice&&is foun! here#er %lants are culle! hose

#irtue lies in this that they are %ossesse! by a s%irit. 8ther %lants

are still use! as char"s by "o!ern Celtic %easants, an!, in so"e cases,

the ritual of gathering the" rese"bles that !escribe! by Pliny.2E4 6n

6rish sagas %lants ha#e "agical %oers. 9airy herbs %lace! in a bath

restore! beauty to o"en bathing therein.214 )uring the KTainK

Cuchulainn's oun!s ere heale! ith balsa"s an! healing herbs of fairy

%otency, an! )iancecht use! si"ilar herbs to restore the !ea! at the

battle of Mag&ture!.2-4

988T<8T/5(

2-4 5acaHe, K6nscr. !es Pyren.K +-- :irschfel!, K5itHungsberichteK

>Berlin, *F2@, 11F.

224 KC6K #i. 12 KC6RK *2-1, *2FE.

22*4 )'Arbois, Kes CeltesK, -+.

22+4 ucan, KPhar.K ;sener's e!., E+ 8rosius, #. *2. 2 )io Cass.lIii. 2.

22E4 Pliny, I#i. 11. The 5choliast on ucan says that the )rui!s

!i#ine! ith acorns >;sener, EE@.

2214 MaI. Tyr. K)iss.K #iii. F 5tokes, KRCK i. +-.

22-4 e BraH, ii. *F.



2224 Mr. Cha!ick >KJour. Anth. 6nst.K III. +2@ connects this high go!

ith thun!er, an! regar!s the Celtic eus >Taranis, in his o%inion@ as a

thun!er&go!. The oak as associate! ith this go! because his

orshi%%ers !elt un!er oaks.

2234 :elbig, K)ie 6taliker in !er PoebeneK, *2 f.

22F4 Mannhar!t, KBau"kultusK 9raHer, KGol!en BoughKO+ iii. *F.

224 9raHer, Kloc. cit.K

234 /#ans, KArch. Re#.K i. E+3 f.

23*4 Joyce, K5:K i. +E2.

23+4 8'Curry, KMCK i. +*E.

23E4 KK *KbK KRennes )in!senchasK, KRCK I#. 1+.

2314 KRCK I#. 1--, I#i. +3 :ennessey, KChron. 5cot.K 32.

23-4 =eating, --2 Joyce, KP<K i. 1.

2324 ?oo!&Martin, ii. *-.

2334 )'Arbois, Kes CeltesK, -* Jullian, 1*.

23F4 Cook, K9olk&oreK, I#ii. 2.

234 5ee 5ebillot, i. +E e BraH, i. +- K9olk&ore JournalK, #.

+*F K9olk&ore Recor!K, *FF+.

2F4 al. Probus, KCo"". in GeorgicaK, ii. F1.

2F*4 Miss :ull, -E 8'8urry, KM5. Mat.K 12-. ?riting tablets, "a!e fro"

each of the trees hen they ere cut !on, s%rang together an! coul! not

be se%arate!.

2F+4 K5tat. AccountK, iii. +3 Moore, *-* 5ebillot, i. +2+, +3.

2FE4 )o" Martin, i. *+1 Kita 5. /ligiiK, ii. *2.

2F14 KActa 5anct.K >Bollan!.@, July E* 5ul%. 5e#er. Kita 5. Mart.K

1-3.

2F-4 Gri"", KTeut. Myth.K 32 Maury, *E, +. The story of beautiful

o"en foun! in trees "ay be connecte! ith the custo" of %lacing i"ages

in trees, or ith the belief that a go!!ess "ight be seen e"erging fro"



the tree in hich she !elt.

2F24 )e la Tour, KAtlas !es Monnaies GaulK, +2, +F2 Reinach, KCatal.

5o""aireK, +.

2F34 Pliny, K:<K I#i. 11.

2FF4 5ee %. *2+, Ksu%raK.

2F4 5ee Ca"eron, KGaelic <a"es of PlantsK, 1-. 6n Gregoire !e Rostren,

K)ict. francois&celt.K *3E+, "istletoe is translate! by K!our&!eroK,

oak&ater, an! is sai! to be goo! for se#eral e#ils.

24 Pliny, IIi#. **.

2*4 6bi!.

2+4 6bi!. II#. .

2E4 5ee Car"ichael, KCar"ina Ga!elicaK )e <ore, KCoutu"es ... !es

Pro#inces !e 9ranceK, *- f. 5au#e, KRCK #i. 23, KCMK iI. EE*.

214 8'Gra!y, ii. *+2.

2-4 Miss :ull, *3+ see %. 33, Ksu%raK.

C:APT/R Q6.

A<6MA ?8R5:6P.

Ani"al orshi% %ure an! si"%le ha! !ecline! a"ong the Celts of historic

ti"es, an! ani"als ere no regar!e! "ainly as sy"bols or attributes of

!i#inities. The ol!er cult ha! been connecte! ith the %astoral stage in

hich the ani"als ere !i#ine, or ith the agricultural stage in hich

they re%resente! the corn&s%irit, an! %erha%s ith tote"is". ?e shall

stu!y here >*@ traces of the ol!er ani"al cults >+@ the transfor"ation

of ani"al go!s into sy"bols an! >E@ traces of tote"is".

*.

The %resence of a bull ith three cranes >KTar#os TrigaranosK@ on the

Paris altar, along ith the go!s /sus, Ju%%iter, an! ulcan, suggests

that it as a !i#ine ani"al, or the subject of a !i#ine "yth. As has



been seen, this bull "ay be the bull of the KTain bo CuailgneK. Both it

an! its o%%onent ere reincarnations of the sine&her!s of to go!s. 6n

the 6rish sagas reincarnation is only attribute! to go!s or heroes, an!

this "ay %oint to the !i#inity of the bulls. ?e ha#e seen that this an!

another altar "ay !e%ict so"e "yth in hich the bull as the incarnation

of a tree or #egetation s%irit. The !i#ine nature of the bull is

atteste! by its %resence on Gaulish coins as a religious sy"bol, an! by

i"ages of the ani"al ith three horns&&an ob#ious sy"bol of

!i#inity.224 8n such an i"age in bronHe the Ci"bri, Celticise!

Ger"ans, sore. The i"ages are %re&Ro"an, since they are foun! at

:allsta!t an! a Tene. Personal na"es like )onnotaurus >the eLui#alent

of the K)onn TaruosK of the KTainK@ or )eiotaros >!i#ine bull@, sho

that "en ere calle! after the !i#ine ani"al.234 5i"ilarly "any

%lace&na"es in hich the or! KtaruosK occurs, in <orthern 6taly, the

Pyrenees, 5cotlan!, 6relan!, an! elsehere, suggest that the %laces

bearing these na"es ere sites of a bull cult or that so"e "yth, like

that elaborate! in the KTainK, ha! been there localise!.2F4 But, as

%ossibly in the case of Cuchulainn an! the bull, the ani"al ten!e! to

beco"e the sy"bol of a go!, a ten!ency %erha%s ai!e! by the s%rea! ofMithrais" ith its sy"bolic bull. A go! Me!ros leaning on a bull is

re%resente! at :aguenau, %ossibly a for" of Mi!er or of Me!uris, a

surna"e of Toutatis, unless Me!ros is si"%ly Mithras.24 /choes of the

cult of the bull or co are hear! in 6rish tales of these ani"als

brought fro" the Ksi!K, or of "agic bulls or of cos hich %ro!uce!

enor"ous su%%lies of "ilk, or in saintly legen!s of oIen lea!ing a saint

to the site of his future church.34 These legen!s are also tol! of

the sine,3*4 an! they %erha%s arose hen a Christian church took the

%lace of the site of a local ani"al cult, legen! fusing the ol! an! the

ne cult by "aking the once !i#ine ani"al %oint out the site of the

church. A late relic of a bull cult "ay be foun! in the carni#al%rocession of the KBoeuf GrasK at Paris.

A cult of a sine&go! Moccus has been referre! to. The boar as a !i#ine

sy"bol on stan!ar!s, coins, an! altars, an! "any bronHe i"ages of the

ani"al ha#e been foun!. These ere te"%le treasures, an! in one case the

boar is three&horne!.3+4 But it as beco"ing the sy"bol of a go!!ess,

as is seen by the altars on hich it acco"%anies a go!!ess, %erha%s of

fertility, an! by a bronHe i"age of a go!!ess seate! on a boar. The

altars occur in Britain, of hich the ani"al "ay be the e"ble"&&the

Cale!onian "onster of Clau!ian's %oe".3E4 The Galatian Celts

abstaine! fro" eating the sine, an! there has alays been a %reju!iceagainst its flesh in the :ighlan!s. This has a tote"ic a%%earance.314

But the sine is estee"e! in 6relan!, an! in the teIts "onstrous sine

are the sta%le article of fa"ous feasts.3-4 These "ay ha#e been

legen!ary for"s of ol! sine&go!s, the feasts recalling sacrificial

feasts on their flesh. Magic sine ere also the i""ortal foo! of the

go!s. But the boar as tabu to certain %ersons, e.g. )iar"ai!, though

hether this is the attenuate! "e"ory of a clan tote" restriction is

uncertain. 6n ?elsh story the sine co"es fro" /lysiu"&&a "yth



eI%laining the origin of its !o"estication, hile !o"estication

certainly i"%lies an earlier cult of the ani"al. ?hen ani"als co"e to be

!o"esticate!, the ol! cult restrictions, e.g. against eating the",

usually %ass aay. 9or this reason, %erha%s, the Gauls, ho orshi%%e!

an anthro%o"or%hic sine&go!, trafficke! in the ani"al an! "ay ha#e

eaten it.324 ?elsh story also tells of the "agic boar, the KTrch

TrythK, hunte! by Arthur, %ossibly a folk&tale re"iniscence of a boar

!i#inity.334 Place&na"es also %oint to a cult of the sine, an! a

recollection of its !i#inity "ay un!erlie the nu"erous 6rish tales of

"agical sine.3F4 The "agic sine hich issue! fro" the ca#e of

Cruachan an! !estroye! the young cro%s are suggesti#e of the

therio"or%hic corn&s%irit in its occasional !estructi#e as%ect.34

Bones of the sine, so"eti"es cre"ate!, ha#e been foun! in Celtic gra#es

in Britain an! at :allsta!t, an! in one case the ani"al as burie! alone

in a tu"ulus at :allsta!t, just as sacre! ani"als ere burie! in /gy%t,

Greece, an! elsehere.3*4 ?hen the ani"al as burie! ith the !ea!, it

"ay ha#e been as a sacrifice to the ghost or to the go! of the

un!erorl!.

The !i#inity of the ser%ent is %ro#e! by the occurrence of a horne!

ser%ent ith tel#e Ro"an go!s on a Gallo&Ro"an altar.3**4 6n other

cases a horne! or ra"'s&hea!e! ser%ent a%%ears as the attribute of a

go!, an! e ha#e seen that the ra"'s&hea!e! ser%ent "ay be a fusion of

the ser%ent as a chthonian ani"al ith the ra", sacrifice! to the !ea!.

6n Greece )ionysus ha! the for" both of a bull an! a horne! ser%ent, the

horn being %erha%s !eri#e! fro" the bull sy"bol. M. Reinach clai"s that

the %ri"iti#e ele"ents of the 8r%hic "yth of the Thracian

)ionysos&agreus&&!i#ine ser%ents %ro!ucing an egg hence ca"e the

horne! snake agreus, occur in !islocate! for" in Gaul. There enlacing

ser%ents ere belie#e! to %ro!uce a "agic egg, an! there a horne!ser%ent as orshi%%e!, but as not connecte! ith the egg. But they "ay

once ha#e been connecte!, an! if so, there "ay be a co""on foun!ation

both for the Greek an! the Celtic conce%tions in a Celtic ele"ent in

Thrace.3*+4 The rese"blances, hoe#er, "ay be "ere coinci!ences, an!

horne! ser%ents are knon in other "ythologies&&the horn being %erha%s a

sy"bol of !i#inity. The horne! ser%ent so"eti"es acco"%anies a go! ho

has horns, %ossibly Cernunnos, the un!erorl! go!, in accor!ance ith

the chthonian character of the ser%ent.3*E4 6n the Cuchulainn cycle

oeg on his #isit to the 8ther&orl! sa to&hea!e! ser%ents&&%erha%s a

further hint of this as%ect of the ani"al.3*14

6n all these instances of ani"al cults eIa"%les of the ten!ency to "ake

the !i#ine ani"al anthro%o"or%hic ha#e been seen. ?e ha#e no to

consi!er so"e instances of the co"%lete anthro%o"or%hic %rocess.

+.



An ol! bear cult ga#e %lace to the cult of a bear go!!ess an! %robably

of a go!. At Berne&&an ol! Celtic %lace&na"e "eaning bear&&as foun! a

bronHe grou% of a go!!ess hol!ing a %atera ith fruit, an! a bear

a%%roaching her as if to be fe!. The inscri%tion runs, K)eae Artioni

icinia 5abinillaK.3*-4 A local bear&cult ha! once eIiste! at Berne,

an! is still recalle! in the %resence of the fa"ous bears there, but the

!i#ine bear ha! gi#en %lace to a go!!ess hose na"e an! sy"bol ere

ursine. 9ro" an ol! Celtic KArtosK, fe". KArtaK, bear, ere !eri#e!

#arious !i#ine na"es. 8f these K)ea Artio>n@K "eans bear go!!ess, an!

KArtaiosK, eLuate! ith Mercury, is %erha%s a bear go!.3*24 Another

bear go!!ess, An!arta, as honoure! at )ie >)ro"e@, the or! %erha%s

"eaning strong bear&&KAn!K& being an aug"enti#e.3*34 <u"erous

%lace&na"es !eri#e! fro" KArtosK %erha%s itness to a i!es%rea! cult of

the bear, an! the or! also occurs in ?elsh, an! 6rish %ersonal

na"es&&Arth"ael, Arthbiu, an! %ossibly Arthur, an! the nu"erous Arts of

6rish teIts. )escent fro" the !i#ine bear is also signifie! in na"es

like ?elsh KArthgenK, 6rish KArtiganK, fro" KArtigenosK, son of the

bear. Another Celtic na"e for bear as the Gaulish K"atuK, 6rish

K"athK, foun! in KMatugenosK, son of the bear, an! in MacMahon, hichis a corru%t for" of KMac&"ath&gha"hainK, son of the bear's son, or

of the bear.3*F4

5i"ilarly a cult of the stag see"s to ha#e gi#en %lace to that of a go!

ith stag's horns, re%resente! on "any bas&reliefs, an! %robably

connecte! ith the un!erorl!.3*4 The stag, as a grain&eater, "ay ha#e

been regar!e! as the e"bo!i"ent of the corn&s%irit, an! then associate!

ith the un!er&earth region hence the corn s%rang, by one of those

in#ersions of thought so co""on in the stage of transition fro" ani"al

go!s to go!s ith ani"al sy"bols. The elk "ay ha#e been orshi%%e! in

6relan!, an! a three antlere! stag is the subject of a story in the9ionn saga.3+4 6ts thir! antler, like the thir! horn of bull or boar,

"ay be a sign of !i#inity.

The horse ha! also been orshi%%e!, but a go!!ess /%ona >Gaul. Ke%o&sK,

horse@, %rotectress of horses an! asses, took its %lace, an! ha! a

far&s%rea! cult. 5he ri!es a horse or "are ith its foal, or is seate!

a"ong horses, or fee!s horses. A re%resentation of a "are suckling a

foal&&a !esign analogous to those in hich /%ona fee!s foals&&shos that

her %ri"iti#e eLuine nature ha! not been forgotten.3+*4 The Gauls ere

horse&rearers, an! /%ona as the go!!ess of the craft but, as in other

cases, a cult of the horse "ust ha#e %rece!e! its !o"estication, an! itsflesh "ay not ha#e been eaten, or, if so, only sacra"entally.3++4

9inally, the !i#ine horse beca"e the anthro%o"or%hic horse&go!!ess. :er

i"ages ere %lace! in stables, an! se#eral inscri%tions an! statuettes

ha#e been foun! in such buil!ings or in ca#alry barracks.3+E4 The

re"ains of the cult ha#e been foun! in the )anube an! Rhine #alleys, in

/astern Gaul, an! in <orthern 6taly, all Celtic regions, but it as

carrie! e#eryhere by Ro"an ca#alry recruite! fro" the Celtic

tribes.3+14 /%ona is associate! ith, an! often has, the sy"bols of the



KMatresK, an! one inscri%tion rea!s K/%onabusK, as if there ere a grou%

of go!!esses calle! /%ona.3+-4 A go!!ess ho %ro"ote! the fertility of

"ares oul! easily be associate! ith go!!esses of fertility. /%ona "ay

also ha#e been confuse! ith a ri#er&go!!ess concei#e! of as a s%irite!

stee!. ?ater&s%irits took that sha%e, an! the KMatresK ere also

ri#er&go!!esses.

A statuette of a horse, ith a !e!ication to a go! Ru!iobus, otherise

unknon, "ay ha#e been carrie! %rocessionally, hile a "ule has a

!e!ication to 5ego"o, eLuate! elsehere ith Mars. A "ule go! Mullo,

also eLuate! ith Mars, is "entione! on se#eral inscri%tions.3+24 The

connection ith Mars "ay ha#e been foun! in the fact that the 8ctober

horse as sacrifice! to hi" for fertility, hile the horse as %robably

associate! ith fertility a"ong the Celts. The horse as sacrifice! both

by Celts an! Teutons at the Mi!su""er festi#al, un!oubte!ly as a !i#ine

ani"al. Traces of the Celtic custo" sur#i#e in local legen!s, an! "ay be

inter%rete! in the fuller light of the Teutonic accounts. 6n 6relan! a

"an earing a horse's hea! rushe! through the fire, an! as su%%ose! to

re%resent all cattle in other or!s, he as a surrogate for the". Thelegen! of /ach abra, a horse hich li#e! in a "oun! an! issue! fro" it

e#ery Mi!su""er e#e to gi#e oracles for the co"ing year, is %robably

connecte! ith the Mi!su""er sacrifice of the horse.3+34 A"ong the

Teutons the horse as a !i#ine sacrificial ani"al, an! as also sacre!

to 9reyr, the go! of fertility, hile in Teutonic sur#i#als a horse's

hea! as %lace! in the Mi!su""er fire.3+F4 The horse as s%ora!ically

the re%resentati#e of the corn&s%irit, an! at Ro"e the 8ctober horse as

sacrifice! in that ca%acity an! for fertility.3+4 A"ong the Celts, the

horse sacrifice! at Mi!su""er "ay ha#e re%resente! the #egetation&s%irit

an! benefite! all !o"estic ani"als&&the ol! rite sur#i#ing in an

attenuate! for", as !escribe! abo#e.

Perha%s the go!!ess )a"ona as an ani"al !i#inity, if her na"e is

!eri#e! fro" K!a"atosK, shee%, cognate to ?elsh K!afa!K, shee%, an!

Gaelic K!a"hK, oI. 8ther !i#ine ani"als, as has been seen, ere

associate! ith the aters, an! the use of beasts an! bir!s in

!i#ination !oubtless %oints to their !i#ine character. A cult of

bir!&go!s "ay lurk behin! the !i#ine na"e Bran, ra#en, an! the

reference to the "agic bir!s of Rhiannon in the KTria!sK.

E.

Ani"al orshi% is connecte! ith tote"is", an! certain things %oint to

its eIistence a"ong the Celts, or to the eIistence of con!itions out of

hich tote"is" as elsehere !e#elo%e!. These are !escent fro" ani"als,

ani"al tabus, the sacra"ental eating of an ani"al, an! eIoga"y.

>*@ K)escent fro" ani"als.K&&Celtic na"es i"%lying !escent fro" ani"als



or %lants are of to classes, clan an! %ersonal na"es. 6f the latter are

tote"istic, they "ust be !eri#e! fro" the for"er, since tote"is" is an

affair of the clan, hile the so&calle! %ersonal tote", eIe"%lifie! by

the A"erican 6n!ian K"anitouK, is the guar!ian but ne#er the ancestor of

a "an. 5o"e clan na"es ha#e alrea!y been referre! to. 8thers are the

Bibroci of south&east Britain, %robably a bea#er clan >KbebrosK@, an!

the /burones, a ye&tree clan >[email protected] 6rish clans bore ani"al

na"es( so"e grou%s ere calle! cal#es, others griffins, others re!

!eer, an! a %lant na"e is seen in K9ir BileK, "en of the tree.3E*4

5uch clan tote"is" %erha%s un!erlies the stories of the !escen!ants of

the olf at 8ssory, ho beca"e ol#es for a ti"e as the result of a

saintly curse. 8ther instances of lycanthro%y ere associate! ith

certain fa"ilies.3E+4 The belief in lycanthro%y "ight easily attach

itself to eIisting olf&clans, the transfor"ation being then eI%laine!

as the result of a curse. The stories of Cor"ac "ac Art, suckle! by a

she&olf, of ughai! "ac Con, son of a olf&!og, suckle! by that

ani"al, an! of 8isin, hose "other as a fan, an! ho oul! not eat

#enison, are %erha%s tote"istic, hile to tote"is" or to a cult of

ani"als "ay be ascribe! hat early tra#ellers in 6relan! say of the%eo%le taking ol#es as go!&fathers an! %raying to the" to !o the" no

ill.3EE4 6n ?ales ban!s of arriors at the battle of Cattraeth are

!escribe! in 8neurin's KGo!o!inK as !ogs, ol#es, bears, an! ra#ens,

hile 8ein's ban! of ra#ens hich fought against Arthur, "ay ha#e been

a ra#en clan, later "isun!erstoo! as actual ra#ens.3E14 Certain grou%s

of )alria! 5cots bore ani"al na"es&&Cinel Gabran, ittle goat clan,

an! Cinel oarn, 9oI clan. Possibly the custo" of !enoting :ighlan!

clans by ani"al or %lant ba!ges "ay be connecte! ith a belief in

!escent fro" %lants or ani"als. 8n "any coins an ani"al is re%resente!

on horseback, %erha%s lea!ing a clan, as bir!s le! the Celts to the

)anube area, an! these "ay !e%ict "yths telling ho the clan tote"ani"al le! the clan to its %resent territory.3E-4 5uch "yths "ay

sur#i#e in legen!s relating ho an ani"al le! a saint to the site of his

church.3E24 Celtic arriors ore hel"ets ith horns, an! 6rish story

s%eaks of "en ith cat, !og, or goat hea!s.3E34 These "ay ha#e been "en

earing a hea!&gear for"e! of the skin or hea! of the clan tote", hence

re"e"bere! at a later ti"e as "onstrous beings, hile the horne! hel"ets

oul! be relate! to the sa"e custo". 5olinus !escribes the Britons as

earing ani"al skins before going into battle.3EF4 ?ere these skins of

tote" ani"als un!er hose %rotection they thus %lace! the"sel#esS The

for"s of beasts, bir!s, an! fishes hich the Cruithne or Picts

tattooe! on their bo!ies "ay ha#e been tote" "arks, hile the %aintingof their bo!ies ith oa! a"ong the southern Britons "ay ha#e been of

the sa"e character, though Caesar's or!s har!ly !enote this. Certain

"arks on faces figure! on Gaulish coins see" to be tattoo "arks.3E4

6t is not i"%ossible that an early olf&tote" "ay ha#e been associate!,

because of the ani"al's nocturnal an!erings in forests, ith the

un!erorl! hence, accor!ing to Celtic belief, "en s%rang an! hither

they returne!, an! hence all #egetation ca"e forth. The Gallo&Ro"an



5il#anus, %robably an un!erorl! go!, ears a olf&skin, an! "ay thus be

a olf&go!. There ere #arious ty%es of un!erorl! go!s, an! this

olf&ty%e&&%erha%s a local olf&tote" ancestor assi"ilate! to a local

)is%ater&&"ay ha#e been the go! of a clan ho i"%ose! its "ythic olf

origin on other clans. 5o"e Celtic bronHes sho a olf salloing a "an

ho offers no resistance, %robably because he is !ea!. The olf is "uch

bigger than the "an, an! hence "ay be a go!.314 These bronHes oul!

thus re%resent a belief setting forth the return of "en to their tote"

ancestor after !eath, or to the un!erorl! go! connecte! ith the tote"

ancestor, by saying that he !e#oure! the !ea!, like certain Polynesian

!i#inities an! the Greek /uryno"os.

6n "any in!i#i!ual na"es the first %art is the na"e of an ani"al or

%lant, the secon! is usually KgenosK, born fro", or son of, e.g.

Artigenos, Matugenos, son of the bear >KartosK, K"atuK&@ ;rogenos,

occurring as ;rogenertos, he ho has the strength of the son of the

urus Brannogenos, son of the ra#en Cunogenos, son of the

!og.31*4 These na"es "ay be !eri#e! fro" clan tote" na"es, but they

!ate back to a ti"e hen ani"als, trees, an! "en ere on a co""onfooting, an! the %ossibility of hu"an !escent fro" a tree or an ani"al

as belie#e! in. Professor Rhy4s has argue! fro" the freLuency of

%ersonal na"es in 6relan!, like Curoi, :oun! of Roi, Cu Corb, Corb's

:oun!, Mac Con, :oun!'s 5on, an! Maelchon, :oun!'s 5la#e, that

there eIiste! a !og tote" or go!, not of the Celts, but of a %re&Celtic

race.31+4 This assu"es that tote"is" as non&Celtic, an assu"%tion

base! on %reconcei#e! notions of hat Celtic institutions ought to ha#e

been. The na"es, it shoul! be obser#e!, are %ersonal, not clan na"es.

>+@ KAni"al tabus.K&&Besi!es the !islike of sine's flesh alrea!y note!

a"ong certain Celtic grou%s, the killing an! eating of the hare, hen,an! goose ere forbi!!en a"ong the Britons. Caesar says they bre! these

ani"als for a"use"ent, but this reason assigne! by hi" is !ran fro" his

knole!ge of the bree!ing of rare ani"als by rich Ro"ans as a %asti"e,

since he ha! no knole!ge of the bree!ing of sacre! ani"als hich ere

not eaten&&a co""on tote"ic or ani"al cult custo".31E4 The hare as

use! for !i#ination by Bou!icca,3114 !oubtless as a sacre! ani"al, an!

it has been foun! that a sacre! character still attaches to these

ani"als in ?ales. A cock or hen as cere"onially kille! an! eaten on

5hro#e Tues!ay, either as a for"er tote"ic ani"al, or, less likely, as a

re%resentati#e of the corn&s%irit. The hare is not kille! in certain

!istricts, but occasionally it is cere"onially hunte! an! slainannually, hile at yearly fairs the goose is sol! eIclusi#ely an!

eaten.31-4 /lsehere, e.g. in )e#on, a ra" or la"b is cere"onially

slain an! eaten, the eating being belie#e! to confer luck.3124 The

ill&luck su%%ose! to follo the killing of certain ani"als "ay also be

re"iniscent of tote"ic tabus. 9ish ere not eaten by the Pictish Meatae

an! Cale!onii, an! a !islike of eating certain fresh&ater fish as

obser#e! a"ong certain eighteenth century :ighlan!ers.3134 6t has been

alrea!y seen that certain fish li#ing in sacre! ells ere tabu, an!



ere belie#e! to gi#e oracles. :eron's flesh as !islike! in 6relan!,

an! it as consi!ere! unlucky to kill a san in the :ebri!es.31F4 9atal

results folloing u%on the killing or eating of an ani"al ith hich the

eater as connecte! by na"e or !escent are foun! in the 6rish sagas.

Conaire as son of a o"an an! a bir! hich coul! take hu"an sha%e, an!

it as forbi!!en to hi" to hunt bir!s. 8n one occasion he !i! so, an!

for this as ell as the breaking of other tabus, he lost his life.314

6t as tabu to Cuchulainn, the houn! of Culann, to eat !og's flesh,

an!, ha#ing been %ersua!e! to !o this, his strength ent fro" hi", an!

he %erishe!. )iar"ai!, ha#ing been forbi!!en to hunt a boar ith hich

his life as connecte!, as in!uce! by 9ionn to break this tabu, an! in

conseLuence he lost his life by one of the boar's bristles entering his

foot, or >in a #ariant@ by the boar's killing hi". Another instance is

foun! in a tale of certain "en transfor"e! to ba!gers. They ere slain

by Cor"ac, an! brought to his father Ta!g to eat. Ta!g unaccountably

loathe! the", because they ere transfor"e! "en an! his cousins.3-4 6n

this tale, hich "ay contain the K!ebrisK of tote"ic usage, the loathing

arises fro" the fact that the ba!gers are "en&&a co""on for" of "yths

eI%lanatory of "isun!erstoo! tote"ic custo"s, but the ol! i!ea of therelation beteen a "an an! his tote" is not lost sight of. The other

tales "ay also be re"iniscent of a clan tote" tabu, later centre! in a

"ythic hero. Perha%s the belief in lucky or unlucky ani"als, or in o"ens

!ran fro" their a%%earance, "ay be base! on ol! tote" beliefs or in

beliefs in the !i#inity of the ani"als.

>E@ K5acra"ental eating of an ani"al.K&&The custo" of hunting the

ren, foun! o#er the hole Celtic area, is connecte! ith ani"al

orshi% an! "ay be tote"istic in origin. 6n s%ite of its s"all siHe, the

ren as knon as the king of bir!s, an! in the 6sle of Man it as

hunte! an! kille! on Christ"as or 5. 5te%hen's !ay. The bir! as carrie!in %rocession fro" !oor to !oor, to the acco"%ani"ent of a chant, an!

as then sole"nly burie!, !irges being sung. 6n so"e cases a feather as

left at each house an! carefully treasure!, an! there are traces of a

custo" of boiling an! eating the bir!.3-*4 6n 6relan!, the hunt an!

%rocession ere folloe! by a feast, the "aterials of hich ere

collecte! fro" house to house, an! a si"ilar usage obtaine! in 9rance,

here the youth ho kille! the bir! as calle! king.3-+4 6n "ost of

these !istricts it as consi!ere! unlucky or !angerous to kill the bir!

at any other ti"e, yet it "ight be cere"onially kille! once a year, the

!ea! ani"al conferre! luck, an! as sole"nly eaten or burie! ith signs

of "ourning. 5i"ilar custo"s ith ani"als hich are actually orshi%%e!are foun! elsehere,3-E4 an! they len! su%%ort to the i!ea that the

Celts regar!e! the ren as a !i#ine ani"al, or %erha%s a tote" ani"al,

that it as necessary to slay it ritually, an! to carry it roun! the

houses of the co""unity to obtain its !i#ine influence, to eat it

sacra"entally or to bury it. Probably like custo"s ere folloe! in the

case of other ani"als,3-14 an! these "ay ha#e gi#en rise to such

stories as that of the eating of Mac)atho's on!erful boar, as ell as

to "yths hich regar!e! certain ani"als, e.g. the sine, as the i""ortal



foo! of the go!s. 8ther eIa"%les of ritual sur#i#als of such sacra"ental

eating ha#e alrea!y been note!, an! it is not i"%robable that the eating

of a sacre! %astoral ani"al occurre! at 5a"hain.

>1@ K/Ioga"y.K&&/Ioga"y an! the counting of !escent through the "other

are closely connecte! ith tote"is", an! so"e traces of both are foun!

a"ong the Celts. A"ong the Picts, ho ere, %erha%s, a Celtic grou% of

the Brythonic stock, these custo"s sur#i#e! in the royal house. The

kingshi% %asse! to a brother of the king by the sa"e "other, or to a

sister's son, hile the king's father as ne#er king an! as freLuently

a foreigner. 5i"ilar rules of succession %re#aile! in early Aryan

royal houses&&Greek an! Ro"an,&&an! "ay, as )r. 5tokes thought, ha#e

eIiste! at Tara in 6relan!, hile in a 9ian tale of 8isin he "arries the

!aughter of the king of Tir na n&8g, an! succee!s hi" as king %artly for

that reason, an! %artly because he ha! beaten hi" in the annual race for

the kingshi%.3--4 5uch an athletic contest for the kingshi% as knon

in early Greece, an! this tale "ay su%%ort the theory of the Celtic

%riest&kingshi%, the hol!er of the office retaining it as long as he as

not !efeate! or slain. Traces of succession through a sister's son arefoun! in the KMabinogionK, an! i#y !escribes ho the "ythic Celtic king

A"bicatus sent not his on but his sister's sons to foun! ne

king!o"s.3-24 6rish an! ?elsh !i#ine an! heroic grou%s are na"e! after

the "other, not the father&&the chil!ren of )anu an! of )on, an! the "en

of )o"nu. Anu is "other of the go!s, Buanann of heroes. The e%ony"ous

ancestor of the 5cots is a o"an, 5cota, an! the earliest colonisers of

6relan! are o"en, not "en. 6n the sagas go!s an! heroes ha#e freLuently

a "atrony"ic, an! the father's na"e is o"itte!&&ug "ac /thnen!,

Conchobar "ac <essa, 6n!ech, son of )e )o"nann, Cor%re, son of /tain,

an! others. Perha%s %arallel to this is the custo" of calling "en after

their i#es&&e.g. the son of 9ergus is 9er Tlachtga, Tlachtga'shusban!.3-34 6n the sagas, fe"ales >go!!esses an! heroines@ ha#e a high

%lace accor!e! to the", an! freLuently choose their on lo#ers or

husban!s&&custo"s suggesti#e of the "atriarchate. Thus hat as once a

general %ractice as later confine! to the royal house or tol! of !i#ine

or heroic %ersonages. Possibly certain cases of incest "ay really be

eIaggerate! accounts of "isun!erstoo! unions once %er"issible by tote"ic

la. Caesar s%eaks of British %olyan!ry, brothers, sons, an! fathers

sharing a ife in co""on.3-F4 5trabo s%eaks of 6rish unions ith

"others an! sisters, %erha%s referring not to actual %ractice but to

re%orts of saga tales of incest.3-4 )io Cassius s%eaks of co""unity of

i#es a"ong the Cale!onians an! Meatae, an! Jero"e says "uch the sa"e ofthe 5coti an! Atecotti.324 These notices, ith the eIce%tion of

Caesar's, are #ague, yet they refer to "arriage custo"s !ifferent fro"

those knon to their re%orters. 6n 6rish sagas incest legen!s circle

roun! the !escen!ants of /tain&&fathers unite ith !aughters, a son ith

his "other, a o"an has a son by her three brothers >just as /cne as

son of Brian, 6uchar, an! 6ucharba@, an! is also "other of Cri"than by

that son.32*4 Brother an! sister unions occur both in 6rish an! ?elsh

story.32+4



6n these cases incest ith a "other cannot be eI%laine! by tote"ic

usage, but the cases "ay be !istorte! re"iniscences of hat "ight occur

un!er tote"is", na"ely, a son taking the i#es of his father other than

his on "other, hen those ere of a !ifferent tote" fro" his on. ;n!er

tote"is", brothers an! sisters by !ifferent "others ha#ing !ifferent

tote"s, "ight %ossibly unite, an! such unions are foun! in "any

"ythologies. ater, hen tote"is" %asse! aay, the unions, regar!e! ith

horror, oul! be su%%ose! to take %lace beteen chil!ren by the sa"e

"other. Accor!ing to tote" la, a father "ight unite ith his !aughter,

since she as of her "other's tote", but in %ractice this as frone!

u%on. Polyga"y also "ay co&eIist ith tote"is", an! of course in#ol#es

the counting of !escent through the "other as a rule. 6f, as is

suggeste! by the !ebility of the ;ltonians, an! by other e#i!ence, the

cou#a!e as a Celtic institution, this oul! also %oint to the eIistence

of the "atriarchate ith the Celts. To eI%lain all this as %re&Aryan, or

to say that the classical notices refer to non&Aryan tribes an! that the

e#i!ence in the 6rish sagas only shos that the Celts ha! been

influence! by the custo"s of aboriginal tribes a"ong ho" theyli#e!,32E4 is to neglect the fact that the custo"s are closely boun! u%

ith Celtic life, hile it lea#es uneI%laine! the influence of such

custo"s u%on a %eo%le hose on custo"s, accor!ing to this theory, ere

so totally !ifferent. The e#i!ence, taken as a hole, %oints to the

eIistence of tote"is" a"ong the early Celts, or, at all e#ents, of the

ele"ents hich elsehere co"%ose it.

7 7 7 7 7

Celtic ani"al orshi% !ates back to the %ri"iti#e hunting an! %astoral

%erio!, hen "en orshi%%e! the ani"als hich they hunte! or reare!.They "ay ha#e a%ologise! to the ani"al hunte! an! slain&&a for" of

orshi%, or, here ani"als ere not hunte! or ere reare! an!

orshi%%e!, one of the" "ay ha#e been slain annually an! eaten to obtain

its !i#ine %oer. Care as taken to %reser#e certain sacre! ani"als

hich ere not hunte!, an! this le! to !o"estication, the abstinence of

earlier generations lea!ing to an increase! foo! su%%ly at a later ti"e,

hen !o"esticate! ani"als ere freely slain. But the earlier sacra"ental

slaying of such ani"als sur#i#e! in the religious as%ect of their

slaughter at the beginning of inter.3214 The cult of ani"als as also

connecte! ith tote"ic usage, though at a later stage this cult as

re%lace! by that of anthro%o"or%hic !i#inities, ith the ol!er !i#ineani"als as their sy"bols, sacrificial #icti"s, an! the like. This

e#olution no le! to the re"o#al of restrictions u%on slaying an! eating

the ani"als. 8n the other han!, the "ore %ri"iti#e ani"al cults "ay ha#e

re"aine! here an! there. Ani"al cults ere, %erha%s, largely confine! to

"en. ?ith the rise of agriculture "ainly as an art in the han!s of

o"en, an! the conseLuent cult of the /arth&"other, of fertility an!

corn&s%irits %robably regar!e! as fe"ale, the sacra"ental eating of the

!i#ine ani"al "ay ha#e le! to the slaying an! eating of a hu"an or



ani"al #icti" su%%ose! to e"bo!y such a s%irit. ater the to cults ere

boun! to coalesce, an! the !i#ine ani"al an! the ani"al e"bo!i"ent of

the #egetation s%irit oul! not be !ifferentiate!. 8n the other han!,

hen "en began to take %art in o"en's fertility cults, the fact that

such s%irits ere fe"ale or ere %erha%s co"ing to be regar!e! as

go!!esses, "ay ha#e le! "en to en#isage certain of the anthro%o"or%hic

ani"al !i#inities as go!!esses, since so"e of these, e.g. /%ona an!

)a"ona, are fe"ale. But ith the increasing %artici%ation of "en in

agriculture, the s%irits or go!!esses of fertility oul! ten! to beco"e

"ale, or the consorts or "others of go!s of fertility, though the

earlier as%ect as ne#er lost sight of, itness the Corn&Mother. The

e#olution of !i#ine %riest&kings oul! cause the" to take the %lace of

the earlier %riestesses of these cults, one of ho" "ay ha#e been the

!i#ine #icti". $et in local sur#i#als certain cults ere still confine!

to o"en, an! still ha! their %riestesses.32-4

988T<8T/5(

224 Reinach, KB9K 22, +11. The bull an! three cranes "ay be a rebus onthe na"e of the bull, KTar#os TrikarenosK, the three&hea!e!, or

%erha%s KTrikerasK, three&horne!.

234 Plutarch, KMariusK, +E Caesar, #ii. 2- )'Arbois, Kes CeltesK,

1.

2F4 :ol!er, Ks.#.K KTarbaK, KTarouannaK, KTar#isiu"K, etc. )'Arbois,

Kes )rui!esK, *-- 5. Greg. K6n Glor. Conf.K 1F.

24 KC6K Iiii. 2*3 KRCK II#. 13 :ol!er, ii. -+F.

34 eahy, ii. *- f. Curtin, KM96K +21, E*F Joyce, KP<K i. *31

Rees, 1-E. Cf. Ailre!, Kife of 5. <inianK, c. F.

3*4 Jocelyn, Kita 5. =entig.K c. +1 Rees, +E, E+E.

3+4 Tacitus, KGer".K Il#. Blanchet, i. *2+, *2- Reinach, KB9K +--

f., KCMRK i. *2F Bertran!, KArch. Celt.K 1*.

3E4 Pennant, KTour in 5cotlan!K, +2F Reinach, KRCK IIii. *-F, KCMRK

i. 23.

314 Pausan, #ii. *3, *F Johnson, KJourneyK, *E2.

3-4 Joyce, K5:K ii. *+3 K6TK i. , +-2 >Bricriu's feast an! the tale

of Mac!atho's sine@.

324 5trabo, i#. 1. E, says these sine attacke! strangers. arro, K!e

Re RusticaK, ii. 1, a!"ires their #ast siHe. Cf. Polyb. ii. 1.



334 The hunt is first "entione! in <ennius, c. 3, an! then a%%ears as

a full&blon folk&tale in K=ulhychK, oth, i. *F- f. :ere the boar is a

transfor"e! %rince.

3F4 6 ha#e alrea!y suggeste!, %. *2, Ksu%raK, that the %laces here

Gy!ion halte! ith the sine of /lysiu" ere sites of a sine&cult.

34 KRCK Iiii. 1-*. Cf. also KT85K #i. The /nchante! Pigs of 8engus,

an! Ca"%bell, K9K -E.

3*4 K'Anthro%ologieK, #i. -F1 Greenell, KBritish BarrosK, +31,

+FE, 1-1 KArch. Re#.K ii. *+.

3**4 KRe#. Arch.K *F3, E*E.

3*+4 Reinach, agreus le ser%ent cornu, KRe#. ArchK. III#. +*.

3*E4 Reinach, KB9K *F- Bertran!, E*2.

3*14 Cuchulainn's 5ick&be!, )'Arbois, #. ++.

3*-4 5ee Reinach, KCMRK i. -3.

3*24 KC6K Iiii. -*2, Iii. +*. Rhy4s, hoe#er, !eri#es Artaios

fro" KarK, %loughe! lan!, an! eLuates the go! ith Mercurius Cultor.

3*34 KC6K Iii. *--2&*--F )'Arbois, KRCK I. *2-.

3*F4 9or all these %lace an! %ersonal na"es, see :ol!er an! )'Arbois,

Ko%. cit. es CeltesK, 13 f., Kes )rui!esK, *-3 f.

3*4 5ee %. E+, Ksu%raK Reinach, KCMRK i. 3+, KRe#. Arch.K ii. *+E.

3+4 8'Gra!y, ii. *+E.

3+*4 /%ona is fully !iscusse! by Reinach in his K/%onaK, *F-, an! in

articles >illustrate!@ in KRe#. Arch.K #ols. +2, EE, E-, 1, etc. 5ee

also ii. *FF4, *.

3++4 Reinach suggests that this "ay eI%lain hy ercingetoriI, in #ie

of siege by the Ro"ans, sent aay his horses. They ere too sacre! to beeaten. Caesar, #ii. 3* Reinach, KRCK II#ii. * f.

3+E4 Ju#enal, #iii. *-1 A%ul. KMeta".K iii. +3 Min. 9eliI, K8cta#.K

II#ii. 3.

3+14 9or the inscri%tions, see :ol!er, Ks.#.K /%ona.

3+-4 KC6K iii. 31.



3+24 KC6K Iiii. E3* Reinach, KB9K +-E, KCMRK i. 21, KRe%ert. !e la

5tat.K ii. 31- :ol!er, ii. 2-*&2-+.

3+34 Granger, K?orshi% of the Ro"ansK, **E =enne!y, *E-.

3+F4 Gri"", KTeut. Myth.K 1, 2*, 2-3, 22*&221.

3+4 9raHer, KGol!en BoughKO+, ii. +F*, E*-.

3E4 Caesar, #. +*, +3. Possibly the )ea Bibracte of the Ae!uans as a

bea#er go!!ess.

3E*4 8'Curry, KMCK ii. +3 /lton, +F.

3E+4 Giral!. Ca"br. KTo%. :ib.K ii. *, KRCK ii. ++ K9olk&oreK, #.

E* K6TK iii. E32.

3EE4 8'Gra!y, ii. +F2, -EF Ca"%bell, KThe 9iansK, 3F Thiers, KTraite!es 5u%erstitionsK, ii. F2.

3E14 a!y Guest, ii. 1 f.

3E-4 Blanchet, i. *22, +-, E+2, E.

3E24 5ee %. +, Ksu%raK.

3E34 )io!. 5ic. #. E K6TK iii. EF- KRCK II#i. *E Rhy4s, K:K

-E.

3EF4 KMan. :ist. Brit.K %. I.

3E4 :ero!ian, iii. *1, F )ual! Mac9irbis in 6rish K<enniusK, %. #ii

Caesar, #. * KCPK iii. EE*.

314 5ee Reinach, es Carnassiers an!ro%hages !ans l'art

gallo&ro"ain, KCMRK i. +3.

31*4 5ee :ol!er, Ks.#.K

31+4 Rhy4s, KCBKO1 +23.

31E4 Caesar, #. *+.

3114 )io Cassius, lIii. +.

31-4 5ee a #aluable %a%er by <.?. Tho"as, 5ur#i#ance !u Culte !es

Ani"auI !ans le Pays !e Galles, in KRe#. !e l':ist. !es ReligionsK,

III#iii. +- f., an! a si"ilar %a%er by Go""e, KArch. Re#.K *FF, +*3 f.



Both riters see" to regar! these cults as %re&Celtic.

3124 Go""e, K/thnol. in 9olkloreK, E, Killage Co""unityK, **E.

3134 )io Cass. lIIii. +* ogan, K5cottish GaelK, ii. *+.

31F4 Joyce, K5:K ii. -+ Martin, 3*.

314 KRCK IIii. +, +1, E&*.

3-4 K6TK iii. EF-.

3-*4 ?al!ron, K6sle of ManK, 1 Train, KAccount of the 6sle of ManK,

ii. *+1.

3-+4 allancey, KColl. !e Reb. :ib.K i#. <o. *E Cle"ent, K9etesK, 122.

9or /nglish custo"s, see :en!erson, K9olklore of the <orthern CountiesK,

*+-.

3-E4 9raHer, KGol!en BoughKO+, ii. EF, 11*, 112.

3-14 9or other ?elsh instances of the !anger of killing certain bir!s,

see Tho"as, Ko%. cit.K III#iii. E2.

3--4 9raHer, K=ingshi%K, +2* 5tokes, KRCK I#i. 1*F ar"inie, KMyths

an! 9olk&talesK, E+3.

3-24 5ee Rhy4s, K?elsh Peo%leK, 11 i#y, #. E1.

3-34 Cf. K6TK iii. 13, 1.

3-F4 Caesar, #. *1.

3-4 5trabo, i#. -. 1.

324 )io Cass. lII#i. *+ Jero"e, KA!#. Jo#in.K ii. 3. Giral!us has

"uch to say of incest in ?ales, %robably actual breaches of "oral la

a"ong a barbarous %eo%le >K)escr. ?alesK, ii. 2@.

32*4 KRCK Iii. +E-, +EF, I#. +*, I#i. *1 KK +EKaK, *+1KbK. 6n

#arious 6rish teIts a chil! is sai! to ha#e three fathers&&%robably are"iniscence of %olyan!ry. 5ee %. 31, Ksu%raK, an! KRCK IIiii. EEE.

32+4 K6TK i. *E2 oth, i. *E1 f. Rhy4s, K:K EF.

32E4 i""er, Matriarchy a"ong the Picts, in :en!erson, Keabhar nan

GleannK.

3214 5ee %. +-, KinfraK.



32-4 5ee %. +31, KinfraK.

C:APT/R Q.

C85M8G8<$.

?hether the early Celts regar!e! :ea#en an! /arth as husban! an! ife is

uncertain. 5uch a conce%tion is orl!&i!e, an! "yth freLuently eI%lains

in !ifferent ays the reason of the se%aration of the to. A"ong the

Polynesians the chil!ren of hea#en an! earth&&the in!s, forests, an!

seas %ersonifie!&&angry at being crushe! beteen their %arents in

!arkness, rose u% an! se%arate! the". This is in effect the Greek "yth

of ;ranus, or :ea#en, an! Gaea, or /arth, !i#orce! by their son =ronos,

just as in :in!u "yth )yaus, or 5ky, an! Prithi#i, or /arth, erese%arate! by 6n!ra. ;ranus in Greece ga#e %lace to eus, an!, in 6n!ia,

)yaus beca"e subor!inate to 6n!ra. Thus the %ri"iti#e :ea#en %ersonifie!

rece!es, an! his %lace is taken by a "ore in!i#i!ualise! go!. But

generally Mother /arth re"ains a constant Luantity. /arth as nearer "an

an! as "ore unchanging than the inconstant sky, hile as the %ro!ucer

of the fruits of the earth, she as regar!e! as the source of all

things, an! freLuently re"aine! as an i"%ortant !i#inity hen a cro! of

other !i#inities beca"e %ro"inent. This is es%ecially true of

agricultural %eo%les, ho %ro%itiate /arth ith sacrifice, orshi% her

ith orgiastic rites, or assist her %rocesses by "agic. ?ith a!#ancing

ci#ilisation such a go!!ess is still re"e"bere! as the frien! of "an,an!, as in the /leusinia, is re%resente! sorroing an! rejoicing like

"an hi"self. 8r here a higher religion ousts the ol!er one, the ritual

is still retaine! a"ong the folk, though its "eaning "ay be forgotten.

The Celts "ay thus ha#e %ossesse! the :ea#en an! /arth "yth, but all

trace of it has %erishe!. There are, hoe#er, re"nants of "yths shoing

ho the sky is su%%orte! by trees, a "ountain, or by %illars. A high

"ountain near the sources of the Rhone as calle! the colu"n of the

sun, an! as so lofty as to hi!e the sun fro" the %eo%le of the

south.3224 6t "ay ha#e been regar!e! as su%%orting the sky, hile the

sun "o#e! roun! it. 6n an ol! 6rish hy"n an! its gloss, Brigit an!Patrick are co"%are! to the to %illars of the orl!, %robably allu!ing

to so"e ol! "yth of sky or earth resting on %illars.3234 Traces of this

also eIist in folk&belief, as in the accounts of islan!s resting on four

%illars, or as in the legen! of the church of =ernitou hich rests on

four %illars on a congeale! sea an! hich ill be sub"erge! hen the sea

liLuefies&&a co"bination of the cos"ogonic "yth ith that of a great

inun!ation.32F4 6n so"e "ythologies a bri!ge or la!!er connects hea#en

an! earth. There "ay be a sur#i#al of so"e such "yth in an 6rish %oe"



hich s%eaks of the K!rochet betha!K, or bri!ge of life, or in the

K!rochai! na flaitheanasK, or bri!ge of hea#en, of :ebri!ean

folk&lore.324

Those go!s ho ere connecte! ith the sky "ay ha#e been hel! to !ell

there or on the "ountain su%%orting it. 8thers, like the Celtic

)is%ater, !elt un!ergroun!. 5o"e ere connecte! ith "oun!s an! hills,

or ere su%%ose! to ha#e taken u% their abo!e in the". 8thers, again,

!elt in a !istant region, the Celtic /lysiu", hich, once the Celts

reache! the sea, beca"e a far&off islan!. Those !i#inities orshi%%e! in

gro#es ere belie#e! to !ell there an! to "anifest the"sel#es at "i!!ay

or "i!night, hile such objects of nature as ri#ers, ells, an! trees

ere hel! to be the abo!e of go!s or s%irits. Thus it is !oubtful

hether the Celts e#er thought of their go!s as !elling in one 8ly"%us.

The Tuatha )e )anann are sai! to ha#e co"e fro" hea#en, but this "ay be

the "ere assertion of so"e scribe ho kne not hat to "ake of this

grou% of beings.

6n Celtic belief "en ere not so "uch create! by go!s as !escen!e! fro"the". All the Gauls assert that they are !escen!e! fro" )is%ater, an!

this, they say, has been han!e! !on to the" by the )rui!s.334

)is%ater as a Celtic un!erorl! go! of fertility, an! the state"ent

%robably %resu%%oses a "yth, like that foun! a"ong "any %ri"iti#e

%eo%les, telling ho "en once li#e! un!ergroun! an! thence ca"e to the

surface of the earth. But it also %oints to their !escent fro" the go!

of the un!erorl!. Thither the !ea! returne! to hi" ho as ancestor of

the li#ing as ell as lor! of the !ea!.33*4 8n the other han!, if the

earth ha! originally been thought of as a fe"ale, she as /arth&"other

oul! be ancestress of "en. But her %lace in the "yth oul! easily be

taken by the /arth or ;n!er&earth go!, %erha%s regar!e! as her son orher consort. 6n other cases, clans, fa"ilies, or in!i#i!uals often

trace! their !escent to go!s or !i#ine ani"als or %lants. Classical

riters occasionally s%eak of the origin of branches of the Celtic race

fro" e%ony"ous foun!ers, %erha%s fro" their knole!ge of eIisting Celtic

"yths.33+4 A""ianus Marcellinus also re%orts a )rui!ic tra!ition to the

effect that so"e Gauls ere in!igenous, so"e ha! co"e fro" !istant

islan!s, an! others fro" beyon! the Rhine.33E4 But this is not so "uch

a "yth of origins, as an eI%lanation of the %resence of !ifferent

%eo%les in Gaul&&the aborigines, the Celtae, an! the Belgic Gauls. M.

)'Arbois assu"es that !istant islan!s "eans the Celtic /lysiu", hich

he regar!s as the lan! of the !ea!,3314 but the %hrase is %robably no"ore than a !istorte! re"iniscence of the far&off lan!s hence early

grou%s of Celts ha! reache! Gaul.

8f the creation of the orl! no co"%lete "yth has sur#i#e!, though fro"

a gloss to the K5enchus MorK e learn that the )rui!s, like the

BrNa4h"ans, boaste! that they ha! "a!e sun, "oon, earth, an! sea&&a

boast in kee%ing ith their su%%ose! %oers o#er the ele"ents.33-4

Certain folk&beliefs, regar!ing the origin of !ifferent %arts of nature,



bear a close rese"blance to %ri"iti#e cos"ogonic "yths, an! they "ay be

taken as K!isjecta "e"braK of si"ilar "yths hel! by the Celts an!

%erha%s taught by the )rui!s. Thus sea, ri#ers, or s%rings arose fro"

the "icturition of a giant, fairy, or saint, or fro" their seat or

bloo!. 6slan!s are rocks cast by giants, an! "ountains are the "aterial

thron u% by the" as they ere orking on the earth. ?ells s%rang u%

fro" the bloo! of a "artyr or fro" the touch of a saint's or a fairy's

staff.3324 The sea originate! fro" a "agic cask gi#en by Go! to a

o"an. The s%igot, hen o%ene!, coul! not be close! again, an! the cask

ne#er cease! running until the aters co#ere! the earth&&a tale ith

sa#age %arallels.3334 6n all these cases, giant, saint, or fairy has

!oubtless taken the %lace of a go!, since the stories ha#e a #ery

%ri"iti#e KfaciesK. The giant is freLuently Gargantua, %robably hi"self

once a !i#inity. 8ther references in 6rish teIts %oint to the co""on

cos"ogonic "yth of the earth ha#ing gra!ually assu"e! its %resent for".

Thus "any ne lakes an! %lains are sai! to ha#e been for"e! in 6relan!

!uring the ti"e of Partholan an! <e"e!, the %lains being a%%arently

built u% out of eIisting "aterials.33F4 6n so"e cases the for"ation of

a lake as the result of !igging the gra#e of so"e %ersonage after ho"the lake as then na"e!.334 :ere e co"e u%on the fa"iliar i!ea of the

!anger of encroaching on the !o"ain of a !eity, e.g. that of the

/arth&go!, by !igging the earth, ith the conseLuent %unish"ent by a

floo!. The sa"e conce%tion is foun! in Celtic stories of a lake or ri#er

for"e! fro" the o#erfloing of a sacre! ell through hu"an carelessness

or curiosity, hich le! to the anger of the !i#inity of the ell.3F4

8r, again, a ton or castle is sub"erge! on account of the icke!ness of

its inhabitants, the aters being %ro!uce! by the curse of Go! or a

saint >re%lacing a %agan go!@ an! for"ing a lake.3F*4 These "ay be

regar!e! as for"s of a Celtic !eluge&"yth, hich in one case, that of

the ?elsh story of the shi% of <e#y!, hich sa#e! )y#an an! )yfach an!a %air of all kin!s of ani"als hen ake lion o#erfloe!, has

a%%arently borroe! fro" the Biblical story.3F+4 6n other cases lakes

are for"e! fro" the tears of a go!, e.g. Manannan, hose tears at the

!eath of his son for"e! three lochs in /rin.3FE4 A%ollonius re%orts

that the aters of /ri!anus originate! fro" the tears of A%ollo hen

!ri#en fro" hea#en by his father.3F14 This story, hich he says is

Celtic, has been clothe! by hi" in a Greek for", an! the go! in Luestion

"ay ha#e been Belenos, eLuate! ith A%ollo. 5o"eti"es the for"ation of

strea"s as ascribe! to great hail&stor"s&&an e#i!ent "ythic ren!ering

of the !a"age !one by actual s%ates, hile the 6rish "yths of

illi"itable sea&bursts, of hich three %articular instances are often"entione!, ere !oubtless the result of the eI%erience of ti!al a#es.

Although no co"%lete account of the en! of all things, like that of the

5can!ina#ian Ragnarok, has sur#i#e!, scattere! hints tell of its for"er

eIistence. 5trabo says that the )rui!s taught that fire an! ater "ust

one !ay %re#ail&&an e#i!ent belief in so"e final cataclys".3F-4 This

is also hinte! at in the or!s of certain Gauls to AleIan!er, telling

hi" that hat they feare! "ost of all as the fall of the hea#ens u%on



their hea!s.3F24 6n other or!s, they feare! hat oul! be the signal

of the en! of all things. 8n 6rish groun! the or!s of Conchobar "ay

refer to this. :e announce! that he oul! rescue the ca%ti#es an! s%oil

taken by Me!b, unless the hea#ens fell, an! the earth burst o%en, an!

the sea engul%he! all things.3F34 5uch a "yth "ingle! ith Christian

beliefs "ay un!erlie the %ro%hecy of Ba!b after Mag&ture! regar!ing the

e#ils to co"e an! the en! of the orl!, an! that of 9ercertne in the

KColloLuy of the To 5agesK.3FF4 Both ha#e a curious rese"blance to the

5ybil's %ro%hecy of !oo" in the olus%a. 6f the go!s the"sel#es ere

in#ol#e! in such a catastro%he, it oul! not be sur%rising, since in

so"e as%ects their i""ortality !e%en!e! on their eating an! !rinking

i""ortal foo! an! !rink.3F4

988T<8T/5(

3224 A#ienus, K8ra Mariti"aK, 211 f.

3234 K6TK i. +- Gai!oH, KCPK i. +3.

32F4 KAnnales !e BretagneK, I. 1*1.

324 K6TK i. -, cf. *F1 K9olk&oreK, #i. *3.

334 Caesar, #i. *F.

33*4 5ee %. E1*, KinfraK.

33+4 )io!. 5ic. #. +1 A%%ian, K6llyricaK, +.

33E4 A"". Marcel, I#. .

3314 )'Arbois, ii. +2+, Iii. ++.

33-4 KAntient as of 6relan!K, i. +E. 6n one M5. A!a" is sai! to ha#e

been create! thus&&his bo!y of earth, his bloo! of the sea, his face of

the sun, his breath of the in!, etc. This is also foun! in a 9risian

tale >igfusson&Poell, KCor%us Poet. Bor.K i. 13@, an! both stories

%resent an in#ersion of ell&knon "yths about the creation of the

uni#erse fro" the "e"bers of a giant.

3324 5ebillot, i. +*E f., ii. 2, 3, 3+, 3, *32, E+3&E+F. Cf. KRCK I#.1F+, I#i. *-+.

3334 5ebillot, ii. 2.

33F4 KK -2 =eating, **3, *+E.

334 KRCK I#. 1+, I#i. +33.



3F4 5ee %. **, Ksu%raK.

3F*4 5ebillot, ii. 1* f., E*, E3 see %. E3+, KinfraK.

3F+4 KTria!sK in oth, ii. +F, + Rhy4s, K:K -FE, 22E.

3FE4 KRCK I#i. -, *12.

3F14 A%oll. i#. 2 f.

3F-4 5trabo, i#. 1. 1.

3F24 Arrian, KAnab.K i. 1. 3 5trabo, #ii. E. F. Cf. Jullian, F-.

3F34 KK 1 Miss :ull, +-.

3FF4 KRCK Iii. ***, II#i. EE.

3F4 A %ossible sur#i#al of a orl!&ser%ent "yth "ay be foun! in )a)erga's :ostel >KRCK IIii. -1@, here e hear of e#iathan that

surroun!s the globe an! strikes ith his tail to o#erhel" the orl!.

But this "ay be a reflection of <orse "yths of the Mi!gar! ser%ent,

so"eti"es eLuate! ith e#iathan.

C:APT/R Q6.

5ACR696C/, PRA$/R, A<) )66<AT68<.

The 5e"ites are often consi!ere! the orst offen!ers in the "atter of

hu"an sacrifice, but in this, accor!ing to classical e#i!ence, they ere

closely ri#alle! by the Celts of Gaul. They offere! hu"an #icti"s on the

%rinci%le of a life for a life, or to %ro%itiate the go!s, or in or!er

to !i#ine the future fro" the entrails of the #icti". ?e shall eIa"ine

the Celtic custo" of hu"an sacrifice fro" these %oints of #ie first.

Caesar says that those afflicte! ith !isease or engage! in battle or

!anger offer hu"an #icti"s or #o to !o so, because unless "an's life begi#en for "an's life, the !i#inity of the go!s cannot be a%%ease!.34

The theory a%%ears to ha#e been that the go!s sent !isease or ills hen

they !esire! a hu"an life, but that any life oul! !o hence one in

!anger "ight esca%e by offering another in his stea!. 6n so"e cases the

#icti"s "ay ha#e been offere! to !isease !e"ons or !iseases %ersonifie!,

such as Celtic i"agination still belie#es in,3*4 rather than to go!s,

or, again, they "ay ha#e been offere! to nati#e go!s of healing. Co"ing

!anger coul! also be a#erte! on the sa"e %rinci%le, an! though the



#icti"s ere usually sla#es, in ti"es of great %eril i#es an! chil!ren

ere sacrifice!.3+4 After a !efeat, hich shoe! that the go!s ere

still i"%lacable, the oun!e! an! feeble ere slain, or a great lea!er

oul! offer hi"self.3E4 8r in such a case the Celts oul! turn their

ea%ons against the"sel#es, "aking of suici!e a kin! of sacrifice,

ho%ing to bring #ictory to the sur#i#ors.314

The i!ea of the #icti" being offere! on the %rinci%le of a life for a

life is illustrate! by a custo" at Marseilles in ti"e of %estilence. 8ne

of the %oorer classes offere! hi"self to be ke%t at the %ublic eI%ense

for so"e ti"e. :e as then le! in %rocession, cla! in sacre! boughs, an!

sole"nly curse!, an! %rayer as "a!e that on hi" "ight fall the e#ils of

the co""unity. Then he as cast hea!long !on. :ere the #icti" stoo! for

the li#es of the city an! as a kin! of sca%e&#icti", like those at the

Thargelia.3-4

:u"an #icti"s ere also offere! by ay of thanksgi#ing after #ictory,

an! #os ere often "a!e before a battle, %ro"ising these as ell as

%art of the s%oil. 9or this reason the Celts oul! ne#er ranso" theirca%ti#es, but offere! the" in sacrifice, ani"als ca%ture! being

i""olate! along ith the".324 The "etho! of sacrifice as slaughter by

sor! or s%ear, hanging, i"%aling, !is"e"bering, an! !roning. 5o"e go!s

ere %ro%itiate! by one %articular "o!e of sacrifice&&Taranis by

burning, Teutates by suffocation, /sus >%erha%s a tree&go!@ by hanging

on a tree. )roning "eant !e#oting the #icti" to ater&!i#inities.334

8ther %ro%itiatory sacrifices took %lace at inter#als, an! ha! a general

or tribal character, the #icti"s being cri"inals or sla#es or e#en

"e"bers of the tribe. The sacrificial %ile ha! the ru!e outline of a

hu"an for", the li"bs of osier, enclosing hu"an as ell as so"e ani"al#icti"s, ho %erishe! by fire. )io!orus says that the #icti"s ere

"alefactors ho ha! been ke%t in %rison for fi#e years, an! that so"e of

the" ere i"%ale!.3F4 This nee! not "ean that the holocausts ere

LuinLuennial, for they "ay ha#e been offere! yearly, at Mi!su""er, to

ju!ge by the ritual of "o!ern sur#i#als.34 The #icti"s %erishe! in

that ele"ent by hich the sun&go! chiefly "anifeste! hi"self, an! by the

sacrifice his %oers ere aug"ente!, an! thus groth an! fertility ere

%ro"ote!. These holocausts ere %robably eItensions of an earlier

slaying of a #icti" re%resenting the s%irit of #egetation, though their

#alue in ai!ing fertility oul! be still in e#i!ence. This is suggeste!

by 5trabo's or!s that the greater the nu"ber of "ur!ers the greateroul! be the fertility of the lan!, %robably "eaning that there oul!

then be "ore cri"inals as sacrificial #icti"s.F4 arro also s%eaks of

hu"an sacrifice to a go! eLuate! ith 5aturn, offere! because of all

see!s the hu"an race is the best, i.e. hu"an #icti"s are "ost %ro!ucti#e

of fertility.F*4 Thus, looke! at in one ay, the later rite as a

%ro%itiatory sacrifice, in another it as an act of "agico&religious

ritual s%ringing fro" the ol! rite of the !i#ine #icti". But fro" both

%oints of #ie the intention as the sa"e&&the %ro"otion of fertility in



fiel! an! fol!.

)i#ination ith the bo!ies of hu"an #icti"s is atteste! by Tacitus, ho

says that the )rui!s consult the go!s in the %al%itating entrails of

"en, an! by 5trabo, ho !escribes the striking !on of the #icti" by

the sor! an! the %re!icting of the future fro" his con#ulsi#e

"o#e"ents.F+4 To this e shall return.

:u"an sacrifice in Gaul as %ut !on by the Ro"ans, ho ere a"aHe! at

its eItent, 5uetonius su""ing u% the hole religion in a

%hrase&&K!rui!aru" religione" !irae i""anitatisK.FE4 By the year 1

A.). it ha! cease!, though #icti"s ere offere! sy"bolically, the )rui!s

%reten!ing to strike the" an! !raing a little bloo! fro" the".F14

8nly the %ressure of a higher ci#ilisation force! the so&calle!

%hiloso%hic )rui!s to aban!on their re#olting custo"s. A"ong the Celts

of Britain hu"an sacrifice still %re#aile! in 33 A.).F-4 )io Cassius

!escribes the refine"ents of cruelty %ractise! on fe"ale #icti"s

>%risoners of ar@ in honour of the go!!ess An!rasta&&their breasts cut

off an! %lace! o#er their "ouths, an! a stake !ri#en through theirbo!ies, hich ere then hung in the sacre! gro#e.F24 Tacitus s%eaks of

the altars in Mona >Anglesey@ la#e! ith hu"an bloo!. As to the 6rish

Celts, %atriotic riters ha#e refuse! to belie#e the" guilty of such

%ractices,F34 but there is no Ka %rioriK reason hich nee! set the"

a%art fro" other races on the sa"e le#el of ci#ilisation in this custo".

The 6rish teIts no !oubt eIaggerate the nu"ber of the #icti"s, but they

certainly attest the eIistence of the %ractice. 9ro" the K)in!senchasK,

hich !escribes "any archaic usages, e learn that the firstlings of

e#ery issue an! the chief scions of e#ery clan ere offere! to Cro""

Cruaich&&a sacrifice of the first&born,&&an! that at one festi#al the

%rostrations of the orshi%%ers ere so #iolent that three&fourths ofthe" %erishe!, not i"%robably an eIaggerate! "e"ory of orgiastic

rites.FF4 )r. Joyce thinks that these notices are as incre!ible as the

"ythic tales in the K)in!senchasK. $et the tales ere !oubtless Luite

cre!ible to the %agan 6rish, an! the ritual notices are certainly

foun!e! on fact. )r. Joyce a!"its the eIistence of foun!ation sacrifices

in 6relan!, an! it is !ifficult to un!erstan! hy hu"an #icti"s "ay not

ha#e been offere! on other occasions also.

The %ur%ose of the sacrifice, na"ely, fertility, is in!icate! in the

%oetical #ersion of the cult of Cro""&&

Milk an! corn

They oul! ask fro" hi" s%ee!ily,

6n return for one&thir! of their healthy issue.F4

The <e"e!ian sacrifice to the 9o"orians is sai! to ha#e been to&thir!s

of their chil!ren an! of the year's su%%ly of corn an! "ilkF*4&&an

ob#ious "isun!erstan!ing, the #icti"s really being offere! to obtain

corn an! "ilk. The nu"bers are eIaggerate!,F**4 but there can be no



!oubt as to the nature of the sacrifice&&the offering of an agricultural

folk to the !i#inities ho hel%e! or retar!e! groth. Possibly %art of

the flesh of the #icti"s, at one ti"e i!entifie! ith the go!, as

burie! in the fiel!s or "iIe! ith the see!&corn, in or!er to %ro"ote

fertility. The bloo! as s%rinkle! on the i"age of the go!. 5uch

%ractices ere as obnoIious to Christian "issionaries as they ha! been

to the Ro"an Go#ern"ent, an! e learn that 5. Patrick %reache! against

the slaying of yoke oIen an! "ilch cos an! the burning of the

first&born %rogeny at the 9air of Taillte.F*+4 As has been seen, the

6rish #ersion of the Perseus an! An!ro"e!a story, in hich the #icti" is

offere! not to a !ragon, but to the 9o"orians, "ay ha#e recei#e! this

for" fro" actual ritual in hich hu"an #icti"s ere sacrifice! to the

9o"orians.F*E4 6n a Ja%anese #ersion of the sa"e story the "ai!en is

offere! to the sea&go!s. Another tale suggests the offering of hu"an

#icti"s to re"o#e blight. 6n this case the lan! suffers fro" blight

because the a!ulteress Becu"a, "arrie! to the king of /rin, has

%reten!e! to be a #irgin. The )rui!s announce! that the re"e!y as to

slay the son of an un!efile! cou%le an! s%rinkle the !oor%osts an! the

lan! ith his bloo!. 5uch a youth as foun!, but at his "other's reLuesta to&bellie! co, in hich to bir!s ere foun!, as offere! in his

stea!.F*14 6n another instance in the K)in!senchasK, hostages,

inclu!ing the son of a ca%ti#e %rince, are offere! to re"o#e %lagues&&an

eLui#alent to the custo" of the Gauls.F*-4

:u"an sacrifices ere also offere! hen the foun!ation of a ne buil!ing

as lai!. 5uch sacrifices are uni#ersal, an! are offere! to %ro%itiate

the /arth s%irits or to %ro#i!e a ghostly guar!ian for the buil!ing. A

Celtic legen! attaches such a sacrifice to the foun!ing of the "onastery

at 6ona. 5. 8ran agrees to a!o%t 5. Colu"ba's a!#ice to go un!er the

clay of this islan! to hallo it, an! as a rear! he goes straight tohea#en.F*24 The legen! is a se"i&Christian for" of the "e"ory of an ol!

%agan custo", an! it is attache! to 8ran %robably because he as the

first to be burie! in the islan!. 6n another #ersion, nothing is sai! of

the sacrifice. The to saints are !is%uting about the other orl!, an!

8ran agrees to go for three !ays into the gra#e to settle the %oint at

issue. At the en! of that ti"e the gra#e is o%ene!, an! the triu"%hant

8ran announces that hea#en an! hell are not such as they are allege! to

be. 5hocke! at his latitu!inarian senti"ents, Colu"ba or!ere! earth to

be %ile! o#er hi", lest he cause a scan!al to the faith, an! 8ran as

accor!ingly burie! ali#e.F*34 6n a ?elsh instance, ortigern's castle

cannot be built, for the stones !isa%%ear as soon as they are lai!. ?ise"en, %robably )rui!s, or!er the sacrifice of a chil! born ithout a

father, an! the s%rinkling of the site ith his bloo!.F*F4 Groaning

hostages ere %lace! un!er a fort in 6relan!, an! the foun!ation of the

%alace of /"ain Macha as also lai! ith a hu"an #icti".F*4 Many

si"ilar legen!s are connecte! ith buil!ings all o#er the Celtic area,

an! %ro#e the %o%ularity of the %agan custo". The sacrifice of hu"an

#icti"s on the funeral %ile ill be !iscusse! in a later cha%ter.



8f all these #arieties of hu"an sacrifice, those offere! for fertility,

%robably at Beltane or Mi!su""er, ere the "ost i"%ortant. Their

%ro%itiatory nature is of later origin, an! their real intention as to

strengthen the !i#inity by ho" the %rocesses of groth ere !irecte!.

5till earlier, one #icti" re%resente! the !i#inity, slain that his life

"ight be re#i#e! in #igour. The earth as s%rinkle! ith his bloo! an!

fe! ith his flesh in or!er to fertilise it, an! %ossibly the

orshi%%ers %artook sacra"entally of the flesh. Pro%itiatory holocausts

of hu"an #icti"s ha! taken the %lace of the slain re%resentati#e of a

go!, but their #alue in %ro"oting fertility as not forgotten. The

sacra"ental as%ect of the rite is %erha%s to be foun! in Pliny's or!s

regar!ing the slaying of a hu"an being as a "ost religious act an!

eating the flesh as a holeso"e re"e!y a"ong the Britons.F+4 This "ay

"erely refer to "e!icinal cannibalis", such as still sur#i#es in

6taly, but the %assage rather suggests sacra"ental cannibalis", the

eating of %art of a !i#ine #icti", such as eIiste! in MeIico an!

elsehere. 8ther acts of cannibalis" are referre! to by classical

riters. )io!orus says the 6rish ate their ene"ies, an! Pausanias

!escribes the eating the flesh an! !rinking the bloo! of chil!ren a"ongthe Galatian Celts. )rinking out of a skull the bloo! of slain

>sacrificial@ ene"ies is "entione! by A""ianus an! i#y, an! 5olinus

!escribes the 6rish custo" of bathing the face in the bloo! of the slain

an! !rinking it.F+*4 6n so"e of these cases the intention "ay si"%ly

ha#e been to obtain the !ea! ene"y's strength, but here a sacrificial

#icti" as concerne!, the intention %robably ent further than this. The

bloo! of !ea! relati#es as also !runk in or!er to obtain their #irtues,

or to be brought into closer Kra%%ortK ith the".F++4 This is analogous

to the custo" of bloo! brotherhoo!, hich also eIiste! a"ong the Celts

an! continue! as a sur#i#al in the ?estern 6sles until a late !ate.F+E4

8ne grou% of Celtic hu"an sacrifices as thus connecte! ith %ri"iti#e

agricultural ritual, but the arlike energies of the Celts eIten!e! the

%ractice. icti"s ere easily obtaine!, an! offere! to the go!s of ar.

$et e#en these sacrifices %reser#e! so"e trace of the ol!er rite, in

hich the #icti" re%resente! a !i#inity or s%irit.

:ea!&hunting, !escribe! in classical ritings an! in 6rish teIts, ha!

also a sacrificial as%ect. The hea!s of ene"ies ere hung at the

sa!!le&bo or fiIe! on s%ears, as the conLuerors returne! ho"e ith

songs of #ictory.F+14 This grueso"e %icture often recurs in the teIts.

Thus, after the !eath of Cuchulainn, Conall Cernach returne! to /"erith the hea!s of his slayers strung on a ithy. :e %lace! each on a

stake an! tol! /"er the na"e of the oner. A Celtic Ko%%i!u"K or a

king's %alace "ust ha#e been as grueso"e as a )ayak or 5olo"on 6slan!

#illage. /#eryhere ere stakes crone! ith hea!s, an! the alls of

houses ere a!orne! ith the". Posei!onius tells ho he sickene! at such

a sight, but gra!ually beca"e "ore accusto"e! to it.F+-4 A roo" in the

%alace as so"eti"es a store for such hea!s, or they ere %reser#e! in

ce!ar&oo! oil or in coffers. They ere %rou!ly shon to strangers as a



recor! of conLuest, but they coul! not be sol! for their eight in

gol!.F+24 After a battle a %ile of hea!s as "a!e an! the nu"ber of the

slain as counte!, an! at annual festi#als arriors %ro!uce! the tongues

of ene"ies as a recor! of their %roess.F+34

These custo"s ha! a religious as%ect. 6n cutting off a hea! the Celt

salute! the go!s, an! the hea! as offere! to the" or to ancestral

s%irits, an! so"eti"es ke%t in gro#e or te"%le.F+F4 The na"e gi#en to

the hea!s of the slain in 6relan!, the "ast of Macha, shos that they

ere !e!icate! to her, just as skulls foun! un!er an altar ha! been

!e#ote! to the Celtic Mars.F+4 Probably, as a"ong )ayaks, A"erican

6n!ians, an! others, %ossession of a hea! as a guarantee that the ghost

of its oner oul! be subser#ient to its Celtic %ossessor, either in

this orl! or in the neIt, since they are so"eti"es foun! burie! in

gra#es along ith the !ea!.FE4 8r, sus%en!e! in te"%les, they beca"e

an actual an! sy"bolical offering of the life of their oners, if, as is

%robable, the life or soul as thought to be in the hea!. :ence, too,

the custo" of !rinking fro" the skull of the slain ha! the intention of

transferring his %oers !irectly to the !rinker.FE*4 Milk !runk fro"the skull of Conall Cernach restore! to enfeeble! arriors their

%ristine strength,FE+4 an! a folk&sur#i#al in the :ighlan!s&&that of

!rinking fro" the skull of a suici!e >here taking the %lace of the slain

ene"y@ in or!er to restore health&&shos the sa"e i!ea at ork. All

these %ractices ha! thus one en!, that of the transference of s%irit

force&&to the go!s, to the #ictor ho sus%en!e! the hea! fro" his house,

an! to all ho !rank fro" the skull. Re%resente! in bas&relief on houses

or car#e! on !agger&han!les, the hea! "ay still ha#e been thought to

%ossess talis"anic %ro%erties, gi#ing %oer to house or ea%on. Possibly

this cult of hu"an hea!s "ay ha#e gi#en rise to the i!ea of a !i#ine

hea! like those figure! on Gaulish i"ages, or !escribe!, e.g., in thestory of Bran. :is hea! %reser#e! the lan! fro" in#asion, until Arthur

!isinterre! it,FEE4 the story being base! on the belief that hea!s or

bo!ies of great arriors still ha! a %oerful influence.FE14 The

re%resentation of the hea! of a go!, like his hole i"age, oul! be

thought to %ossess the sa"e %reser#ati#e %oer.

A %ossible sur#i#al of the sacrifice of the age! "ay be foun! in a

Breton custo" of a%%lying a hea#y club to the hea! of ol! %ersons to

lighten their !eath agonies, the clubs ha#ing been for"erly use! to kill

the". They are ke%t in cha%els, an! are regar!e! ith ae.FE-4

Ani"al #icti"s ere also freLuently offere!. The Galatian Celts "a!e a

yearly sacrifice to their Arte"is of a shee%, goat, or calf, %urchase!

ith "oney lai! by for each ani"al caught in the chase. Their !ogs ere

feaste! an! crone! ith floers.FE24 9urther !etails of this ritual

are unfortunately lacking. Ani"als ca%ture! in ar ere sacrifice! to

the ar&go!s by the Gauls, or to a ri#er&go!, as hen the horses of the

!efeate! host ere thron into the Rhine by the Gaulish conLuerors of

Mallius.FE34 ?e ha#e seen that the hite oIen sacrifice! at the



"istletoe ritual "ay once ha#e been re%resentati#es of the

#egetation&s%irit, hich also ani"ate! the oak an! the "istletoe. A"ong

the insular Celts ani"al sacrifices are scarcely "entione! in the teIts,

%robably through su%%ression by later scribes, but the li#es of 6rish

saints contain a fe notices of the custo", e.g. that of 5. Patrick,

hich !escribes the gathering of %rinces, chiefs, an! )rui!s at Tara to

sacrifice #icti"s to i!ols.FEF4 6n 6relan! the %easantry still kill a

shee% or heifer for 5. Martin on his festi#al, an! ill&luck is thought

to follo the non&obser#ance of the rite.FE4 5i"ilar sacrifices on

saints' !ays in 5cotlan! an! ?ales occurre! in Christian ti"es.F14 An

eIcellent instance is that of the sacrifice of bulls at Gairloch for the

cure of lunatics on 5. Maelrubha's !ay >August +-th@. ibations of "ilk

ere also %oure! out on the hills, ruine! cha%els ere %era"bulate!,

ells an! stones orshi%%e!, an! !i#ination %ractise!. These rites,

occurring in the se#enteenth century, ere con!e"ne! by the Presbytery

of )ingall, but ith little effect, an! so"e of the" still

sur#i#e.F1*4 6n all these cases the saint has succee!e! to the ritual

of an earlier go!. Mr. Cook sur"ises that 5. Maelrubha as the successor

of a !i#ine king connecte! ith an oak an! sacre! ell, the go! ors%irit of hich as incarnate in hi". These !i#ine kings "ay at one ti"e

ha#e been slain, or a bull, si"ilarly incarnating the go! or s%irit, "ay

ha#e been kille! as a surrogate. This slaying as at a later ti"e

regar!e! as a sacrifice an! connecte! ith the cure of "a!ness.F1+4 The

rite oul! thus be on a %arallel ith the slaying of the oIen at the

"istletoe gathering, as alrea!y inter%rete!. /ilean Maree >Maelrubha@,

here the tree an! ell still eIist, as once knon as /ilean "o righ

>the islan! of "y king@, or /ilean a Mhor Righ >of the great king@,

the king ha#ing been orshi%%e! as a go!. This %iece of corroborati#e

e#i!ence as gi#en by the ol!est inhabitant to 5ir Arthur Mitchell.F1E4

The %eo%le also s%oke of the go! Mourie.

8ther sur#i#als of ani"al sacrifice are foun! in cases of cattle&%lague,

as in Morayshire siIty years ago, in ?ales, )e#on, an! the 6sle of Man.

The #icti" as burne! an! its ashes s%rinkle! on the her!, or it as

thron into the sea or o#er a %reci%ice.F114 Perha%s it as both a

%ro%itiatory sacrifice an! a sca%e&ani"al, carrying aay the !isease,

though the rite "ay be connecte! ith the for"er slaying of a !i#ine

ani"al hose !eath benefite! all the cattle of the !istrict. 6n the

:ebri!es the s%irits of earth an! air ere %ro%itiate! e#ery Luarter by

throing outsi!e the !oor a cock, hen, !uck, or cat, hich as su%%ose!

to be seiHe! by the". 6f the rite as neglecte!, "isfortune as sure tofollo. The ani"al carrie! aay e#ils fro" the house, an! as also a

%ro%itiatory sacrifice.

The bloo! of #icti"s as s%rinkle! on altars, i"ages, an! trees, or, as

a"ong the Boii, it as %lace! in a skull a!orne! ith gol!.F1-4 8ther

libations are knon "ainly fro" folk&sur#i#als. Thus Breton fisher"en

salute reefs an! jutting %ro"ontories, say %rayers, an! %our a glass of

ine or thro a biscuit or an ol! gar"ent into the sea.F124 6n the



:ebri!es a curious rite as %erfor"e! on Maun!y Thurs!ay. After "i!night

a "an alke! into the sea, an! %oure! ale or gruel on the aters, at the

sa"e ti"e singing(

8 Go! of the sea,

Put ee! in the !raing a#e,

To enrich the groun!,

To shoer on us foo!.

Those on shore took u% the strain in chorus.F134 Thus the rite as

!escribe! by one ho took %art in it a century ago, but Martin, riting

in the se#enteenth century, gi#es other !etails. The cu% of ale as

offere! ith the or!s, 5hony, 6 gi#e you this cu% of ale, ho%ing that

you ill be so kin! as to sen! %lenty of seaee! for enriching our

groun! for the ensuing year. All then ent in silence to the church an!

re"aine! there for a ti"e, after hich they in!ulge! in an orgy

out&of&!oors. This orgiastic rite "ay once ha#e inclu!e! the intercourse

of the seIes&&a %oerful char" for fertility. 5hony as so"e ol!

sea&go!, an! another !i#inity of the sea, Brianniul, as so"eti"esin#oke! for the sa"e %ur%ose.F1F4 ;ntil recently "ilk as %oure! on

Gruagach stones in the :ebri!es, as an offering to the Gruagach, a

bronie ho atche! o#er her!s, an! ho ha! taken the %lace of a

go!.F14

PRA$/R.

Prayer acco"%anie! "ost rites, an! %robably consiste! of tra!itional

for"ulae, on the eIact recital of hich !e%en!e! their #alue. The )rui!sin#oke! a go! !uring the "istletoe rite, an! at a Galatian sacrifice,

offere! to bring bir!s to !estroy grassho%%ers, %rayer as "a!e to the

bir!s the"sel#es.F-4 6n Mona, at the Ro"an in#asion, the )rui!s raise!

their ar"s an! uttere! %rayers for !eli#erance, at the sa"e ti"e cursing

the in#a!ers, an! Bou!icca in#oke! the %rotection of the go!!ess

An!rasta in a si"ilar "anner.F-*4 Chants ere sung by the %riestesses

of 5ena to raise stor"s, an! they ere also sung by arriors both before

an! after a battle, to the acco"%ani"ent of a "easure! !ance an! the

clashing of ar"s.F-+4 These arrior chants ere co"%ose! by bar!s, an!

%robably inclu!e! in#ocations of the ar&go!s an! the recital of fa"ous

!ee!s. They "ay also ha#e been of the nature of s%ells ensuring the hel%of the go!s, like the ar&cries uttere! by a hole ar"y to the soun! of

tru"%ets.F-E4 These consiste! of the na"e of a go!, of a tribe or clan,

or of so"e ell&knon %hrase. As the recital of a !i#ine na"e is often

su%%ose! to force the go! to hel%, these cries ha! thus a "agical

as%ect, hile they also struck terror into the foe.F-14 ?arriors also

a!#ance! !ancing to the fray, an! they are !e%icte! on coins !ancing on

horseback or before a sor!, hich as orshi%%e! by the Celts.F--4 The

Celtiberian festi#al at the full "oon consiste! entirely of !ancing. The



!ance is a %ri"iti#e "etho! of eI%ressing religious e"otion, an! here

it i"itates certain actions, it is inten!e! by "agical influence to

cron the actions the"sel#es ith success. 6t is thus a kin! of acte!

%rayer ith "agical results.

)66<AT68<.

A s%ecial class of !i#iners eIiste! a"ong the Celts, but the )rui!s

%ractise! !i#ination, as !i! also the unofficial lay"an. Classical

riters s%eak of the Celts as of all nations the "ost !e#ote! to, an!

the "ost eI%erience! in, the science of !i#ination. )i#ination ith a

hu"an #icti" is !escribe! by )io!orus. ibations ere %oure! o#er hi",

an! he as then slain, auguries being !ran fro" the "etho! of his fall,

the "o#e"ents of his li"bs, an! the floing of his bloo!. )i#ination

ith the entrails as use! in Galatia, Gaul, an! Britain.F-24 Beasts

an! bir!s also %ro#i!e! o"ens. The course taken by a hare let loose ga#e

an o"en of success to the Britons, an! in 6relan! !i#ination as use!ith a sacrificial ani"al.F-34 A"ong bir!s the cro as %re&e"inent,

an! to cros are re%resente! s%eaking into the ears of a "an on a

bas&relief at Co"%iegne. The Celts belie#e! that the cro ha! shon

here tons shoul! be foun!e!, or ha! furnishe! a re"e!y against %oison,

an! it as also an arbiter of !is%utes.F-F4 Arte"i!orus !escribes ho,

at a certain %lace, there ere to cros. Persons ha#ing a !is%ute set

out to hea%s of seet"eats, one for each !is%utant. The bir!s soo%e!

!on u%on the", eating one an! !is%ersing the other. :e hose hea% ha!

been scattere! on the case.F-4 Bir!s ere belie#e! to ha#e gui!e! the

"igrating Celts, an! their flight furnishe! auguries, because, as

)eiotaurus gra#ely sai!, bir!s ne#er lie. )i#ination by the #oices ofbir!s as use! by the 6rish )rui!s.F24

8"ens ere !ran fro" the !irection of the s"oke an! fla"es of sacre!

fires an! fro" the con!ition of the clou!s.F2*4 ?an!s of ye ere

carrie! by )rui!s&&the an! of )rui!is" of "any folk&tales&&an! ere

use! %erha%s as !i#ining&ro!s. 8ga"s ere also engra#e! on ro!s of yes,

an! fro" these )rui!s !i#ine! hi!!en things. By this "eans the )rui!

)alan !isco#ere! here /tain ha! been hi!!en by the go! Mi!er. The

"etho! use! "ay ha#e been that of !raing one of the ro!s by lot an!

then !i#ining fro" the "arks u%on it. A si"ilar "etho! as use! to

!isco#er the route to be taken by in#a!ers, the result being su%%ose! to!e%en! on !i#ine inter%osition.F2+4 The knole!ge of astrono"y ascribe!

by Caesar to the )rui!s as %robably of a si"%le kin!, an! "uch "iIe!

ith astrology, an! though it furnishe! the !ata for co"%uting a si"%le

calen!ar, its use as largely "agical.F2E4 6rish !i#iners forecast the

ti"e to buil! a house by the stars, an! the !ate at hich 5. Colu"ba's

e!ucation shoul! begin, as si"ilarly !isco#ere!.F214

The K6"bas 9orosnaiK, illu"ination beteen the han!s, as use! by the



K9ileK to !isco#er hi!!en things. :e chee! a %iece of ra flesh an!

%lace! it as an offering to the i"ages of the go!s ho" he !esire! to

hel% hi". 6f enlighten"ent !i! not co"e by the neIt !ay, he %ronounce!

incantations on his %al"s, hich he then %lace! on his cheeks before

falling aslee%. The re#elation folloe! in a !rea", or so"eti"es after

aaking.F2-4 Perha%s the ani"al hose flesh as eaten as a sacre! one.

Another "etho! as that of the KTein" aeghaK. The K9ileK "a!e a #erse

an! re%eate! it o#er so"e %erson or thing regar!ing hich he sought

infor"ation, or he %lace! his staff on the %erson's bo!y an! so obtaine!

hat he sought. The rite as also %rece!e! by sacrifice hence 5.

Patrick %rohibite! both it an! the K6"bas 9orosnaiK.F224 Another

incantation, the KCetna!K, as sung through the fist to !isco#er the

track of stolen cattle or of the thief. 6f this !i! not bring

enlighten"ent, the K9ileK ent to slee% an! obtaine! the knole!ge

through a !rea".F234 Another KCetna!K for obtaining infor"ation

regar!ing length of life as a!!resse! to the se#en !aughters of the

sea. Perha%s the incantation as re%eate! "echanically until the seer

fell into a kin! of trance. )i#ination by !rea"s as also use! by the

continental Celts.F2F4

8ther "etho!s rese"ble trance&utterance. A great obnubilation as

conjure! u% for the bar! so that he sle%t a hea#y slee%, an! things

"agic&begotten ere shen to hi" to enunciate, a%%arently in his slee%.

This as calle! illu"ination by rhy"es, an! a si"ilar "etho! as use!

in ?ales. ?hen consulte!, the seer roare! #iolently until he as besi!e

hi"self, an! out of his ra#ings the !esire! infor"ation as gathere!.

?hen arouse! fro" this ecstatic con!ition, he ha! no re"e"brance of hat

he ha! uttere!. Giral!us re%orts this, an! thinks, ith the "o!ern

s%iritualist, that the utterance as cause! by s%irits.F24 The

rese"blance to "o!ern trance&utterance an! to si"ilar "etho!s use! bysa#ages is re"arkable, an! %sychological science sees in it the

%ro"%tings of the subli"inal self in slee%.

The Ktaghair"K of the :ighlan!ers as a sur#i#al fro" %agan ti"es. The

seer as usually boun! in a co's hi!e&&the ani"al, it "ay be

conjecture!, ha#ing been sacrifice! in earlier ti"es. :e as left in a

!esolate %lace, an! hile he sle%t s%irits ere su%%ose! to ins%ire his

!rea"s.F34 Clothing in the skin of a sacrificial ani"al, by hich the

%erson thus clothe! is brought into contact ith it an! hence ith the

!i#inity to hich it is offere!, or ith the !i#ine ani"al itself here

the #icti" is so regar!e!, is a i!es%rea! custo". :ence, in this Celticusage, contact ith !i#inity through the hi!e oul! be eI%ecte! to

%ro!uce enlighten"ent. 9or a like reason the 6rish sacrifice! a shee%

for the reco#ery of the sick, an! clothe! the %atient in its skin.F3*4

Bin!ing the li"bs of the seer is also a i!es%rea! custo", %erha%s to

restrain his con#ulsions or to concentrate the %sychic force.

Both a"ong the continental an! 6rish Celts those ho sought hi!!en

knole!ge sle%t on gra#es, ho%ing to be ins%ire! by the s%irits of the



314 5ee Jullian, -E.

3-4 5er#ius on KA/nei!K, iii. -3.

324 Caesar, #i. *2 i#y, III#iii. 13 )io!. 5ic. #. E+, IIIi. *E

Athenaeus, i#. -* )io Cass., lIii. 3.

334 )io!. 5ic, IIIi#. *E 5trabo, i#. 1 8rosius, #. *2 5chol. on

ucan, ;sener's e!. E+.

3F4 Caesar, #i. *2 5trabo, i#. 1 )io!. 5ic. #. E+ i#y, III#iii. 13.

34 Mannhar!t, KBau"kultusK, -+ f.

F4 5trabo, Kibi!.K 1. 1.

F*4 5. Aug. K!e Ci#. )eiK, #ii. *.

F+4 Tac. KAnn.K Ii#. E 5trabo, i#. 1. 1.

FE4 5uet. KClau!.K +-.

F14 Po"%. Mela, iii. +. *F.

F-4 Pliny, K:<K III. 1. *E.

F24 )io. Cass. lIii. 2.

F34 8'Curry, KMCK ii. +++ Joyce, K5:K i. ch. .

FF4 KRCK I#i. E-.

F4 KK +*EKbK.

F*4 5ee %. -+, Ksu%raK.

F**4 5ee, hoe#er, accounts of reckless chil! sacrifices in /llis,

KPolynesian ResearchesK, i. +-+, an! ?ester"arck, KMoral 6!easK, i. E3.

F*+4 8'Curry, KMCK 6ntro, !cIli.

F*E4 K;K *+2KaK. A folk&#ersion is gi#en by ar"inie, K?est 6rish

9olk&TalesK, *E.

F*14 KBook of 9er"oyK, FKaK.

F*-4 8'Curry, KMCK 6ntro. !cIl, ii. +++.



F*24 A!a"nan, Kita 5. Col.K Ree#e's e!. +FF.

F*34 Car"ichael, KCar"ina Ga!elicaK, ii. E*3.

F*F4 <ennius, K:ist. Brit.K 1.

F*4 5tokes, KT6GK Ili. 8'Curry, KMCK ii. .

F+4 Pliny, K:<K III. *. The fee!ing of /thni, !aughter of Cri"thann,

on hu"an flesh that she "ight sooner attain "aturity "ay be an instance

of "e!icinal cannibalis" >K6TK iii. E2E@. The eating of %arents a"ong

the 6rish, !escribe! by 5trabo >i#. -@, as an eIa"%le of honorific

cannibalis". 5ee "y article Cannibalis" in :astings' K/ncycl. of Rel.

an! /thicsK, iii, *1.

F+*4 )io!. 5ic. #i. *+ Paus. I. ++. E A"". Marc. II#ii. 1 i#y,

IIiii. +1 5olin. IIii. E.

F++4 This custo" continue! in 6relan! until 5%enser's ti"e.

F+E4 eahy, i. *-F Giral!us, KTo%. :ib.K iii. ++ Martin, *.

F+14 5il. 6tal. i#. +*E )io!. 5ic. Ii#. **- i#y, I. +2 5trabo, i#.

1. - Miss :ull, +.

F+-4 )io!. 5ic. #. + 5trabo, i#. 1. -.

F+24 )'Arbois, #. ** )io!. 5ic. #. + 5trabo, Kloc. cit.K

F+34 KAnnals of the 9our MastersK, F21 K6TK i. +-.

F+F4 5il. 6tal. i#. +*-, #. 2-+ ucan, KPhar.K i. 113 i#y, IIiii.

+1.

F+4 5ee %. 3*, Ksu%raK KC6K Iii. *33. A !i" "e"ory of hea!&taking

sur#i#e! in the se#enteenth century in /igg, here hea!less skeletons

ere foun!, of hich the islan!ers sai! that an ene"y ha! cut off their

hea!s >Martin, +33@.

FE4 Belloguet, K/thnol. Gaul.K iii. *.

FE*4 5il. 6tal. Iiii. 1F+ i#y, IIiii. +1 9lorus, i. E.

FE+4 KCPK i. *2.

FEE4 oth, i. f., ii. +*F&+*. 5o"eti"es the ea%ons of a great

arrior ha! the sa"e effect. The bos of Gerthe#yr ere hi!!en in

!ifferent %arts of Pry!ein an! %reser#e! the lan! fro" 5aIon in#asion,

until Grtheyrn, for lo#e of a o"an, !ug the" u% >oth, ii. +*F&+*@.



FE14 5ee %. EEF, KinfraK. 6n 6relan!, the brain of an ene"y as taken

fro" the hea!, "iIe! ith li"e, an! "a!e into a ball. This as alloe!

to har!en, an! as then %lace! in the tribal ar"oury as a tro%hy.

FE-4 K'Anthro%ologieK, Iii. +2, 3**. Cf. the /nglish tra!ition of the

:oly Male, sai! to ha#e been use! for the sa"e %ur%ose. Thorns,

KAnec!otes an! Tra!itionsK, F1.

FE24 Arrian, KCyneg.K IIIiii.

FE34 Caesar, #i. *3 8rosius, #. *2. 2.

FEF4 )'Arbois, i. *--.

FE4 Curtin, KTales of the 9airiesK, 3+ K9olk&oreK, #ii. *3F&*3.

F14 Mitchell, KPast in the PresentK, +3-.

F1*4 Mitchell, Ko%. cit.K +3* f.

F1+4 Cook, K9olk&oreK, I#ii. EE+.

F1E4 Mitchell, Kloc. cit.K *13. The corru%tion of Maelrubha to

Maree "ay ha#e been ai!e! by confusing the na"e ith K"oK or K"hor

righK.

F114 Mitchell, Kloc. cit.K Moore, +, *1- Rhy4s, KC9K i. E-

?orth, K:ist. of )e#onshireK, EE )alyell, K%assi"K.

F1-4 i#y, IIiii. +1.

F124 5ebillot, ii. *22&*23 K'Anthro%.K I#. 3+.

F134 Car"ichael, KCar". Ga!.K i. *2E.

F1F4 Martin, +F. A scribe calle! 5oni!, hich "ight be the eLui#alent

of 5hony, is "entione! in the 5toe "issal >K9olk&oreK, *F-@.

F14 Ca"%bell, K5u%erstitionsK, *F1 f K?aifs an! 5trays of Celtic

Tra!.K ii. 1--.

F-4 Aelian, I#ii. *.

F-*4 Tacitus, KAnn.K Ii#. E )io Cass. lIii. 2.

F-+4 A%%ian, KCelticaK, F i#y, IIi. +F, III#iii. *3, I. +2.

F-E4 i#y, #. EF, #ii. +E Polybius, ii. +. Cf. ?atte#ille, Ke cri !e



guerre cheH les !ifferents %eu%lesK, Paris, *FF.

F-14 i#y, #. EF.

F--4 A%%ian, #i. -E Muret et Chabouillet, KCatalogue !es "onnaies

gauloisesK, 2EE f., 21* f.

F-24 )io!. #. E* Justin, II#i. +, 1 Cicero, K!e )i#.K ii. E2, 32

Tac. KAnn.K Ii#. E 5trabo, iii. E. 2.

F-34 )io Cass. lIii. 2.

F-F4 Reinach, KCatal. 5o""aireK, E* Pseu!o&Plutarch, K!e 9lu#iisK, #i.

1 KMirab. Auscult.K F2.

F-4 5trabo, i#. 1. 2.

F24 Justin, IIi#, 1 Cicero, K!e )i#.K i. *-. +2. >Cf. the to "agic

cros hich announce! the co"ing of Cuchulainn to the other orl!>)'Arbois, #. +E@ 6rish K<enniusK, *1- 8'Curry, KMCK ii. ++1 cf. for

a ?elsh instance, 5kene, i. 1EE.@

F2*4 Joyce, K5:K i. ++ 8'Curry, KMCK ii. ++1, KM5 Mat.K +F1.

F2+4 K6TK i. *+ i#y, #. E1 oth, KRCK I#i. E*1. The 6rish for

consulting a lot is Kcrann&churK, the act of casting oo!.

F2E4 Caesar, #i. *1.

F214 8'Curry, KMCK ii. 12, ++1 5tokes, KThree 6rish :o"iliesK, *E.

F2-4 Cor"ac, 1. 9ionn's !i#ination by cheing his thu"b is calle!

K6"bas 9orosnaiK >KRCK II#. E13@.

F224 KAntient as of 6relan!K, i. 1-.

F234 :y!e, Kit. :ist. of 6relan!K, +1*.

F2F4 Justin, Iliii. -.

F24 8'Gra!y, ii. E2+ Giral!us, K)escr. Ca"b.K i. **.

F34 Pennant, KTour in 5cotlan!K, i. E** Martin, ***.

F3*4 Richar!son, K9olly of Pilgri"agesK, 3.

F3+4 Tertullian, K!e Ani"aK, -3 KColl. !e Reb. :ib.K iii. EE1.

F3E4 Ca"%bell, K5u%erstitionsK, +2E Curtin, KTalesK, F1.



F314 ucan, e!. ;sener, EE.

F3-4 5ee eIa"%les in 8'Curry, KM5 Mat.K EFE f.

F324 Miss :ull, *, +, +E.

F334 K;K --.

F3F4 KRCK Iii. F, IIi. *-2, IIii. 2*.

F34 KRCK I#. 1E+ KAnnals of the 9our MastersK, A.M. +-E Ca"%bell,

K?:TK i#. +F.

FF4 5ee A!a"nan's 5econ! ision. KRCK Iii. 11*.

C:APT/R Q66.

TAB;.

The 6rish KgeisK, %l. KgeasaK, hich "ay be ren!ere! by Tabu, ha! to

senses. 6t "eant so"ething hich "ust not be !one for fear of !isastrous

conseLuences, an! also an obligation to !o so"ething co""an!e! by

another.

As a tabu the KgeisK ha! a large %lace in 6rish life, an! as %robablyknon to other branches of the Celts.FF*4 6t folloe! the general

course of tabu here#er foun!. 5o"eti"es it as i"%ose! before birth, or

it as here!itary, or connecte! ith tote"is". egen!s, hoe#er, often

arose gi#ing a !ifferent eI%lanation to KgeasaK, long after the custo"s

in hich they originate! ha! been forgotten. 6t as one of )iar"ai!'s

KgeasaK not to hunt the boar of Ben Gulban, an! this as %robably

tote"ic in origin. But legen! tol! ho his father kille! a chil!, the

cor%se being change! into a boar by the chil!'s father, ho sai! its

s%an of life oul! be the sa"e as )iar"ai!'s, an! that he oul! be slain

by it. 8engus %ut KgeasaK on )iar"ai! not to hunt it, but at 9ionn's

!esire he broke these, an! as kille!.FF+4 8ther KgeasaK&&those ofCuchulainn not to eat !og's flesh, an! of Conaire ne#er to chase

bir!s&&also %oint to tote"is".

6n so"e cases KgeasaK ere base! on i!eas of right an! rong, honour or

!ishonour, or ere inten!e! to cause a#oi!ance of unlucky !ays. 8thers

are unintelligible to us. The largest nu"ber of KgeasaK concerne! kings

an! chiefs, an! are !escribe!, along ith their corres%on!ing

%ri#ileges, in the KBook of RightsK. 5o"e of the KgeasaK of the king of



Connaught ere not to go to an asse"bly of o"en at eaghair, not to sit

in autu"n on the se%ulchral "oun! of the ife of Maine, not to go in a

grey&s%eckle! gar"ent on a grey&s%eckle! horse to the heath of Cruachan,

an! the like.FFE4 The "eaning of these is obscure, but other eIa"%les

are "ore ob#ious an! sho that all alike corres%on!e! to the tabus

a%%lying to kings in %ri"iti#e societies, ho are often "agicians,

%riests, or e#en !i#ine re%resentati#es. 8n the" the elfare of the

tribe an! the "aking of rain or sunshine, an! the %rocesses of groth

!e%en!. They "ust therefore be careful of their actions, an! hence they

are he!ge! about ith tabus hich, hoe#er un"eaning, ha#e a !irect

connection ith their %oers. 8ut of such conce%tions the 6rish kingly

KgeasaK arose. Their obser#ance "a!e the earth fruitful, %ro!uce!

abun!ance an! %ros%erity, an! ke%t both the king an! his lan! fro"

"isfortune. 6n later ti"es these ere su%%ose! to be !e%en!ent on the

goo!ness or the re#erse of the king, but this as a !e%arture fro" the

ol!er i!ea, hich is clearly state! in the KBook of RightsK.FF14 The

kings ere !i#inities on ho" !e%en!e! fruitfulness an! %lenty, an! ho

"ust therefore sub"it to obey their KgeasaK. 5o"e of their %rerogati#es

see" also to be connecte! ith this state of things. Thus they "ight eatof certain foo!s or go to certain %laces on %articular !ays.FF-4 6n

%ri"iti#e societies kings an! %riests often %rohibit or!inary "ortals

fro" eating things hich they !esire for the"sel#es by "aking the"

KtabuK, an! in other cases the fruits of the earth can only be eaten

after king or %riest has %artaken of the" cere"onially. This "ay ha#e

been the case in 6relan!. The %ri#ilege relating to %laces "ay ha#e

"eant that these ere sacre! an! only to be entere! by the king at

certain ti"es an! in his sacre! ca%acity.

As a reflection fro" this state of things, the heroes of the sagas,

Cuchulainn an! 9ionn, ha! nu"erous KgeasaK a%%licable to the"sel#es,so"e of the" religious, so"e "agical, others base! on %ri"iti#e i!eas of

honour, others %erha%s the in#ention of the narrators.FF24

KGeasaK, hether in the sense of tabus or of obligations, coul! be

i"%ose! by any one, an! "ust be obeye!, for !isobe!ience %ro!uce!

!isastrous effects. Probably the obligation as fra"e! as an incantation

or s%ell, an! the %oer of the s%ell being fully belie#e! in, obe!ience

oul! follo as a "atter of course.FF34 /Ia"%les of such KgeasaK are

nu"erous in 6rish literature. Cuchulainn's father&in&la %ut KgeasaK on

hi" that he shoul! kno no rest until he foun! out the cause of the

eIile of the sons of )oel. An! Grainne %ut KgeasaK on )iar"ai! that heshoul! elo%e ith her, an! this he !i!, though the act as re%ugnant to

hi".

A"ong sa#ages the %unish"ent hich is su%%ose! to follo tabu&breaking

is often %ro!uce! through auto&suggestion hen a tabu has been

unconsciously infringe! an! this has afterar!s been !isco#ere!. 9ear

%ro!uces the result hich is feare!. The result is belie#e!, hoe#er, to

be the orking of !i#ine #engeance. 6n the case of 6rish KgeasaK,



!estruction an! !eath usually folloe! their infringe"ent, as in the

case of )iar"ai! an! Cuchulainn. But the best instance is foun! in the

tale of KThe )estruction of )a )erga's :ostelK, in hich the Ksi!K&folk

a#enge the"sel#es for /ochai!'s action by causing the !estruction of his

!escen!ant Conaire, ho is force! to break his KgeasaK. These are first

"inutely !etaile! then it is shon ho, al"ost in s%ite of hi"self,

Conaire as le! on to break the", an! ho, in the seLuel, his tragic

!eath occurre!.FFF4 iee! in this light as the orking of !i#ine

#engeance to a re"ote !escen!ant of the offen!er by forcing hi" to break

his tabus, the story is one of the "ost terrible in the hole range of

6rish literature.

988T<8T/5(

FF*4 The religious inter!ictions "entione! by Caesar >#i. *E@ "ay be

regar!e! as tabus, hile the s%oils of ar %lace! in a consecrate! %lace

>#i. *F@, an! certain ani"als a"ong the Britons >#. *+@, ere clearly

un!er tabu.

FF+4 Joyce, K8CRK EE+ f.

FFE4 KBook of RightsK, e!. 8')ono#an, -.

FF14 KBook of RightsK, 3.

FF-4 6bi!. E f.

FF24 KK *3 8'Gra!y, ii. *3-.

FF34 6n :ighlan! tales KgeasaK is translate! s%ells.

FFF4 KRCK IIii. +3 f. The story of K)a Choca's :ostelK has for its

subject the !estruction of Cor"ac through breaking his KgeasaK >KRCK

IIi. *1 f.@.

C:APT/R Q666.

9/5T6A5.

The Celtic year as not at first regulate! by the solstices an!

eLuinoIes, but by so"e "etho! connecte! ith agriculture or ith the

seasons. ater, the year as a lunar one, an! there is so"e e#i!ence of

atte"%ts at synchronising solar an! lunar ti"e. But ti"e as "ainly

"easure! by the "oon, hile in all calculations night %rece!e! !ay.FF4

Thus Koi!hche 5a"hainK as the night %rece!ing 5a"hain ><o#e"ber *st@,



not the folloing night. The usage sur#i#es in our sennight an!

fortnight. 6n early ti"es the year ha! to, %ossibly three !i#isions,

"arking %erio!s in %astoral or agricultural life, but it as afterar!s

!i#i!e! into four %erio!s, hile the year began ith the inter

!i#ision, o%ening at 5a"hain. A tofol!, sub!i#i!e! into a fourfol!

!i#ision is foun! in 6rish teIts,F4 an! "ay be tabulate! as

follos(&&

*st Luarter, KGei"re!hK, beginning ith the

KAK. Gei"re!h festi#al of K5a"hainK, <o#e"ber *st.

>inter half@

+n! Luarter, K/arrachK, beginning 9ebruary

*st >so"eti"es calle! K8i"elcK@.

Er! Luarter, K5a"ra!hK, beginning ith the

KBK. 5a"hra!h festi#al of KBeltaneK, May *st >calle! also

>su""er half@ KCet&so"anK or KCet&sa"ainK, *st !ay of

K5a"ono&sK cf. ?elsh KCyntefynK@.

1th Luarter, K9ogha"harK, beginning ith

the festi#al of Kugnasa!hK, August *st

>so"eti"es calle! KBrontroghainK@.

These !i#isions began ith festi#als, an! clear traces of three of the"

occur o#er the hole Celtic area, but the fourth has no been "erge! in

5. Brigit's !ay. Beltane an! 5a"hain "arke! the beginning of the to

great !i#isions, an! ere %erha%s at first "o#able festi#als, accor!ing

as the signs of su""er or inter a%%eare! earlier or later. ?ith the

a!o%tion of the Ro"an calen!ar so"e of the festi#als ere !is%lace!,e.g. in Gaul, here the Calen!s of January took the %lace of 5a"hain,

the ritual being also transferre!.

<one of the four festi#als is connecte! ith the ti"es of eLuinoI an!

solstice. This %oints to the fact that originally the Celtic year as

in!e%en!ent of these. But Mi!su""er !ay as also obser#e! not only by

the Celts, but by "ost /uro%ean folk, the ritual rese"bling that of

Beltane. 6t has been hel!, an! an ol! tra!ition in 6relan! gi#es so"e

su%%ort to the theory, that un!er Christian influences the ol! %agan

feast of Beltane as "erge! in that of 5. John Ba%tist on Mi!su""er

!ay.F*4 But, though there are Christian ele"ents in the Mi!su""erritual, !enoting a !esire to bring it un!er Church influence, the %agan

ele"ents in folk&custo" are strongly "arke!, an! the festi#al is !ee%ly

roote! in an earlier %aganis" all o#er /uro%e. ?ithout "uch acLuaintance

ith astrono"y, "en "ust ha#e note! the %erio! of the sun's longest

course fro" early ti"es, an! it oul! %robably be obser#e! ritually. The

festi#als of Beltane an! Mi!su""er "ay ha#e arisen in!e%en!ently, an!

entere! into co"%etition ith each other. 8r Beltane "ay ha#e been an

early %astoral festi#al "arking the beginning of su""er hen the her!s



ent out to %asture, an! Mi!su""er a "ore %urely agricultural festi#al.

An! since their ritual as%ect an! %ur%ose as seen in folk&custo" are

si"ilar, they "ay e#entually ha#e borroe! each fro" the other. 8r they

"ay be later se%arate fiIe! !ates of an earlier "o#able su""er festi#al.

9or our %ur%ose e "ay here consi!er the" as tin hal#es of such a

festi#al. ?here Mi!su""er as alrea!y obser#e!, the influence of the

Ro"an calen!ar oul! confir" that obser#ance. The festi#als of the

Christian year also affecte! the ol!er obser#ances. 5o"e of the ritual

as transferre! to saints' !ays ithin the range of the %agan festi#al

!ays, thus the 5a"hain ritual is foun! obser#e! on 5. Martin's !ay. 6n

other cases, holy !ays took the %lace of the ol! festi#als&&All 5aints'

an! All 5ouls' that of 5a"hain, 5. Brigit's !ay that of 9ebruary *st, 5.

John Ba%tist's !ay that of Mi!su""er, a""as that of ugnasa!, an! so"e

atte"%t as "a!e to hallo, if not to oust, the ol!er ritual.

The Celtic festi#als being %ri"arily connecte! ith agricultural an!

%astoral life, e fin! in their ritual sur#i#als traces not only of a

religious but of a "agical #ie of things, of acts !esigne! to assist

the %oers of life an! groth. The %roof of this ill be foun! in a!etaile! eIa"ination of the sur#i#ing custo"s connecte! ith the".

5AM:A6<.

5a"hain,F+4 beginning the Celtic year, as an i"%ortant social an!

religious occasion. The %oers of blight ere beginning their

ascen!ancy, yet the future triu"%h of the %oers of groth as not

forgotten. Probably 5a"hain ha! gathere! u% into itself other feasts

occurring earlier or later. Thus it bears traces of being a har#estfesti#al, the ritual of the earlier har#est feast being transferre! to

the inter feast, as the Celts foun! the"sel#es in lan!s here har#est

is not gathere! before late autu"n. The har#est rites "ay, hoe#er, ha#e

been associate! ith threshing rather than ingathering. 5a"hain also

contains in its ritual so"e of the ol! %astoral cults, hile as a <e

$ear feast its ritual is in great %art that of all festi#als of

beginnings.

<e fire as brought into each house at 5a"hain fro" the sacre!

bonfire,FE4 itself %robably kin!le! fro" the nee!&fire by the friction

of %ieces of oo!. This %reser#e! its %urity, the %urity necessary to afesti#al of beginnings.F14 The %utting aay of the ol! fires as

%robably connecte! ith #arious rites for the eI%ulsion of e#ils, hich

usually occur a"ong "any %eo%les at the <e $ear festi#al. By that

%rocess of !islocation hich scattere! the 5a"hain ritual o#er a i!er

%erio! an! ga#e so"e of it to Christ"as, the kin!ling of the $ule log

"ay ha#e been originally connecte! ith this festi#al.

)i#ination an! forecasting the fate of the inLuirer for the co"ing year



also took %lace. 5o"eti"es these ere connecte! ith the bonfire, stones

%lace! in it shoing by their a%%earance the fortune or "isfortune

aaiting their oners.F-4 8thers, like those !escribe! by Burns in his

:alloe'en, ere unconnecte! ith the bonfire an! ere of an erotic

nature.F24

The slaughter of ani"als for inter consu"%tion hich took %lace at

5a"hain, or, as no, at Martin"as, though connecte! ith econo"ic

reasons, ha! a !istinctly religious as%ect, as it ha! a"ong the Teutons.

6n recent ti"es in 6relan! one of the ani"als as offere! to 5. Martin,

ho "ay ha#e taken the %lace of a go!, an! ill&luck folloe! the

non&obser#ance of the custo".F34 The slaughter as folloe! by general

feasting. This later slaughter "ay be trace! back to the %astoral stage,

in hich the ani"als ere regar!e! as !i#ine, an! one as slain annually

an! eaten sacra"entally. 8r, if the slaughter as "ore general, the

ani"als oul! be %ro%itiate!. But hen the ani"als cease! to be

orshi%%e!, the slaughter oul! certainly be "ore general, though still

%reser#ing traces of its original character. The %astoral sacra"ent "ay

also ha#e been connecte! ith the slaying an! eating of an ani"alre%resenting the corn&s%irit at har#est ti"e. 6n one legen! 5. Martin is

associate! ith the ani"al slain at Martin"as, an! is sai! to ha#e been

cut u% an! eaten in the for" of an oI,FF4 as if a for"er !i#ine ani"al

ha! beco"e an anthro%o"or%hic !i#inity, the latter being "erge! in the

%ersonality of a Christian saint.

8ther rites, connecte! ith the Calen!s of January as a result of

!islocation, %oint also in this !irection. 6n Gaul an! Ger"any riotous

%rocessions took %lace ith "en !resse! in the hea!s an! skins of

ani"als.F4 This rite is sai! by Tille to ha#e been intro!uce! fro"

6taly, but it is "ore likely to ha#e been a nati#e custo".4 As the%eo%le ate the flesh of the slain ani"als sacra"entally, so they clothe!

the"sel#es in the skins to %ro"ote further contact ith their !i#inity.

Pera"bulating the tonshi% sunise !resse! in the skin of a co took

%lace until recently in the :ebri!es at <e $ear, in or!er to kee% off

"isfortune, a %iece of the hi!e being burne! an! the s"oke inhale! by

each %erson an! ani"al in the tonshi%.*4 5i"ilar custo"s ha#e been

foun! in other Celtic !istricts, an! these ani"al !isguises can har!ly

be se%arate! fro" the sacra"ental slaughter at 5a"hain.+4

/#ils ha#ing been or being about to be cast off in the <e $ear ritual,

a fe "ore a!!e! to the nu"ber can "ake little !ifference. :ence a"ong%ri"iti#e %eo%les <e $ear is often characterise! by orgiastic rites.

These took %lace at the Calen!s in Gaul, an! ere !enounce! by councils

an! %reachers.E4 6n 6relan! the "erri"ent at 5a"hain is often

"entione! in the teIts,14 an! si"ilar orgiastic rites lurk behin! the

:alloe'en custo"s in 5cotlan! an! in the licence still %er"itte! to

youths in the Luietest tonshi%s of the ?est :ighlan!s at 5a"hain e#e.

5a"hain, as has been seen, as also a festi#al of the !ea!, hose ghosts



ere fe! at this ti"e.-4

As the %oers of groth ere in !anger an! in ecli%se in inter, "en

thought it necessary to assist the". As a "agical ai! the 5a"hain

bonfire as chief, an! it is still lit in the :ighlan!s. Bran!s ere

carrie! roun!, an! fro" it the ne fire as lit in each house. 6n <orth

?ales %eo%le ju"%e! through the fire, an! hen it as eItinct, rushe!

aay to esca%e the black so ho oul! take the hin!"ost.24 The

bonfire re%resente! the sun, an! as inten!e! to strengthen it. But

re%resenting the sun, it ha! all the sun's force, hence those ho ju"%e!

through it ere strengthene! an! %urifie!. The ?elsh reference to the

hin!"ost an! to the black so "ay %oint to a for"er hu"an sacrifice,

%erha%s of any one ho stu"ble! in ju"%ing through the fire. =eating

s%eaks of a )rui!ic sacrifice in the bonfire, hether of "an or beast is

not s%ecifie!.34 Probably the #icti", like the sca%egoat, as la!en

ith the accu"ulate! e#ils of the year, as in si"ilar <e $ear custo"s

elsehere. ater belief regar!e! the sacrifice, if sacrifice there as,

as offere! to the %oers of e#il&&the black so, unless this ani"al is a

re"iniscence of the corn&s%irit in its har"ful as%ect. /arlier %oers,hether of groth or of blight, ca"e to be associate! ith 5a"hain as

!e"oniac beings&&the "alignant bir! flocks hich blighte! cro%s an!

kille! ani"als, the Ksa"hanachK hich steals chil!ren, an! Mongfin! the

banshee, to ho" o"en an! the rabble "ake %etitions on 5a"hain

e#e.F4 ?itches, e#il&intentione! fairies, an! the !ea! ere

%articularly acti#e then.

Though the sacrificial #icti" ha! co"e to be regar!e! as an offering to

the %oers of blight, he "ay once ha#e re%resente! a !i#inity of groth

or, in earlier ti"es, the corn&s%irit. 5uch a #icti" as slain at

har#est, an! har#est is often late in northern Celtic regions, hile theslaying as so"eti"es connecte! not ith the har#est fiel!, but ith the

later threshing. This oul! bring it near the 5a"hain festi#al. The

slaying of the corn&s%irit as !eri#e! fro" the earlier slaying of a

tree or #egetation&s%irit e"bo!ie! in a tree an! also in a hu"an or

ani"al #icti". The corn&s%irit as e"bo!ie! in the last sheaf cut as

ell as in an ani"al or hu"an being.4 This hu"an #icti" "ay ha#e

been regar!e! as a king, since in late %o%ular custo" a "ock king is

chosen at inter festi#als.*4 6n other cases the effigy of a saint is

hung u% an! carrie! roun! the !ifferent houses, %art of the !ress being

left at each. The saint has %robably succee!e! to the tra!itional ritual

of the !i#ine #icti".**4 The %ri"iti#e %erio! in hich the corn&s%iritas regar!e! as fe"ale, ith a o"an as her hu"an re%resentati#e, is

also recalle! in folk&custo". The last sheaf is calle! the Mai!en or the

Mother, hile, as in <ortha"%tonshire, girls choose a Lueen on 5.

Catharine's !ay, <o#e"ber +2th, an! in so"e Christ"as %ageants $ule's

ife, as ell as $ule, is %resent, corres%on!ing to the May Lueen of

the su""er festi#al.*+4 Men also "asLuera!e! as o"en at the Calen!s.

The !ates of these sur#i#als "ay be eI%laine! by that !islocation of the

5a"hain festi#al alrea!y %ointe! out. This #ie of the 5a"hain hu"an



sacrifices is su%%orte! by the 6rish offerings to the 9o"orians&&go!s of

groth, later regar!e! as go!s of blight, an! to Cro"" Cruaich, in both

cases at 5a"hain.*E4 ?ith the e#olution of religious thought, the

slain #icti" ca"e to be regar!e! as an offering to e#il %oers.

This as%ect of 5a"hain, as a festi#al to %ro"ote an! assist festi#ity,

is further seen in the belief in the increase! acti#ity of fairies at

that ti"e. 6n 6relan!, fairies are connecte! ith the Tuatha )e )anann,

the !i#inities of groth, an! in "any folk&tales they are associate!

ith agricultural %rocesses. The use of e#ergreens at Christ"as is

%erha%s also connecte! ith the carrying of the" roun! the fiel!s in

ol!er ti"es, as an e#i!ence that the life of nature as not

eItinct.*14

5a"hain "ay thus be regar!e! as, in origin, an ol! %astoral an!

agricultural festi#al, hich in ti"e ca"e to be looke! u%on as affor!ing

assistance to the %oers of groth in their conflict ith the %oers of

blight. Perha%s so"e "yth !escribing this co"bat "ay lurk behin! the

story of the battle of Mag&ture! fought on 5a"hain beteen the Tuatha )e)anann an! the 9o"orians. ?hile the %oers of blight are triu"%hant in

inter, the Tuatha )ea are re%resente! as the #ictors, though they

suffer loss an! !eath. Perha%s this enshrines the belief in the

continual triu"%h of life an! groth o#er blight an! !ecay, or it "ay

arise fro" the fact that 5a"hain as both a ti"e of rejoicing for the

ingathere! har#est, an! of ailing for the co"ing su%re"acy of inter

an! the reign of the %oers of blight.

B/TA</.

6n Cor"ac's KGlossaryK an! other teIts, Beltane is !eri#e! fro"

Kbel&teneK, a goo!ly fire, or fro" Kbel&!ineK, because nely&born

>K!ineK@ cattle ere offere! to Bel, an i!ol&go!.*-4 The latter is

folloe! by those ho belie#e in a Celtic Belus, connecte! ith Baal. <o

such go! is knon, hoe#er, an! the go! Belenos is in no ay connecte!

ith the 5e"itic !i#inity. M. )'Arbois assu"es an unknon go! of !eath,

Beltene >fro" KbeltuK, to !ie@, hose festi#al Beltane as.*24 But

Beltane as a festi#al of life, of the sun shining in his strength. )r.

5tokes gi#es a "ore acce%table eI%lanation of the or!. 6ts %ri"iti#e

for" as Kbelo&teKK%K4KniaK, fro" Kbelo&sK, clear, shining, theroot of the na"es Belenos an! Belisa"a, an! KteKK%K4KnosK, fire. Thus

the or! oul! "ean so"ething like bright fire, %erha%s the sun or the

bonfire, or both.*34

The folk&sur#i#als of the Beltane an! Mi!su""er festi#als sho that both

ere inten!e! to %ro"ote fertility.

8ne of the chief ritual acts at Beltane as the kin!ling of bonfires,



often on hills. The house&fires in the !istrict ere often eItinguishe!,

the bonfire being lit by friction fro" a rotating heel&&the Ger"an

nee!&fire.*F4 The fire ke%t off !isease an! e#il, hence cattle ere

!ri#en through it, or, accor!ing to Cor"ac, beteen to fires lit by

)rui!s, in or!er to kee% the" in health !uring the year.*4 5o"eti"es

the fire as lit beneath a sacre! tree, or a %ole co#ere! ith greenery

as surroun!e! by the fuel, or a tree as burne! in the fire.+4 These

trees sur#i#e in the May%ole of later custo", an! they re%resente! the

#egetation&s%irit, to ho" also the orshi%%ers assi"ilate! the"sel#es

by !ressing in lea#es. They !ance! sunise roun! the fire or ran through

the fiel!s ith blaHing branches or is%s of stra, i"itating the course

of the sun, an! thus benefiting the fiel!s.+*4 9or the sa"e reason the

tree itself as %robably borne through the fiel!s. :ouses ere !ecke!

ith boughs an! thus %rotecte! by the s%irit of #egetation.++4

An ani"al re%resenting the s%irit of #egetation "ay ha#e been slain. 6n

late sur#i#als of Beltane at )ublin, a horse's skull an! bones ere

thron into the fire,+E4 the attenuate! for" of an earlier sacrifice

or slaying of a !i#ine #icti", by ho" strength as transferre! to allthe ani"als hich %asse! through the fire. 6n so"e cases a hu"an #icti"

"ay ha#e been slain. This is suggeste! by custo"s sur#i#ing in

Perthshire in the eighteenth century, hen a cake as broken u% an!

!istribute!, an! the %erson ho recei#e! a certain blackene! %ortion as

calle! the Beltane carline or !e#ote!. A %retence as "a!e of

throing hi" into the fire, or he ha! to lea% three ti"es through it,

an! !uring the festi#al he as s%oken of as !ea!.+14 Martin says

that "alefactors ere burne! in the fire,+-4 an! though he cites no

authority, this agrees ith the Celtic use of cri"inals as #icti"s.

Perha%s the #icti" as at one ti"e a hu"an re%resentati#e of the

#egetation&s%irit.

Beltane cakes or bannocks, %erha%s "a!e of the grain of the sacre! last

sheaf fro" the %re#ious har#est, an! therefore sacra"ental in character,

ere also use! in !ifferent ays in folk&sur#i#als. They ere rolle!

!on a slo%e&&a "agical i"itati#e act, sy"bolising an! ai!ing the course

of the sun. The cake ha! also a !i#inatory character. 6f it broke on

reaching the foot of the slo%e this in!icate! the a%%roaching !eath of

its oner. 6n another custo" in Perthshire, %art of a cake as thron

o#er the shoul!er ith the or!s, This 6 gi#e to thee, %reser#e thou "y

horses this to thee, %reser#e thou "y shee% this to thee, 8 foI,

%reser#e thou "y la"bs this to thee, 8 hoo!e! cro this to thee, 8eagle. :ere there is an a%%eal to beneficial an! noIious %oers,

hether this as the original intention of the rite.+24 But if the

cakes ere "a!e of the last sheaf, they ere %robably at one ti"e eaten

sacra"entally, their sacrificial use e"erging later.

The bonfire as a sun&char", re%resenting an! assisting the sun.

Rain&char"s ere also use! at Beltane. 5acre! ells ere #isite! an! the

cere"ony %erfor"e! ith their aters, these %erha%s being s%rinkle! o#er



the tree or the fiel!s to %ro"ote a co%ious rainfall for the benefit of

#egetation. The use of such rites at Beltane an! at other festi#als "ay

ha#e gi#en rise to the belief that ells ere es%ecially efficacious

then for %ur%oses of healing. The custo" of rolling in the grass to

benefit by May !e as %robably connecte! ith "agical rites in hich

"oisture %laye! an i"%ortant %art.+34

The i!ea that the %oers of groth ha! successfully co"bate! those of

blight "ay ha#e been ritually re%resente!. This is suggeste! by the

"i"ic co"bats of 5u""er an! ?inter at this ti"e, to hich reference has

alrea!y been "a!e. Again, the May king an! Lueen re%resent earlier

%ersonages ho ere regar!e! as e"bo!ying the s%irits of #egetation an!

fertility at this festi#al, an! hose "arriage or union "agically

assiste! groth an! fertility, as in nu"erous eIa"%les of this ritual

"arriage elsehere.+F4 6t "ay be assu"e! that a consi!erable a"ount of

seIual licence also took %lace ith the sa"e "agical %ur%ose. 5acre!

"arriage an! festi#al orgy ere an a%%eal to the forces of nature to

co"%lete their beneficial ork, as ell as a "agical ai! to the" in that

ork. Analogy lea!s to the su%%osition that the king of the May asoriginally a %riest&king, the incarnation of the s%irit of #egetation.

:e or his surrogate as slain, hile his bo!ily force as unabate!, in

or!er that it "ight be %asse! on un!i"inishe! to his successor. But the

%ersistent %lace gi#en to the May Lueen rather than to the king suggests

the earlier %ro"inence of o"en an! of fe"ale s%irits of fertility or of

a great Mother&go!!ess in such rites. 6t is also significant that in the

Perthshire ritual the "an chosen as still calle! the KBeltane carlaneK

or KcailleachK >ol! o"an@. An! if, as Professor Pearson "aintains,

itch orgies are sur#i#als of ol! seI&festi#als, then the %o%ular belief

in the acti#ity of itches on Beltane e#e, also shos that the festi#al

ha! once been "ainly one in hich o"en took %art. 5uch orgies oftentook %lace on hills hich ha! been the sites of a cult in for"er

ti"es.+4

M6)5;MM/R.

The ritual of the Mi!su""er festi#al !i! not "aterially !iffer fro" that

of Beltane, an! as folk&sur#i#als sho, it as %ractise! not only by the

Celts, but by "any other /uro%ean %eo%les. 6t as, in fact, a %ri"iti#e

nature festi#al such as oul! rea!ily be obser#e! by all un!er si"ilar%sychic con!itions an! in like surroun!ings. A bonfire as again the

central rite of this festi#al, the co""unal nature of hich is seen in

the fact that all "ust contribute "aterials to it. 6n local sur#i#als,

"ayor an! %riest, re%resenting the earlier local chief an! %riest, ere

%resent, hile a ser#ice in church %rece!e! the %rocession to the scene

of the bonfire. )ancing sunise roun! the fire to the acco"%ani"ent of

songs hich %robably took the %lace of hy"ns or tunes in honour of the

5un&go!, co""only occurre!, an! by i"itating the sun's action, "ay ha#e



ho, like the tree, as the re%resentati#e of the s%irit of #egetation.

The bonfire re%resenting the sun, an! the #icti"s, like the tree,

re%resenting the s%irit of #egetation, it is ob#ious hy the fire ha!

healing an! fertilising %oers, an! hy its ashes an! the ashes or the

flesh of the #icti"s %ossesse! the sa"e %oers. Bran!s fro" the fire

ere carrie! through the fiel!s or #illages, as the tree ha! been, or

%lace! on the fiel!s or in houses, here they ere carefully %reser#e!

for a year. All this ai!e! groth an! %ros%erity, just as the s"oke of

the fire, !rifting o#er the fiel!s, %ro!uce! fertility. Ashes fro" the

fire, an! %robably the calcine! bones or e#en the flesh of the #icti"s,

ere scattere! on the fiel!s or %reser#e! an! "iIe! ith the see! corn.

Again, %art of the flesh "ay ha#e been eaten sacra"entally, since, as

has been seen, Pliny refers to the belief of the Celts in the eating of

hu"an flesh as "ost holeso"e.

6n the 5tone Age, as ith "any sa#ages, a circle ty%ifie! the sun, an!

as soon as the heel as in#ente! its rolling "otion at once suggeste!

that of the sun. 6n the K/!!aK the sun is the beautiful, the shiningheel, an! si"ilar eI%ressions occur in the Ke!asK. A"ong the Celts

the heel of the sun as a fa#ourite %iece of sy"bolis", an! this is

seen in #arious custo"s at the Mi!su""er festi#al. A burning heel as

rolle! !on a slo%e or trun!le! through the fiel!s, or burning bran!s

ere hirle! roun! so as to gi#e the i"%ression of a fiery heel. The

intention as %ri"arily to i"itate the course of the sun through the

hea#ens, an! so, on the %rinci%le of i"itati#e "agic, to strengthen it.

But also, as the heel as rolle! through the fiel!s, so it as ho%e!

that the !irect beneficial action of the sun u%on the" oul! follo.

5i"ilar rites "ight be %erfor"e! not only at Mi!su""er, but at other

ti"es, to %rocure blessing or to ar! off e#il, e.g. carrying fire roun!houses or fiel!s or cattle or roun! a chil! K!eiseilK or sunise,EF4

an!, by a further eItension of thought, the blaHing heel, or the

re"ains of the burning bran!s thron to the in!s, ha! also the effect

of carrying off accu"ulate! e#ils.E4

Beltane an! Mi!su""er thus a%%ear as tin hal#es of a s%ring or early

su""er festi#al, the intention of hich as to %ro"ote fertility an!

health. This as !one by slaying the s%irit of #egetation in his

re%resentati#e&&tree, ani"al, or "an. :is !eath Luickene! the energies

of earth an! "an. The fire also "agically assiste! the course of the

sun. 5ur#i#al of the ancient rites are or ere recently foun! in allCeltic regions, an! ha#e been constantly co"bate! by the Church. But

though they ere continue!, their true "eaning as forgotten, an! they

ere "ainly %erfor"e! for luck or out of sheer conser#atis". 5o"eti"es a

Christian as%ect as gi#en to the", e.g. by connecting the fires ith 5.

John, or by associating the rites ith the ser#ice of the Church, or by

the clergy being %resent at the". But their true nature as still

e#i!ent as acts of %agan orshi% an! "agic hich no #eneer of

Christianity coul! e#er Luite conceal.14



;G<A5A).

The *st of August, co"ing "i!ay beteen Beltane an! 5a"hain, as an

i"%ortant festi#al a"ong the Celts. 6n Christian ti"es the !ay beca"e

a""as, but its na"e still sur#i#es in 6rish as ugnasa!, in Gaelic as

unas!al or unas!uinn, an! in ManI as aa uanys, an! it is still

obser#e! as a fair or feast in "any !istricts. 9or"erly asse"blies at

con#enient centres ere hel! on this !ay, not only for religious

%ur%oses, but for co""erce an! %leasure, both of these being of course

saturate! ith religion. All 6relan! "et at Taillti, just as all

Gaul "et at ugu!unu", ug's ton, or yons, in honour of Augustus,

though the feast there ha! for"erly been in honour of the go!

ugus.1*4 The festi#al as here Ro"anise!, as it as also in Britain,

here its na"e a%%ears as KGoel&aoustK, KGul&austusK, an! KGyl AstK,

no the August feast, but for"erly the feast of Augustus, the na"e

ha#ing re%lace! one corres%on!ing to ugnasa!.1+4

Cor"ac eI%lains the na"e ugnasa! as a festi#al of ugh "ac /thlenn,

celebrate! by hi" in the beginning of autu"n, an! the KRennes

)in!senchasK accounts for its origin by saying that ug's foster&"other,

Tailtiu, ha#ing !ie! on the Calen!s of August, he !irecte! an asse"bly

for la"entation to be hel! annually on that !ay at her to"b.1E4 ug is

thus the foun!er of his on festi#al, for that it as his, an! not

Tailtiu's, is clear fro" the fact that his na"e is attache! to it. As

a""as as a Christian har#est thanksgi#ing, so also as ugnasa! a

%agan har#est feast, %art of the ritual of hich %asse! o#er to 5a"hain.

The %eo%le "a!e gla! before the sun&go!&&ug %erha%s ha#ing thatcharacter&&ho ha! assiste! the" in the groth of the things on hich

their li#es !e%en!e!. Marriages ere also arrange! at this feast,

%robably because "en ha! no "ore leisure an! "ore "eans for entering

u%on "atri"ony. Possibly %ro"iscuous lo#e&"aking also occurre! as a

result of the festi#al gla!ness, agricultural !istricts being still

notoriously i""oral. 5o"e e#i!ence %oints to the connection of the feast

ith ug's "arriage, though this has been allegorise! into his e!!ing

the so#ereignty of /rin. Perha%s e ha#e here a hint of the rite of

the sacre! "arriage, for the %ur%ose of "agically fertilising the fiel!s

against neIt year's soing.

)ue obser#ance of the feast %ro!uce! abun!ance of corn, fruit, "ilk, an!

fish. Probably the ritual obser#e! inclu!e! the %reser#ation of the last

sheaf as re%resenting the corn&s%irit, gi#ing so"e of it to the cattle

to strengthen the", an! "ingling it ith neIt year's corn to i"%art to

it the %oer of the corn&s%irit. 6t "ay also ha#e inclu!e! the slaying

of an ani"al or hu"an incarnation of the corn&s%irit, hose flesh an!

bloo! Luickene! the soil an! so %ro!uce! abun!ance neIt year, or, hen

%artaken of by the orshi%%ers, brought blessings to the". To neglect



such rites, abun!ant instances of hich eIist in folk&custo", oul! be

hel! to result in scarcity. This oul! also eI%lain, as alrea!y

suggeste!, hy the festi#al as associate! ith the !eath of Tailtiu or

of Car"an. The euhe"erise! Lueen&go!!ess Tailtiu an! the o"an Car"an

ha! once been corn&go!!esses, e#ol#e! fro" "ore %ri"iti#e corn&s%irits,

an! slain at the feast in their fe"ale re%resentati#es. The story of

their !eath an! burial at the festi#al as a !i" "e"ory of this ancient

rite, an! since the festi#al as also connecte! ith the sun&go! ug, it

as easy to bring hi" into relationshi% ith the earlier go!!ess.

/lsehere the festi#al, in its "e"orial as%ect, as associate! ith a

king, %robably because "ale #icti"s ha! co"e to be re%resentati#es of a

corn&go! ho ha! taken the %lace of the go!!ess.

7 7 7 7 7

5o"e of the ritual of these festi#als is illustrate! by scattere!

notices in classical riters, an! on the hole they su%%ort our theory

that the festi#als originate! in a fe"ale cult of s%irits or go!!esses

of fertility. 5trabo s%eaks of sacrifices offere! to )e"eter an! =ore,accor!ing to the ritual folloe! at 5a"othrace, in an islan! near

Britain, i.e. to nati#e go!!esses eLuate! ith the". :e also !escribes

the ritual of the <a"nite o"en on an islan! in the oire. They are

calle! Bacchantes because they conciliate! Bacchus ith "ysteries an!

sacrifices in other or!s, they obser#e! an orgiastic cult of a go!

eLuate! ith Bacchus. <o "an "ust set foot on the islan!, but the o"en

left it once a year for intercourse ith the other seI. 8nce a year the

te"%le of the go! as unroofe!, an! roofe! again before sunset. 6f any

o"an !ro%%e! her loa! of "aterials >an! it as sai! this alays

ha%%ene!@, she as torn in %ieces an! her li"bs carrie! roun! the

te"%le.114 )ionysius Periegetes says the o"en ere crone! ith i#y,an! celebrate! their "ysteries by night in honour of /arth an!

Proser%ine ith great cla"our.1-4 Pliny also "akes a reference to

British rites in hich nu!e o"en an! girls took %art, their bo!ies

staine! ith oa!.124

At a later ti"e, 5. Gregory of Tours s%eaks of the i"age of a go!!ess

Berecynthia !ran on a litter through the streets, fiel!s, an! #ineyar!s

of Augusto!unu" on the !ays of her festi#al, or hen the fiel!s ere

threatene! ith scarcity. The %eo%le !ance! an! sang before it. The

i"age as co#ere! ith a hite #eil.134 Berecynthia has been

conjecture! by Professor Anyl to be the go!!ess Brigin!u, orshi%%e! atalnay.1F4

These rites ere all !irecte! toar!s !i#inities of fertility. But in

har#est custo"s in Celtic 5cotlan! an! elsehere to shea#es of corn

ere calle! res%ecti#ely the 8l! ?o"an an! the Mai!en, the corn&s%irit

of the %ast year an! that of the year to co"e, an! corres%on!ing to

)e"eter an! =ore in early Greek agricultural ritual. As in Greece, so

a"ong the Celts, the %ri"iti#e corn&s%irits ha! %robably beco"e "ore



in!i#i!ualise! go!!esses ith an elaborate cult, obser#e! on an islan!

or at other sacre! s%ots. The cult %robably #arie! here an! there, an!

that of a go! of fertility "ay ha#e taken the %lace of the cult of

go!!esses. A go! as orshi%%e! by the <a"nite o"en, accor!ing to

5trabo, go!!esses accor!ing to )ionysius. The "angle! #icti" as

%robably regar!e! as re%resentati#e of a !i#inity, an! %erha%s %art of

the flesh as "iIe! ith the see!&corn, like the grain of the Mai!en

sheaf, or burie! in the earth. This rite is co""on a"ong sa#ages, an!

its %resence in ol! /uro%ean ritual is atteste! by sur#i#als. That these

rites ere tabu to "en %robably %oints to the fact that they ere

eIa"%les of an ol!er general custo", in hich all such rites ere in the

han!s of o"en ho culti#ate! the earth, an! ho ere the natural

%riestesses of go!!esses of groth an! fertility, of #egetation an! the

groing corn. Another eIa"%le is foun! in the legen! an! %rocession of

Go!i#a at Co#entry&&the sur#i#al of a %agan cult fro" hich "en ere

eIclu!e!.14

Pliny s%eaks of the nu!ity of the o"en engage! in the cult. <u!ity is

an essential %art of all %ri"iti#e agricultural rites, an! %ainting thebo!y is also a i!es%rea! ritual act. )ressing ith lea#es or green

stuff, as a"ong the <a"nite o"en, an! often ith the intention of

%ersonating the s%irit of #egetation, is also custo"ary. By un#eiling

the bo!y, an! es%ecially the seIual organs, o"en "ore effectually

re%resente! the go!!ess of fertility, an! "ore effectually as her

re%resentati#es, or through their on %oers, "agically con#eye!

fertility to the fiel!s. <ake!ness thus beca"e a %oerful

"agico&religious sy"bol, an! it is foun! as %art of the ritual for

%ro!ucing rain.-4

There is thus abun!ant e#i!ence of the cult of fertility, #egetation,an! corn&s%irits, ho ten!e! to beco"e !i#inities, "ale or fe"ale. :ere

an! there, through conser#atis", the cult re"aine! in the han!s of

o"en, but "ore generally it ha! beco"e a ritual in hich both "en an!

o"en took %art&&that of the great agricultural festi#als. ?here a

!i#inity ha! taken the %lace of the #aguer s%irits, her i"age, like that

of Berecynthia, as use! in the ritual, but the i"age as %robably the

successor of the tree hich e"bo!ie! the #egetation&s%irit, an! as

carrie! through the fiel!s to fertilise the". 5i"ilar %rocessions of

i"ages, often acco"%anie! by a ritual ashing of the i"age in or!er to

in#igorate the !i#inity, or, as in the si"ilar May&!ay custo", to

%ro!uce rain, are foun! in the Teutonic cult of <erthus, the Phrygian ofCybele, the :in!u of Bha#ani, an! the Ro"an ritual of the Bona )ea. The

i"age of Berecynthia as thus %robably ashe! also. ?ashing the i"ages

of saints, usually to %ro!uce rain, has so"eti"es taken the %lace of the

ashing of a !i#ine i"age, an! si"ilarly the relics of a saint are

carrie! through a fiel!, as as the tree or i"age. The co""unity at 6ona

%era"bulate! a nely son fiel! ith 5. Colu"ba's relics in ti"e of

!rought, an! shook his tunic three ti"es in the air, an! ere rear!e!

by a %lentiful rain, an! later, by a bounteous har#est.-*4



Many of these local cults ere %re&Celtic, but e nee! not therefore

su%%ose that the Celts, or the Aryans as a hole, ha! no such

cults.-+4 The Aryans e#eryhere a!o%te! local cults, but this they

oul! not ha#e !one if, as is su%%ose!, they ha! the"sel#es outgron

the". The cults ere local, but the Celts ha! si"ilar local cults, an!

easily acce%te! those of the %eo%le they conLuere!. ?e cannot eI%lain

the %ersistence of such %ri"iti#e cults as lie behin! the great Celtic

festi#als, both in classical ti"es an! o#er the hole area of /uro%e

a"ong the %easantry, by referring the" solely to a %re&Aryan folk. They

ere as "uch Aryan as %re&Aryan. They belong to those unchanging strata

of religion hich ha#e so largely su%%lie! the soil in hich its later

an! "ore s%iritual groths ha#e flourishe!. An! a"ong these they still

e"erge, unchange! an! unchanging, like the gaunt outcro%s of so"e

ancient rock for"ation a"i! rich #egetation an! fragrant floers.

988T<8T/5(

FF4 Pliny, I#i. 1- Caesar, #i. *F. 5ee "y article Calen!ar >Celtic@in :astings' K/ncyclo%ae!ia of Rel. an! /thicsK, iii. 3F f., for a full

!iscussion of the %roble"s in#ol#e!.

F4 8')ono#an, KBook of RightsK, 6ntro. lii f.

F*4 8')ono#an, li. Bertran!, *- =eating, E.

F+4 5a"hain "ay "ean su""er&en!, fro" Ksa"K, su""er, an! KfuinK,

sunset or en!, but )r. 5tokes >K;5K +E@ "akes Ksa"aniK& "ean

asse"bly, i.e. the gathering of the %eo%le to kee% the feast.

FE4 =eating, *+-, E.

F14 5ee MacBain, KCMK iI. E+F.

F-4 Bran!, i. E Ra"say, K5cotlan! an! 5cots"en in the /ighteenth

CenturyK, ii. 1E3 K5tat. AccountK, Ii. 2+*.

F24 :aHlitt, +3&+F, E1 Ca"%bell, K?itchcraftK, +F- f.

F34 Curtin, 3+.

FF4 9itHgeral!, KRCK #i. +-1.

F4 5ee Cha"bers, KMe!iae#al 5tageK, A%%. <, for the e#i!ence fro"

canons an! councils regar!ing these.

4 Tille, K$ule an! Christ"asK, 2.

*4 Cha"bers, KPo%ular Rhy"esK, *22.



+4 :utchinson, Kie of <orthu"berlan!K, ii. 1- Tho"as, KRe#. !e

l':ist. !es Rel.K III#iii. EE- f.

E4 KPatrol. ot.K IIIiI. +*.

14 K6TK i. +- KRCK #. EE* eahy, i. -3.

-4 5ee %. *2, Ksu%raK.

24 The riter has hi"self seen such bonfires in the :ighlan!s. 5ee

also :aHlitt, +F Pennant, KTourK, ii. 13 Rhy4s, K:K -*-, KC9K i.

++-&++2. 6n /gy%tian "ythology, Ty%hon assaile! :orus in the for" of a

black sine.

34 =eating, E.

F4 Joyce, K5:K ii. --2 KRCK I. +*1, ++-, IIi#. *3+ 8'Gra!y, ii.

E31 KCMK iI. +.

4 5ee Mannhar!t, KMythol. 9orschung.K EEE f. 9raHer, KA!onisK,

K%assi"K Tho"as, KRe#. !e l':ist. !es Rel.K III#iii. E+- f.

*4 :aHlitt, E- Cha"bers, KMe!iae#al 5tageK, i. +2*.

**4 Cha"bers, KBook of )aysK, ii. 1+ :aHlitt, *E*.

*+4 :aHlitt, 3 )a#ies, K/Itracts fro" Munic. Recor!s of $orkK, +3.

*E4 5ee %. +E3, Ksu%raK KK *2, +*E.

*14 Cha"bers, KMe!. 5tageK, i. +- f.

*-4 Cor"ac, Ks.#.K Belltaine, Bel KArch. Re#.K i. +E+.

*24 )'Arbois, ii. *E2.

*34 5tokes, K;5K *+-, *21. 5ee his earlier !eri#ation, !i#i!ing the

or! into KbeltK, connecte! ith ithuan. KbaltasK, hite, an! KaineK,

the ter"ination in Ksecht"aineK, eek >KT6GK III#.@.

*F4 <ee!&fire >Gael. KTeinne&eiginnK, necessity fire@ as use! to

kin!le fire in ti"e of cattle %lague. 5ee Gri"", KTeut. Myth.K 2F f.

Martin, **E Ja"ieson's K)ictionaryK, Ks.#.K nei!fyre.

*4 Cor"ac, Ks.#.K Martin, *-, says that the )rui!s eItinguishe! all

fires until their !ues ere %ai!. This "ay ha#e been a tra!ition in the

:ebri!es.



+4 Joyce, KP<K i. +*2 :one, K/#ery!ay BookK, i. F1, ii. --.

+*4 Pennant, KTour in 5cotlan!K, i. +*.

++4 :aHlitt, EE, E3.

+E4 :one, K/#ery!ay BookK, ii. --. 5ee %. +*-, Ksu%raK.

+14 5inclair, K5tat. AccountK, Ii. 2+.

+-4 Martin, *-.

+24 9or these usages see Ra"say, K5cotlan! an! 5cots"en in the

/ighteenth CenturyK, ii. 1E f. 5inclair, K5tat. AccountK, #. F1, Ii.

2+, I#. -*3. 9or the sacra"ental an! sacrificial use of si"ilar loa#es,

see 9raHer, KGol!en BoughKO+, i. 1, ii. 3F Gri"", KTeut. Myth.K iii.

*+E f.

+34 K<e 5tat. AccountK, ?igtonshire, +F :aHlitt, EF, E+E, E1.

+F4 5ee Miss 8en, K9olk&lore of the MusLuakie 6n!iansK, - 9raHer,

KGol!en BoughKO+, ii. +-.

+4 9or notices of Beltane sur#i#als see =eating, E Ca"%bell,

KJourney fro" /!inburghK, i. *1E Ra"say, K5cotlan! an! 5cots"enK, ii.

1E f. K8l! 5tat. AccountK, #. F1, Ii. 2+, I#. -*3 Gregor, K9olk&lore

of <./. of 5cotlan!K, *23. The %aganis" of the sur#i#als is seen in the

fact that Beltane fires ere freLuently %rohibite! by 5cottish

ecclesiastical councils.

E4 Meyrac, KTra!itions ... !es Ar!ennesK, 2F.

E*4 Bertran!, **.

E+4 6bi!. 13 Gai!oH, +* Mannhar!t, KBau"kultusK, -*1, -+E Bran!,

i. F, E+E.

EE4 Mannhar!t, Ko%. cit.K -+- f. 9raHer, KGol!en BoughKO+, iii. E*.

E14 P. +E1, Ksu%raK.

E-4 9raHer, Ko%. cit.K i. 31 Bran!, i. +++, +E3, +12, E*F :one,

K/#ery!ay BookK, ii. -- Mannhar!t, Ko%. cit.K *33 Gri"", KTeut.

Myth.K 2+*, 333 f.

E24 5ee "y KChil!hoo! of 9ictionK, ch. #.

E34 9raHer, i. F+, ii. +13 f., +3- Mannhar!t, E*- f.



EF4 Martin, **3. The custo" of alking K!eiseilK roun! an object still

sur#i#es, an!, as an i"itation of the sun's course, it is su%%ose! to

bring goo! luck or ar! off e#il. 9or the sa"e reason the right han!

turn as of goo! augury. Me!b's charioteer, as she !e%arte! for the ar,

"a!e her chariot turn to the right to re%el e#il o"ens >K;K --@.

Curiously enough, Pliny >II#iii. +@ says that the Gauls %referre! the

left&han! turn in their religious rites, though Athenaeus refers to the

right&han! turn a"ong the". K)eiseilK is fro" K!ekso&sK, right, an!

Ks#elK, to turn.

E4 :one, i. F12 :aHlitt, ii. E12.

14 This account of the Mi!su""er ritual is base! on notices foun! in

:one, K/#ery!ay BookK :aHlitt, ii. E13 f. Gai!oH, Ke )ieu 5oleilK

Bertran! )eloche, KRCK iI. 1E- K9olk&oreK, Iii. E*- 9raHer, KGol!en

BoughKO+, iii. +22 f. Gri"", KTeut. Myth.K ii. 2*3 f. Monnier, *F2 f.

1*4 KRCK I#i. -* Guirau!, Kes Asse"blees %ro#inciales !ans l'/"%ire

Ro"ainK.

1+4 )'Arbois, i. +*-, Kes CeltesK, 11 oth, KAnnales !e BretagneK,

Iiii. <o. +.

1E4 KRCK I#i. -*.

114 5trabo, i#. 1. 2.

1-4 )ion. Per. #. -3.

124 Pliny, IIii. *.

134 Greg, K!e Glor. Conf.K 133 5ul%. 5e#. Kita 5. MartiniK, Pass.

5. 5y"%hor. Migne, KPat. Graec.K #. *12E, *122. The cult of Cybele ha!

been intro!uce! into Gaul, an! the ritual here !escribe! rese"bles it,

but e are e#i!ently !ealing here ith the cult of a nati#e go!!ess.

5ee, hoe#er, 9raHer, KA!onisK, *32.

1F4 Anyl, KCeltic ReligionK, 1*.

14 5ee :artlan!, K5cience of 9airy&TalesK, F1 f.

-4 Professor Rhy4s suggests that nu!ity, being a freLuent sy"bol of

sub"ission to a conLueror, acLuire! a si"ilar significance in religious

rites >KAK *F@. But the "agical as%ect of nu!ity ca"e first in ti"e.

-*4 A!a"nan, Kita 5. Col.K ii. 1-.

-+4 5ee Go""e, K/thnology in 9olk&loreK, E f., Killage Co""unityK,

**1.



C:APT/R Q6Q.

ACC/558R6/5 89 C;T.

T/MP/5.

6n %ri"iti#e religion the %lace of orshi% is sel!o" a te"%le "a!e ith

han!s, but rather an enclose! s%ace in hich the sy"bol or i"age of the

go! stan!s. The sacre!ness of the go! "akes the %lace of his cult

sacre!. 8ften an o%en s%ace in the forest is the scene of the regular

cult. There the %riests %erfor" the sacre! rites none "ay enter it but

the"sel#es an! the tre"bling orshi%%er a%%roaches it ith ae lest the

go! shoul! slay hi" if he ca"e too near.

The earliest te"%les of the Gauls ere sacre! gro#es, one of hich, near

Massilia, is !escribe! by ucan. <o bir! built in it, no ani"al lurke!

near, the lea#es constantly shi#ere! hen no breeHe stirre! the". Altars

stoo! in its "i!st, an! the i"ages of the go!s ere "issha%en trunks of

trees. /#ery tree as staine! ith sacrificial bloo!. The %oet then

!escribes "ar#els hear! or seen in the gro#e&&the earth groaning, !ea!

yes re#i#ing, trees surroun!e! ith fla"e yet not consu"e!, an! huge

ser%ents tining roun! the oaks. The %eo%le feare! to a%%roach the

gro#e, an! e#en the %riest oul! not alk there at "i!!ay or "i!night

lest he shoul! then "eet its !i#ine guar!ian.-E4 )io s%eaks of hu"an

sacrifices offere! to An!rasta in a British gro#e, an! in 2* A.). theoo!s of Mona, !e#ote! to strange rites, ere cut !on by Ro"an

sol!iers.-14 The sacre! K)ru&ne"etonK of the Galatian Celts "ay ha#e

been a gro#e.--4 Place&na"es also %oint to the i!es%rea! eIistence of

such gro#es, since the or! Kne"etonK, gro#e, occurs in "any of the",

shoing that the %laces so calle! ha! been sites of a cult. 6n 6relan!,

Kfi!&ne"e!K stoo! for sacre! gro#e.-24 The ancient gro#es ere still

the objects of #eneration in Christian ti"es, though fines ere le#ie!

against those ho still clung to the ol! ays.-34

5acre! gro#es ere still use! in Gallo&Ro"an ti"es, an! the )rui!s "ay

ha#e ha! a %reference for the", a %reference hich "ay un!erlie theor!s of the scholiast on ucan, that the )rui!s orshi% the go!s

ithout te"%les in oo!s. But %robably "ore elaborate te"%les, great

tribal sanctuaries, eIiste! si!e by si!e ith these local gro#es,

es%ecially in Cisal%ine Gaul, here the Boii ha! a te"%le in hich ere

store! the s%oils of ar, hile the 6nsubri ha! a si"ilar te"%le.-F4

These ere certainly buil!ings. The consecrate! %lace in Transal%ine

Gaul, hich Caesar "entions, an! here at fiIe! %erio!s ju!g"ents ere

gi#en, "ight be either a gro#e or a te"%le. Caesar uses the sa"e %hrase



for sacre! %laces here the s%oils of ar ere hea%e! these "ay ha#e

been gro#es, but )io!orus s%eaks of treasure collecte! in te"%les an!

sacre! %laces >Greek( en tois hierois chai te"enesin4@, an! Plutarch

s%eaks of the te"%le here the Ar#erni hung Caesar's sor!.-4 The

te"%le of the <a"nite o"en, unroofe! an! re&roofe! in a !ay, "ust

ha#e been a buil!ing. There is no e#i!ence that the insular Celts ha!

te"%les. 6n Gallo&Ro"an ti"es, elaborate te"%les, %erha%s occu%ying

sites of earlier gro#es or te"%les, s%rang u% o#er the Ro"ano&Celtic

area. They ere built on Ro"an "o!els, "any of the" ere of great siHe,

an! they ere !e!icate! to Ro"an or Gallo&Ro"an !i#inities.24 5"aller

shrines ere built by grateful orshi%%ers at sacre! s%rings to their

%resi!ing !i#inity, as "any inscri%tions sho. 6n the te"%les stoo!

i"ages of the go!s, an! here ere store! sacre! #essels, so"eti"es "a!e

of the skulls of ene"ies, s%oils of ar !e!icate! to the go!s, "oney

collecte! for sacre! %ur%oses, an! ar stan!ar!s, es%ecially those hich

bore !i#ine sy"bols.

The ol! i!ea that stone circles ere )rui!ic te"%les, that hu"an

sacrifices ere offere! on the altar&stone, an! libations of bloo!%oure! into the cu%&"arkings, "ust be gi#en u%, along ith "uch of the

astrono"ical lore associate! ith the circles. 5tonehenge !ates fro" the

close of the <eolithic Age, an! "ost of the s"aller circles belong to

the early BronHe Age, an! are %robably %re&Celtic. 6n any case they ere

%ri"arily %laces of se%ulture. As such they oul! be the scene of

ancestor orshi%, but yet not te"%les in the strict sense of the or!.

The larger circles, burial&%laces of great chiefs or kings, oul! beco"e

central %laces for the recurring rites of ghost&orshi%, %ossibly also

rallying %laces of the tribe on state! occasions. But hether this

ghost&orshi% as e#er trans"ute! into the cult of a go! at the circles

is uncertain an!, in!ee!, unlikely. The Celts oul! naturally regar!these %laces as sacre!, since the ghosts of the !ea!, e#en those of a

#anLuishe! %eo%le, are alays !angerous, an! they also took o#er the

"yths an! legen!s2*4 associate! ith the", such, e.g., as regar!e! the

stones the"sel#es, or trees groing ithin the circles, as e"bo!i"ents

of the !ea!, hile they "ay also ha#e use! the" as occasional %laces of

secon!ary inter"ent. ?hether they ere e#er le! to co%y such circles

the"sel#es is uncertain, since their on "etho!s of inter"ent see" to

ha#e been !ifferent. ?e ha#e seen that the go!s "ay in so"e cases ha#e

been orshi%%e! at tu"uli, an! that ugnasa! as, at so"e centres,

connecte! ith co""e"orati#e cults at burial&%laces >"oun!s, not

circles@. But the reasons for this are obscure, nor is there any hintthat other Celtic festi#als ere hel! near burial "oun!s. Probably such

co""e"orati#e rites at %laces of se%ulture !uring ugnasa! ere only

%art of a i!er series occurring elsehere, an! e cannot assu"e fro"

such #ague notices that stone circles ere )rui!ic te"%les here orshi%

of an 8riental nature as carrie! on.

Professor Rhy4s is !is%ose! to acce%t the ol! i!ea that 5tonehenge as

the te"%le of A%ollo in the islan! of the :y%erboreans, "entione! by



)io!orus, here the sun&go! as orshi%%e!.2+4 But though that te"%le

as circular, it ha! alls a!orne! ith #oti#e offerings. <or !oes the

te"%le unroofe! yearly by the <a"nite o"en i"%ly a stone circle, for

there is not the slightest %article of e#i!ence that the circles ere

e#er roofe! in any ay.2E4 5tone circles ith "ystic trees groing in

the", one of the" ith a ell by hich entrance as gaine! to Tir fa

Tonn, are "entione! in 6rish tales. They ere connecte! ith "agic

rites, but are not s%oken of as te"%les.214

ATAR5.

ucan !escribes realistically the aful sacrifices of the Gauls on cruel

altars not a hit "il!er than those of )iana, an! he s%eaks of altars

%ile! ith offerings in the sacre! gro#e at Marseilles.2-4 Cicero

says that hu"an #icti"s ere sacrifice! on altars, an! Tacitus !escribes

the altars of Mona s"eare! ith hu"an bloo!.224 )rui!s' altars are

"entione! in the 6rish /I%e!ition of )athi, an! Cor"ac s%eaks ofKin!elbaK, or altars a!orne! ith e"ble"s.234 Probably "any of these

altars ere "ere hea%s of stone like the <orse KhorgK, or a great block

of stone. 5o"e sacrifices, hoe#er, ere too eItensi#e to be offere! on

an altar, but in such cases the bloo! oul! be s%rinkle! u%on it. ;n!er

Ro"an influence, Celtic altars took the for" of those of the conLuerors,

ith inscri%tions containing na"es of nati#e or Ro"an go!s an!

bas&reliefs !e%icting so"e of these. The ol! i!ea that !ol"ens ere

Celtic altars is no aban!one!. They ere %laces of se%ulture of the

<eolithic or early BronHe Age, an! ere originally co#ere! ith a "oun!

of earth. )uring the era of Celtic %aganis" they ere therefore hi!!en

fro" sight, an! it is only in later ti"es that the earth has beenre"o#e! an! the "assi#e stones, arrange! so as to for" a s%ecies of

cha"ber, ha#e been lai! bare.

6MAG/5.

The Gauls, accor!ing to Caesar, %ossesse! K%luri"a si"ulacraK of the

nati#e Mercury, but he !oes not refer to i"ages of other go!s. ?e nee!

not infer fro" this that the Celts ha! a %reju!ice against i"ages, for

a"ong the 6rish Celts i"ages are often "entione!, an! in Gaul un!erRo"an rule "any i"ages eIiste!.

The eIistence of i"ages a"ong the Celts as a"ong other %eo%les, "ay oe

so"ething to the cult of trees an! of stones set u% o#er the !ea!. The

stone, associate! ith the !ea! "an's s%irit, beca"e an i"age of

hi"self, %erha%s ru!ely fashione! in his likeness. A rough&hen tree

trunk beca"e an i"age of the s%irit or go! of trees. 8n the other han!,

so"e anthro%o"or%hic i"ages, like the %alaeolithic or Mycenaean figurines,



"ay ha#e been fashione! ithout the inter"e!iary of tree&trunk or stone

%illar. MaIi"us of Tyre says that the Celtic i"age of eus as a lofty

oak, %erha%s a rough&hen trunk rather than a groing tree, an! such

roughly car#e! tree&trunks, i"ages of go!s, are referre! to by ucan in

his !escri%tion of the Massilian gro#e.2F4 Pillar stones set u% o#er

the gra#es of the !ea! are often "entione! in 6rish teIts. These oul!

certainly be associate! ith the !ea! in!ee!, eIisting legen!s sho

that they ere belie#e! to be tenante! by the ghosts an! to ha#e the

%oer of "otion. This suggests that they ha! been regar!e! as i"ages of

the !ea!. 8ther stones honoure! in 6relan! ere the Kcloch labraisK, an

oracular stone the Klia failK, or coronation stone, hich shoute! hen

a king of the Milesian race seate! hi"self u%on it an! the Klia

a!ra!aK, or stone of a!oration, a%%arently a boun!ary stone.24 The

K%luri"a si"ulacraK of the Gaulish Mercury "ay ha#e been boun!ary stones

like those !e!icate! to Mercury or :er"es a"ong the Ro"ans an! Greeks.

)i! Caesar conclu!e, or as it actually the case, that the Gauls

!e!icate! such stones to a go! of boun!aries ho "ight be eLuate! ith

MercuryS Many such stan!ing stones still eIist in 9rance, an! their

nu"ber "ust ha#e been greater in Caesar's ti"e. 5eeing the" the objectsof su%erstitious obser#ances, he "ay ha#e conclu!e! that they ere

Ksi"ulacraK of a go!. 8ther Ro"ans besi!es hi"self ha! been struck by

the rese"blance of these stones to their :er"ai, an! %erha%s the Gauls,

if they !i! not alrea!y regar! the" as sy"bols of a go!, acLuiesce! in

the rese"blance. Thus, on the "enhir of =er#a!el are scul%ture! four

figures, one being that of Mercury, !ating fro" Gallo&Ro"an ti"es.

Beneath another, near Peronne, a bronHe statuette of Mercury as

!isco#ere!.34 This oul! see" to sho that the Gauls ha! a cult of

%illar stones associate! ith a go! of boun!aries. Caesar %robably uses

the or! Ksi"ulacru"K in the sense of sy"bol rather than i"age,

though he "ay ha#e "eant nati#e i"ages not fully car#e! in hu"an sha%e,like the 6rish Kcer"an!K, KcerstachK, orna"ente! ith gol! an! sil#er,

the chief i!ol of north 6relan!, or like the si"ilarly orna"ente!

i"ages of Cro"" Cruaich an! his satellites.3*4 The a!oration of

sacre! stones continue! into Christian ti"es an! as "uch o%%ose! by the

Church.3+4 5. 5a"son of )ol >siIth century@ foun! "en !ancing roun! a

Ksi"ulacru" abo"inabileK, hich see"s to ha#e been a kin! of stan!ing

stone, an! ha#ing besought the" to !esist, he car#e! a cross u%on

it.3E4 5e#eral K"enhirionK in 9rance are no si"ilarly

orna"ente!.314

The nu"ber of eIisting Gallo&Ro"an i"ages shos that the Celts ha! nota!o%te! a custo" hich as foreign to the", an! they "ust ha#e alrea!y

%ossesse! ru!e nati#e i"ages. The !isa%%earance of these oul! be

eI%laine! if they ere "a!e of %erishable "aterial. ?oo!en i"ages of the

KMatresK ha#e been occasionally foun!, an! these "ay be %re&Ro"an. 5o"e

of the i"ages of the three&hea!e! an! crouching go!s sho no sign of

Ro"an influences in their "o!elling, an! they "ay ha#e been co%ie! fro"

earlier i"ages of oo!. ?e also fin! !i#ine figures on %re&Ro"an

coins.3-4 Certain %assages in classical ritings %oint to the



eIistence of nati#e i"ages. A statue of a go!!ess eIiste! in a te"%le at

Marseilles, accor!ing to Justin, an! the Galatian Celts ha! i"ages of

the nati#e Ju%%iter an! Arte"is, hile the conLuering Celts ho entere!

Ro"e boe! to the seate! senators as to statues of the go!s.324 The

Gauls %lace! rich orna"ents on the i"ages of the go!s, an! %resu"ably

these ere nati#e i!ols.

6!ols are freLuently "entione! in 6rish teIts, an! there is no !oubt

that these "ean i"ages.334 Cor"ac "ac Art refuse! to orshi% i!ols,

an! as %unishe! by the )rui!s.3F4 The i!ols of Cro"" Cruaich an! his

satellites, referre! to in the K)in!senchasK, ere car#e! to re%resent

the hu"an for" the chief one as of gol!, the others of stone. These

ere "iraculously o#erthron by 5. Patrick but in the account of the

"iracle the chief i!ol as of stone a!orne! ith gol! an! sil#er, the

others, nu"bering tel#e, ere orna"ente! ith bronHe.34 They stoo!

in Mag 5lecht, an! si"ilar sacre! %laces ith grou%s of i"ages e#i!ently

eIiste! elsehere, e.g. at Rath Archaill, here the )rui!'s altars an!

i"ages are.F4 The la!y Cessair, before co"ing to 6relan!, is sai! to

ha#e taken a!#ice of her Klai"h&!hiaK, or han! go!s, %erha%s s"alli"ages use! for !i#ination.F*4

9or the British Celts the e#i!ence is slen!er, but i!olatry in the sense

of i"age&orshi% is freLuently "entione! in the li#es of early

saints.F+4 Gil!as also s%eaks of i"ages "oul!ering aay ithin an!

ithout the !eserte! te"%les, ith stiff an! !efor"e! features.FE4

This %athetic %icture of the forsaken shrines of forgotten go!s "ay

refer to Ro"ano&Celtic i"ages, but the stiff an! !efor"e! features

suggest rather nati#e art, the art of a %eo%le unskilful at re%ro!ucing

the hu"an for", hoe#er artistic they "ay ha#e been in other !irections.

6f the nati#e Celts of 6relan! ha! i"ages, there is no reason to

su%%ose, es%ecially consi!ering the e#i!ence just a!!uce!, that the

Gauls, or at least the )rui!s, ere antagonistic to i"ages. This last is

M. Reinach's theory, %art of a i!er hy%othesis that the )rui!s ere

%re&Celtic, but beca"e the %riests of the Celts, ho till then ha! no

%riests. The )rui!s %rohibite! i"age&orshi%, an! this %rohibition

eIiste! in Gaul, KeI hy%othesiK, fro" the en! of %alaeolithic ti"es.

Pythagoras an! his school ere o%%ose! to i"age&orshi%, an! the

classical riters clai"e! a connection beteen the Pythagoreans an! the

)rui!s. M. Reinach thinks there "ust ha#e been so"e analogy beteen

the", an! that as hostility to anthro%o"or%his". But the analogy is!istinctly state! to ha#e lain in the !octrine of i""ortality or

"ete"%sychosis. :a! the )rui!s been o%%ose! to i"age&orshi%, classical

obser#ers coul! not ha#e faile! to notice the fact. M. Reinach then

argues that the )rui!s cause! the erection of the "egalithic "onu"ents

in Gaul, sy"bols not i"ages. They are thus )rui!ic, though not Celtic.

The "onu"ents argue a %oerful %riesthoo! the )rui!s ere a %oerful

%riesthoo! therefore the )rui!s cause! the "onu"ents to be built. This

is not a %oerful argu"entF14



As has been seen, so"e %urely Celtic i"ages eIiste! in Gaul. The Gauls,

ho use! nothing but oo! for their houses, %robably kne little of the

art of car#ing stone. They oul! therefore "ake "ost of their i"ages of

oo!&&a %erishable "aterial. The insular Celts ha! i"ages, an! if, as

Caesar "aintaine!, the )rui!s ca"e fro" Britain to Gaul, this %oints at

least to a si"ilarity of cult in the to regions. $outhful Gauls ho

as%ire! to )rui!ic knole!ge ent to Britain to obtain it. ?oul! the

)rui!s of Gaul ha#e %er"itte! this, ha! they been iconoclastsS <o single

teIt shos that the )rui!s ha! any anti%athy to i"ages, hile the Gauls

certainly ha! i"ages of orshi%ful ani"als. 9urther, e#en if the )rui!s

ere %riests of a %re&Celtic folk, they "ust ha#e %er"itte! the "aking

of i"ages, since "any "enhir&statues eIist on 9rench soil, at A#eyron,

Tarn, an! elsehere.F-4 The Celts ere in constant contact ith

i"age&orshi%%ing %eo%les, an! coul! har!ly ha#e faile! to be influence!

by the", e#en if such a %riestly %rohibition eIiste!, just as 6srael

succu"be! to i"ages in s%ite of !i#ine co""an!s. That they oul! ha#e

been thus influence! is seen fro" the nu"ber of i"ages of all kin!s

!ating fro" the %erio! after the Ro"an conLuest.

6nci!ental %roofs of the fon!ness of the Celts for i"ages are foun! in

ecclesiastical ritings an! in late sur#i#als. The %rocession of the

i"age of Berecynthia has alrea!y been !escribe!, an! such %rocessions

ere co""on in Gaul, an! i"%ly a regular folk&custo". 5. Martin of Tours

sto%%e! a funeral %rocession belie#ing it to be such a %agan rite.F24

Councils an! e!icts %rohibite! these %rocessions in Gaul, but a "ore

effectual ay as to Christianise the". The Rogation ti!e %rocessions

ith crucifiI an! Ma!onna, an! the carrying of 5. John's i"age at the

Mi!su""er festi#als, ere a !irect continuation of the ol!er %ractices.

6"ages ere often broken by Christian saints in Gaul, as they ha! beeno#er&turne! by 5. Patrick in 6relan!. 5tiff an! !efor"e! "any of the"

"ust ha#e been, if one "ay ju!ge fro" the KGroah&goar!K or enus of

uini%ily, for centuries the object of su%erstitious rites in

Brittany.F34 ?ith it "ay be co"%are! the fetich&stone or i"age of

hich an ol! o"an in the islan! of 6nniskea, the guar!ian of a sacre!

ell, ha! charge. 6t as ke%t ra%%e! u% to hi!e it fro" %rofane eyes,

but at certain %erio!s it as brought out for a!oration.FF4

The i"ages an! bas&reliefs of the Gallo&Ro"an %erio! fall "ainly into

to classes. 6n the first class are those re%resenting nati#e

!i#inities, like /sus, Tar#os Trigaranos, 5"ertullos, Cernunnos, thehorne! an! crouching go!s, the go! ith the ha""er, an! the go! ith the

heel. Busts an! statues of so"e ater&go!!esses eIist, but "ore

nu"erous are the re%resentations of /%ona. 8ne of these is %ro#i!e! ith

a boI %e!estal in hich offerings "ight be %lace!. The KMatresK are

freLuently figure!, usually as three seate! figures ith baskets of

fruit or floers, or ith one or "ore infants, like the Ma!onna. 6"ages

of tri%le&hea!e! go!s, su%%ose! to be Cernunnos, ha#e been foun!, but

are !ifficult to %lace in any category.F4



To the i"ages of the secon! class is usually attache! the Ro"an na"e of

a go!, but generally the nati#e Celtic na"e is a!!e!, but the i"ages

the"sel#es are of the tra!itional Ro"an ty%e. A"ong statues an!

statuettes of bronHe, that of Mercury occurs "ost often. This "ay %oint

to the fact that Caesar's Ksi"ulacraK of the nati#e Mercury ere i"ages,

an! that the ol! %reference for re%resenting this go! continue! in Ro"an

ti"es. 5"all figures of !i#inities in hite clay ha#e been foun! in

large nu"bers, an! "ay ha#e been KeI #otosK or i"ages of househol!

KlarariaK.4

5$MB85.

6"ages of the go!s in Gaul can be classifie! by "eans of their

sy"bols&&the "allet an! cu% >a sy"bol of %lenty@ borne by the go! ith

the ha""er, the heel of the sun&go!, the cornuco%ia an! torLue carrie!

by Cernunnos. 8ther sy"bols occur on i"ages, altars, "onu"ents, an!coins. These are the sastika an! triskele, %robably sy"bols of the

sun*4 single or concentric circles, so"eti"es ith rays+4

crosses an! a curious 5 figure. The triskele an! the circles are

so"eti"es foun! on faces figure! on coins. They "ay therefore ha#e been

tattoo "arkings of a sy"bolic character. The circle an! cross are often

incise! on bronHe i"ages of )is%ater. Much s%eculation has been arouse!

by the 5 figure, hich occurs on coins, hile nine "o!els of this sy"bol

hang fro" a ring carrie! by the go! ith the heel, but the "ost

%robable is that hich sees in it a thun!erbolt.E4 But lacking any

ol! teIt inter%reting these #arious sy"bols, all eI%lanations of the"

"ust be conjectural. 5o"e of the" are not %urely Celtic, but are oforl!&i!e occurrence.

C;T 89 ?/AP8<5.

:ere so"e reference "ay be "a!e to the Celtic cult of ea%ons. As has

been seen, a ha""er is the sy"bol of one go!, an! it is not unlikely

that a cult of the ha""er ha! %rece!e! that of the go! to ho" the

ha""er as gi#en as a sy"bol. /sus is also re%resente! ith an aIe. ?e

nee! not re%eat hat has alrea!y been sai! regar!ing the %ri"iti#e an!uni#ersal cult of ha""er or aIe,14 but it is interesting to notice,

in connection ith other e#i!ence for a Celtic cult of ea%ons, that

there is e#ery reason to belie#e that the %hrase Ksub ascia !e!icareK,

hich occurs in inscri%tions on to"bs fro" Gallia ug!unensis, usually

ith the figure of an aIe incise! on the stone, %oints to the cult of

the aIe, or of a go! hose sy"bol the aIe as.-4 6n 6rish teIts the

%oer of s%eech is attribute! to ea%ons, but, accor!ing to the

Christian scribe, this as because !e"ons s%oke fro" the", for the



%eo%le orshi%%e! ar"s in those !ays.24 Thus it "ay ha#e been

belie#e! that s%irits tenante! ea%ons, or that ea%ons ha! souls.

/#i!ence of the cult itself is foun! in the fact that on Gaulish coins a

sor! is figure!, stuck in the groun!, or !ri#ing a chariot, or ith a

arrior !ancing before it, or hel! in the han! of a !ancing

arrior.34 The latter are ritual acts, an! rese"ble that !escribe! by

5%enser as %erfor"e! by 6rish arriors in his !ay, ho sai! %rayers or

incantations before a sor! stuck in the earth.F4 5or!s ere also

a!!resse! in songs co"%ose! by 6rish bar!s, an! tra!itional re"ains of

such songs are foun! in Brittany.4 They re%resent the chants of the

ancient cult. 8aths ere taken by ea%ons, an! the ea%ons ere belie#e!

to turn against those ho lie!.*4 The "agical %oer of ea%ons,

es%ecially of those o#er hich incantations ha! been sai!, is freLuently

referre! to in tra!itional tales an! 6rish teIts.**4 A re"iniscence

of the cult or of the "agical %oer of ea%ons "ay be foun! in the

on!erful glai#es of light of Celtic folk&tales, an! the si"ilar

"ystical ea%on of the Arthurian ro"ances.

988T<8T/5(

-E4 ucan, KPharsaliaK, iii. E f.

-14 )io Cass. lIii. 3 Tac. KAnn.K Ii#. E.

--4 5trabo, Iii. -*. K)rune"etonK "ay "ean great te"%le >)'Arbois,

Kes CeltesK, +E@.

-24 KAntient as of 6relan!K, i. *21.

-34 :ol!er, ii. 3*+. Cf. 6n!iculus in Gri"", KTeut. Myth.K *3E, !esacris sil#aru", Luas ni"i!as >N ne"eta@ #ocant.

-F4 i#y, IIiii. +1 Polyb. ii. E+.

-4 Caesar, #i. *E, *3 )io!. 5ic. #. +3 Plutarch, KCaesarK, +2.

24 5ee eIa"%les in )o" Martin, i. *E1 f. cf. Greg. Tours, K:ist.

9ranc.K i. E.

2*4 5ee Reinach, es "onu"ents !e %ierre brute !ans le langage et les

croyances %o%ulaires, KRe#. Arch.K *FE, i. EE /#ans, The Roll&Right5tones, K9olk&oreK, #i. + f.

2+4 Rhy4s, K:K *1 )io!. 5ic. ii. 13.

2E4 Rhy4s, *3.

214 Joyce, K8CRK +12 =enne!y, +3*.



2-4 ucan, i. 11E, iii. Ef.

224 Cicero, K%ro 9onteioK, I. +* Tac. KAnn.K Ii#. E. Cf. Po"%. Mela,

iii. +. *F.

234 8'Curry, KM5. Mat.K +F1 Cor"ac, 1. Cf. K6TK iii. +**, for the

%ractice of circu"a"bulating altars.

2F4 MaI. Tyr. K)issert.K #iii. F ucan, iii. 1*+f.

24 KAntient as of 6relan!K, i#. *1+.

34 KRe#. Arch.K i. %l. iii&#. Reinach, KRCK Ii. ++1, Iiii. *.

3*4 5tokes, KMartyr. of 8engusK, *F2&*F3.

3+4 5ee the Tenty&thir! Canon of Council of Arles, the Tenty&thir!

of the Council of Tours, -23, an! ch. 2- of the KCa%itulariaK, 3F.

3E4 Mabillon, KActaK, i. *33.

314 Reinach, KRe#. Arch.K *FE, IIi. EE-.

3-4 Blanchet, i. *-+&*-E, EF2.

324 Justin, Iliii. - 5trabo, Iii. -. + Plutarch, K!e irt. Mul.K

II. i#y, #. 1*.

334 Cor"ac, 1.

3F4 =eating, E-2. 5ee also 5tokes, KMartyr. of 8engusK, *F2 KRCK Iii.

1+3, 5ec. *- Joyce, K5:K +31 f.

34 KK +*EKbK KTri%. ifeK, i. , E.

F4 8'Curry, KM5. Mat.K +F1.

F*4 =eating, 1.

F+4 Jocelyn, Kita 5. =entig.K +3, E+, E1 Ailre!, Kita 5. <inian.K

2.

FE4 Gil!as, 5ec. 1.

F14 9or the hole argu"ent see Reinach, KRCK Iiii. *F f. Bertran!,

KRe#. Arch.K I#. E1-, su%%orts a si"ilar theory, an!, accor!ing to both

riters, Gallo&Ro"an art as the result of the eakening of )rui!ic

%oer by the Ro"ans.



F-4 'Abbe :er"et, Assoc. %our l'a#ance"ent !es 5ciences, KCo"%te

Ren!uK, *, ii. 313 K'Anthro%ologieK, #. *13.

F24 KCor%. 5cri%. /ccl. at.K i. *++.

F34 Monnier, E2+. The i"age bears %art of an inscri%tion ... 6T...

an! it has been thought that this rea! 66T:$6A originally. The na"e is

in kee%ing ith the rites still in use before the i"age. This oul! "ake

it !ate fro" Ro"an ti"es. 6f so, it is a %oor s%eci"en of the art of the

%erio!. But it "ay be an ol! nati#e i"age to hich later the na"e of the

Ro"an go!!ess as gi#en.

FF4 Ro!en, KProgress of the Refor"ation in 6relan!K, -*. The i"age as

still eIisting in *F-*.

F4 9or figures of "ost of these, see KRe#. Arch.K #ols. I#i., I#iii.,

IiI., III#i. KRCK I#ii. 1-, I#iii. +-1, II. E, IIii. *-, IIi#. ++*

Bertran!, K%assi"K Courcelle&5eneuil, Kes )ieuI Gaulois !'a%res les

Monu"ents 9iguresK, Paris, **.

4 5ee Courcelle&5eneuil, Ko%. cit.K Reinach, KB9 %assi"K,

KCatalogue 5o""aire !u Musee !es Ant. nat.KO1 **-&**2.

*4 Reinach, KCatal.K +, F3 KRe#. Arch.K I#i. *3 Blanchet, i. *2,

E*2 :uchet, K'art gauloisK, ii. F.

+4 Blanchet, i. *-F Reinach, KB9K *1E, *-, *-+.

E4 Blanchet, i. *3 9louest, K)euI 5telesK >A%%en!.@, Paris, *FF-

Reinach, KB9K EE.

14 P. E, Ksu%raK.

-4 :irschfel! in KC6K Iiii. +-2.

24 KRCK Iii. *3 Joyce, K5:K i. *E*.

34 Blanchet, i. *2 f. Muret !e la Tour, KCatalogueK, 2++, 21*,

etc.

F4 Kie of the 5tate of 6relan!K, -3.

4 KRCK II. 3 Martin, K/tu!es !e la Myth. Celt.K *21.

*4 K6TK i. +2 KRCK iI. *11.

**4 KCMK Iiii. *2F f. Miss :ull, 11, ++*, ++E.



C:APT/R QQ.

T:/ )R;6)5.

Pliny thought that the na"e )rui! as a Greek a%%ellation !eri#e! fro"

the )rui!ic cult of the oak >Greek( K!rusK4@.*+4 The or!, hoe#er,

is %urely Celtic, an! its "eaning %robably i"%lies that, like the

sorcerer an! "e!icine&"an e#eryhere, the )rui! as regar!e! as the

knoing one. 6t is co"%ose! of to %arts&&K!ruK&, regar!e! by M.

)'Arbois as an intensi#e, an! K#i!sK, fro" K#i!K, to kno, or

see.*E4 :ence the )rui! as the #ery knoing or ise one. 6t is

%ossible, hoe#er, that K!ruK& is connecte! ith the root hich gi#es

the or! oak in Celtic s%eech&&Gaulish K!eruoK, 6rish K!airK, ?elsh

K!erK&&an! that the oak, occu%ying a %lace in the cult, as thus

brought into relation ith the na"e of the %riesthoo!. The Gaulish for"

of the na"e as %robably K!ruisK, the 8l! 6rish as K!raiK. The "o!ernfor"s in 6rish an! 5cots Gaelic, K!ruiK an! K!raoiK "ean sorcerer.

M. )'Arbois an! others, acce%ting Caesar's !ictu" that the syste" >of

)rui!is"@ is thought to ha#e been !e#ise! in Britain, an! brought thence

into Gaul, "aintain that the )rui!s ere %riests of the Goi!els in

Britain, ho i"%ose! the"sel#es u%on the Gaulish conLuerors of the

Goi!els, an! that )rui!is" then %asse! o#er into Gaul about +

B.C.*14 But it is har!ly likely that, e#en if the )rui!s ere

acce%te! as %riests by conLuering Gauls in Britain, they shoul! ha#e

affecte! the Gauls of Gaul ho ere outsi!e the refleI influence of the

conLuere! Goi!els, an! shoul! ha#e there obtaine! that %oer hich they%ossesse!. Goi!els an! Gauls ere allie! by race an! language an!

religion, an! it oul! be strange if they !i! not both %ossess a si"ilar

%riesthoo!. Moreo#er, the Goi!els ha! been a continental %eo%le, an!

)rui!is" as %resu"ably flourishing a"ong the" then. ?hy !i! it not

influence kin!re! Celtic tribes ithout )rui!s, KeI hy%othesiK, at that

ti"eS 9urther, if e acce%t Professor Meyer's theory that no Goi!el set

foot in Britain until the secon! century A.)., the Gauls coul! not ha#e

recei#e! the )rui!ic %riesthoo! fro" the Goi!els.

Caesar "erely says, it is thought >KeIisti"aturK@ that )rui!is" ca"e to

Gaul fro" Britain.*-4 6t as a %ious o%inion, %erha%s his on, orone base! on the fact that those ho ishe! to %erfect the"sel#es in

)rui!ic art ent to Britain. This "ay ha#e been because Britain ha! been

less o%en to foreign influences than Gaul, an! its )rui!s, unaffecte! by

these, ere thought to be "ore %oerful than those of Gaul. Pliny, on

the other han!, see"s to think that )rui!is" %asse! o#er into Britain

fro" Gaul.*24

8ther riters&&5ir John Rhy4s, 5ir G.. Go""e, an! M. Reinach&&su%%ort



on !ifferent groun!s the theory that the )rui!s ere a %re&Celtic

%riesthoo!, acce%te! by the Celtic conLuerors. 5ir John Rhy4s thinks

that the )rui!is" of the aborigines of Gaul an! Britain "a!e ter"s ith

the Celtic conLuerors. 6t as acce%te! by the Goi!els, but not by the

Brythons. :ence in Britain there ere Brythons ithout )rui!s,

aborigines un!er the say of )rui!is", an! Goi!els ho co"bine! Aryan

%olytheis" ith )rui!is". )rui!is" as also the religion of the

aborigines fro" the Baltic to Gibraltar, an! as acce%te! by the

Gauls.*34 But if so, it is !ifficult to see hy the Brythons, akin to

the", !i! not acce%t it. 8ur knole!ge of Brythonic religion is too

scanty for us to %ro#e that the )rui!s ha! or ha! not say o#er the",

but the %resu"%tion is that they ha!. <or is there any historical

e#i!ence to sho that the )rui!s ere originally a non&Celtic

%riesthoo!. /#eryhere they a%%ear as the su%re"e an! !o"inant

%riesthoo! of the Celts, an! the %riests of a conLuere! %eo%le coul!

har!ly ha#e obtaine! such %oer o#er the conLuerors. The relation of the

Celts to the )rui!s is Luite !ifferent fro" that of conLuerors, ho

occasionally resort to the "e!icine&"en of the conLuere! folk because

they ha#e stronger "agic or greater influence ith the autochthonousgo!s. The Celts !i! not resort to the )rui!s occasionally KeI

hy%othesiK they acce%te! the" co"%letely, ere !o"inate! by the" in

e#ery !e%art"ent of life, hile their on %riests, if they ha! any,

acce%te! this or!er of things ithout a "ur"ur. All this is incre!ible.

The %icture !ran by Caesar, 5trabo, an! others of the )rui!s an! their

%osition a"ong the Celts as ju!ges, choosers of tribal chiefs an! kings,

teachers, as ell as "inisters of religion, suggests rather that they

ere a nati#e Celtic %riesthoo!, long establishe! a"ong the %eo%le.

5ir G.. Go""e su%%orts the theory that the )rui!s ere a %re&Celtic

%riesthoo!, because, in his o%inion, "uch of their belief in "agic asell as their use of hu"an sacrifice an! the re!e"%tion of one life by

another, is o%%ose! to Aryan senti"ent. /Lually o%%ose! to this are

their functions of settling contro#ersies, ju!ging, settling the

succession to %ro%erty, an! arranging boun!aries. These #ies are

su%%orte! by a co"%arison of the %osition of the )rui!s relati#ely to

the Celts ith that of non&Aryan %ersons in 6n!ia ho ren!er occasional

%riestly ser#ices to :in!u #illage co""unities.*F4 ?hether this

co"%arison of occasional :in!u custo" ith Celtic usage to thousan!

years ago is just, "ay be Luestione!. As alrea!y seen, it as no "ere

occasional ser#ice hich the )rui!s ren!ere! to the Celts, an! it is

this hich "akes it !ifficult to cre!it this theory. :a! the Celtichouse&father been %riest an! ju!ge in his on clan, oul! he so rea!ily

ha#e surren!ere! his rights to a foreign an! conLuere! %riesthoo!S 8n

the other han!, kings an! chiefs a"ong the Celts %robably retaine! so"e

%riestly functions, !eri#e! fro" the ti"e hen the offices of the

%riest&king ha! not been !ifferentiate!. Caesar's e#i!ence certainly !oes

not su%%ort the i!ea that it is only a"ong the ru!est of the so&calle!

Celtic tribes that e fin! this su%eri"%osing of an a%%arently official

%riesthoo!. Accor!ing to hi", the %oer of the )rui!s as uni#ersal in



Gaul, an! ha! their %osition really corres%on!e! to that of the %ariah

%riests of 6n!ia, occasional %riests of :in!u #illages, the !eter"ine!

hostility of the Ro"an %oer to the" because they iel!e! such an

enor"ous influence o#er Celtic thought an! life, is ineI%lainable. 6f,

further, Aryan senti"ent as so o%%ose! to )rui!ic custo"s, hy !i!

Aryan Celts so rea!ily acce%t the )rui!sS 6n this case the recei#er is

as ba! as the thief. 5ir G.. Go""e clings to the belief that the Aryans

ere %eo%le of a co"%arati#ely high ci#ilisation, ho ha! !iscar!e!, if

they e#er %ossesse!, a sa#age %ast. But ol! beliefs an! custo"s still

sur#i#e through groing ci#ilisation, an! if the #ies of Professor

5ergi an! others are correct, the Aryans ere e#en less ci#ilise! than

the %eo%les ho" they conLuere!.*4 5ha%e&shifting, "agic, hu"an

sacrifice, %riestly !o"ination, ere as "uch Aryan as non&Aryan, an! if

the Celts ha! a co"%arati#ely %ure religion, hy !i! they so soon allo

it to be !efile! by the %uerile su%erstitions of the )rui!sS

M. Reinach, as e ha#e seen, thinks that the Celts ha! no i"ages,

because these ere %rohibite! by their %riests. This %rohibition as

%re&Celtic in Gaul, since there are no <eolithic i"ages, though thereare great "egalithic structures, suggesting the eIistence of a great

religious aristocracy. This aristocracy i"%ose! itself on the

Celts.**4 ?e ha#e seen that there is no reason for belie#ing that the

Celts ha! no i"ages, hence this argu"ent is #alueless. M. Reinach then

argues that the Celts acce%te! )rui!is" Ken blocK, as the Ro"ans

acce%te! 8riental cults an! the Greeks the nati#e Pelasgic cults. But

neither Ro"ans nor Greeks aban!one! their on faith. ?ere the Celts a

%eo%le ithout %riests an! ithout religionS ?e kno that they "ust ha#e

acce%te! "any local cults, but that they a!o%te! the hole aboriginal

faith an! its %riests Ken blocK is not cre!ible. M. Reinach also hol!s

that hen the Celts a%%ear in history )rui!is" as in its !ecline theCelt, or at least the "ilitary caste a"ong the Celts, as reasserting

itself. But the )rui!s !o not a%%ear as a !eclining bo!y in the %ages of

Caesar, an! their %oer as still su%re"e, to ju!ge by the hostility of

the Ro"an Go#ern"ent to the". 6f the "ilitary caste rebelle! against

the", this !oes not %ro#e that they ere a foreign bo!y. 5uch a strife

is seen here#er %riest an! sol!ier for" se%arate castes, each !esiring

to rule, as in /gy%t.

8ther riters argue that e !o not fin! )rui!s eIisting in the )anube

region, in Cisal%ine territory, nor in Transal%ine Gaul, outsi!e the

li"its of the region occu%ie! by the Celtae.***4 This coul! only ha#eeight if any of the classical riters ha! co"%ose! a for"al treatise on

the )rui!s, shoing eIactly the regions here they eIiste!. They "erely

!escribe )rui!is" as a general Celtic institution, or as they kne it in

Gaul or Britain, an! fe of the" ha#e any %ersonal knole!ge of it.

There is no reason to belie#e that )rui!s !i! not eIist here#er there

ere Celts. The )rui!s an! 5e"notheoi of the Celts an! Galatae referre!

to Kc.K + B.C. ere a%%arently %riests of other Celts than those of

Gaul, an! Celtic grou%s of Cisal%ine Gaul ha! %riests, though these are



not for"ally style! )rui!s.**+4 The argu"ent KeI silentioK is here of

little #alue, since the references to the )rui!s are so brief, an! it

tells eLually against their non&Celtic origin, since e !o not hear of

)rui!s in ALuitania, a non&Celtic region.**E4

The theory of the non&Celtic origin of the )rui!s assu"es that the Celts

ha! no %riests, or that these ere efface! by the )rui!s. The Celts ha!

%riests calle! KgutuatriK attache! to certain te"%les, their na"e

%erha%s "eaning the s%eakers, those ho s%oke to the go!s.**14 The

functions of the )rui!s ere "uch "ore general, accor!ing to this

theory, hence M. )'Arbois su%%oses that, before their intrusion, the

Celts ha! no other %riests than the KgutuatriK.**-4 But the

%robability is that they ere a )rui!ic class, "inisters of local

sanctuaries, an! relate! to the )rui!s as the e#ites ere to the

%riests of 6srael, since the )rui!s ere a co"%osite %riesthoo! ith a

#ariety of functions. 6f the %riests an! ser#ants of Belenos, !escribe!

by Ausonius an! calle! by hi" Koe!ituus BeleniK, ere KgutuatriK, then

the latter "ust ha#e been connecte! ith the )rui!s, since he says they

ere of )rui!ic stock.**24 ucan's %riest of the gro#e "ay ha#e beena KgutuatrosK, an! the %riests >Ksacer!otesK@ an! other "inisters

>KantistitesK@ of the Boii "ay ha#e been )rui!s %ro%erly so calle! an!

KgutuatriK.**34 Another class of te"%le ser#ants "ay ha#e eIiste!.

<a"es beginning ith the na"e of a go! an! en!ing in KgnatosK,

accusto"e! to, belo#e! of, occur in inscri%tions, an! "ay !enote

%ersons consecrate! fro" their youth to the ser#ice of a gro#e or

te"%le. 8n the other han!, the na"es "ay "ean no "ore than that those

bearing the" ere !e#ote! to the cult of one %articular go!.

8ur su%%osition that the KgutuatriK ere a class of )rui!s is su%%orte!

by classical e#i!ence, hich ten!s to sho that the )rui!s ere a greatinclusi#e %riesthoo! ith !ifferent classes %ossessing !ifferent

functions&&%riestly, %ro%hetic, "agical, "e!ical, legal, an! %oetical.

Caesar attributes these to the )rui!s as a hole, but in other riters

they are in %art at least in the han!s of !ifferent classes. )io!orus

refers to the Celtic %hiloso%hers an! theologians >)rui!s@, !i#iners,

an! bar!s, as !o also 5trabo an! Ti"agenes, 5trabo gi#ing the Greek for"

of the nati#e na"e for the !i#iners, Greek( ouateis4, the Celtic for"

being %robably K#atisK >6rish, KfaithK@.**F4 These "ay ha#e been also

%oets, since K#atisK "eans both singer an! %oet but in all three

riters the bar!s are a fairly !istinct class, ho sing the !ee!s of

fa"ous "en >so Ti"agenes@. )rui! an! !i#iner ere also closelyconnecte!, since the )rui!s stu!ie! nature an! "oral %hiloso%hy, an! the

!i#iners ere also stu!ents of nature, accor!ing to 5trabo an!

Ti"agenes. <o sacrifice as co"%lete ithout a )rui!, say )io!orus an!

5trabo, but both s%eak of the !i#iners as concerne! ith sacrifice.

)rui!s also %ro%hesie! as ell as !i#iners, accor!ing to Cicero an!

Tacitus.**4 9inally, ucan "entions only )rui!s an! bar!s.*+4

)i#iners ere thus %robably a )rui!ic sub&class, stan!ing "i!ay beteen

the )rui!s %ro%er an! the bar!s, an! %artaking of so"e of the functions



sa#agery.*+34 Pliny says nothing of the )rui!s as %hiloso%hers, but

hints at their %riestly functions, an! connects the" ith "agico&"e!ical

rites.*+F4 These !i#ergent o%inions are !ifficult to account for. But

as the Ro"ans gaine! closer acLuaintance ith the )rui!s, they foun!

less %hiloso%hy an! "ore su%erstition a"ong the". 9or their cruel rites

an! hostility to Ro"e, they sought to su%%ress the", but this they ne#er

oul! ha#e !one ha! the )rui!s been esoteric %hiloso%hers. 6t has been

thought that Pliny's %hrase, )rui!s an! that race of %ro%hets an!

!octors, signifies that, through Ro"an %ersecution, the )rui!s ere

re!uce! to a kin! of "e!icine&"en.*+4 But the %hrase rather !escribes

the #arie! functions of the )rui!s, as has been seen, nor !oes it refer

to the state to hich the re%ressi#e e!ict re!uce! the", but to that in

hich it foun! the". Pliny's infor"ation as also li"ite!.

The #ague i!ea that the )rui!s ere %hiloso%hers as re%eate!

%arrot&like by riter after riter, ho regar!e! barbaric races as

Rousseau an! his school looke! u%on the noble sa#age. Ro"an riters,

sce%tical of a future life, ere fascinate! by the i!ea of a barbaric

%riesthoo! teaching the !octrine of i""ortality in the il!s of Gaul.9or this teaching the %oet ucan sang their %raises. The )rui!s %robably

first i"%resse! Greek an! atin obser#ers by their "agic, their

organisation, an! the fact that, like "any barbaric %riesthoo!s, but

unlike those of Greece an! Ro"e, they taught certain !octrines. Their

knole!ge as !i#inely con#eye! to the" they s%eak the language of the

go!s*E4 hence it as easy to rea! anything into this teaching. Thus

the )rui!ic legen! ra%i!ly gre. 8n the other han!, "o!ern riters ha#e

%erha%s eIaggerate! the force of the classical e#i!ence. ?hen e rea! of

)rui!ic associations e nee! not regar! these as higher than the

organise! %riesthoo!s of barbarians. Their !octrine of "ete"%sychosis,

if it as really taught, in#ol#e! no ethical content as inPythagoreanis". Their astrono"y as %robably astrological*E*4 their

knole!ge of nature a series of cos"ogonic "yths an! s%eculations. 6f a

true )rui!ic %hiloso%hy an! science ha! eIiste!, it is strange that it

is alays "entione! #aguely an! that it eIerte! no influence u%on the

thought of the ti"e.

Classical senti"ent also foun! a connection beteen the )rui!ic an!

Pythagorean syste"s, the )rui!s being regar!e! as confor"ing to the

!octrines an! rules of the Greek %hiloso%her.*E+4 6t is not i"%robable

that so"e Pythagorean !octrines "ay ha#e reache! Gaul, but hen e

eIa"ine the %oint at hich the to syste"s ere su%%ose! to "eet,na"ely, the !octrine of "ete"%sychosis an! i""ortality, u%on hich the

hole i!ea of this relationshi% as foun!e!, there is no real

rese"blance. There are Celtic "yths regar!ing the rebirth of go!s an!

heroes, but the eschatological teaching as a%%arently this, that the

soul as clothe! ith a bo!y in the other&orl!. There as no !octrine

of a series of rebirths on this earth as a %unish"ent for sin. The

)rui!ic teaching of a bo!ily i""ortality as "istakenly assu"e! to be

the sa"e as the Pythagorean !octrine of the soul reincarnate! in bo!y



after bo!y. 8ther %oints of rese"blance ere then !isco#ere!. The

organisation of the )rui!s as assu"e! by A""ianus to be a kin! of

cor%orate life&&Kso!aliciis a!stricti consortiisK&&hile the )rui!ic

"in! as alays searching into lofty things,*EE4 but those ho rote

"ost fully of the )rui!s kne nothing of this.

The )rui!s, like the %riests of all religions, !oubtless sought after

such knole!ge as as o%en to the", but this !oes not i"%ly that they

%ossesse! a recon!ite %hiloso%hy or a secret theology. They ere

go#erne! by the i!eas current a"ong all barbaric co""unities, an! they

ere at once %riests, "agicians, !octors, an! teachers. They oul! not

allo their sacre! hy"ns to be ritten !on, but taught the" in

secret,*E14 as is usual here#er the success of hy"n or %rayer !e%en!s

u%on the right use of the or!s an! the secrecy obser#e! in i"%arting

the" to others. Their ritual, as far as is knon to us, !iffers but

little fro" that of other barbarian folk, an! it inclu!e! hu"an

sacrifice an! !i#ination ith the #icti"'s bo!y. They eIclu!e! the

guilty fro" a share in the cult&&the usual %unish"ent "ete! out to the

tabu&breaker in all %ri"iti#e societies.

The i!ea that the )rui!s taught a secret !octrine&&"onotheis",

%antheis", or the like&&is unsu%%orte! by e#i!ence. )oubtless they

co""unicate! secrets to the initiate!, as is !one in barbaric "ysteries

e#eryhere, but these secrets consist of "agic an! "ythic for"ulae, the

eIhibition of K5acraK, an! so"e teaching about the go!s or about "oral

!uties. These are ke%t secret, not because they are abstract !octrines,

but because they oul! lose their #alue an! because the go!s oul! be

angry if they ere "a!e too co""on. 6f the )rui!s taught religious an!

"oral "atters secretly, these ere %robably no "ore than an eItension of

the threefol! "aIi" inculcate! by the" accor!ing to )iogenes aertius(To orshi% the go!s, to !o no e#il, an! to eIercise courage.*E-4 To

this oul! be a!!e! cos"ogonic "yths an! s%eculations, an! "agic an!

religious for"ulae. This ill beco"e "ore e#i!ent as e eIa"ine the

%osition an! %oer of the )rui!s.

6n Gaul, an! to so"e eItent in 6relan!, the )rui!s for"e! a %riestly

cor%oration&&a fact hich hel%e! classical obser#ers to su%%ose that

they li#e! together like the Pythagorean co""unities. ?hile the or!s of

A""ianus&&Kso!aliciis a!stricti consortiisK&&"ay i"%ly no "ore than so"e

kin! of %riestly organisation, M. Bertran! foun!s on the" a theory that

the )rui!s ere a kin! of "onks li#ing a co""unity life, an! that 6rish"onasticis" as a transfor"ation of this syste".*E24 This is %urely

i"aginati#e. 6rish )rui!s ha! i#es an! chil!ren, an! the )rui!

)i#iciacus as a fa"ily "an, hile Caesar says not a or! of co""unity

life a"ong the )rui!s. The hostility of Christianity to the )rui!s oul!

ha#e %re#ente! any co%ying of their syste", an! 6rish "onasticis" as

"o!elle! on that of the Continent. )rui!ic organisation %robably !enote!

no "ore than that the )rui!s ere boun! by certain ties, that they ere

gra!e! in !ifferent ranks or accor!ing to their functions, an! that they



%ractise! a series of co""on cults. 6n Gaul one chief )rui! ha!

authority o#er the others, the %osition being an electi#e one.*E34 The

insular )rui!s "ay ha#e been si"ilarly organise!, since e hear of a

chief )rui!, K%ri"us "agusK, hile the K9ili!K ha! an KAr!&fileK, or

chief, electe! to his office.*EF4 The %riesthoo! as not a caste, but

as o%en to those ho shoe! a%titu!e for it. There as a long

no#itiate, eIten!ing e#en to tenty years, just as, in 6relan!, the

no#itiate of the K9ileK laste! fro" se#en to tel#e years.*E4

The )rui!s of Gaul asse"ble! annually in a central s%ot, an! there

settle! !is%utes, because they ere regar!e! as the "ost just of

"en.*14 6n!i#i!ual )rui!s also !eci!e! !is%utes or sat as ju!ges in

cases of "ur!er. :o far it as obligatory to bring causes before the"

is unknon, but those ho !i! not sub"it to a !ecision ere inter!icte!

fro" the sacrifices, an! all shunne! the". 6n other or!s, they ere

tabue!. A "agico&religious sanction thus enforce! the ju!g"ents of the

)rui!s. 6n Galatia the tel#e tetrarchs ha! a council of three hun!re!

"en, an! "et in a %lace calle! )rune"eton to try cases of "ur!er.*1*4

?hether it is %hilologically %er"issible to connect K)ruK& ith thecorres%on!ing syllable in )rui! or not, the likeness to the Gaulish

asse"bly at a consecrate! %lace, %erha%s a gro#e >Kne"etonK@, is

ob#ious. ?e !o not kno that 6rish )rui!s ere ju!ges, but the K9ili!K

eIercise! ju!g"ents, an! this "ay be a relic of their connection ith

the )rui!s.*1+4

)io!orus !escribes the )rui!s eIhorting co"batants to %eace, an! ta"ing

the" like il! beasts by enchant"ent.*1E4 This suggests interference

to %re#ent the !e#astating %oer of the bloo!&feu! or of tribal ars.

They also a%%ear to ha#e eIercise! authority in the election of rulers.

Con#ictolitanis as electe! to the "agistracy by the %riests in Gaul,accor!ing to the custo" of the 5tate.*114 6n 6relan!, after

%artaking of the flesh of a hite bull, %robably a sacrificial ani"al, a

"an lay !on to slee%, hile four )rui!s chante! o#er hi" to ren!er his

itness truthful. :e then sa in a #ision the %erson ho shoul! be

electe! king, an! hat he as !oing at the "o"ent.*1-4 Possibly the

)rui!s use! hy%notic suggestion the "e!iu" as a%%arently clair#oyant.

)io Chrysosto" alleges that kings ere "inisters of the )rui!s, an!

coul! !o nothing ithout the".*124 This agrees on the hole ith the

itness of 6rish teIts. )rui!s alays acco"%any the king, an! ha#e great

influence o#er hi". Accor!ing to a %assage in the KTainK, the "en of;lster "ust not s%eak before the king, the king "ust not s%eak before

his )rui!, an! e#en Conchobar as silent until the )rui! Cathba! ha!

s%oken.*134 This %oer, rese"bling that of "any other %riesthoo!s,

"ust ha#e hel%e! to balance that of the arrior class, an! it is the

"ore cre!ible hen e recall the fact that the )rui!s clai"e! to ha#e

"a!e the uni#erse.*1F4 The %riest&kingshi% "ay ha#e been an ol! Celtic

institution, an! this oul! eI%lain hy, once the offices ere

se%arate!, %riests ha! or clai"e! so "uch %olitical %oer.



That %olitical %oer "ust ha#e been enhance! by their %osition as

teachers, an! it is safe to say that sub"ission to their %oers as

inculcate! by the". Both in Gaul an! in 6relan! they taught others than

those ho inten!e! to beco"e )rui!s.*14 As has been seen, their

teachings ere not ritten !on, but trans"itte! orally. They taught

i""ortality, belie#ing that thus "en oul! be rouse! to #alour,

buttressing %atriotis" ith !og"a. They also i"%arte! "any things

regar!ing the stars an! their "otions, the eItent of the uni#erse an!

the earth, the nature of things, an! the %oer an! "ight of the i""ortal

go!s. 5trabo also s%eaks of their teaching in "oral science.*-4 As

has been seen, it is easy to eIaggerate all this. Their astrono"y as

%robably of a hu"ble kin! an! "ingle! ith astrology their natural

%hiloso%hy a "ass of cos"ogonic "yths an! s%eculations their theology

as rather "ythology their "oral %hiloso%hy a series of "aIi"s such as

are foun! in all barbaric co""unities. Their "e!ical lore, to ju!ge fro"

hat Pliny says, as largely "agical. 5o"e )rui!s, e.g. in the south of

Gaul, "ay ha#e ha! access to classical learning, an! Caesar s%eaks of the

use of Greek characters a"ong the". This coul! har!ly ha#e been general,an! in any case "ust ha#e su%erse!e! the use of a nati#e scri%t, to

hich the use of oga"s in 6relan!, an! %erha%s also in Gaul, as

su%%le"entary. The 6rish )rui!s "ay ha#e ha! ritten books, for =ing

oegaire !esire! that 5. Patrick's books an! those of the )rui!s shoul!

be sub"itte! to the or!eal by ater as a test of their oners'

clai"s.*-*4

6n religious affairs the )rui!s ere su%re"e, since they alone kne the

go!s an! !i#inities of hea#en.*-+4 They su%erinten!e! an! arrange!

all rites an! atten!e! to %ublic an! %ri#ate sacrifices, an! no

sacrifice as co"%lete ithout the inter#ention of a )rui!.*-E4 The!ark an! cruel rites of the )rui!s struck the Ro"ans ith horror, an!

they for" a curious contrast to their allege! %hiloso%hy. They use!

!i#ination an! ha! regular for"ulae of incantation as ell as ritual acts

by hich they looke! into the future.*-14 Before all "atters of

i"%ortance, es%ecially before arlike eI%e!itions, their a!#ice as

sought because they coul! scan the future.

<a"e&gi#ing an! a s%ecies of ba%tis" ere %erfor"e! by the )rui!s or on

their initiati#e. Many eIa"%les of this occur in 6rish teIts, thus of

Conall Cernach it is sai!, )rui!s ca"e to ba%tiHe the chil! into

heathenis", an! they sang the heathen ba%tis" >Kbaithis geintli!heK@o#er the little chil!, an! of Ailill that he as ba%tiHe! in )rui!ic

strea"s.*--4 6n ?elsh story e rea! that Gri as ba%tiHe! ith the

ba%tis" hich as usual at that ti"e.*-24 5i"ilar illustrations are

co""on at na"e&gi#ing a"ong "any races,*-34 an! it is %robable that

the custo" in the :ebri!es of the "i!ife !ro%%ing three !ro%s of ater

on the chil! Kin <o"ineK an! gi#ing it a te"%orary na"e, is a sur#i#al

of this %ractice. The regular ba%tis" takes %lace later, but this

%reli"inary rite kee%s off fairies an! ensures burial in consecrate!



groun!, just as the %agan rite as %rotecti#e an! a!"itte! to the tribal

%ri#ileges.*-F4

6n the burial rites, hich in 6relan! consiste! of a la"ent, sacrifices,

an! raising a stone inscribe! ith oga"s o#er the gra#e, )rui!s took

%art. The )rui! )erg!a"sa %ronounce! a !iscourse o#er the 8ssianic hero

Mag&nei!, burie! hi" ith his ar"s, an! chante! a rune. The oga"

inscri%tion oul! also be of )rui!ic co"%osition, an! as no sacrifice

as co"%lete ithout the inter#ention of )rui!s, they "ust also ha#e

assiste! at the la#ish sacrifices hich occurre! at Celtic funerals.

Pliny's or!s, the )rui!s an! that race of %ro%hets an! !octors,

suggest that the "e!ical art "ay ha#e been in the han!s of a s%ecial

class of )rui!s though all "ay ha#e ha! a s"attering of it. 6t as

"ainly concerne! ith the use of herbs, an! as "iIe! u% ith "agical

rites, hich "ay ha#e been regar!e! as of "ore i"%ortance than the

actual "e!icines use!.*-4 6n 6relan! )rui!s also %ractise! the

healing art. Thus hen Cuchulainn as ill, /"er sai!, 6f it ha! been

9ergus, Cuchulainn oul! ha#e taken no rest till he ha! foun! a )rui!able to !isco#er the cause of that illness.*24 But other %ersons,

not referre! to as )rui!s, are "entione! as healers, one of the" a

o"an, %erha%s a re"iniscence of the ti"e hen the art as %ractise! by

o"en.*2*4 These healers "ay, hoe#er, ha#e been attache! to the

)rui!ic cor%oration in "uch the sa"e ay as ere the bar!s.

5till "ore i"%ortant ere the "agical %oers of the )rui!s&&gi#ing or

ithhol!ing sunshine or rain, causing stor"s, "aking o"en an! cattle

fruitful, using s%ells, rhy"ing to !eath, eIercising sha%e&shifting an!

in#isibility, an! %ro!ucing a "agic slee%, %ossibly hy%notic. They ere

also in reLuest as %oisoners.*2+4 5ince the Gauls ent to Britain to%erfect the"sel#es in )rui!ic science, it is %ossible that the insular

)rui!s ere "ore !e#ote! to "agic than those of Gaul, but since the

latter are sai! to ha#e ta"e! the %eo%le as il! beasts are ta"e!, it

is ob#ious that this refers to their %oers as "agicians rather than to

any recon!ite %hiloso%hy %ossesse! by the". $et they ere clear&sighte!

enough to use e#ery "eans by hich they "ight gain %olitical %oer, an!

so"e of the" "ay ha#e been o%en to the influence of classical learning

e#en before the Ro"an in#asion. 6n the neIt cha%ter the "agic of the

)rui!s ill be !escribe! in !etail.

The )rui!s, both in Gaul >at the "istletoe rite@ an! in 6relan!, ere!resse! in hite, but 5trabo s%eaks of their scarlet an! gol!

e"broi!ere! robes, their gol!en necklets an! bracelets.*2E4 Again, the

chief )rui! of the king of /rin ore a coloure! cloak an! ha! earrings

of gol!, an! in another instance a )rui! ears a bull's hi!e an! a

hite&s%eckle! bir! hea!%iece ith fluttering ings.*214 There as

also so"e s%ecial tonsure use! by the )rui!s,*2-4 hich "ay ha#e

!enote! ser#itu!e to the go!s, as it as custo"ary for a arrior to #o

his hair to a !i#inity if #ictory as grante! hi". 5i"ilarly the )rui!'s



hair oul! be %resente! to the go!s, an! the tonsure oul! "ark their

"inister.

5o"e riters ha#e trie! to !ra a !istinction beteen the )rui!s of Gaul

an! of 6relan!, es%ecially in the "atter of their %riestly

functions.*224 But, hile a fe %assages in 6rish teIts !o suggest

that the 6rish )rui!s ere %riests taking %art in sacrifices, etc.,

nearly all %assages relating to cult or ritual see" to ha#e been

!eliberately su%%resse!. :ence the )rui!s a%%ear rather as "agicians&&a

natural result, since, once the %eo%le beca"e Christian, the %riestly

character of the )rui!s oul! ten! to be lost sight of. ike the )rui!s

of Gaul, they ere teachers an! took %art in %olitical affairs, an! this

shos that they ere "ore than "ere "agicians. 6n 6rish teIts the or!

)rui! is so"ehat loosely use! an! is a%%lie! to kings an! %oets,

%erha%s because they ha! been %u%ils of the )rui!s. But it is i"%ossible

to !oubt that the )rui!s in 6relan! fulfille! functions of a %ublic

%riesthoo!. They a%%ear in connection ith all the colonies hich ca"e

to /rin, the annalists regar!ing the %riests or "e!icine&"en of

!ifferent races as )rui!s, through lack of historic %ers%ecti#e. But onefact shos that they ere %riests of the Celtic religion in 6relan!. The

euhe"erise! Tuatha )e )anann are "asters of )rui!ic lore. Thus both the

go!s an! the %riests ho ser#e! the" ere confuse! by later riters. The

o%%osition of Christian "issionaries to the )rui!s shos that they ere

%riests if they ere not, it re"ains to be !isco#ere! hat bo!y of "en

!i! eIercise %riestly functions in %agan 6relan!. 6n 6relan! their

ju!icial functions "ay ha#e been less i"%ortant than in Gaul, an! they

"ay not ha#e been so strictly organise! but here e are in the region

of conjecture. They ere eIe"%t fro" "ilitary ser#ice in Gaul, an! "any

joine! their ranks on this account, but in 6relan! they ere bonny

fechters, just as in Gaul they occasionally fought like "e!iae#albisho%s.*234 6n both countries they ere %resent on the fiel! of

battle to %erfor" the necessary religious or "agical rites.

5ince the )rui!s ere an organise! %riesthoo!, ith %oers of teaching

an! of "agic i"%licitly belie#e! in by the folk, %ossessing the key of

the other&orl!, an! !o"inating the hole fiel! of religion, it is easy

to see ho "uch #eneration "ust ha#e been %ai! the". Connoting this ith

the influence of the Ro"an Church in Celtic regions an! the %oer of the

Protestant "inister in the :ighlan!s an! in ?ales, so"e ha#e thought

that there is an innate ten!ency in the Celt to be %riest&ri!!en. 6f

this be true, e can only say, the %eo%le ish to ha#e it so, an! the%riests&&%agan, %a%ist, or %rotestant&&bear rule through their "eans

Thus a close eIa"ination of the %osition an! functions of the )rui!s

eI%lains aay to %o%ular "isconce%tions. They ere not %ossesse! of any

recon!ite an! esoteric is!o". An! the culling of "istletoe instea! of

being the "ost i"%ortant, as but a subor!inate %art of their functions.

6n Gaul the Ro"an %oer broke the say of the )rui!s, ai!e! %erha%s by



the s%rea! of Christianity, but it as Christianity alone hich route!

the" in 6relan! an! in Britain outsi!e the Ro"an %ale. The )rui!ic

organisation, their %oer in %olitics an! in the a!"inistration of

justice, their %atriotis", an! also their use of hu"an sacrifice an!

"agic, ere all obnoIious to the Ro"an Go#ern"ent, hich o%%ose! the"

"ainly on %olitical groun!s. Magic an! hu"an sacrifice ere su%%resse!

because they ere contrary to Ro"an "anners. The first attack as in the

reign of Augustus, ho %rohibite! Ro"an citiHens fro" taking %art in the

religion of the )rui!s.*2F4 Tiberius neIt inter!icte! the )rui!s, but

this as %robably ai"e! at their hu"an sacrifices, for the )rui!s ere

not su%%resse!, since they eIiste! still in the reign of Clau!ius, ho

is sai! to ha#e abolishe! K)rui!aru" religione" !irae

i""anitatisK.*24 The earlier legislation as ineffecti#e that of

Clau!ius as "ore thorough, but it, too, as %robably ai"e! "ainly at

hu"an sacrifice an! "agic, since Aurelius ictor li"its it to the

notorious su%erstitions of the )rui!s.*34 6t !i! not abolish the

nati#e religion, as is %ro#e! by the nu"erous inscri%tions to Celtic

go!s, an! by the fact that, as Mela infor"s us, hu"an #icti"s ere still

offere! sy"bolically,*3*4 hile the )rui!s ere still acti#e so"eyears later. A %arallel is foun! in the British abolition of 5Na4ti in

6n!ia, hile %er"itting the nati#e religion to flourish.

Probably "ore effecti#e as the %olicy begun by Augustus. Magistrates

ere inaugurate! an! acte! as ju!ges, thus ousting the )rui!s, an!

nati#e !eities an! nati#e ritual ere assi"ilate! to those of Ro"e.

Celtic religion as Ro"anise!, an! if the )rui!s retaine! %riestly

functions, it coul! only be by their beco"ing Ro"anise! also. Perha%s

the ne 5tate religion in Gaul si"%ly ignore! the". The annual asse"bly

of !e%uties at ugu!unu" roun! the altar of Ro"e an! Augustus ha! a

religious character, an! as inten!e! to ri#al an! to su%erse!e theannual gathering of the )rui!s.*3+4 The !e%uties electe! a fla"en of

the %ro#ince ho ha! sur#eillance of the cult, an! there ere also

fla"ens for each city. Thus the %oer of the )rui!s in %olitics, la,

an! religion as Luietly un!er"ine!, hile Ro"e also struck a blo at

their %osition as teachers by establishing schools throughout

Gaul.*3E4

M. )'Arbois "aintains that, as a result of %ersecution, the )rui!s

retire! to the !e%ths of the forests, an! continue! to teach there in

secret those ho !es%ise! the ne learning of Ro"e, basing his o%inion

on %assages of ucan an! Mela, both riting a little after the%ro"ulgation of the las.*314. But neither ucan nor Mela refer to an

eIisting state of things, an! !o not inten! their rea!ers to su%%ose

that the )rui!s fle! to oo!s an! ca#erns. ucan s%eaks of the"

K!ellingK in oo!s, i.e. their sacre! gro#es, an! resu"ing their rites

after Caesar's conLuest not after the later e!icts, an! he !oes not s%eak

of the )rui!s teaching there.*3-4 Mela see"s to be echoing Caesar's

account of the tenty years' no#itiate, but a!!s to it that the teaching

as gi#en in secret, confusing it, hoe#er, ith that gi#en to others



than can!i!ates for the %riesthoo!. Thus he says( )ocent "ulta

nobilissi"os gentis cla" et !iu #icenis annis aut in s%ecu aut in

ab!itis saltibus,*324 but there is not the slightest e#i!ence that

this secrecy as the result of the e!icts. Moreo#er, the attenuate!

sacrificial rites hich he !escribes ere e#i!ently %ractise! Luite

o%enly. Probably so"e )rui!s continue! their teaching in their secret

an! sacre! haunts, but it is unlikely that noble Gauls oul! resort to

the" hen Greco&Ro"an culture as no o%en to the" in the schools, here

they are foun! recei#ing instruction in +* A.).*334 Most of the )rui!s

%robably succu"be! to the ne or!er of things. 5o"e continue! the ol!

rites in a "o!ifie! "anner as long as they coul! obtain orshi%%ers.

8thers, "ore fanatical, oul! suffer fro" the la hen they coul! not

e#a!e its gras%. 5o"e of these re#olte! against Ro"e after <ero's !eath,

an! it as %erha%s to this class that those )rui!s belonge! ho

%ro%hesie! the orl!&e"%ire of the Celts in 3 A.).*3F4 The fact that

)rui!s eIiste! at this !ate shos that the %roscri%tion ha! not been

co"%lete. But the co"%lete Ro"anising of Gaul took aay their

occu%ation, though e#en in the fourth century "en still boaste! of their

)rui!ic !escent.*34

The insular )rui!s o%%ose! the legions in 5outhern Britain, an! in Mona

in 2+ A.). they "a!e a last stan! ith the arriors against the Ro"ans,

gesticulating an! %raying to the go!s. But ith the establish"ent of

Ro"an %oer in Britain their fate "ust ha#e rese"ble! that of the )rui!s

of Gaul. A recru!escence of )rui!is" is foun!, hoe#er, in the %resence

of K"agiK >)rui!s@ ith ortigern after the Ro"an ith!raal.*F4

8utsi!e the Ro"an %ale the )rui!s ere still ra"%ant an! %ractise! their

rites as before, accor!ing to Pliny.*F*4 Much later, in the siIth

century, they o%%ose! Christian "issionaries in 5cotlan!, just as in

6relan! they o%%ose! 5. Patrick an! his "onks, ho co"bate! thehar!&hearte! )rui!s. 9inally, Christianity as #ictorious an! the

%oers of the )rui!s %asse! in large "easure to the Christian clergy or

re"aine! to so"e eItent ith the K9ili!K.*F+4 6n %o%ular belief the

clerics ha! %re#aile! less by the %ersuasi#e %oer of the gos%el, than

by successfully ri#alling the "agic of the )rui!s.

Classical riters s%eak of K)rya!esK or )rui!esses in the thir!

century. 8ne of the" %re!icte! his a%%roaching !eath to AleIan!er

5e#erus, another %ro"ise! the e"%ire to )iocletian, others ere

consulte! by Aurelian.*FE4 Thus they ere !i#ineresses, rather than

%riestesses, an! their na"e "ay be the result of "isconce%tion, unlessthey assu"e! it hen )rui!s no longer eIiste! as a class. 6n 6relan!

there ere !i#ineresses&&Kban&fili!K or Kban&fathiK, %robably a !istinct

class ith %ro%hetic %oers. =ings are arne! against %ythonesses as

ell as )rui!s, an! )r. Joyce thinks these ere )rui!esses.*F14 5.

Patrick also ar"e! hi"self against the s%ells of o"en an! of

)rui!s.*F-4 ?o"en in 6relan! ha! a knole!ge of futurity, accor!ing to

5olinus, an! the o"en ho took %art ith the )rui!s like furies at

Mona, "ay ha#e been !i#ineresses.*F24 6n 6relan! it is %ossible that



such o"en ere calle! )rui!esses, since the or! Kban&!ruiK is "et

ith, the o"en so calle! being also style! Kban&filiK, hile the fact

that they belonge! to the class of the K9ili!K brings the" into

connection ith the )rui!s.*F34 But Kban&!ruiK "ay ha#e been a%%lie!

to o"en ith %riestly functions, such as certainly eIiste! in

6relan!&&e.g. the #irgin guar!ians of sacre! fires, to hose functions

Christian nuns succee!e!.*FF4 ?e kno also that the British Lueen

Bou!icca eIercise! %riestly functions, an! such %riestesses, a%art fro"

the K)rya!esK, eIiste! a"ong the continental Celts. 6nscri%tions at

Arles s%eak of an Kantistita !eaeK, an! at e Prugnon of a Kfla"inica

sacer!osK of the go!!ess Thucolis.*F4 These ere ser#ants of a

go!!ess like the %riestess of the Celtic Arte"is in Galatia, in hose

fa"ily the %riesthoo! as here!itary.*4 The #irgins calle!

GalliHenae, ho %ractise! !i#ination an! "agic in the isle of 5ena, ere

%riestesses of a Gaulish go!, an! so"e of the o"en ho ere %ossesse!

by )ionysus an! %ractise! an orgiastic cult on an islan! in the oire,

ere %robably of the sa"e kin!.**4 They ere %riestesses of so"e

"agico&religious cult %ractise! by o"en, like the guar!ians of the

sacre! fire in 6relan!, hich as tabu to "en. M. Reinach regar!s theaccounts of these islan! %riestesses as fictions base! on the story of

Circe's isle, but e#en if they are garble!, they see" to be base! on

actual obser#ation an! are %arallele! fro" other regions.*+4

The eIistence of such %riestesses an! !i#ineresses o#er the Celtic area

is to be eI%laine! by our hy%othesis that "any Celtic !i#inities ere at

first fe"ale an! ser#e! by o"en, ho ere %ossesse! of the tribal lore.

ater, "en assu"e! their functions, an! hence arose the great

%riesthoo!s, but conser#atis" s%ora!ically retaine! such fe"ale cults

an! %riestesses, so"e go!!esses being still ser#e! by o"en&&the

Galatian Arte"is, or the go!!esses of Gaul, ith their fe"ale ser#ants.Ti"e also brought its re#enges, for hen %aganis" %asse! aay, "uch of

its folk&ritual an! "agic re"aine!, %ractise! by ise o"en or itches,

ho for generations ha! as "uch %oer o#er ignorant "in!s as the

Christian %riesthoo!. The fact that Caesar an! Tacitus s%eak of Ger"anic

but not of Celtic %riestesses, can har!ly, in face of these scattere!

notices, be taken as a %roof that o"en ha! no %riestly KroleK in Celtic

religion. 6f they ha! not, that religion oul! be uniLue in the orl!'s

history.

988T<8T/5(

*+4 Pliny, K:<K I#i. +1.

*E4 )'Arbois, Kes )rui!esK, F-, folloing Thurneysen.

*14 )'Arbois, Ko%. cit.K *+ f. )eloche, KRe#ue !es )euI Mon!esK,

IIIi#. 122 )esjar!ins, KGeog. !e la Gaule Ro"aineK, ii. -*F.

*-4 Caesar, #i. *E.



*24 Pliny, K:<K III. *.

*34 Rhy4s, KCBKO1 2 f.

*F4 Go""e, K/thnol. in 9olk&loreK, -F, Killage Co""unityK, *1.

*4 5ergi, KThe Me!iterranean RaceK, +-.

**4 Reinach, 'Art %lastiLue en Gaule et le )rui!is"e, KRCK Iiii.

*F.

***4 :ol"es, KCaesar's ConLuest of GaulK, *- )ottin, +3.

**+4 )iog. aert. i. * i#y IIiii. +1.

**E4 )esjar!ins, Ko%. cit.K ii. -* but cf. :ol"es, -E-.

**14 KGutuatrosK is %erha%s fro" KgutuK&, #oice >:ol!er, i. +12but see oth, KRCK II#iii. *+@. The eIistence of the KgutuatriK is

knon fro" a fe inscri%tions >see :ol!er@, an! fro" :irtius, K!e Bell.

Gall.K #iii. EF, ho "entions a KgutuatrosK %ut to !eath by Caesar.

**-4 )'Arbois, Kes )rui!esK, + f., Kes CeltesK, E+.

**24 Ausonius, KProfessor.K #. 3, Ii. +1.

**34 ucan, iii. 1+1 i#y, IIiii. +1.

**F4 )io!. 5ic. #. E* 5trabo, i#. 1. 1 Ti"agenes Ka%u!K A"". Marc.I#. .

**4 Cicero, K!e )i#.K i. 1*. Tac. K:ist.K i#. -1.

*+4 KPhars.K i. 11 f.

*+*4 K:<K III. i.

*++4 K9ili!K, sing. K9ileK, is fro" K#eloK, 6 see >5tokes, K;5K

+33@.

*+E4 K9athiK is cognate ith KatesK.

*+14 6n ?ales there ha! been )rui!s as there ere Bar!s, but all trace

of the secon! class is lost. ong after the )rui!s ha! %asse! aay, the

fiction of the K!ery!!&#ar!!K or )rui!&bar! as create!, an! the later

bar!s ere hel! to be !e%ositories of a su%%osititious )rui!ic

theoso%hy, hile they %ractise! the ol! rites in secret. The late or!

K!ery!!K as %robably in#ente! fro" K!erK, oak, by so"e one ho kne



Pliny's !eri#ation. 5ee )'Arbois, Kes )rui!esK, F*.

*+-4 9or these #ies see )ottin, +- :ol"es, *3 Bertran!, *+&*E,

+2F&+2.

*+24 )iog. aert. i. %roe". *. 9or other references see Caesar, #i. *E,

*1 5trabo, i#. 1. 1 A"". Marc. I#. )io!. 5ic, #. +F ucan, i. 12

Mela, iii. +.

*+34 5uet. KClau!.K +- Mela, iii. +.

*+F4 Pliny, III. *.

*+4 )'Arbois, Kes )rui!esK, 33.

*E4 )io!. 5ic. #. E*. 1.

*E*4 5ee Cicero, K!e )i#.K i. 1*.

*E+4 )io!. 5ic. #. +F A"". Marc. I#. :i%%olytus, KRefut. :aer.K i.

++.

*EE4 A"". Marc. I#. .

*E14 Caesar, #i. *1.

*E-4 )iog. aert. 2. Celtic enthusiasts see in this tri%le "aIi"

so"ething akin to the ?elsh tria!s, hich they clai" to be )rui!ic

*E24 Bertran!, +F.

*E34 Caesar, #i. *E.

*EF4 KTri%. ifeK, ii. E+-, i. -+, ii. 1+ K6TK i. E3E KRCK II#i.

EE. The title Krig&fileK, king %oet, so"eti"es occurs.

*E4 Caesar, #i. *1.

*14 Caesar, #i. *E 5trabo, i#. 1. 1.

*1*4 5trabo, Iii. -. +.

*1+4 Their ju!icial %oers ere taken fro" the" because their s%eech

ha! beco"e obscure. Perha%s they ga#e their ju!g"ents in archaic

language.

*1E4 )io!. 5ic. #. E*. -.

*114 Caesar, #ii. EE.



*1-4 K6TK i. +*E )'Arbois, #. *F2.

*124 )io, K8rat.K IliI.

*134 KK E.

*1F4 KAncient as of 6relan!K, i. ++.

*14 Caesar, #i. *E, *1 ?in!isch, KTainK, line *3 f. K6TK i. E+-

KArch. Re#.K i. 31 KTri%. ifeK, cf. 8'Curry, KMCK ii. +*.

*-4 Caesar, #i. *1 5trabo, i#. 1. 1.

*-*4 KTri%. ifeK, +F1.

*-+4 ucan, i. 1-*.

*-E4 )io!. #. E*. 1 cf. Caesar, #i. *E, *2 5trabo, i#. 1. -.

*-14 5ee %. +1F, Ksu%raK.

*--4 KRCK Ii#. + Miss :ull, 1, +E, *1* K6TK iii. E+, 1+E 5tokes,

K9elireK, 6ntro. +E.

*-24 oth, i. -2.

*-34 5ee "y art. Ba%tis" >/thnic@ in :astings' K/ncyclo%ae!ia of

Religion an! /thicsK, ii. E23 f.

*-F4 Car"ichael, KCar". Ga!el.K i. **-.

*-4 5ee %. +2, Ksu%raK.

*24 K6TK i. +*-.

*2*4 8'Curry, KM5. Mat.K ++*, 21*.

*2+4 KRCK I#i. E1.

*2E4 Pliny, K:<K I#i. 1- KTri%. ifeK, ii. E+- 5trabo, i#. +3-.

*214 KRCK IIii. +F- 8'Curry, KMCK ii. +*-.

*2-4 Ree#es' e!. of A!a"nan's Kife of 5. Col.K +E3 To!!, K5.

PatrickK, 1-- Joyce, K5:K i. +E1. 9or the relation of the )rui!ic

tonsure to the %eculiar tonsure of the Celtic Church, see Rhy4s, K:K

+*E, KCBKO1 3+ Gougau!, Kes Chretientes CeltiLuesK, *F.



*224 5ee :y!e, Kit. :ist. of 6relan!K, FF Joyce, K5:K i. +E.

*234 Caesar, #i. *1, ii. *.

*2F4 5uetonius, KClau!.K +-.

*24 Pliny K:<K III. * 5uet. KClau!.K +-.

*34 K!e CaesaribusK, 1, fa"osae su%erstitiones cf. %. E+F, KinfraK.

*3*4 Mela, iii. +.

*3+4 Mo""sen, KRo". Gesch.K #. 1.

*3E4 Bloch >a#isse@, K:ist. !e 9ranceK, i. +, *32 f., E* f. )uruy,

Co""ent %erit l'institution )rui!iLue, KRe#. Arch.K I#. E13 !e

Coulanges, Co""ent le )rui!is"e a !is%aru, KRCK i#. 11.

*314 Kes )rui!esK, 3E.

*3-4 KPhars.K i. 1-E, $e )rui!s, after ar"s ere lai! asi!e, sought

once again your barbarous cere"onials.... 6n re"ote forests !o ye

inhabit the !ee% gla!es.

*324 Mela, iii. +.

*334 Tacit. iii. 1E.

*3F4 6bi!. i#. -1.

*34 Ausonius, KProf.K #. *+, Ii. *3.

*F4 <ennius, 1. 6n the 6rish #ersion they are calle! )rui!s. 5ee

%. +EF, Ksu%raK.

*F*4 Pliny, III. *.

*F+4 A!a"nan, Kita 5. Col.K, i. E3. ii. E-, etc. Ree#es' KA!a"nanK,

+13 f. 5tokes, KThree :o"iliesK, +1 f. KAntient as of 6relan!K, i.

*- KRCK I#ii. *1+ f. K6TK i. +E.

*FE4 a"%ri!ius, KAleI. 5e#.K 2 o%iscus, K<u"erienusK, *1,

KAurelianusK, 11.

*F14 ?in!isch, KTainK, E*, ++* cf. Meyer, KContributions to 6rish

eIicog.K *32 Joyce, K5:K i. +EF.

*F-4 K6TK i. -2.



*F24 5olinus, E- Tac. KAnn.K Ii#. E.

*F34 KRCK I#. E+2, I#i. E1, +33 ?in!isch, KTainK, EE*. 6n KK 3-KbK

e hear of three )rui!s an! three )rui!esses.

*FF4 5ee %. 2, Ksu%raK =eating, EE*.

*F4 Jullian, * :ol!er, Ks.#.K Thucolis.

*4 Plutarch, Kir. "ul.K +.

**4 Mela, iii. 2 5trabo, i#. 1. 2.

*+4 Reinach, KRCK I#iii. * f. The fact that the rites ere calle!

)ionysiac is no reason for !enying the fact that so"e orgiastic rites

ere %ractise!. Classical riters usually re%orte! all barbaric rites in

ter"s of their on religion. M. )'Arbois >#i. E+-@ %oints out that Circe

as not a #irgin, an! ha! not eight co"%anions.

C:APT/R QQ6.

MAG6C.

The Celts, like all other races, ere !e#ote! to "agical %ractices, "any

of hich coul! be use! by any one, though, on the hole, they ere in

the han!s of the )rui!s, ho in "any as%ects ere little higher than thesha"ans of barbaric tribes. But si"ilar "agical rites ere also

attribute! to the go!s, an! it is %robably for this reason that the

Tuatha )e )anann an! "any of the !i#inities ho a%%ear in the

KMabinogionK are !escribe! as "agicians. =ings are also s%oken of as

iHar!s, %erha%s a re"iniscence of the %oers of the %riest king. But

since "any of the %ri"iti#e cults ha! been in the han!s of o"en, an! as

these cults i"%lie! a large use of "agic, they "ay ha#e been the

earliest iel!ers of "agic, though, ith increasing ci#ilisation, "en

took their %lace as "agicians. 5till si!e by si!e ith the

"agic&iel!ing )rui!s, there ere classes of o"en ho also !ealt in

"agic, as e ha#e seen. Their %oers ere feare!, e#en by 5. Patrick,ho classes the s%ells of o"en along ith those of )rui!s, an!, in a

"ythic tale, by the father of Connla, ho, hen the youth as fascinate!

by a go!!ess, feare! that he oul! be taken by the s%ells of o"en

>Kbrichta banK@.*E4 6n other tales o"en %erfor" all such "agical

actions as are elsehere ascribe! to )rui!s.*14 An! after the )rui!s

ha! %asse! aay %recisely si"ilar actions&&%oer o#er the eather, the

use of incantations an! a"ulets, sha%e&shifting an! in#isibility,

etc.&&ere, an! still are in re"ote Celtic regions, ascribe! to itches.



Much of the )rui!ic art, hoe#er, as also su%%ose! to be %ossesse! by

saints an! clerics, both in the %ast an! in recent ti"es. But o"en

re"aine! as "agicians hen the )rui!s ha! !isa%%eare!, %artly because of

fe"ale conser#atis", %artly because, e#en in %agan ti"es, they ha!

orke! "ore or less secretly. At last the Church %roscribe! the" an!

%ersecute! the".

/ach clan, tribe, or king!o" ha! its )rui!s, ho, in ti"e of ar,

assiste! their hosts by "agic art. This is reflecte! back u%on the

grou%s of the "ythological cycle, each of hich has its )rui!s ho %lay

no s"all %art in the battles fought. Though Pliny recognises the

%riestly functions of the )rui!s, he associates the" largely ith "agic,

an! a%%lies the na"e K"agusK to the".*-4 6n 6rish ecclesiastical

literature, K!ruiK is use! as the translation of K"agusK, e.g. in the

case of the /gy%tian "agicians, hile K"agiK is use! in atin li#es of

saints as the eLui#alent of the #ernacular K!rui!esK.*24 6n the sagas

an! in %o%ular tales K)rui!echtK, )rui!is", stan!s for "agic, an!

Kslat an !raoichtaK, ro! of )rui!is", is a "agic an!.*34 The

Tuatha )e )anann ere sai! to ha#e learne! )rui!is" fro" the fourgreat "aster )rui!s of the region hence they ha! co"e to 6relan!, an!

e#en no, in %o%ular tales, they are often calle! )rui!s or )anann

)rui!s.*F4 Thus in 6relan! at least there is clear e#i!ence of the

great "agical %oer clai"e! by )rui!s.

That %oer as eIercise! to a great eItent o#er the ele"ents, so"e of

hich )rui!s clai"e! to ha#e create!. Thus the )rui! Cathba! co#ere! the

%lain o#er hich )eir!re as esca%ing ith a great&a#e! sea.*4

)rui!s also %ro!uce! blin!ing sno&stor"s, or change! !ay into

night&&feats ascribe! to the" e#en in the i#es of 5aints.**4 8r they

!ischarge shoer&clou!s of fire on the o%%osing hosts, as in the caseof the )rui! Mag Ruith, ho "a!e a "agic fire, an! flying u%ar!s

toar!s it, turne! it u%on the ene"y, hose )rui! in #ain trie! to

!i#ert it.***4 ?hen the )rui!s of Cor"ac !rie! u% all the aters in

the lan!, another )rui! shot an arro, an! here it fell there issue! a

torrent of ater.**+4 The )rui! Mathgen boaste! of being able to thro

"ountains on the ene"y, an! freLuently )rui!s "a!e trees or stones

a%%ear as ar"e! "en, !is"aying the o%%osing host in this ay. They coul!

also fill the air ith the clash of battle, or ith the !rea! cries of

el!ritch things.**E4 5i"ilar %oers are ascribe! to other %ersons. The

!aughters of Calatin raise! the"sel#es aloft on an enchante! in!, an!

!isco#ere! Cuchulainn hen he as hi!!en aay by Cathba!. ater they%ro!uce! a "agic "ist to !isco"fit the hero.**14 5uch "ists occur

freLuently in the sagas, an! in one of the" the Tuatha )e )anann arri#e!

in 6relan!. The %riestesses of 5ena coul! rouse sea an! in! by their

enchant"ents, an!, later, Celtic itches ha#e clai"e! the sa"e %oer.

6n folk&sur#i#als the %ractice of rain&"aking is connecte! ith sacre!

s%rings, an! e#en no in rural 9rance %rocessions to shrines, usually

connecte! ith a holy ell, are co""on in ti"e of !rought. Thus %eo%le



an! %riest go to the fountain of Baranton in %rocession, singing hy"ns,

an! there %ray for rain. The %riest then !i%s his foot in the ater, or

thros so"e of it on the rocks.**-4 6n other cases the i"age of a

saint is carrie! to a ell an! as%erge!, as !i#ine i"ages for"erly ere,

or the aters are beaten or thron into the air.**24 Another custo"

as that a #irgin shoul! clean out a sacre! ell, an! for"erly she ha!

to be nu!e.**34 <u!ity also for"s %art of an ol! ritual use! in Gaul.

6n ti"e of !rought the girls of the #illage folloe! the youngest #irgin

in a state of nu!ity to seek the herb KbelinuntiaK. This she u%roote!,

an! as then le! to a ri#er an! there as%erge! by the others. 6n this

case the as%erging i"itate! the falling rain, an! as "eant to %ro!uce

it auto"atically. ?hile so"e of these rites suggest the use of "agic by

the folk the"sel#es, in others the %resence of the Christian %riest

%oints to the fact that, for"erly, a )rui! as necessary as the rain

%ro!ucer. 6n so"e cases the %riest has inherite! through long ages the

rain&"aking or te"%est&Luelling %oers of the %agan %riesthoo!, an! is

often besought to eIercise the".**F4

Causing in#isibility by "eans of a s%ell calle! Kfeth fia!aK, hich "a!ea %erson unseen or hi! hi" in a "agic "ist, as also use! by the )rui!s

as ell as by Christian saints. 5. Patrick's hy"n, calle! K9ae! 9ia!aK,

as sung by hi" hen his ene"ies lay in ait, an! cause! a gla"our in

the". The incantation itself, Kfith&fathK, is still re"e"bere! in

:ighlan! glens.**4 6n the case of 5. Patrick he an! his folloers

a%%eare! as !eer, an! this %oer of sha%e&shifting as iel!e! both by

)rui!s an! o"en. The )rui! 9er 9i!ail carrie! off a "ai!en by taking

the for" of a o"an, an! another )rui! !ecei#e! Cuchulainn by taking the

for" of the fair <ia"h.***4 8ther )rui!s are sai! to ha#e been able to

take any sha%e that %lease! the".****4 These %oers ere reflecte! back

u%on the go!s an! "ythical %ersonages like Taliesin or A"airgen, hoa%%ear in "any for"s. The %riestesses of 5ena coul! assu"e the for" of

ani"als, an! an 6rish Circe in the KRennes )in!senchasK calle! )alb the

Rough change! three "en an! their i#es into sine by her s%ells.***+4

This %oer of transfor"ing others is often !escribe! in the sagas. The

chil!ren of ir ere change! to sans by their cruel ste%"other 5aar,

the "other of 8isin, beca"e a fan through the %oer of the )rui! 9ear

)oirche hen she rejecte! his lo#e an! si"ilarly Tuirrenn, "other of

8isin's houn!s, as transfor"e! into a stag&houn! by the fairy "istress

of her husban! 6ollann.***E4 6n other instances in the sagas, o"en

a%%ear as bir!s.***14 These transfor"ation tales "ay be connecte! ith

tote"is", for hen this institution is !ecaying the current belief insha%e&shifting is often "a!e use of to eI%lain !escent fro" ani"als or

the tabu against eating certain ani"als. 6n so"e of these 6rish

sha%e&shifting tales e fin! this tabu referre! to. Thus, hen the

chil!ren of ir ere turne! into sans, it as %roclai"e! that no one

shoul! kill a san. The reason of an eIisting tabu see"e! to be

sufficiently eI%laine! hen it as tol! that certain hu"an beings ha!

beco"e sans. 6t is not i"%ossible that the )rui!s "a!e use of hy%notic

suggestion to %ersua!e others that they ha! assu"e! another for", as Re!



6n!ian sha"ans ha#e been knon to !o, or e#en hallucinate! others into

the belief that their on for" ha! been change!.

By a !rink of obli#ion )rui!s an! other %ersons coul! "ake one forget

e#en the "ost !early belo#e!. Thus Cuchulainn as "a!e to forget 9an!,

an! his ife /"er to forget her jealousy.***-4 This is a re"iniscence

of %otent !rinks bree! fro" herbs hich cause! hallucinations, e.g.

that of the change of sha%e. 6n other cases they ere of a narcotic

nature an! cause! a !ee% slee%, an instance being the !raught gi#en by

Grainne to 9ionn an! his "en.***24 Again, the )rui!ic slee% is

suggesti#e of hy%notis", %ractise! in !istant ages an! also by

%resent&!ay sa#ages. ?hen Bo!b sus%ecte! his !aughter of lying he cast

her into a )rui!ic slee%, in hich she re#eale! her icke!ness.***34

6n other cases s%ells are cast u%on %ersons so that they are

hallucinate!, or are ren!ere! "otionless, or, by the sleight of han! of

soothsayers, "ai!ens lose their chastity ithout knoing it.***F4

These %oint to knole!ge of hy%notic "etho!s of suggestion. 8r, again, a

s%ectral ar"y is o%%ose! to an ene"y's force to ho" it is an

hallucinatory a%%earance&&%erha%s an eIaggeration of natural hy%notic%oers.***4

)rui!s also "a!e a he!ge, the Kairbe !rua!K, roun! an ar"y, %erha%s

circu"a"bulating it an! saying s%ells so that the attacking force "ight

not break through. 6f any one coul! lea% this he!ge, the s%ell as

broken, but he lost his life. This as !one at the battle of Cul )re"ne,

at hich 5. Colu"ba as %resent an! ai!e! the heroic lea%er ith his

%rayers.**+4

A %ri"iti#e %iece of sy"%athetic "agic use! still by sa#ages is recor!e!

in the KRennes )in!senchasK. 6n this story one "an says s%ells o#er hiss%ear an! hurls it into his o%%onent's sha!o, so that he falls

!ea!.**+*4 /Lually %ri"iti#e is the )rui!ic sen!ing a is% of stra

o#er hich the )rui! sang s%ells an! flung it into his #icti"'s face, so

that he beca"e "a!. A si"ilar "etho! is use! by the /ski"o KangekokK.

All "a!ness as generally ascribe! to such a sen!ing.

5e#eral of these instances ha#e shon the use of s%ells, an! the )rui!

as belie#e! to %ossess %oerful incantations to !isco"fit an ene"y or

to %ro!uce other "agical results. A s%ecial %osture as

a!o%te!&&stan!ing on one leg, ith one ar" outstretche! an! one eye

close!, %erha%s to concentrate the force of the s%ell,**++4 but the%oer lay "ainly in the s%oken or!s, as e ha#e seen in !iscussing

Celtic for"ulae of %rayer. 5uch s%ells ere also use! by the K9ili!K, or

%oets, since "ost %ri"iti#e %oetry has a "agical as%ect. Part of the

training of the bar! consiste! in learning tra!itional incantations,

hich, use! ith !ue ritual, %ro!uce! the "agic result.**+E4 5o"e of

these incantations ha#e alrea!y co"e before our notice, an! %robably

so"e of the #erses hich Caesar says the )rui!s oul! not co""it to

riting ere of the nature of s%ells.**+14 The #irtue of the s%ell lay



in the s%oken for"ula, usually intro!ucing the na"e of a go! or s%irit,

later a saint, in or!er to %rocure his inter#ention, through the %oer

inherent in the na"e. 8ther char"s recount an effect alrea!y %ro!uce!,

an! this, through "i"etic "agic, is su%%ose! to cause its re%etition.

The earliest ritten !ocu"ents bearing u%on the %aganis" of the insular

Celts contain an a%%eal to the science of Goibniu to %reser#e butter,

an! another, for "agical healing, runs, 6 a!"ire the healing hich

)iancecht left in his fa"ily, in or!er to bring health to those he

succoure!. These are foun! in an eighth or ninth century M5., an!, ith

their a%%eal to %agan go!s, ere e#i!ently use! in Christian

ti"es.**+-4 Most )rui!ic "agic as acco"%anie! by a s%ell&&

transfor"ation, in#isibility, %oer o#er the ele"ents, an! the !isco#ery

of hi!!en %ersons or things. 6n other cases s%ells ere use! in "e!icine

or for healing oun!s. Thus the Tuatha )e )anann tol! the 9o"orians that

they nee! not o%%ose the", because their )rui!s oul! restore the slain

to life, an! hen Cuchulainn as oun!e! e hear less of "e!icines than

of incantations use! to stanch his bloo!.**+24 6n other cases the )rui!

coul! re"o#e barrenness by s%ells.

The sur#i#al of the belief in s%ells a"ong "o!ern Celtic %eo%les is a

con#incing %roof of their use in %agan ti"es, an! thros light u%on

their nature. 6n Brittany they are han!e! !on in certain fa"ilies, an!

are carefully guar!e! fro" the knole!ge of others. The na"es of saints

instea! of the ol! go!s are foun! in the", but in so"e cases !iseases

are a!!resse! as %ersonal beings. 6n the :ighlan!s si"ilar char"s are

foun!, an! are often han!e! !on fro" "ale to fe"ale, an! fro" fe"ale to

"ale. They are also in co""on use in 6relan!. Besi!es healing !iseases,

such char"s are su%%ose! to cause fertility or bring goo! luck, or e#en

to transfer the %ro%erty of others to the reciter, or, in the case of

!arker "agic, to cause !eath or !isease.**+34 6n 6relan!, sorcererscoul! ri"e either a "an or beast to !eath, an! this recalls the %oer

of satire in the "outh of K9ileK or )rui!. 6t raise! blotches on the

face of the #icti", or e#en cause! his !eath.**+F4 A"ong %ri"iti#e

races %oerful internal e"otion affects the bo!y in curious ays, an! in

this tra!itional %oer of the satire or ri"e e ha#e %robably an

eIaggerate! reference to actual fact. 6n other cases the curse of

satire affecte! nature, causing seas an! ri#ers to sink back.**+4 The

satires "a!e by the bar!s of Gaul, referre! to by )io!orus, "ay ha#e

been belie#e! to %ossess si"ilar %oers.**E4 Contrariise, the

K9ili!K, on uttering an unjust ju!g"ent, foun! their faces co#ere! ith

blotches.**E*4

A "agical slee% is often cause! by "usic in the sagas, e.g. by the har%

of )ag!a, or by the branch carrie! by #isitants fro" /lysiu".**E+4 Many

fairy lullabies for %ro!ucing slee% are e#en no eItant in 6relan! an!

the :ighlan!s.**EE4 As "usic for"s a %art of all %ri"iti#e religion,

its soothing %oers oul! easily be "agnifie!. 6n orgiastic rites it

cause! #arying e"otions until the singer an! !ancer fell into a !ee%

slu"ber, an! the tales of those ho joine! in a fairy !ance an! fell



aslee%, aaking to fin! that "any years ha! %asse!, are "ythic

eItensions of the %oer of "usic in such orgiastic cults. The "usic of

the K9ili!K ha! si"ilar %oers to that of )ag!a's har%, %ro!ucing

laughter, tears, an! a !elicious slu"ber,**E14 an! Celtic folk&tales

aboun! in si"ilar instances of the "agic char" of "usic.

?e no turn to the use of a"ulets a"ong the Celts. 5o"e of these ere

sy"bolic an! inten!e! to bring the earer un!er the %rotection of the

go! ho" they sy"bolise!. As has been seen, a Celtic go! ha! as his

sy"bol a heel, %robably re%resenting the sun, an! nu"erous s"all heel

!iscs "a!e of !ifferent "aterials ha#e been foun! in Gaul an!

Britain.**E-4 These ere e#i!ently orn as a"ulets, hile in other

cases they ere offere! to ri#er !i#inities, since "any are "et ith in

ri#er be!s or for!s. Their use as %rotecti#e a"ulets is shon by a stele

re%resenting a %erson earing a necklace to hich is attache! one of

these heels. 6n 6rish teIts a )rui! is calle! Mag Ruith, eI%laine! as

K"agus rotaru"K, because he "a!e his )rui!ical obser#ations by

heels.**E24 This "ay %oint to the use of such a"ulets in 6relan!. A

curious a"ulet, connecte! ith the )rui!s, beca"e fa"ous in Ro"an ti"esan! is !escribe! by Pliny. This as the ser%ents' egg, for"e! fro" the

foa" %ro!uce! by ser%ents tining the"sel#es together. The ser%ents

thre the egg into the air, an! he ho sought it ha! to catch it in

his cloak before it fell, an! flee to a running strea", beyon! hich the

ser%ents, like the itches %ursuing Ta" o' 5hanter, coul! not follo

hi". This egg as belie#e! to cause its oner to obtain access to

kings or to gain lasuits, an! a Ro"an citiHen as %ut to !eath in the

reign of Clau!ius for bringing such an a"ulet into court. Pliny ha! seen

this egg. 6t as about the siHe of an a%%le, ith a cartilaginous skin

co#ere! ith !iscs.**E34 Probably it as a fossil echinus, such as has

been foun! in Gaulish to"bs.**EF4 5uch eggs ere !oubtless connecte!ith the cult of the ser%ent, or so"e ol! "yth of an egg %ro!uce! by

ser%ents "ay ha#e been "a!e use of to account for their for"ation. This

is the "ore likely, as rings or bea!s of glass foun! in tu"uli in ?ales,

Cornall, an! the :ighlan!s are calle! ser%ents' glass >Kglain

nai!rK@, an! are belie#e! to be for"e! in the sa"e ay as the egg.

These, as ell as ol! s%in!le&horls calle! a!!er stones in the

:ighlan!s, are hel! to ha#e "agical #irtues, e.g. against the bite of a

ser%ent, an! are highly %riHe! by their oners.**E4

Pliny s%eaks also of the Celtic belief in the "agical #irtues of coral,

either orn as an a"ulet or taken in %o!er as a "e!icine, hile it hasbeen %ro#e! that the Celts !uring a li"ite! %erio! of their history

%lace! it on ea%ons an! utensils, !oubtless as an a"ulet.**14 8ther

a"ulets&&hite "arble balls, LuartH %ebbles, "o!els of the tooth of the

boar, or %ieces of a"ber, ha#e been foun! burie! ith the !ea!.**1*4

ittle figures of the boar, the horse, an! the bull, ith a ring for

sus%en!ing the" to a necklet, ere orn as a"ulets or i"ages of these

!i#ine ani"als, an! %hallic a"ulets ere also orn, %erha%s as a

%rotection against the e#il eye.**1+4



A cult of stones as %robably connecte! ith the belief in the "agical

%oer of certain stones, like the Kia 9ailK, hich shrieke! alou! hen

Conn knocke! against it. :is )rui!s eI%laine! that the nu"ber of the

shrieks eLualle! the nu"ber of his !escen!ants ho shoul! be kings of

/rin.**1E4 This is an aetiological "yth accounting for the use of this

fetich&stone at coronations. 8ther stones, %robably the object of a cult

or %ossessing "agical #irtues, ere use! at the installation of chiefs,

ho stoo! on the" an! #oe! to follo in the ste%s of their

%re!ecessors, a %air of feet being car#e! on the stone to re%resent

those of the first chief.**114 8ther stones ha! "ore "usical

#irtues&&the cons%icuous stone of /lysiu" fro" hich arose a hun!re!

strains, an! the "elo!ious stone of och aig. 5uch beliefs eIiste! into

Christian ti"es. 5. Colu"ba's stone altar floate! on the a#es, an! on

it a le%er ha! crosse! in the ake of the saint's coracle to /rin. But

the sa"e stone as that on hich, long before, the hero 9ionn ha!

sli%%e!.**1-4

Connecte! ith the cult of stones are "agical obser#ances at fiIe! rocksor boul!ers, regar!e! %robably as the abo!e of a s%irit. These

obser#ances are in origin %re&Celtic, but ere %ractise! by the Celts.

Girls sli!e !on a stone to obtain a lo#er, %regnant o"en to obtain an

easy !eli#ery, or contact ith such stones causes barren o"en to ha#e

chil!ren or gi#es #itality to the feeble. A s"all offering is usually

left on the stone.**124 5i"ilar rites are %ractise! at "egalithic

"onu"ents, an! here again the custo" is ob#iously %re&Celtic in origin.

6n this case the s%irits of the !ea! "ust ha#e been eI%ecte! to assist

the %ur%oses of the rites, or e#en to incarnate the"sel#es in the

chil!ren born as a result of barren o"en resorting to these

stones.**134 5o"eti"es hen the %ur%ose of the stones has beenforgotten an! so"e other legen!ary origin attribute! to the", the custo"

a!a%ts itself to the legen!. 6n 6relan! "any !ol"ens are knon, not as

%laces of se%ulture, but as )iar"ai! an! Grainne's be!s&&the %laces

here these elo%ing lo#ers sle%t. :ence they ha#e %oers of fruitfulness

an! are #isite! by o"en ho !esire chil!ren. The rite is thus one of

sy"%athetic "agic.

:ole! !ol"ens or naturally %ierce! blocks are use! for the "agical cure

of sickness both in Brittany an! Cornall, the %atient being %asse!

through the hole.**1F4 5i"ilar rites are use! ith trees, a slit being

often "a!e in the trunk of a sa%ling, an! a sickly chil! %asse! throughit. The slit is then close! an! boun!, an! if it joins together at the

en! of a certain ti"e, this is a %roof that the chil! ill

reco#er.**14 6n these rites the s%irit in stone or tree as su%%ose!

to assist the %rocess of healing, or the !isease as transferre! to

the", or, again, there as the i!ea of a ne birth ith conseLuent

renee! life, the act i"itating the %rocess of birth. These rites are

not confine! to Celtic regions, but belong to that uni#ersal use of

"agic in hich the Celts freely %artici%ate!.



5ince Christian riters fir"ly belie#e! in the "agical %oers of the

)rui!s, ai!e! hoe#er by the !e#il, they taught that Christian saints

ha! "iraculously o#erco"e the" ith their on ea%ons. 5. Patrick

!is%elle! sno&stor"s an! !arkness raise! by )rui!s, or !estroye! )rui!s

ho ha! brought !on fire fro" hea#en. 5i"ilar !ee!s are attribute! to

5. Colu"ba an! others.**-4 The "oral #ictory of the Cross as later

regar!e! also as a "agical #ictory. :ence also li#es of Celtic saints

are full of "iracles hich are si"%ly a re%ro!uction of )rui!ic

"agic&&controlling the ele"ents, healing, carrying li#e coals ithout

hurt, causing confusion by their curses, %ro!ucing in#isibility or

sha%e&shifting, "aking the ice&col! aters of a ri#er hot by stan!ing in

the" at their !e#otions, or alking unscathe! through the fiercest

stor"s.**-*4 They ere soon regar!e! as "ore eI%ert "agicians than the

)rui!s the"sel#es. They "ay ha#e lai! clai" to "agical %oers, or

%erha%s they use! a natural shre!ness in such a ay as to suggest

"agic. But all their %oer they ascribe! to Christ. Christ is "y

)rui!&&the true "iracle&orker, sai! 5. Colu"ba. $et they ere i"bue!

ith the su%erstitions of their on age. Thus 5. Colu"ba sent a hitestone to =ing Bru!e at 6n#erness for the cure of his )rui! Broichan, ho

!rank the ater %oure! o#er it, an! as heale!.**-+4 5oon si"ilar

#irtues ere ascribe! to the relics of the saints the"sel#es, an! at a

later ti"e, hen "ost 5cots"en cease! to belie#e in the saints, they

thought that the "inisters of the kirk ha! %oers like those of %agan

)rui! an! Catholic saint. Ministers ere le#itate!, or shone ith a

celestial light, or ha! clair#oyant gifts, or, ith !ire results, curse!

the ungo!ly or the benighte! %relatist. They %ro%hesie!, use!

trance&utterance, an! eIercise! gifts of healing. Angels "inistere! to

the", as hen 5a"uel Rutherfor!, ha#ing fallen into a ell hen a chil!,

as %ulle! out by an angel.**-E4 The substratu" of %ri"iti#e beliefsur#i#es all changes of cree!, an! the folk i"%artially attribute!

"agical %oers to %agan )rui!, Celtic saints, ol! crones an! itches,

an! Presbyterian "inisters.

988T<8T/5(

*E4 K6TK i. -2 )'Arbois, #. EF3.

*14 5ee, e.g., The )eath of Muirchertach, KRCK IIiii. E1.

*-4 K:<K III. 1, *E.

*24 i""er, KGloss. :ibern.K *FE Ree#es, KA!a"nanK, +2.

*34 =enne!y, *3- cf. K6TK i. ++.

*F4 5ee KRCK Iii. -+ f. )'Arbois, #. 1E&11 8'Curry, KM5. Mat.K

-- =enne!y, 3-, *2, +-F.



*4 )'Arbois, #. +33.

**4 5tokes, KThree Mi!!le 6rish :o"iliesK, +1 K6TK iii. E+-.

***4 KRCK Iii. FE Miss :ull, +*- )'Arbois, #. 1+1 8'Curry, KMCK ii.

+*-.

**+4 =eating, E1* 8'Curry, KM5. Mat.K +3*.

**E4 KRCK Iii. F*.

**14 Miss :ull, +1 f.

**-4 Maury, *1.

**24 5ebillot, ii. ++2 f., i. **, ii. ++- Berenger&9erau!,

K5u%erstitions et 5ur#i#ancesK, iii. *2 f. K5tat. AccountK, #iii. -+.

**34 KRe#. !es Tra!.K *FE, 2*E 5ebillot, ii. ++1.

**F4 Berenger&9erau!, iii. +*F f. 5ebillot, i. *, * KRCK ii.

1F1 9raHer, KGol!en BoughKO+, i. 23.

**4 )'Arbois, #. EF3 K6TK i. -+ )iIon, KGairlochK, *2- Car"ichael,

KCar". Ga!.K ii. +-.

***4 KRCK I#i. *-+ Miss :ull, +1E.

****4 )'Arbois, #. *EE K6TK ii. E3E.

***+4 Mela, iii. 2 KRCK I#. 13*.

***E4 Joyce, K8CRK * f. =enne!y, +E-.

***14 Bir!&o"en %ursue! by Cuchulainn )'Arbois, #. *3F for other

instances see 8'Curry, KM5. Mat.K 1+2 Miss :ull, F+.

***-4 )'Arbois, #. +*-.

***24 Joyce, K8CRK +3.

***34 6bi!. F2.

***F4 KRCK IIiii. E1 Jocelyn, Kita 5. =ent.K c. *.

***4 KRCK I#. 112.

**+4 8'Conor, KRer. :ib. 5cri%.K ii. *1+ 5tokes, Ki#es of 5aintsK,

II#iii.



**+*4 KRCK I#. 111.

**++4 5ee %. +-*, Ksu%raK.

**+E4 8'Curry, KM5. Mat.K +1.

**+14 5ee %%. +1F, E1, Ksu%raK Caesar, K#iK. *1.

**+-4 i""er, KGloss. :iber.K +3*. 8ther 6rish incantations, a%%ealing

to the saints, are foun! in the KCo!eI Regularu"K at =losternenburg

>KRCK ii. **+@.

**+24 eahy, i. *E3 =enne!y, E*.

**+34 5au#e, KRCK #i. 23 f. Car"ichael, KCar". Ga!el.K, K%assi"K KCMK

Iii. EF Joyce, K5:K i. 2+ f. Ca"!en, KBritanniaK, i#. 1FF 5cot,

K)isco#ery of ?itchcraftK, iii. *-.

**+F4 9or eIa"%les see 8'Curry, KM5. Met.K +1F )'Arbois, ii. * KRCK

Iii. 3*, IIi#. +3 5tokes, KT6GK III#i. f.

**+4 ?in!isch, KTainK, line E123.

**E4 )io!. 5ic. #. E*.

**E*4 )'Arbois, i. +3*.

**E+4 KRCK Iii. * <utt&Meyer, i. + )'Arbois, #. 11-.

**EE4 Petrie, KAncient Music of 6relan!K, i. 3E KThe GaelK, i. +E-

>fairy lullaby of Maceo! of Maceo!@.

**E14 8'Curry, KM5. Mat.K +--.

**E-4 KArchaeologiaK, IIIiI. - KProc. 5oc. Ant.K iii. + Gai!oH, Ke

)ieu Gaul. !u 5oleilK, 2 f.

**E24 K6TK iii. 1 but see Rhy4s, K:K +*-.

**E34 Pliny, K:<K IIiI. E. -1.

**EF4 KRe#. Arch.K i. ++3, IIIiii. +FE.

**E4 :oare, KMo!ern ?iltshireK, -2 Ca"!en, KBritanniaK, F*- :aHlitt,

*1 Ca"%bell, K?itchcraftK, F1. 6n the :ighlan!s s%in!le&horls are

thought to ha#e been %erforate! by the a!!er, hich then %asses through

the hole to ri! itself of its ol! skin.



**14 Pliny, IIIii. +. +1 Reinach, KRCK II. *E f.

**1*4 KRe#. Arch.K i. ++3 Greenell, KBritish BarrosK, *2- /lton,

22 Renel, -f., *1f.

**1+4 Reinach, KB9K +F2, +F, E2+.

**1E4 8'Curry, KM5 Mat.K EF3. 5ee a %a%er by :artlan!, The oice of

the 5tone of )estiny, K9olk&lore JournalK, Ii#. *E.

**114 Petrie, KTrans. Royal 6rish Aca!.K I#iii. %t. +.

**1-4 8'Curry, KM5. Mat.K EE f.

**124 5ebillot, i. EE1 f.

**134 Trollo%e, KBrittanyK, ii. ++ Berenger&9erau!, K5u%erstitions et

5ur#i#ancesK, i. -+ f. Borlase, K)ol"ens of 6relan!K, iii. -F, 2F,

F1* f.

**1F4 KRe#. !es Tra!.K *F1, 11 Berenger&9erau!, i. -+, ii. E23

/lorthy, K/#il /yeK, 3.

**14 Berenger&9erau!, i. -+E /lorthy, 2, *2 Reinach,

K'Anthro%ologieK, i#. EE.

**-4 =enne!y, E+1 A!a"nan, Kita 5. Col.K ii. E-.

**-*4 ife of 5. 9echin of 9ore, KRCK Iii. EEE ife of 5. =ieran,

8'Gra!y, ii. *E A"ra Cholu"bchille, KRCK II. 1* ife of 5. Moling,KRCK II#ii. +E an! other li#es K%assi"K. 5ee also Plu""er, Kitae

5anctoru" :iberniaeK.

**-+4 A!a"nan, ii. E1. This %ebble as long %reser#e!, but "ysteriously

!isa%%eare! hen the %erson ho sought it as !oo"e! to !ie.

**-E4 ?o!ro, KAnalectaK, K%assi"K ?alker, K5iI 5aints of the

Co#enantK, e!. by )r. :ay 9le"ing.

C:APT/R QQ66.

T:/ 5TAT/ 89 T:/ )/A).

A"ong all the %roble"s ith hich "an has busie! hi"self, none so

a%%eals to his ho%es an! fears as that of the future life. 6s there a



"ore taught trans"igration than !oes the Christian !octrine of the

resurrection. Ro"an riters, aare that Pythagoras taught i""ortality

K#iaK a series of trans"igrations, an! that the )rui!s taught a !octrine

of bo!ily i""ortality, "ay ha#e thought that the recei#ing of a ne bo!y

"eant trans"igration. The"sel#es sce%tical of a future life or belie#ing

in a tra!itional gloo"y :a!es, they ere boun! to be struck ith the

#igour of the Celtic !octrine an! its effects u%on con!uct. The only

thing like it of hich they kne as the Pythagorean !octrine. ooke! at

in this light, Caesar's or!s nee! not con#ey the i!ea of trans"igration,

an! it is %ossible that he "istranslate! so"e Greek original. :a! these

riters "eant that the )rui!s taught trans"igration, they coul! har!ly

ha#e a!!e! the %assages regar!ing !ebts being %ai! in the other orl!,

or letters con#eye! there by the !ea!, or hu"an sacrifices to benefit

the !ea! there. These also %reclu!e the i!ea of a "ere i""ortality of

the soul. The !ea! Celt continue! to be the %erson he ha! been, an! it

"ay ha#e been that not a ne bo!y, but the ol! bo!y glorifie!, as

tenante! by his soul beyon! the gra#e. This bo!ily i""ortality in a

region here life ent on as on this earth, but un!er ha%%ier

con!itions, oul! then be like the e!ic teaching that the soul, afterthe burning of the bo!y, ent to the hea#en of $a"a, an! there recei#e!

its bo!y co"%lete an! glorifie!. The to conce%tions, :in!u an! Celtic,

"ay ha#e s%rung fro" early Aryan belief.

This Celtic !octrine a%%ears "ore clearly fro" hat ucan says of the

)rui!ic teaching. 9ro" you e learn that the bourne of "an's eIistence

is not the silent halls of /rebus, in another orl! >or region, Kin orbe

alioK@ the s%irit ani"ates the "e"bers. )eath, if your lore be true, is

but the centre of a long life. 9or this reason, he a!!s, the Celtic

arrior ha! no fear of !eath.**-F4 Thus ucan concei#e! the )rui!ic

!octrine to be one of bo!ily i""ortality in another region. That regionas not a gloo"y state rather it rese"ble! the /gy%tian Aalu ith its

rich an! #arie! eIistence. Classical riters, of course, "ay ha#e knon

of hat a%%ears to ha#e been a s%ora!ic Celtic i!ea, !eri#e! fro" ol!

beliefs, that the soul "ight take the for" of an ani"al, but this as

not the )rui!ic teaching. Again, if the Gauls, like the 6rish, ha! "yths

telling of the rebirth of go!s or se"i&!i#ine beings, these "ay ha#e

been "isinter%rete! by those riters an! regar!e! as eschatological. But

such "yths !o not concern "ortals. 8ther riters, Ti"agenes, 5trabo, an!

Mela,**-4 s%eak only of the i""ortality of the soul, but their

testi"ony is %robably not at #ariance ith that of ucan, since Mela

a%%ears to co%y Caesar, an! s%eaks of accounts an! !ebts being %asse! onto the neIt orl!.

This theory of a bo!ily i""ortality is su%%orte! by the 6rish sagas, in

hich ghosts, in our sense of the or!, !o not eIist. The !ea! ho

return are not s%ectres, but are fully clothe! u%on ith a bo!y. Thus,

hen Cuchulainn returns at the co""an! of 5. Patrick, he is !escribe!

eIactly as if he ere still in the flesh. :is hair as thick an! black

... in his hea! his eye glea"e! sift an! grey.... Blacker than the si!e



of a cooking s%it each of his to bros, re!!er than ruby his li%s. :is

clothes an! ea%ons are fully !escribe!, hile his chariot an! horses

are eLually cor%oreal.**24 5i"ilar !escri%tions of the !ea! ho return

are not infreLuent, e.g. that of Caoilte in the story of Mongan, ho"

e#ery one belie#es to be a li#ing arrior, an! that of 9ergus "ac Roich,

ho rea%%eare! in a beautiful for", a!orne! ith bron hair an! cla! in

his for"er s%len!our, an! recite! the lost story of the KTainK.**2*4

Thus the 6rish Celts belie#e! that in another orl! the s%irit ani"ate!

the "e"bers. This bo!ily eIistence is also suggeste! in Celtic #ersions

of the )ea! )ebtor folk&tale cycle. Generally an ani"al in hose sha%e

a !ea! "an hel%s his benefactor is foun! in other /uro%ean #ersions, but

in the Celtic stories not an ani"al but the !ea! "an hi"self a%%ears as

a li#ing %erson in cor%oreal for".**2+4 /Lually substantial an!

cor%oreal, eating, !rinking, lo#e"aking, an! fighting are the !i#ine

folk of the Ksi!K or of /lysiu", or the go!s as they are re%resente! in

the teIts. To the Celts, go!s, Ksi!eK, an! the !ea!, all alike ha! a

bo!ily for", hich, hoe#er, "ight beco"e in#isible, an! in other ays

!iffere! fro" the earthly bo!y.

The archaeological e#i!ence of burial custo"s a"ong the Celts also bears

itness to this belief. 8#er the hole Celtic area a rich %rofusion of

gra#e&goo!s has been foun!, consisting of ea%ons, ar"our, chariots,

utensils, orna"ents, an! coins.**2E4 5o"e of the inter"ents un!oubte!ly

%oint to sacrifice of ife, chil!ren, or sla#es at the gra#e. Male an!

fe"ale skeletons are often in close %roIi"ity, in one case the ar" of

the "ale encircling the neck of the fe"ale. 6n other cases the re"ains

of chil!ren are foun! ith these. 8r hile the loer inter"ent is richly

%ro#i!e! ith gra#e&goo!s, abo#e it lie irregularly se#eral skeletons,

ithout gra#e&goo!s, an! often ith hea! se%arate! fro" the bo!y,

%ointing to !eca%itation, hile in one case the ar"s ha! been tie!behin! the back.**214 All this suggests, taken in connection ith

classical e#i!ence regar!ing burial custo"s, that the future life as

life in the bo!y, an! that it as a Kre%licaK of this life, ith the

sa"e affections, nee!s, an! energies. Certain %assages in 6rish teIts

also !escribe burials, an! tell ho the !ea! ere interre! ith

orna"ents an! ea%ons, hile it as a co""on custo" to bury the !ea!

arrior in his ar"our, fully ar"e!, an! facing the region hence ene"ies

"ight be eI%ecte!. Thus he as a %er%etual "enace to the" an! %re#ente!

their attack.**2-4 Possibly this belief "ay account for the ele#ate!

%osition of "any tu"uli. Ani"als ere also sacrifice!. :ostages ere

burie! ali#e ith 9iachra, accor!ing to one teIt, an! the i#es ofheroes so"eti"es eI%ress their !esire to be burie! along ith their !ea!

husban!s.**224

The i!ea that the bo!y as ell as the soul as i""ortal as %robably

linke! on to a #ery %ri"iti#e belief regar!ing the !ea!, an! one share!

by "any %eo%les, that they li#e! on in the gra#e. This conce%tion as

ne#er forgotten, e#en in regions here the theory of a !istant lan! of

the !ea! as e#ol#e!, or here the bo!y as consu"e! by fire before



burial. 6t a%%ears fro" such %ractices as bin!ing the !ea! ith cor!s,

or laying hea#y stones or a "oun! of earth on the gra#e, %robably to

%re#ent their egress, or fee!ing the !ea! ith sacrificial foo! at the

gra#e, or fro" the belief that the !ea! co"e forth not as s%irits, but

in the bo!y fro" the gra#e. This %ri"iti#e conce%tion, of hich the

belief in a subterranean orl! of the !ea! is an eItension, long

sur#i#e! a"ong #arious races, e.g. the 5can!ina#ians, ho belie#e! in

the barro as the abi!ing %lace of the !ea!, hile they also ha! their

conce%tion of :el an! alhalla, or a"ong the 5la#s, si!e by si!e ith

Christian conce%tions.**234 6t also sur#i#e! a"ong the Celts, though

another belief in the Korbis aliusK ha! arisen. This can be shon fro"

"o!ern an! ancient folk&belief an! custo".

6n nu"erous Celtic folk&tales the !ea! rise in the bo!y, not as ghosts,

fro" the gra#e, hich is so"eti"es !escribe! as a house in hich they

li#e. They %erfor" their or!inary occu%ations in house or fiel! they

eat ith the li#ing, or a#enge the"sel#es u%on the" if scourge!, bloo!

is !ran fro" their bo!ies an!, in one curious Breton tale, a !ea!

husban! #isits his ife in be! an! she then has a chil! by hi", because,as he sai!, sa co"%te !'enfants as not yet co"%lete.**2F4 6n other

stories a cor%se beco"es ani"ate! an! s%eaks or acts in %resence of the

li#ing, or fro" the to"b itself hen it is !isturbe!.**24 The earliest

literary eIa"%le of such a tale is the tenth century A!#entures of

<era, base! on ol!er sources. 6n this <era goes to tie a ithy to the

foot of a "an ho has been hung. The cor%se begs a !rink, an! then

forces <era to carry hi" to a house, here he kills to slee%ers.**34

All such stories, shoing as they !o that a cor%se is really li#ing,

"ust in essence be of great antiLuity. Another co""on belief, foun! o#er

the Celtic area, is that the !ea! rise fro" the gra#e, not as ghosts,

hen they ill, an! that they a%%ear Ken "asseK on the night of All5aints, an! join the li#ing.**3*4

As a result of such beliefs, #arious custo"s are foun! in use,

a%%arently to %er"it of the cor%se ha#ing free!o" of "o#e"ent, contrary

to the ol!er custo" of %re#enting its egress fro" the gra#e. 6n the est

of 6relan! the feet of the cor%se are left free, an! the nails are !ran

fro" the coffin at the gra#e. 6n the :ebri!es the threa!s of the shrou!

are cut or the bin!ings of feet, han!s, an! face are raise! hen the

bo!y is %lace! in the coffin, an! in Brittany the ar"s an! feet are left

free hen the cor%se is !resse!.**3+4 The reason is sai! to be that the

s%irit "ay ha#e less trouble in getting to the s%irit orl!, but it isob#ious that a "ore "aterial #ie %rece!e! an! still un!erlies this

later gloss. Many stories are tol! illustrating these custo"s, an! the

earlier belief, Christianise!, a%%ears in the tale of a o"an ho

haunte! her frien!s because they ha! "a!e her gra#e&clothes so short

that the fires of Purgatory burnt her knees.**3E4

/arlier custo"s recor!e! a"ong the Celts also %oint to the eIistence of

this %ri"iti#e belief influencing actual custo". <ican!er says that the



Celts ent by night to the to"bs of great "en to obtain oracles, so "uch

!i! they belie#e that they ere still li#ing there.**314 6n 6relan!,

oracles ere also sought by slee%ing on funeral cairns, an! it as to

the gra#e of 9ergus that to bar!s resorte! in or!er to obtain fro" hi"

the lost story of the KTainK. ?e ha#e also seen ho, in 6relan!, ar"e!

heroes eIerte! a sinister influence u%on ene"ies fro" their gra#es,

hich "ay thus ha#e been regar!e! as their ho"es&&a belief also

un!erlying the ?elsh story of Bran's hea!.

?here as the orl! of the !ea! situate!S M. Reinach has shon, by a

careful co"%arison of the !ifferent uses of the or! KorbisK, that

ucan's or!s !o not necessarily "ean another orl!, but another

region, i.e. of this orl!.**3-4 6f the Celts cherishe! so fir"ly the

belief that the !ea! li#e! on in the gra#e, a belief in an un!erorl! of

the !ea! as boun! in course of ti"e to ha#e been e#ol#e! as %art of

their cree!. To it all gra#es an! tu"uli oul! gi#e access. Classical

obser#ers a%%arently hel! that the Celtic future state as like their

on in being an un!erorl! region, since they s%eak of the !ea! Celts as

KinferiK, or as going Ka! ManesK, an! Plutarch "akes Ca""a s%eak of!escen!ing to her !ea! husban!.**324 ?hat !ifferentiate! it fro" their

on gloo"y un!erorl! as its eIuberant life an! i""ortality. This

as%ect of a subterranean lan! %resente! no !ifficulty to the Celt, ho

ha! "any tales of an un!erorl! or un!er&ater region "ore beautiful an!

blissful than anything on earth. 5uch a subterranean orl! "ust ha#e

been that of the Celtic )is%ater, a go! of fertility an! groth, the

roots of things being nourishe! fro" his king!o". 9ro" hi" "en ha!

!escen!e!,**334 %robably a "yth of their co"ing forth fro" his

subterranean king!o", an! to hi" they returne! after !eath to a blissful

life.

5e#eral riters, notably M. )'Arbois, assu"e that the Korbis aliusK of

the !ea! as the Celtic islan! /lysiu". But that /lysiu" Kne#erK a%%ears

in the tales as a lan! of the !ea!. 6t is a lan! of go!s an! !eathless

folk ho are not those ho ha#e %asse! fro" this orl! by !eath. Mortals

"ay reach it by fa#our, but only hile still in life. 6t "ight be argue!

that /lysiu" as regar!e! in %agan ti"es as the lan! of the !ea!, but

after Christian eschatological #ies %re#aile!, it beca"e a kin! of

fairylan!. But the eIisting tales gi#e no hint of this, an!, after being

carefully eIa"ine!, they sho that /lysiu" ha! alays been a %lace

!istinct fro" that of the !e%arte!, though there "ay ha#e arisen a

ten!ency to confuse the to.

6f there as a genuine Celtic belief in an islan! of the !ea!, it coul!

ha#e been no "ore than a local one, else Caesar oul! not ha#e s%oken as

he !oes of the Celtic )is%ater. 5uch a local belief no eIists on the

Breton coast, but it is "ainly concerne! ith the souls of the

!rone!.**3F4 A si"ilar local belief "ay eI%lain the story tol! by

Proco%ius, ho says that Brittia >Britain@, an islan! lying off the

"outh of the Rhine, is !i#i!e! fro" north to south by a all beyon!



hich is a noIious region. This is a !istorte! re"iniscence of the Ro"an

all, hich oul! a%%ear to run in this !irection if Ptole"y's "a%, in

hich 5cotlan! lies at right angles to /nglan!, ha! been consulte!.

Thither fisher"en fro" the o%%osite coast are co"%elle! to ferry o#er at

!ea! of night the sha!es of the !ea!, unseen to the", but "arshalle! by

a "ysterious lea!er.**34 Proco%ius "ay ha#e "ingle! so"e local belief

ith the current tra!ition that ;lysses' islan! of the sha!es lay in the

north, or in the est.**F4 6n any case his story "akes of the gloo"y

lan! of the sha!es a #ery !ifferent region fro" the blissful /lysiu" of

the Celts an! fro" their joyous Korbis aliusK, nor is it certain that he

is referring to a Celtic %eo%le.

Traces of the i!ea of an un!erorl! of the !ea! eIist in Breton

folk&belief. The !ea! "ust tra#el across a subterranean ocean, an!

though there is scarcely any tra!ition regar!ing hat ha%%ens on

lan!ing, M. 5ebillot thinks that for"erly there eIiste! in the

subterranean orl! a sort of centralisation of the !ifferent states of

the !ea!. 6f so, this "ust ha#e been foun!e! on %agan belief. The

interior of the earth is also belie#e! to be the abo!e of fabulousbeings, of giants, an! of fantastic ani"als, an! there is also a

subterranean fairy orl!. 6n all this e "ay see a sur#i#al of the ol!er

belief, "o!ifie! by Christian teaching, since the Bretons su%%ose that

%urgatory an! hell are beneath the earth an! accessible fro" its

surface.**F*4

5o"e British folk&lore brought to Greece by )e"etrius an! re%orte! by

Plutarch "ight see" to suggest that certain %ersons&&the "ighty

!ea!&&ere %ri#ilege! to %ass to the islan! /lysiu". 5o"e islan!s near

Britain ere calle! after go!s an! heroes, an! the inhabitants of one of

these ere regar!e! as sacrosanct by the Britons, like the %riestessesof 5ena. They ere #isite! by )e"etrius, ho as tol! that the stor"s

hich arose !uring his #isit ere cause! by the %assing aay of so"e of

the "ighty or of the great souls. 6t "ay ha#e been "eant that such

"ighty ones %asse! to the "ore !istant islan!s, but this is certainly

not state!. 6n another islan!, =ronos as i"%risone!, atche! o#er by

Briareus, an! guar!e! by !e"ons.**F+4 Plutarch refers to these islan!s

in another ork, re%eating the story of =ronos, an! saying that his

islan! is "il! an! fragrant, that %eo%le li#e there aiting on the go!

ho so"eti"es a%%ears to the" an! %re#ents their !e%arting. Meanhile

they are ha%%y an! kno no care, s%en!ing their ti"e in sacrificing an!

hy"n&singing or in stu!ying legen!s an! %hiloso%hy.

Plutarch has ob#iously "ingle! Celtic /lysiu" beliefs ith the classical

conce%tion of the )rui!s.**FE4 6n /lysiu" there is no care, an!

fa#oure! "ortals ho %ass there are generally %re#ente! fro" returning

to earth. The reference to =ronos "ay also be base! %artly on "yths of

Celtic go!s of /lysiu", %artly on tales of heroes ho !e%arte! to

"ysterious islan!s or to the hollo hills here they lie aslee%, but

hence they ill one !ay return to benefit their %eo%le. 5o Arthur



%asse! to A#alon, but in other tales he an! his arriors are aslee%

beneath Craig&y&)!inas, just as 9ionn an! his "en rest ithin this or

that hill in the :ighlan!s. 5i"ilar legen!s are tol! of other Celtic

heroes, an! they itness to the belief that great "en ho ha! !ie! oul!

return in the hour of their %eo%le's nee!. 6n ti"e they ere thought not

to ha#e !ie! at all, but to be "erely slee%ing an! aiting for their

hour.**F14 The belief is base! on the i!ea that the !ea! are ali#e in

gra#e or barro, or in a s%acious lan! belo the earth, or that !ea!

arriors can "enace their foes fro" the to"b.

Thus neither in ol! sagas, nor in KMaerchenK, nor in %o%ular tra!ition,

is the islan! /lysiu" a orl! of the !ea!. 9or the "ost %art the %agan

eschatology has been "erge! in that of Christianity, hile the /lysiu"

belief has re"aine! intact an! still sur#i#es in a hole series of

beautiful tales.

The orl! of the !ea! as in all res%ects a Kre%licaK of this orl!, but

it as ha%%ier. 6n eIisting Breton an! 6rish belief&&a sur#i#al of the

ol!er conce%tion of the bo!ily state of the !ea!&&they resu"e theirtools, crafts, an! occu%ations, an! they %reser#e their ol! feelings.

:ence, hen they a%%ear on earth, it is in bo!ily for" an! in their

custo"ary !ress. ike the %agan Gauls, the Breton re"e"bers un%ai!

!ebts, an! cannot rest till they are %ai!, an! in Brittany, 6relan!, an!

the :ighlan!s the foo! an! clothes gi#en to the %oor after a !eath, fee!

an! clothe the !ea! in the other orl!.**F-4 6f the orl! of the !ea!

as subterranean,&&a theory su%%orte! by current folk&belief,**F24&&the

/arth&go!!ess or the /arth&go!, ho ha! been first the earth itself,

then a being li#ing belo its surface an! causing fertility, coul! not

ha#e beco"e the !i#inity of the !ea! until the "ultitu!e of single

gra#es or barros, in each of hich the !ea! li#e!, ha! beco"e a i!esubterranean region of the !ea!. This !i#inity as the source of life

an! groth hence he or she as regar!e! as the %rogenitor of "ankin!,

ho ha! co"e forth fro" the un!erorl! an! oul! return there at !eath.

6t is not i"%ossible that the Breton conce%tion of Ankou, !eath

%ersonifie!, is a re"iniscence of the Celtic )is%ater. :e atches o#er

all things beyon! the gra#e, an! carries off the !ea! to his king!o".

But if so he has been altere! for the orse by "e!iae#al i!eas of )eath

the skeleton.**F34 :e is a grisly go! of !eath, hereas the Celtic )is

as a beneficent go! of the !ea! ho enjoye! a ha%%y i""ortality. They

ere not col! %hantas"s, but ali#e an! en!oe! ith cor%oreal for" an!

able to enjoy the things of a better eIistence, an! cla! in thebeautiful rai"ent an! gau!y orna"ents hich ere lo#e! so "uch on earth.

:ence Celtic arriors !i! not fear !eath, an! suici!e as eItre"ely

co""on, hile 5%anish Celts sang hy"ns in %raise of !eath, an! others

celebrate! the birth of "en ith "ourning, but their !eaths ith

joy.**FF4 ucan's or!s are thus the truest eI%ression of Celtic

eschatology&&6n another region the s%irit ani"ates the "e"bers !eath,

if your lore be true, is but the %assage to en!uring life.



There is no !ecisi#e e#i!ence %ointing to any theory of "oral

retribution beyon! the gra#e a"ong the %agan Celts. Perha%s, since the

ho%e of i""ortality "a!e arriors face !eath ithout a tre"or, it "ay

ha#e been hel!, as "any other races ha#e belie#e!, that coar!s oul!

"iss the bliss of the future state. Again, in so"e of the 6rish

Christian #isions of the other&orl! an! in eIisting folk&belief,

certain characteristics of hell "ay not be !eri#e! fro" Christian

eschatology, e.g. the sufferings of the !ea! fro" col!.**F4 This "ight

%oint to an ol! belief in a col! region hither so"e of the !ea! ere

banishe!. 6n the KA!#entures of 5. Colu"ba's ClericsK, hell is reache!

by a bri!ge o#er a glen of fire,**4 an! a narro bri!ge lea!ing to

the other orl! is a co""on feature in "ost "ythologies. But here it "ay

be borroe! fro" 5can!ina#ian sources, or fro" such Christian ritings

as the K)ialoguesK of 5. Gregory the Great.***4 6t "ight be conten!e!

that the Christian !octrine of hell has absorbe! an earlier %agan theory

of retribution, but of this there is no no trace in the sagas or in

classical references to the Celtic belief in the future life. <or is

there any reference to a !ay of ju!g"ent, for the %assage in hich

oegaire s%eaks of the !ea! burie! ith their ea%ons till the !ay of/r!athe, though glosse! the !ay of ju!g"ent of the or!, !oes not

refer to such a ju!g"ent.**+4 6f an ethical blin!ness be attribute! to

the Celts for their a%%arent lack of any theory of retribution, it

shoul! be re"e"bere! that e "ust not ju!ge a %eo%le's ethics holly by

their #ies of future %unish"ent. 5can!ina#ians, Greeks, an! 5e"ites u%

to a certain stage ere as unethical as the Celts in this res%ect, an!

the Christian hell, as concei#e! by "any theologians, is far fro"

suggesting an ethical )eity.

988T<8T/5(

**-14 5kene, i. E3.

**--4 Caesar, #i. *1, *.

**-24 )io!. 5ic. #, +F.

**-34 al. MaI. #i. 2. *.

**-F4 KPhars.K i. 1-- f.

**-4 A"". Marc. I#. 5trabo, i#. 1 Mela, iii. +.

**24 Miss :ull, +3-.

**2*4 <utt&Meyer, i. 1 Miss :ull, +E.

**2+4 ar"inie, *-- :y!e, KBesi!e the 9ireK, +*, *-E KCMK Iiii. +*

Ca"%bell, K?:TK, ii. +* e BraHO+, i. %. Iii.



**2E4 on 5acken, K)as Grabfel! #on :allstattK Greenell, KBritish

BarrosK KRCK I. +E1 KAntiLuaryK, III#ii. *+- Blanchet, ii. -+F f.

An!erson, K5cotlan! in Pagan Ti"esK.

**214 K'Anthro%ologieK, #i. -F2 Greenell, Ko%. cit.K **.

**2-4 <utt&Meyer, i. -+ 8')ono#an, KAnnalsK, i. *1-, *F KRCK I#. +F.

6n one case the ene"y !isinter the bo!y of the king of Connaught, an!

rebury it face !onar!s, an! then obtain a #ictory. This nearly

coinci!es ith the !ire results folloing the !isinter"ent of Bran's

hea! >8')ono#an, i. *1- cf. %. +1+, Ksu%raK@.

**224 K;K *EKaK KRCK IIi#. *F- 8'Curry, KMCK i. %. cccIII

Ca"%bell, K?:TK iii. 2+ eahy, i. *-.

**234 igfusson&Poell, KCor%us Poet. BorealeK, i. *23, 1*3&1*F, 1+

an! see "y KChil!hoo! of 9ictionK, *E f.

**2F4 ar"inie, E* e BraHO+, ii. *12, *-, *2*, *F1, +-3 >the KroleKof the !ea! husban! is usually taken by a KlutinK or KfolletK, uHel,

Keillees BretonsK, 3@ KRe#. !es Tra!. Po%.K ii. +23 KAnn. !e

BretagneK, #iii. -*1.

**24 e BraHO+, i. E*E. Cf. also an inci!ent in the Koyage of

Mael!uinK.

**34 KRCK I. +*1f. Cf. =enne!y, *2+ e BraHO+, i. +*3, for #ariants.

**3*4 Curtin, KTalesK, *-2 see %. *3, Ksu%raK.

**3+4 Curtin, KTalesK, *-2 Ca"%bell, K5u%erstitionsK, +1*

K9olk&oreK, Iiii. 2 e BraHO+, i. +*E.

**3E4 K9olk&oreK, ii. +2 $eats, KCeltic TilightK, *22.

**314 Tertullian, K!e Ani"aK, +*.

**3-4 Reinach, KRCK IIii. 113.

**324 al. MaI. #i. 2 Mela, iii. +. * Plut. Kirt. "ulK +.

**334 5ee %. ++, Ksu%raK.

**3F4 e BraHO+, i. %. IIIiI. This is only one out of "any local

beliefs >cf. 5ebillot, ii. *1@.

**34 Proco%. K)e Bello Goth.K #i. +.

**F4 Clau!ian, K6n Rufin.K i. *+E.



**F*4 5ebillot, i. 1*F f.

**F+4 K!e )efectu 8rac.K *F. An occasional na"e for Britain in the

KMabinogionK is the islan! of the Mighty >oth, i. 2, Ket %assi"K@.

To the stor" inci!ent an! the %assing of the "ighty, there is a curious

%arallel in 9ijian belief. A cla% of thun!er as eI%laine! as the noise

of a s%irit, e being near the %lace in hich s%irits %lunge to enter

the other orl!, an! a chief in the neighbourhoo! ha#ing just !ie!

>?illia"s, K9ijiK, i. +1@.

**FE4 K!e 9acie unoe4K, +2.

**F14 5ee :artlan!, K5cience of 9airy TalesK, + Mac!ougall, K9olk

an! :ero TalesK, 3E, +2E e BraHO+, i. %. III. Mortals so"eti"es

%enetrate! to the %resence of these heroes, ho aoke. 6f the #isitor

ha! the courage to tell the" that the hour ha! not yet co"e, they fell

aslee% again, an! he esca%e!. 6n Brittany, rocky clefts are belie#e! to

be the entrance to the orl! of the !ea!, like the ca#e of ough )earg.5i"ilar stories ere %robably tol! of these in %agan ti"es, though they

are no a!a%te! to Christian beliefs in %urgatory or hell.

**F-4 e BraHO+, i. %. Il, ii. 1 Curtin, * MacPhail, K9olk&oreK,

#i. *3.

**F24 5ee %. EEF, Ksu%raK, an! ogan, K5cottish GaelK, ii. E31

K9olk&ore,K #iii. +F, +-E.

**F34 e BraHO+, i. 2, *+3, *E2f., an! 6ntro, Il#.

**FF4 Philostratus, KA%oll. of TyanaK, #. 1 al. MaI. ii. 2. *+.

**F4 e BraHO*, ii. * Curtin, KTalesK, *12. The %unish"ent of

suffering fro" ice an! sno a%%ears in the KA%ocaly%se of PaulK an! in

later Christian accounts of hell.

**4 KRCK II#i. *-E.

***4 Bk. i#. ch. E2.

**+4 K/r!atheK, accor!ing to )'Arbois, "eans >*@ the !ay in hich the!ea! ill resu"e his colour, fro" K!athK, colour >+@ the agreeable

!ay, fro" K!ataK, agreeable >)'Arbois, i. *F- cf. Kes )rui!esK,

*E-@.

C:APT/R QQ666.



R/B6RT: A<) TRA<5M6GRAT68<.

6n 6rish sagas, rebirth is asserte! only of !i#inities or heroes, an!,

%robably because this belief as obnoIious to Christian scribes, hile

so"e M55. tell of it in the case of certain heroic %ersonages, in others

these sa"e heroes are sai! to ha#e been born naturally. There is no

teItual e#i!ence that it as attribute! to or!inary "ortals, an! it is

%ossible that, if classical obser#ers !i! not "isun!erstan! the Celtic

!octrine of the future life, their references to rebirth "ay be base! on

"ythical tales regar!ing go!s or heroes. ?e shall stu!y these tales as

they are foun! in 6rish teIts.

6n the "ythological cycle, as has been seen, /tain, in insect for", fell

into a cu% of ine. 5he as salloe! by /tar, an! in !ue ti"e as

reborn as a chil!, ho as e#entually "arrie! by /ochai! Aire", but

recogniHe! an! carrie! off by her !i#ine s%ouse Mi!er. /tain, hoe#er,

ha! Luite forgotten her for"er eIistence as a go!!ess.**E4

6n one #ersion of Cuchulainn's birth story )echtire an! her o"en fly

aay as bir!s, but are !isco#ere! at last by her brother Conchobar in a

strange house, here )echtire gi#es birth to a chil!, of ho" the go!

ug is a%%arently the father. 6n another #ersion the bir!s are not

)echtire an! her o"en, for she acco"%anies Conchobar as his charioteer.

They arri#e at the house, the "istress of hich gi#es birth to a chil!,

hich )echtire brings u%. 6t !ies, an! on her return fro" the burial

)echtire sallos a s"all ani"al hen !rinking. ug a%%ears to her by

night, an! tells her that he as the chil!, an! that no she as ith

chil! by hi" >i.e. he as the ani"al salloe! by her@. ?hen he as bornhe oul! be calle! 5etanta, ho as later na"e! Cuchulainn. Cuchulainn,

in this #ersion, is thus a rebirth of ug, as ell as his father.**14

6n the KTale of the To 5ineher!sK, 9riuch an! Rucht are her!s of the

go!s 8chall an! Bo!b. They Luarrel, an! their fighting in #arious ani"al

sha%es is fully !escribe!. 9inally they beco"e to or"s, hich are

salloe! by to cos these then gi#e birth to the ?hitehorn an! to the

Black Bull of Cuailgne, the ani"als hich ere the cause of the KTain.K

The sineher!s ere %robably the"sel#es go!s in the ol!er #ersions of

this tale.**-4

8ther stories relate the rebirth of heroes. Conchobar is #ariously sai!

to be son of <essa by her husban! Cathba!, or by her lo#er 9achtna. But

in the latter #ersion an inci!ent is foun! hich %oints to a thir!

account. <essa brings Cathba! a !raught fro" a ri#er, but in it are to

or"s hich he forces her to sallo. 5he gi#es birth to a son, in each

of hose han!s is a or", an! he is calle! Conchobar, after the na"e of

the ri#er into hich he fell soon after his birth. The inci!ent closes

ith the or!s, 6t as fro" these or"s that she beca"e %regnant, say



so"e.**24 Possibly the !i#inity of the ri#er ha! taken the for" of

the or"s an! as reborn as Conchobar. ?e "ay co"%are the story of the

birth of Conall Cernach. :is "other as chil!less, until a )rui! sang

s%ells o#er a ell in hich she bathe!, an! !rank of its aters. ?ith

the !raught she salloe! a or", an! the or" as in the han! of the

boy as he lay in his "other's o"b an! he %ierce! the han! an! consu"e!

it.**34

The %ersonality of 9ionn is also connecte! ith the rebirth i!ea. 6n one

story, Mongan, a se#enth&century king, ha! a !is%ute ith his %oet

regar!ing the !eath of the hero 9otha!. The 9ian Caoilte returns fro"

the !ea! to %ro#e Mongan right, an! he says, ?e ere ith thee, ith

9ionn. Mongan bi!s hi" be silent, because he !i! not ish his i!entity

ith 9ionn to be "a!e knon. Mongan, hoe#er, as 9ionn, though he

oul! not let it be tol!.**F4 6n another story Mongan is son of

Manannan, ho ha! %ro%hesie! of this e#ent. Manannan a%%eare! to the

ife of 9iachna hen he as fighting the 5aIons, an! tol! her that

unless she yiel!e! herself to hi" her husban! oul! be slain. 8n hearing

this she agree!, an! neIt !ay the go! a%%eare! fighting ith 9iachna'sforces an! route! the slain. 5o that this Mongan is a son of Manannan

"ac ir, though he is calle! Mongan son of 9iachna.**4 6n a thir!

#ersion Manannan "akes the bargain ith 9iachna, an! in his for" slee%s

ith the o"an. 5i"ultaneously ith Mongan's birth, 9iachna's atten!ant

ha! a son ho beca"e Mongan's ser#ant, an! a arrior's ife bears a

!aughter ho beca"e his ife. Manannan took Mongan to the an! of

Pro"ise an! ke%t hi" there until he as siIteen.*+4 Many "agical

%oers an! the faculty of sha%e&shifting are attribute! to Mongan, an!

in so"e stories he is brought into connection ith the Ksi!K.*+*4

Probably a "yth tol! ho he ent to /lysiu" instea! of !ying, for he

co"es fro" the an! of i#ing :eart to s%eak ith 5. Colu"ba, ho tookhi" to see hea#en. But he oul! not satisfy the saints' curiosity

regar!ing /lysiu", an! su!!enly #anishe!, %robably returning

there.*++4

This tofol! account of Mongan's birth is curious. Perha%s the i!ea that

he as a rebirth of 9ionn "ay ha#e been suggeste! by the fact that his

father as calle! 9iachna 9inn, hile it is %robable that so"e ol! "yth

of a son of Manannan's calle! Mongan as attache! to the %ersonality of

the historic Mongan.

About the era of Mongan, =ing )iar"ai! ha! to i#es, one of ho" asbarren. 5. 9innen ga#e her holy ater to !rink, an! she brought forth a

la"b then, after a secon! !raught, a trout, an! finally, after a thir!,

Ae! 5lane, ho beca"e high king of 6relan! in -1. This is a

Christianise! #ersion of the story of Conall Cernach's birth.*+E4

6n ?elsh "ythology the story of Taliesin affor!s an eIa"%le of rebirth.

After the transfor"ation co"bat of the go!!ess Cerri!en an! Gion,

rese"bling that of the sine&her!s, Gion beco"es a grain of heat,



hich Cerri!en in the for" of a hen sallos, ith the result that he

is reborn of her as Taliesin.*+14

Most of these stories no longer eIist in their %ri"iti#e for", an!

#arious i!eas are foun! in the"&&conce%tion by "agical "eans, !i#ine

!escent through the Ka"ourK of a !i#inity an! a "ortal, an! rebirth.

As to the first, the hel% of "agician or %riest is often in#oke! in

sa#age society an! e#en in /uro%ean folk&custo" in case of barrenness.

Prayers, char"s, %otions, or foo! are the "eans use! to in!uce

conce%tion, but %erha%s at one ti"e these ere thought to cause it of

the"sel#es. 6n "any tales the salloing of a see!, fruit, insect, etc.,

results in the birth of a hero or heroine, an! it is %robable that these

stories e"bo!y actual belief in such a %ossibility. 6f the stories of

Conall Cernach an! Ae! 5lane are not attenuate! instances of rebirth,

say, of the !i#inity of a ell, they are eIa"%les of this belief. The

gift of fruitfulness is bestoe! by )rui! an! saint, but in the story of

Conall it is rather the salloing of the or" than the )rui!'s

incantation that causes conce%tion, an! is the real K"otifK of the tale.

?here the rebirth of a !i#inity occurs as the result of the salloing

of a s"all ani"al, it is e#i!ent that the go! has first taken this for".

The Celt, belie#ing in conce%tion by salloing so"e object, an! in

sha%e&shifting, co"bine! his infor"ation, an! so %ro!uce! a thir! i!ea,

that a go! coul! take the for" of a s"all ani"al, hich, hen salloe!,

beca"e his rebirth.*+-4 6f, as the #isits of barren o"en to !ol"ens

an! "egalithic "onu"ents suggest, the Celts belie#e! in the %ossibility

of the s%irit of a !ea! "an entering a o"an an! being born of her or at

least ai!ing conce%tion,&&a belief hel! by other races,*+24&&this "ay

ha#e gi#en rise to "yths regar!ing the rebirth of go!s by hu"an "others.At all e#ents this latter Celtic belief is %arallele! by the A"erican

6n!ian "yths, e.g. of the Thlinkeet go! $ehl ho transfor"e! hi"self no

into a %ebble, no into a bla!e of grass, an!, being thus salloe! by

o"en, as reborn.

6n the stories of /tain an! of u!, reborn as 5etanta, this i!ea of

!i#ine transfor"ation an! rebirth occurs. A si"ilar i!ea "ay un!erlie

the tale of 9ionn an! Mongan. As to the tales of Gion an! the

5ineher!s, the latter the ser#ants of go!s, an! %erha%s the"sel#es

regar!e! once as !i#inities, ho in their rebirth as bulls are certainly

!i#ine ani"als, they %resent so"e features hich reLuire furtherconsi!eration. The %re#ious transfor"ations in both cases belong to the

Transfor"ation Co"bat for"ula of "any KMaerchenK, an! ob#iously ere not

%art of the original for" of the "yths. 6n all such KMaerchenK the

antagonists are "ales, hence the rebirth inci!ent coul! not for" %art of

the". 6n the ?elsh tale of Gion an! in the corres%on!ing Taliesin %oe",

the ingenious fusion of the KMaerchenK for"ula ith an eIisting "yth of

rebirth "ust ha#e taken %lace at an early !ate.*+34 This is also true

of KThe To 5ineher!sK, but in this case, since the "yth tol! ho to



go!s took the for" of or"s an! ere reborn of cos, the for"ula ha! to

be altere!. Both re"ain ali#e at the en! of the co"bat, contrary to the

usual for"ula, because both ere "ales an! both ere reborn. The fusion

is skilful, because the reborn %ersonages %reser#e a re"e"brance of

their for"er transfor"ations,*+F4 just as Mongan knos of his for"er

eIistence as 9ionn. 6n other cases there is no such re"e"brance. /tain

ha! forgotten her for"er eIistence, an! Cuchulainn !oes not a%%ear to

kno that he is a rebirth of ug.

The relation of ug to Cuchulainn !eser#es further inLuiry. ?hile the

go! is reborn he is also eIisting as ug, just as ha#ing been salloe!

as a or" by )echtire, he a%%ears in his !i#ine for" an! tells her he

ill be born of her. 6n the KTainK he a%%ears fighting for Cuchulainn,

ho" he there calls his son. There are thus to as%ects of the hero's

relationshi% to ug in one he is a rebirth of the go!, in the other he

is his son, as in!ee! he see"s to re%resent hi"self in KThe ?ooing of

/"erK, an! as he is calle! by aborcha" just before his !eath.*+4 6n

one of the birth&stories he is clearly ug's son by )echtire. But both

#ersions "ay si"%ly be !ifferent as%ects of one belief, na"ely, that ago! coul! be reborn as a "ortal an! yet continue his !i#ine eIistence,

because all birth is a kin! of rebirth. The "en of ;lster sought a ife

for Cuchulainn, knoing that his rebirth oul! be of hi"self, i.e. his

son oul! be hi"self e#en hile he continue! to eIist as his father.

/Ia"%les of such a belief occur elsehere, e.g. in the KasK of Manu,

here the husban! is sai! to be reborn of his ife, an! in ancient

/gy%t, here the go!s ere calle! self&begotten, because each as

father to the son ho as his true i"age or hi"self. ikeness i"%lie!

i!entity, in %ri"iti#e belief. Thus the belief in "ortal !escent fro"

the go!s a"ong the Celts "ay ha#e in#ol#e! the theory of a !i#ine

a#atar. The go! beca"e father of a "ortal by a o"an, an! %art ofhi"self %asse! o#er to the chil!, ho as thus the go! hi"self.

Conchobar as also a rebirth of a go!, but he as na"e! fro" the ri#er

hence his "other ha! !ran ater containing the or"s hich she

salloe!. This "ay %oint to a lost #ersion in hich he as the son of a

ri#er&go! by <essa. This as Luite in accor!ance ith Celtic belief, as

is shon by such na"es as )ubrogenos, fro" K!ubronK, ater, an!

KgenosK, born of )i#ogenos, )i#ogena, son or !aughter of a go!,

%ossibly a ri#er&go!, since K!ei#osK is a freLuent ri#er na"e an!

Rhenogenus, son of the Rhine.*+*4 The %ersons ho first bore these

na"es ere belie#e! to ha#e been begotten by !i#inities. Mongan's!escent fro" Manannan, go! of the sea, is "a!e %erfectly clear, an! the

?elsh na"e Morgen N KMorigenosK, son of the sea, %robably %oints to a

si"ilar tale no lost. 8ther Celtic na"es are freLuently %regnant ith

"eaning, an! tell of a once&eIisting rich "ythology of !i#ine Ka"oursK

ith "ortals. They sho !escent fro" !eities&&Ca"ulogenus >son of

Ca"ulos@, /sugenos >son of /sus@, Bo!uogenus >son of Bo!#a@ or fro"

tree&s%irits&&)ergen >son of the oak@, ernogenus >son of the al!er@ or

fro" !i#ine ani"als&&Arthgen >son of the bear@, ;rogenus >son of the



urus@.*+**4 ?hat as once an e%ithet !escribing !i#ine filiation beca"e

later a %ersonal na"e. 5o in Greece na"es like A%ollogenes, )iogenes,

an! :er"ogenes, ha! once been e%ithets of heroes born of A%ollo, eus,

an! :er"es.

Thus it as a #ital Celtic belief that !i#inities "ight unite ith

"ortals an! beget chil!ren. :eroes entice! aay to /lysiu" enjoye! the

lo#e of its go!!esses&&Cuchulainn that of 9an! Connla, Bran, an! 8isin

that of unna"e! !i#inities. 5o, too, the go!!ess Morrigan offere!

herself to Cuchulainn. The Christian Celts of the fifth century retaine!

this belief, though in a so"ehat altere! for". 5. Augustine an! others

!escribe the shaggy !e"ons calle! K!usiiK by the Gauls, ho sought the

couches of o"en in or!er to gratify their !esires.*+*+4 The K!usiiK

are akin to the KincubiK an! KfauniK, an! !o not a%%ear to re%resent the

higher go!s re!uce! to the for" of !e"ons by Christianity, but rather a

s%ecies of lesser !i#inities, once the object of %o%ular !e#otion.

These beliefs are also connecte! ith the Celtic notions of

transfor"ation an! trans"igration&&the one signifying the assu"ing ofanother sha%e for a ti"e, the other the %assing o#er of the soul or the

%ersonality into another bo!y, %erha%s one actually eIisting, but "ore

usually by actual rebirth. As has been seen, this %oer of

transfor"ation as clai"e! by the )rui!s an! by other %ersons, or

attribute! to the", an! they ere not likely to "ini"ise their %oers,

an! oul! %robably boast of the" on all occasions. 5uch boasts are %ut

into the "ouths of the 6rish A"airgen an! the ?elsh Taliesin. As the

Milesians ere a%%roaching 6relan!, A"airgen sang #erses hich ere

%erha%s %art of a ritual chant(

6 a" the in! hich blos o#er the sea, 6 a" the a#e of the ocean,

6 a" the bull of se#en battles,

6 a" the eagle on the rock...

6 a" a boar for courage,

6 a" a sal"on in the ater, etc.*+*E4

Professor Rhy4s %oints out that so"e of these #erses nee! not "ean

actual transfor"ation, but "ere likeness, through a %ri"iti#e for"ation

of %re!icate ithout the ai! of a %article corres%on!ing to such a or!

as 'like.'*+*14 /nough, hoe#er, re"ains to sho the clai" of the

"agician. Taliesin, in "any %oe"s, "akes si"ilar clai"s, an! says, 6ha#e been in a "ultitu!e of sha%es before 6 assu"e! a consistent

for"&&that of a sor!, a tear, a star, an eagle, etc. Then he as

create!, ithout father or "other.*+*-4 5i"ilar %retensions are co""on

to the "e!icine&"an e#eryhere. But fro" another %oint of #ie they "ay

be "ere %oetic eItra#agances such as are co""on in Celtic %oetry.*+*24

Thus Cuchulainn says( 6 as a houn! strong for co"bat ... their little

cha"%ion ... the casket of e#ery secret for the "ai!ens, or, in another

%lace, 6 a" the bark buffete! fro" a#e to a#e ... the shi% after the



losing of its ru!!er ... the little a%%le on the to% of the tree that

little thought of its falling.*+*34 These are "eta%horic !escri%tions

of a co"%arati#ely si"%le kin!. The full&blon bo"bast a%%ears in the

KColloLuy of the To 5agesK, here <e!e an! 9ercertne eIhaust language

in !escribing the"sel#es to each other.*+*F4 8ther ?elsh bar!s besi!es

Taliesin "ake si"ilar boasts to his, an! )r. 5kene thinks that their

clai"s "ay ha#e been "ere bo"bast.*+*4 5till so"e current belief in

sha%e&shifting, or e#en in rebirth, un!erlies so"e of these boastings

an! gi#es %oint to the". A"airgen's 6 a" this or that, suggests the

inherent %oer of transfor"ation Taliesin's 6 ha#e been, the actual

transfor"ations. 5uch assertions !o not in#ol#e the %oerful

%antheistic !octrine hich is at once the glory an! error of 6rish

%hiloso%hy, as M. )'Arbois clai"s,*++4 else are sa#age "e!icine&"en,

boastful of their sha%e&shifting %oers, %hiloso%hic %antheists. The

%oe"s are "erely highly !e#elo%e! for"s of %ri"iti#e beliefs in

sha%e&shifting, such as are foun! a"ong all sa#ages an! barbaric folk,

but eI%resse! in the boastful language in hich the Celt !elighte!.

:o ere the successi#e sha%e&shiftings effecte!S To anser this eshall first look at the story of Tuan Mac Caraill, ho sur#i#e! fro" the

!ays of Partholan to those of 5. 9innen. :e as a !ecre%it "an at the

co"ing of <e"e!, an! one night, ha#ing lain !on to slee%, he aoke as a

stag, an! li#e! in this for" to ol! age. 6n the sa"e ay he beca"e a

boar, a hak, an! a sal"on, hich as caught an! eaten by Cairell's

ife, of ho" he as born as Tuan, ith a %erfect recollection of his

!ifferent for"s.*++*4

This story, the in#ention of a ninth or tenth century Christian scribe

to account for the current knole!ge of the "any in#asions of

6relan!,*+++4 "ust ha#e been base! on %agan "yths of a si"ilar kin!,in#ol#ing successi#e transfor"ations an! a final rebirth. 5uch a "yth

"ay ha#e been tol! of Taliesin, recounting his transfor"ations an! his

final rebirth, the for"er being re%lace! at a later ti"e by the e%iso!e

of the Transfor"ation Co"bat, in#ol#ing no great la%se of ti"e. 5uch a

series of successi#e sha%es&&of e#ery beast, a !ragon, a olf, a stag, a

sal"on, a seal, a san&&ere ascribe! to Mongan an! foretol! by

Manannan, an! Mongan refers to so"e of the" in his colloLuy ith 5.

Colu"ba&&hen 6 as a !eer ... a sal"on ... a seal ... a ro#ing olf

... a "an.*++E4 Perha%s the co"%lete story as that of a fabulous hero

in hu"an for", ho assu"e! !ifferent sha%es, an! as finally reborn. But

the transfor"ation of an ol! "an, or an ol! ani"al, into ne youthfulan! #igorous for"s "ight be regar!e! as a kin! of trans"igration&&an

eItension of the transfor"ation i!ea, but in#ol#ing no "ete"%sychosis,

no %assing of the soul into another bo!y by rebirth. Actual

trans"igration or rebirth occurs only at the en! of the series, an!, as

in the case of /tain, ug, etc., the %re&eIistent %erson is born of a

o"an after being salloe! by her. Possibly the transfor"ation belief

has reacte! on the other, an! obscure! a belief in actual "ete"%sychosis

as a result of the soul of an ancestor %assing into a o"an an! being



reborn as her neIt chil!. A!! to this that the soul is often thought of

as a tiny ani"al, an! e see ho a K%oint !'a%%uiK for the "ore

"aterialistic belief as affor!e!. The insect or or"s of the rebirth

stories "ay ha#e been once for"s of the soul. 6t is easy also to see

ho, a theory of conce%tion by salloing #arious objects being alrea!y

in eIistence, it "ight be thought %ossible that eating a sal"on&&a

transfor"e! "an&&oul! cause his rebirth fro" the eater.

The Celts "ay ha#e ha! no consistent belief on this subject, the general

i!ea of the future life being of a !ifferent kin!. 8r %erha%s the

#arious beliefs in transfor"ation, trans"igration, rebirth, an!

conce%tion by unusual "eans, are too ineItricably "ingle! to be

se%arate!. The nucleus of the tales see"s to be the %ossibility of

rebirth, an! the belief that the soul as still cla! in a bo!ily for"

after !eath an! as itself a "aterial thing. But otherise so"e of the"

are not !istincti#ely Celtic, an! ha#e been influence! by ol! KMaerchenK

for"ulae of successi#e changes a!o%te! by or force! u%on so"e %erson, ho

is finally reborn. This for"ulae is alrea!y ol! in the fourteenth century

B.C. /gy%tian story of the KTo BrothersK.

5uch Celtic stories as these "ay ha#e been knon to classical authors,

an! ha#e influence! their state"ents regar!ing eschatology. $et it can

har!ly be sai! that the tales the"sel#es bear itness to a general

trans"igration !octrine current a"ong the Celts, since the stories

concern !i#ine or heroic %ersonages. 5till the belief "ay ha#e ha! a

certain currency a"ong the", base! on %ri"iti#e theories of soul life.

/#i!ence that it eIiste! si!e by si!e ith the "ore general !octrines of

the future life "ay be foun! in ol! or eIisting folk&belief. 6n so"e

cases the !ea! ha#e an ani"al for", as in the Koyage of Mael!uinK,

here bir!s on an islan! are sai! to be souls, or in the legen! of 5.Maelsuthain, hose %u%ils a%%ear to hi" after !eath as bir!s.*++14 The

bir! for" of the soul after !eath is still a current belief in the

:ebri!es. Butterflies in 6relan!, an! "oths in Cornall, an! in 9rance

bats or butterflies, are belie#e! to be souls of the !ea!.*++-4 =ing

Arthur is thought by Cornish"en to ha#e !ie! an! to ha#e been change!

into the for" of a ra#en, an! in "e!iae#al ?ales souls of the icke!

a%%ear as ra#ens, in Brittany as black !ogs, %etrels, or hares, or ser#e

their ter" of %enitence as cos or bulls, or re"ain as cros till the

!ay of ju!g"ent.*++24 ;nba%tiHe! infants beco"e bir!s !rone! sailors

a%%ear as beasts or bir!s an! the souls of girls !ecei#e! by lo#ers

haunt the" as hares.*++34

These sho that the i!ea of trans"igration "ay not ha#e been foreign to

the Celtic "in!, an! it "ay ha#e arisen fro" the i!ea that "en assu"e!

their tote" ani"al's sha%e at !eath. 5o"e tales of sha%e&shifting are

%robably !ue to tote"is", an! it is to be note! that in =erry %easants

ill not eat hares because they contain the souls of their

gran!"others.*++F4 8n the other han!, so"e of these sur#i#als "ay "ean

no "ore than that the soul itself has alrea!y an ani"al for", in hich



it oul! naturally be seen after !eath. 6n Celtic folk&belief the soul

is seen lea#ing the bo!y in slee% as a bee, butterfly, gnat, "ouse, or

"annikin.*++4 5uch a belief is foun! a"ong "ost sa#age races, an!

"ight easily be "istaken for trans"igration, or also assist the

for"ation of the i!ea of trans"igration. Though the folk&sur#i#als sho

that trans"igration as not necessarily allege! of all the !ea!, it "ay

ha#e been a sufficiently #ital belief to colour the "ythology, as e see

fro" the eIisting tales, a!ulterate! though these "ay ha#e been.

The general belief has its roots in %ri"iti#e i!eas regar!ing life an!

its %ro%agation&&i!eas hich so"e hol! to be un&Celtic an! un&Aryan. But

Aryans ere %ri"iti#e at so"e %erio! of their history, an! it oul! be

curious if, hile still in a barbarous con!ition, they ha! forgotten

their ol! beliefs. 6n any case, if they a!o%te! si"ilar beliefs fro"

non&Aryan %eo%le, this %oints to no great su%eriority on their %art.

5uch beliefs originate! the i!ea of rebirth an! trans"igration.*+E4

<e#ertheless this as not a characteristically Celtic eschatological

belief that e fin! in the theory that the !ea! li#e! on in the bo!y or

assu"e! a bo!y in another region, %robably un!ergroun!.

988T<8T/5(

**E4 9or teItual !etails see i""er, Keit. fuer ergl. 5%rach.K

II#iii. -F- f. The tale is ob#iously archaic. 9or a translation see

eahy, i. F f.

**14 K6TK i. *E1 f. )'Arbois, #. ++. There is a suggestion in one of

the #ersions of another story, in hich 5etanta is chil! of Conchobar

an! his sister )echtire.

**-4 K6TK iii. +1- KRCK I#. 12- <utt&Meyer, ii. 2.

**24 5toe M5. +, KRCK #i. *31 K6TK ii. +* )'Arbois, #. Ef.

**34 K6TK iii. EE. Cf. the story of the ife of Cor"ac, ho as

barren till her "other ga#e her %ottage. Then she ha! a !aughter >KRCK

IIii. *F@.

**F4 <utt&Meyer, i. 1- f., teIt an! translation.

**4 6bi!. 1+ f.

*+4 6bi!. -F. The si"ultaneous birth for"ula occurs in "any

KMaerchenK, though that of the future ife is not co""on.

*+*4 <utt&Meyer, i. -+, -3, F-, F3.

*++4 KCPK ii. E*2 f. :ere Mongan co"es !irectly fro" /lysiu", as !oes

8isin before "eeting 5. Patrick.



*+E4 K6TK iii. E1- 8'Gra!y, ii. FF. Cf. Rees, EE*.

*+14 Guest, iii. E-2 f. see %. **2, Ksu%raK.

*+-4 6n so"e of the tales the s"all ani"al still eIists in!e%en!ently

after the birth, but this is %robably not their %ri"iti#e for".

*+24 5ee "y KReligion( 6ts 8rigin an! 9or"sK, 32&33.

*+34 5kene, i. -E+. After relating #arious sha%es in hich he has

been, the %oet a!!s that he has been a grain hich a hen recei#e!, an!

that he reste! in her o"b as a chil!. The reference in this early %oe"

fro" a fourteenth century M5. shos that the fusion of the KMaerchenK

for"ula ith a "yth of rebirth as alrea!y ell knon. 5ee also Guest,

iii. E2+, for #erses in hich the transfor"ations !uring the co"bat are

eIaggerate!.

*+F4 5kene, i. +32, -E+.

*+4 Miss :ull, 23 )'Arbois, #. EE*.

*+*4 9or #arious for"s of KgenoK&, see :ol!er, i. ++ 5tokes, K;5K

**.

*+**4 9or all these na"es see :ol!er, Ks.#.K

*+*+4 5. Aug. K!e Ci#. )eiK, I#. +E 6si!ore, K8rat.K #iii. +. *E.

K)usiosK "ay be connecte! ith ithuanian K!#aeseK, s%irit, an!

%erha%s ith Greek( Thehos4 >:ol!er, Ks.#.K@. )'Arbois sees in theK!usiiK ater&s%irits, an! co"%ares ri#er&na"es like )huys, )use#a,

)usius >#i. *F+ KRCK IiI. +-*@. The or! "ay be connecte! ith 6rish

K!uisK, glosse! noble >5tokes, KT6GK 32@. The Bretons still belie#e in

fairies calle! K!uHK, an! our or! K!iHHyK "ay be connecte! ith

K!usiosK, an! oul! then ha#e once signifie! the "a!ness folloing on

the Ka"ourK, like Greek Greek( ny"%hole%tos4, or the incon#enience of

their succubi, !escribe! by =irk in his K5ecret Co""onealth of the

/l#esK.

*+*E4 KK *+KbK KT85K #. +E1.

*+*14 Rhy4s, K:K -1.

*+*-4 5kene, i. +32, E, etc.

*+*24 5igerson, KBar!s of the GaelK, E3.

*+*34 Miss :ull, +FF :y!e, Kit. :ist. of 6relan!K, E.



*+*F4 KRCK II#i. +*.

*+*4 5kene, ii. -2.

*++4 )'Arbois, ii. +12, here he also !eri#es /rigena's %antheis" fro"

Celtic beliefs, such as he su%%oses to be eIe"%lifie! by these %oe"s.

*++*4 K;K *-KaK )'Arbois, ii. 13 f. <utt&Meyer, ii. +1 f.

*+++4 Another "etho! of accounting for this knole!ge as to i"agine a

long&li#e! %ersonage like 9intan ho sur#i#e! for - years. )'Arbois,

ii. ch. 1. :ere there as no transfor"ation or rebirth.

*++E4 <utt&Meyer, i. +1 KCPK ii. E*2.

*++14 8'Curry, KM5. Mat.K 3F.

*++-4 ?oo!&Martin, KPagan 6relan!K, *1 KChoice <otesK, 2* Monnier,

*1E Maury, +3+.

*++24 KChoice <otesK, 2 Rees, + e BraHO+, ii. F+, F2, E3 KRe#.

!es Tra!. Po%.K Iii. E1.

*++34 e BraHO+, ii. F K9olk&lore Jour.K #. *F.

*++F4 K9olk&oreK, i#. E-+.

*++4 Car"ichael, KCar". Ga!el.K ii. EE1 Rhy4s, KC9K 2+ e

BraHO+, i. *3, **, +.

*+E4 Mr. <utt, Koyage of BranK, !eri#e! the origin of the rebirth

conce%tion fro" orgiastic cults.

C:APT/R QQ6.

/$56;M.

The Celtic conce%tion of /lysiu", the %ro!uct at once of religion,

"ythology, an! ro"antic i"agination, is foun! in a series of 6rish an!

?elsh tales. ?e !o not kno that a si"ilar conce%tion eIiste! a"ong the

continental Celts, but, consi!ering the likeness of their beliefs in

other "atters to those of the insular Celts, there is a strong

%robability that it !i!. There are four ty%ical %resentations of the

/lysiu" conce%tion. 6n 6relan!, hile the go!s ere belie#e! to ha#e

retire! ithin the hills or Ksi!K, it is not unlikely that so"e of the"



ha! alays been su%%ose! to li#e in these or in a subterranean orl!,

an! it is therefore %ossible that hat "ay be calle! the subterranean or

Ksi!K ty%e of /lysiu" is ol!. But other ty%es also a%%ear&&that of a

estern islan! /lysiu", of a orl! belo the aters, an! of a orl!

co&eItensi#e ith this an! entere! by a "ist.

The na"es of the 6rish /lysiu" are so"eti"es of a general character&&Mag

Mor, the Great Plain Mag Mell, the Pleasant Plain Tir n'Aill, the

8ther&orl! Tir na "&Beo, the an! of the i#ing Tir na n&8g, the

an! of $outh an! Tir Tairngiri, the an! of Pro"ise&&%ossibly of

Christian origin. ocal na"es are Tir fa Tonn, an! un!er ?a#es

6&Bresail an! the an! of 9alga, na"es of the islan! /lysiu". The last

!enotes the 6sle of Man as /lysiu", an! it "ay ha#e been so regar!e! by

Goi!els in Britain at an early ti"e.*+E*4 To this %erio! "ay belong the

tales of Cuchulainn's rai! on 9alga, carrie! at a later ti"e to 6relan!.

Tir Tairngiri is also i!entifie! ith the 6sle of Man.*+E+4

A brief resu"e of the %rinci%al /lysiu" tales is necessary as a

%reli"inary to a !iscussion of the %roble"s hich they in#ol#e, thoughit can gi#e but little i!ea of the beauty an! ro"anticis" of the tales

the"sel#es. These, if not actually co"%ose! in %agan ti"es, are base!

u%on story&ger"s current before the co"ing of Christianity to 6relan!.

*. KThe si! /lysiu".K&&6n the story of /tain, hen Mi!er !isco#ere! her

in her rebirth, he !escribe! the lan! hither he oul! carry her, its

"usic an! its fair %eo%le, its ar" strea"s, its choice "ea! an! ine.

There is eternal youth, an! lo#e is bla"eless. 6t is ithin Mi!er's

Ksi!K, an! /tain acco"%anies hi" there. 6n the seLuel =ing /ochai!'s

)rui! !isco#ers the Ksi!K, hich is ca%ture! by the king, ho then

regains /tain.*+EE4 8ther tales refer to the Ksi!K in si"ilar ter"s,an! !escribe its treasures, its foo! an! !rink better than those of

earth. 6t is in "ost res%ects si"ilar to the islan! /lysiu", sa#e that

it is localise! on earth.

+. KThe islan! /lysiu".K&&The story of the #oyage of Bran is foun!

frag"entarily in the ele#enth century K;K, an! co"%lete in the

fourteenth an! siIteenth century M55. 6t tells ho Bran hear! "ysterious

"usic hen aslee%. 8n aking he foun! a sil#er branch ith blosso"s, an!

neIt !ay there a%%eare! a "ysterious o"an singing the glory of the lan!

o#erseas, its "usic, its on!erful tree, its free!o" fro" %ain an!

!eath. 6t is one of thrice fifty islan!s to the est of /rin, an! thereshe !ells ith thousan!s of "otley o"en. Before she !isa%%ears the

branch lea%s into her han!. Bran set sail ith his co"ra!es an! "et

Manannan crossing the sea in his chariot. The go! tol! hi" that the sea

as a floery %lain, Mag Mell, an! that all aroun!, unseen to Bran, ere

%eo%le %laying an! !rinking ithout sin. :e ba!e hi" sail on to the

an! of ?o"en. Then the #oyagers ent on an! reache! the 6sle of Joy,

here one of their nu"ber re"aine! behin!. At last they ca"e to the an!

of ?o"en, an! e hear of their elco"e, the !rea"like la%se of ti"e, the



foo! an! !rink hich ha! for each the taste he !esire!. 9inally the tale

recounts their ho"e&sickness, the arning they recei#e! not to set foot

on /rin, ho one of their nu"ber lea%e! ashore an! turne! to ashes, ho

Bran fro" his boat tol! of his an!erings an! then !isa%%eare! for

e#er.*+E14

Another story tells ho Connla as #isite! by a go!!ess fro" Mag Mell.

:er %eo%le !ell in a Ksi!K an! are calle! "en of the Ksi!K. 5he

in#ites hi" to go to the i""ortal lan!, an! !e%arts, lea#ing hi" an

a%%le, hich su%%orts hi" for a "onth ithout groing less. Then she

rea%%ears an! tells Connla that the /#er&i#ing 8nes !esire hi" to

join the". 5he bi!s hi" co"e ith her to the an! of Joy here there are

only o"en. :e ste%s into her crystal boat an! #anishes fro" his father

an! the )rui! ho has #ainly trie! to eIercise his s%ells against

her.*+E-4 6n this tale there is a confusion beteen the Ksi!K an! the

islan! /lysiu".

The eighteenth century %oe" of 8isin in Tir na n&8g is %robably base! on

ol! legen!s, an! !escribes ho <ia", !aughter of the king of Tir nan&8g, %lace! KgeasaK on 8isin to acco"%any her to that lan! of i""ortal

youth an! beauty. :e "ounte! on her stee!, hich %lunge! forar!s across

the sea, an! brought the" to the lan! here 8isin s%ent three hun!re!

years before returning to 6relan!, an! there suffering, as has been

seen, fro" the breaking of the tabu not to set foot on the soil of

/rin.*+E24

6n K5erglige Conculain!K, Cuchulainn's 5ickness, the go!!ess 9an!,

!eserte! by Manannan, offers herself to the hero if he ill hel% her

sister's husban! abrai! against his ene"ies in Mag Mell. abrai! li#es

in an islan! freLuente! by troo%s of o"en, an! %ossessing anineIhaustible #at of "ea! an! trees ith "agic fruit. 6t is reache! ith

"ar#ellous s%ee! in a boat of bronHe. After a %reli"inary #isit by his

charioteer aeg, Cuchulainn goes thither, #anLuishes abrai!'s foes, an!

re"ains a "onth ith 9an!. :e returns to 6relan!, an! no e hear of the

struggle for hi" beteen his ife /"er an! 9an!. But Manannan su!!enly

a%%ears, reaakens 9an!'s lo#e, an! she !e%arts ith hi". The go! shakes

his cloak beteen her an! Cuchulainn to %re#ent their e#er "eeting

again.*+E34 6n this story abrai!, 9an!, an! iban, 9an!'s sister,

though !ellers on an islan! /lysiu", are calle! Ksi!K&folk. The to

regions are %artially confuse!, but not holly, since Manannan is

!escribe! as co"ing fro" his on lan! >/lysiu"@ to oo 9an!. A%%arentlyabrai! of the 5ift :an! on the 5or! >ho, though calle! chief of the

Ksi!eK, is certainly a ar&go!@ is at en"ity ith Manannan's hosts, an!

it is these ith ho" Cuchulainn has to fight.*+EF4

6n an 8ssianic tale se#eral of the 9ians ere carrie! off to the an! of

Pro"ise. After "any a!#entures, 9ionn, )iar"ai!, an! others !isco#er

the", an! threaten to !estroy the lan! if they are not restore!. 6ts

king, A#arta, agrees to the restoration, an! ith fifteen of his "en



carries the 9ians to /rin on one horse. :a#ing reache! there, he bi!s

the" look at a certain fiel!, an! hile they are !oing so, he an! his

"en !isa%%ear.*+E4

E. Kan! un!er ?a#es.K&&9iachna, of the "en of the Ksi!K, a%%eare! to

the "en of Connaught, an! begge! their hel% against Goll, ho ha!

ab!ucte! his ife. oegaire an! his "en !i#e ith 9iachna into och

<aneane, an! reach a on!erful lan!, ith "ar#ellous "usic an! here the

rain is ale. They an! the Ksi!K&folk attack the fort of Mag Mell an!

!efeat Goll. /ach then obtains a o"an of the Ksi!eK, but at the en! of

a year they beco"e ho"esick. They are arne! not to !escen! fro"

horseback in /rin. Arri#e! a"ong their on %eo%le, they !escribe the

"ar#els of Tir fa Tonn, an! then return there, an! are no "ore

seen.*+14 :ere, again, the Ksi!K /lysiu" an! an! un!er ?a#es are

confuse!, an! the !i#ine tribes are at ar, as in the story of

Cuchulainn.

6n a section of the 8ssianic tale just cite!, 9ionn an! his "en arri#e

on an islan!, here )iar"ai! reaches a beautiful country at the botto"of a ell. This is Tir fa Tonn, an! )iar"ai! fights its king ho has

usur%e! his ne%he's inheritance, an! thus reco#ers it for hi".*+1*4

1. KCo&eItensi#e ith this orl!.K&&An early eIa"%le of this ty%e is

foun! in the KA!#entures of Cor"acK. A !i#ine #isitant a%%eare! to

Cor"ac an! ga#e hi" in eIchange for his ife, son, an! !aughter, his

branch of gol!en a%%les, hich hen shaken %ro!uce! seetest "usic,

!is%elling sorro. After a year Cor"ac set out to seek his fa"ily, an!

as he journeye! encountere! a "ist in hich he !isco#ere! a strange

house. 6ts "aster an! "istress&&Manannan an! his consort&&offere! hi"

shelter. The go! brought in a %ig, e#ery Luarter of hich as cooke! inthe telling of a true tale, the %ig afterar!s co"ing to life again.

Cor"ac, in his tale, !escribe! ho he ha! lost his fa"ily, hereu%on

Manannan "a!e hi" slee%, an! brought his ife an! chil!ren in. ater he

%ro!uce! a cu% hich broke hen a lie as tol!, but beca"e hole again

hen a true or! as s%oken. The go! sai! Cor"ac's ife ha! no a ne

husban!, an! the cu% broke, but as restore! hen the go!!ess !eclare!

this to be a lie. <eIt "orning all ha! !isa%%eare!, an! Cor"ac an! his

fa"ily foun! the"sel#es in his on %alace, ith cu% an! branch by their

si!e.*+1+4 5i"ilarly, in KThe Cha"%ion's /cstasyK, a "ysterious

horse"an a%%ears out of a "ist to Conn an! lea!s hi" to a %alace, here

he re#eals hi"self as the go! ug, an! here there is a o"an calle!the 5o#ereignty of /rin. Besi!e the %alace is a gol!en tree.*+1E4 6n

the story of Bran, Mag Mell is sai! to be all aroun! the hero, though he

knos it not&&an analogous conce%tion to hat is foun! in these tales,

an! another instance is that of the "ysterious house entere! by

Conchobar an! )echtire.*+114 Mag Mell "ay thus ha#e been regar!e! as a

"ysterious !istrict of /rin. This "agic "ist enclosing a "ar#ellous

!elling occurs in "any other tales, an! it as in a "ist that the

Tuatha )ea ca"e to 6relan!.



A certain corres%on!ence to these 6rish beliefs is foun! in Brythonic

story, but here the /lysiu" conce%tion has been influence! by Christian

i!eas. /lysiu" is calle! KAnnfnK, "eaning an abyss, the state of the

!ea!, hell, an! it is also concei#e! of as Kis elfy!!K, beneath the

earth.*+1-4 But in the tales it bears no likeness to these "eanings of

the or!, sa#e in so far as it has been confuse! by their Christian

re!actors ith hell. 6t is a region on the earth's surface or an o#er&or

un!er&sea orl!, in hich so"e of the characteristics of the 6rish

/lysiu" are foun!&&a caul!ron, a ell of !rink seeter than ine, an!

ani"als greatly !esire! by "ortals, hile it is of great beauty an! its

%eo%le are not subject to !eath or !isease. :ence the na"e KAnnfnK has

%robably taken the %lace of so"e earlier %agan title of /lysiu".

6n the tale of Pyll, the earliest reference to KAnnfnK occurs. 6t is

rule! by Aran, at ar ith :afgan. Aran obtains the hel% of Pyll by

eIchanging king!o"s ith hi" for a year, an! Pyll !efeats :afgan. 6t is

a beautiful lan!, here "erri"ent an! feasting go on continuously, an!

its Lueen is of great lo#eliness. 6t has no subterranean character, an!is concei#e! a%%arently as contiguous to Pyll's king!o".*+124 6n other

tales it is the lan! hence Gy!ion an! others obtain #arious

ani"als.*+134 The later folk&conce%tion of the !e"oniac !ogs of Annfn

"ay be base! on an ol! "yth of !ogs ith hich its king hunte!. These

are referre! to in the story of Pyll.*+1F4

KAnnfnK is also the na"e of a lan! un!er a#es or o#er sea, calle! also

KCaer 5i!iK, the re#ol#ing castle, about hich are ocean's strea"s.

6t is knon to Manay!!an an! Pry!eri, just as the 6rish /lysiu" as

rule! by Manannan.*+14 Another Caer of )efence is beneath the

a#es.*+-4 Perha%s the to i!eas ere interchangeable. The %eo%le ofthis lan! are free fro" !eath an! !isease, an! in it is an abun!ant

ell, seeter than hite ine the !rink in it. There also is a caul!ron

belonging to the lor! of Annfn, hich as stolen by Arthur an! his "en.

5uch a caul!ron is the %ro%erty of %eo%le belonging to a ater orl! in

the KMabinogionK.*+-*4

The !escri%tion of the isle of A#allon >later i!entifie! ith

Glastonbury@, hither Arthur as carrie!, co"%letes the likeness to the

6rish /lysiu". <o te"%est, eIcess of heat or col!, nor noIious ani"al

afflicts it it is blesse! ith eternal s%ring an! ith fruit an!

floers groing ithout labour it is the lan! of eternal youth,un#isite! by !eath or !isease. 6t has a Kregia #irgoK lo#elier than her

lo#ely atten!ants she cure! Arthur of his oun!s, hence she is the

Morgen of other tales, an! she an! her "ai!ens "ay be i!entifie! ith

the !i#ine o"en of the 6rish isle of o"en. Morgen is calle! a K!ea

%hantasticaK, an! she "ay be co"%are! ith iban, ho cure! Cuchulainn

of his sickness.*+-+4

The i!entification of A#allon ith Glastonbury is %robably %ost&%agan,



an! the na"es a%%lie! to Glastonbury&&A#allon, K6nsula Po"onu"K, K6nsula

#itreaK&&"ay be %ri"iti#e na"es of /lysiu". ?illia" of Mal"esbury

!eri#es K6nsula Po"onu"K in its a%%lication to Glastonbury fro" a nati#e

na"e K6nsula A#allonioeK, hich he connects ith the Brythonic Ka#allaK,

a%%les, because Glastenig foun! an a%%le tree there.*+-E4 The na"e

"ay thus ha#e been connecte! ith "ar#ellous a%%le trees, like those of

the 6rish /lysiu". But he also suggests that it "ay be !eri#e! fro" the

na"e of A#alloc, li#ing there ith his !aughters. A#alloc is e#i!ently

the ReI A#allon >A#allach@ to hose %alace Arthur as carrie! an!

heale! by the Kregia #irgoK.*+-14 :e "ay therefore ha#e been a "ythic

lor! of /lysiu", an! his !aughters oul! corres%on! to the "ai!ens of

the isle. ?illia" also !eri#es Glastonbury fro" the na"e of an

e%ony"ous foun!er Glastenig, or fro" its nati#e na"e K$nesuuitronK,

Glass 6slan!. This na"e rea%%ears in Chretien's K/ricK in the for"

l'isle !e #erre. Giral!us eI%lains the na"e fro" the glassy aters

aroun! Glastonbury, but it "ay be an early na"e of /lysiu".*+--4 Glass

"ust ha#e a%%eale! to the i"agination of Celt, Teuton, an! 5la#, for e

hear of Merlin's glass house, a glass fort !isco#ere! by Arthur, a glass

toer attacke! by the Milesians, /tain's glass KgriananK, an! a boat ofglass hich con#eye! Connla to /lysiu". 6n Teutonic an! 5la#onic "yth

an! KMaerchenK, glass "ountains, on hich !ell "ysterious %ersonages,

freLuently occur.

The origin of the Celtic /lysiu" belief "ay be foun! in uni#ersal "yths

of a gol!en age long ago in so"e !istant /lysian region, here "en ha!

li#e! ith the go!s. 6nto that region bra#e "ortals "ight still

%enetrate, though it as lost to "ankin! as a hole. 6n so"e "ythologies

this /lysiu" is the lan! hither "en go after !eath. Possibly the Celtic

"yth of "an's early intercourse ith the go!s in a lost region took to

for"s. 6n one it as a joyful subterranean region hither the Celt ho%e!to go after !eath. 6n the other it as not reco#erable, nor as it the

lan! of the !ea!, but fa#oure! "ortals "ight reach it in life. The

Celtic /lysiu" belief, as knon through the tales just cite!, is alays

of this secon! kin!. ?e sur"ise, hoe#er, that the lan! of the !ea! as

a joyous un!erorl! rule! o#er by a go! of fertility an! of the !ea!,

an! fro" that region "en ha! originally co"e forth. The later

association of go!s ith the Ksi!K as a continuation of this belief,

but no the Ksi!K are certainly not a lan! of the !ea!, but /lysiu" %ure

an! si"%le. There "ust therefore ha#e been at an early %erio! a ten!ency

to !istinguish beteen the ha%%y region of the !ea!, an! the !istant

/lysiu", if the to ere e#er really connecte!. The subject is obscure,but it is not i"%ossible that another origin of the /lysiu" i!ea "ay be

foun! in the %heno"enon of the setting sun( it suggeste! to the

continental Celts that far off there as a !i#ine lan! here the sun&go!

reste!. ?hen the Celts reache! the coast this !i#ine estern lan! oul!

necessarily be locate! in a far&off islan!, seen %erha%s on the horiHon.

:ence it oul! also be regar!e! as connecte! ith the sea&go!, Manannan,

or by hatsoe#er na"e he as calle!. The !istant /lysiu", hether on

lan! or across the sea, as concei#e! in i!entical ter"s, an! hence also



hene#er the hollo hills or Ksi!K ere regar!e! as an abo!e of the

go!s, they also ere !escribe! just as /lysiu" as.

The i!ea of a orl! un!er the aters is co""on to "any "ythologies, an!,

generally s%eaking, it originate! in the ani"istic belief that e#ery

%art of nature has its in!elling s%irits. :ence the s%irits or go!s of

the aters ere thought of as !elling belo the aters. Tales of

su%ernatural beings a%%earing out of the aters, the custo" of throing

offerings therein, the belief that hu"an beings ere carrie! belo the

surface or coul! li#e in the region beneath the a#es, are all connecte!

ith this ani"istic i!ea. A"ong the Celts this ater&orl! assu"e! "any

as%ects of /lysiu", an! it has na"es in co""on ith it, e.g. it is

calle! Mag Mell. :ence in "any %o%ular tales it is har!ly !ifferentiate!

fro" the islan! /lysiu" o#ersea an! un!er&a#es are often synony"ous.

:ence, too, the belief that such ater&orl!s as 6&Bresail, or ?elsh

fairy&lan!s, or sunken cities off the Breton coast, rise %erio!ically to

the surface, an! oul! re"ain there %er"anently, like an islan! /lysiu",

if so"e "ortal oul! fulfil certain con!itions.*+-24

The Celtic belief in Tir fa Tonn is closely connecte! ith the current

belief in sub"erge! tons or lan!s, foun! in greatest !etail on the

Breton coast. :ere there are "any such legen!s, but "ost %ro"inent are

those hich tell ho the ton of 6s as sub"erge! because of the

icke!ness of its %eo%le, or of )ahut, its king's !aughter, ho

so"eti"es still seeks the lo#e of "ortals. 6t is occasionally seen belo

the a#es or e#en on their surface.*+-34 /lsehere in Celtic regions

si"ilar legen!s are foun!, an! the sub"ersion is the result of a curse,

of the breaking of a tabu, or of neglect to co#er a sacre! ell.*+-F4

Probably the tra!ition of actual cataclys"s or inroa!s of the sea, such

as the Celts encountere! on the coasts of :ollan!, "ay account for so"eof these legen!s, hich then "ingle! ith "yths of the !i#ine

ater&orl!.

The i!ea that /lysiu" is co&eItensi#e ith this orl! an! hi!!en in a

"ist is %erha%s connecte! ith the belief in the "agical %oers of the

go!s. As the )rui!s coul! raise a "ist at ill, so too "ight the go!s,

ho then create! a te"%orary /lysiu" in it. 9ro" such a "ist, usually on

a hill, su%ernatural beings often e"erge! to "eet "ortals, an! in

KMaerchenK fairylan! is so"eti"es foun! ithin a "ist.*+-4 6t as

alrea!y belie#e! that %art of the go!s' lan! as not far off it as

in#isibly on or ithin the hills on hose slo%es "en sa the "istsirling "ysteriously. :ence the "ist "ay si"%ly ha#e conceale! the

Ksi!K of the go!s. But there "ay also ha#e been a belief that this orl!

as actually inter%enetrate! by the !i#ine orl!, for this is belie#e!

of fairylan! in ?elsh an! 6rish folk&lore. Men "ay unittingly interfere

ith it, or ha#e it su!!enly re#eale! to the", or be carrie! into it an!

"a!e in#isible.*+24

6n "ost of the tales /lysiu" is a lan! ithout grief or !eath, here



there is i""ortal youth an! %eace, an! e#ery kin! of !elight. But in

so"e, hile the sensuous !elights are still the sa"e, the inhabitants

are at ar, in#ite the ai! of "ortals to o#erco"e their foes, an! are

e#en slain in fight. 5till in both grou%s /lysiu" is a lan! of go!s an!

su%ernatural folk hither "ortals are in#ite! by fa#our. 6t is ne#er the

orl! of the !ea! its %eo%le are not "ortals ho ha#e !ie! an! gone

thither. The to conce%tions of /lysiu" as a lan! of %eace an!

!eathlessness, an! as a lan! here ar an! !eath "ay occur, "ay both be

%ri"iti#e. The latter "ay ha#e been for"e! by reflecting back on the

!i#ine orl! the actions of the orl! of "ortals, an! it oul! also be

on a %arallel ith the conce%tion of the orl! of the !ea! here

arriors %erha%s still fought, since they ere burie! ith their

ea%ons. There ere also "yths of go!s arring ith each other. But "en

"ay also ha#e felt that the go!s ere not as the"sel#es, that their lan!

"ust be one of %eace an! !eathlessness. :ence the i!ea of the %eaceful

/lysiu", hich %erha%s foun! "ost fa#our ith the %eo%le. Mr. <utt

thought that the i!ea of a arlike /lysiu" "ay ha#e resulte! fro"

5can!ina#ian influence acting on eIisting tales of a %eaceful

/lysiu",*+2*4 but e kno that ol! "yths of !i#ine ars alrea!yeIiste!. Perha%s this conce%tion arose a"ong the Celts as a arlike

%eo%le, a%%ealing to their arrior instincts, hile the %eaceful /lysiu"

"ay ha#e been the %ro!uct of the Celts as an agricultural folk, for e

ha#e seen that the Celt as no a fighter, no a far"er. 6n its %eaceful

as%ect /lysiu" is a fa"iliar, culti#ate! lan!, here the fruits of the

earth are %ro!uce! ithout labour, an! here there are no stor"s or

eIcess of heat or col!&&the fancies hich oul! a%%eal to a toiling,

agricultural %eo%le. There foo! is %ro!uce! "agically, yet naturally,

an! in agricultural ritual "en sought to increase their foo! su%%ly

"agically. 6n the tales this %rocess is, so to s%eak, heightene!.*+2+4

5o"e riters ha#e "aintaine! that /lysiu" is si"%ly the lan! of the

!ea!, although nothing in the eIisting tales justifies this

inter%retation. M. )'Arbois argues for this #ie, resting his theory

"ainly on a %assage in the story of Connla, inter%rete! by hi" in a ay

hich !oes not gi#e its real "eaning.*+2E4 The or!s are s%oken by the

go!!ess to Connla, an! their sense is&&The /#er&i#ing 8nes in#ite

thee. Thou art a cha"%ion to Tethra's %eo%le. They see thee e#ery !ay in

the asse"blies of thy fatherlan!, a"ong thy fa"iliar lo#e! ones.*+214

M. )'Arbois assu"es that Tethra, a 9o"orian, is lor! of /lysiu", an!

that after his !efeat by the Tuatha )ea, he, like =ronos, took refuge

there, an! no reigns as lor! of the !ea!. By translating Kar&!ot&chiatK>they see thee, Er! %lur., %res. in!.@ as on t'y #erra, he "aintains

that Connla, by going to /lysiu", ill be seen a"ong the gatherings of

his !ea! kinsfolk. But the or!s, Thou art a cha"%ion to Tethra's

%eo%le, cannot be "a!e to "ean that Tethra is a go! of the !ea!. 6t

"eans si"%ly that Connla is a "ighty arrior, one of those ho" Tethra,

a ar&go!, oul! ha#e a%%ro#e!. The %hrase, Tethra's "ighty "en, use!

elsehere,*+2-4 is a con#entional one for arriors. The rest of the

go!!ess's or!s i"%ly that the 6""ortals fro" afar, or %erha%s Tethra's



"ighty "en, i.e. arriors in this orl!, see Connla in the asse"blies

of his fatherlan! in /rin, a"ong his fa"iliar frien!s. )rea! !eath

aaits Kthe"K, she has just sai!, but the 6""ortals !esire Connla to

esca%e that by co"ing to /lysiu". :er or!s !o not i"%ly that he ill

"eet his !ea! ancestors there, nor is she in any sense a go!!ess of

!eath. 6f the !ea! ent to /lysiu", there oul! be little nee! for

in#iting a li#ing %erson to go there. :a! Connla's !ea! ancestors or

Tethra's %eo%le >arriors@ been in /lysiu", this oul! contra!ict the

%icture !ran by the go!!ess of the lan! hither she !esires hi" to

go&&a lan! of o"en, not of "en. Moreo#er, the rulers of /lysiu" are

alays "e"bers of the Tuatha )e )anann or the Ksi!K&folk, ne#er a

9o"orian like Tethra.*+224

M. )'Arbois also assu"es that 5%ain in <ennius' account of the 6rish

in#asions an! in 6rish teIts "eans the lan! of the !ea!, an! that it as

intro!uce! in %lace of so"e such title as Mag Mor or Mag Mell by the

euhe"erising %rocess of the 6rish Christians. But in other !ocu"ents

%enne! by 6rish Christians these an! other %agan titles of /lysiu"

re"ain unchange!. <or is there the slightest %roof that the or!s use!by Tuan MacCaraill about the in#a!ers of 6relan!, They all !ie!, ere

ren!ere! in an original teIt, no lost accor!ing to M. )'Arbois, They

set sail for Mag Mor or Mag Mell, a for"ula in hich <ennius sa

in!ications of a return to 5%ain.*+234 5%ain, in this hy%othetical

teIt, as the an! of the )ea! or /lysiu", hence the in#a!ers ca"e.

This lost original eIists in M. )'Arbois i"agination, an! there is not

the slightest e#i!ence for these alterations. 8nce, in!ee!, Tailtiu is

calle! !aughter of Magh Mor, =ing of 5%ain, but here a %erson, not a

%lace, is s%oken of.*+2F4 5ir John Rhy4s acce%ts the i!entification

of 5%ain ith /lysiu" as the lan! of the !ea!, an! fin!s in e#ery

reference to 5%ain a reference to the 8ther&orl!, hich he regar!s as aregion rule! by !ark !i#inities. But neither the lor!s of /lysiu" nor

the Celtic )is%ater ere !ark or gloo"y !eities, an! the lan! of the

!ea! as certainly not a lan! of !arkness any "ore than /lysiu". The

nu"erous references to 5%ain %robably %oint to ol! tra!itions regar!ing

a connection beteen 5%ain an! 6relan! in early ti"es, both co""ercial

an! social, an! it is not i"%ossible that Goi!elic in#a!ers !i! reach

6relan! fro" 5%ain.*+24 /arly "a%s an! geogra%hers "ake 6relan! an!

5%ain contiguous hence in an 6rish tale 6relan! is #isible fro" 5%ain,

an! this geogra%hical error oul! strengthen eIisting tra!itions.*+34

5%ain as use! #aguely, but it !oes not a%%ear to ha#e "eant /lysiu"

or the an! of the )ea!. 6f it !i!, it is strange that the Tuatha )e)anann are ne#er brought into connection ith it.

8ne of the "ost "arke! characteristics of the Celtic /lysiu" is its

!eathlessness. 6t is the lan! of the li#ing or of the /#er&i#ing

8nes, an! of eternal youth. Most %ri"iti#e races belie#e that !eath is

an acci!ent befalling "en ho are naturally i""ortal hence free!o" fro"

such an acci!ent naturally characterises the %eo%le of the !i#ine lan!.

But, as in other "ythologies, that i""ortality is "ore or less !e%en!ent



on the eating or !rinking of so"e foo! or !rink of i""ortality. Manannan

ha! i""ortal sine, hich, kille! one !ay, ca"e ali#e neIt !ay, an! ith

their flesh he "a!e the Tuatha )e )anann i""ortal. 6""ortality as also

conferre! by the !rinking of Goibniu's ale, hich, either by itself or

ith the flesh of sine, for"e! his i""ortal feast. The foo! of /lysiu"

as ineIhaustible, an! hoe#er ate it foun! it to %ossess that taste

hich he %referre!. The fruit of certain trees in /lysiu" as also

belie#e! to confer i""ortality an! other Lualities. aeg sa one hun!re!

an! fifty trees groing in Mag Mell their nuts fe! three hun!re!

%eo%le. The a%%le gi#en by the go!!ess to Connla as ineIhaustible, an!

he as still eating it ith her hen Teigue, son of Cian, #isite!

/lysiu". ?hen once they ha! %artaken of it, nor age nor !i"ness coul!

affect the".*+3*4 A%%les, cri"son nuts, an! roan berries are

s%ecifically sai! to be the foo! of the go!s in the tale of K)iar"ai!

an! GrainneK. Through carelessness one of the berries as !ro%%e! on

earth, an! fro" it gre a tree, the berries of hich ha! the effect of

ine or "ea!, an! three of the" eaten by a "an of a hun!re! years "a!e

hi" youthful. 6t as guar!e! by a giant.*+3+4 A si"ilar tree groing on

earth&&a roan guar!e! by a !ragon, is foun! in the tale of 9raoch, hoas bi!!en to bring a branch of it to Ailill. 6ts berries ha! the #irtue

of nine "eals they heale! the oun!e!, an! a!!e! a year to a "an's

life.*+3E4 At the ells hich ere the source of 6rish ri#ers ere

su%%ose! to gro haHel&trees ith cri"son nuts, hich fell into the

ater an! ere eaten by sal"on.*+314 6f these ere caught an! eaten,

the eater obtaine! is!o" an! knole!ge. These ells ere in /rin, but

in so"e instances the ell ith its haHels an! sal"on is in the

8ther&orl!,*+3-4 an! it is ob#ious that the cri"son nuts are the sa"e

as the foo! of the go!s in K)iar"ai! an! GrainneK.

?hy shoul! i""ortality be !e%en!ent on the eating of certain foo!sS Mostof "an's irrational i!eas ha#e so"e reason in the", an! %robably "an's

knole!ge that ithout foo! life oul! co"e to an en!, joine! to his

i!ea of !eathlessness, le! hi" to belie#e that there as a certain foo!

hich %ro!uce! i""ortality just as or!inary foo! su%%orte! life. 8n it

go!s an! !eathless beings ere fe!. 5i"ilarly, as ater cleanse! an!

in#igorate!, it as thought that so"e s%ecial kin! of ater ha! these

%oers in a "ar#ellous !egree. :ence arose the tales of the 9ountain of

$outh an! the belief in healing ells. 9ro" the knole!ge of the

nourishing %oer of foo!, s%rang the i!ea that so"e foo! conferre! the

Lualities inherent in it, e.g. the flesh of !i#ine ani"als eaten

sacra"entally, an! that go!s obtaine! their i""ortality fro" eating or!rinking. This i!ea is i!es%rea!. The Babylonian go!s ha! foo! an!

ater of ife /gy%tian "yth s%oke of the brea! an! beer of eternity

hich nourishe! the go!s the :in!us an! 6ranians kne of the !i#ine

Kso"aK or Khao"aK an! in 5can!ina#ian "yth the go!s renee! their youth

by tasting 6!una's gol!en a%%les.

6n Celtic /lysiu" tales, the fruit of a tree is "ost usually the foo! of

i""ortality. The fruit ne#er !i"inishes an! alays satisfies, an! it is



the foo! of the go!s. ?hen eaten by "ortals it confers i""ortality u%on

the" in other or!s, it "akes the" of like nature to the go!s, an! this

is !oubtless !eri#e! fro" the i!es%rea! i!ea that the eating of foo!

gi#en by a stranger "akes a "an of one kin ith hi". :ence to eat the

foo! of go!s, fairies, or of the !ea!, bin!s the "ortal to the" an! he

cannot lea#e their lan!. This "ight be illustrate! fro" a i!e range of

"yth an! folk&belief. ?hen Connla ate the a%%le he at once !esire! to go

to /lysiu", an! he coul! not lea#e it once he as there he ha! beco"e

akin to its %eo%le. 6n the stories of Bran an! 8isin, they are not sai!

to ha#e eaten such fruit, but the %ri"iti#e for" of the tales "ay ha#e

containe! this inci!ent, an! this oul! eI%lain hy they coul! not set

foot on earth unscathe!, an! hy Bran an! his folloers, or, in the tale

of 9iachna, oegaire an! his "en ho ha! !runk the ale of /lysiu",

returne! thither. 6n other tales, it is true, those ho eat foo! in

/lysiu" can return to earth&&Cor"ac an! Cuchulainn but ha! e the

%ri"iti#e for" of these tales e shoul! %robably fin! that they ha!

refraine! fro" eating. The inci!ent of the fruit gi#en by an i""ortal to

a "ortal "ay ha#e borroe! so"ething fro" the i!e folk&custo" of the

%resentation of an a%%le as a gage of lo#e or as a %art of the "arriagerite.*+324 6ts acce%tance !enotes illingness to enter u%on betrothal

or "arriage. But as in the Ro"an rite of KconfarreatioK ith its sa#age

%arallels, the un!erlying i!ea is %robably that hich has just been

consi!ere!, na"ely, that the gi#ing an! acce%tance of foo! %ro!uces the

bon! of kinshi%.

As #arious nuts an! fruits ere %riHe! in 6relan! as foo!, an! ere

%erha%s use! in so"e cases to %ro!uce an intoIicant,*+334 it is e#i!ent

that the trees of /lysiu" ere, %ri"arily, a "agnifie! for" of earthly

trees. But all such trees ere !oubtless objects of a cult before their

%ro!uce as generally eaten they ere first sacre! or tote"&trees, an!their foo! eaten only occasionally an! sacra"entally. 6f so, this oul!

eI%lain hy they gre in /lysiu" an! their fruit as the foo! of the

go!s. 9or hate#er "an eats or !rinks is generally su%%ose! to ha#e been

first eaten an! !runk by the go!s, like the Kso"aK. But, groing in

/lysiu", these trees, like the trees of "ost "yths of /lysiu", are far

"ore "ar#ellous than any knon on earth. They ha#e branches of sil#er

an! gol!en a%%les they ha#e "agical su%%lies of fruit, they %ro!uce

on!erful "usic hich so"eti"es causes slee% or obli#ion an! bir!s

%erch in their branches an! arble "elo!y such that the sick oul!

slee% to it. 6t shoul! be note! also that, as Miss :ull %oints out, in

so"e tales the branch of a !i#ine tree beco"es a talis"an lea!ing the"ortal to /lysiu" in this rese"bling the gol!en bough %lucke! by A/neas

before #isiting the un!erorl!.*+3F4 This, hoe#er, is not the

fun!a"ental characteristic of the tree, in 6rish story. Possibly, as Mr.

A.B. Cook "aintains, the branch gi#ing entrance to /lysiu" is !eri#e!

fro" the branch borne by early Celtic kings of the oo!, hile the tree

is an i"aginati#e for" of those hich incarnate! a #egetation

s%irit.*+34 Be this as it "ay, it is rather the fruit eaten by the

"ortal hich bin!s hi" to the 6""ortal an!.



The inhabitants of /lysiu" are not only i""ortal, but also in#isible at

ill. They "ake the"sel#es #isible to one %erson only out of "any

%resent ith hi". Connla alone sees the go!!ess, in#isible to his father

an! the )rui!. Mananuan is #isible to Bran, but there are "any near the

hero ho" he !oes not see an! hen the sa"e go! co"es to 9an!, he is

in#isible to Cuchulainn an! those ith hi". 5o Mi!er says to /tain, ?e

behol!, an! are not behel!.*+F4 8ccasionally, too, the %eo%le of

/lysiu" ha#e the %oer of sha%e&shifting&&9an! an! iban a%%ear to

Cuchulainn as bir!s.

The haHel of knole!ge connects is!o" ith the go!s' orl!, an! in

Celtic belief generally ci#ilisation an! culture ere su%%ose! to ha#e

co"e fro" the go!s. The things of their lan! ere co#ete! by "en, an!

often stolen thence by the". 6n ?elsh an! 6rish tales, often ith

reference to the 8ther&orl!, a "agical caul!ron has a %ro"inent %lace.

)ag!a %ossesse! such a caul!ron an! it as ineIhaustible, an! a #at of

ineIhaustible "ea! is !escribe! in the story of KCuchulain's 5icknessK.

?hate#er as %ut into such caul!rons satisfie! all, no "atter honu"erous they "ight be.*+F*4 Cuchulainn obtaine! one fro" the !aughter

of the king of 5cath, an! also carrie! off the king's three cos.*+F+4

6n an analogous story, he stole fro" Curoi, by the conni#ance of his

ife Blathnat, her father Mi!er's caul!ron, three cos, an! the o"an

herself. But in another #ersion Cuchulainn an! Curoi go to Mi!er's

stronghol! in the 6sle of 9alga >/lysiu"@, an! steal caul!ron, cos, an!

Blathnat. These ere taken fro" Cuchulainn by Curoi hence his re#enge

as in the %re#ious tale.*+FE4 Thus the theft as fro" /lysiu". 6n the

?elsh %oe" The 5%oils of Annfn, Arthur stole a caul!ron fro" Annfn.

6ts ri" as encruste! ith %earls, #oices issue! fro" it, it as ke%t

boiling by the breath of nine "ai!ens, an! it oul! not boil a coar!'sfoo!.*+F14

As has been seen fro" the story of Gion, he as set to atch a caul!ron

hich "ust boil until it yiel!e! three !ro%s of the grace of

ins%iration. 6t belonge! to Tegi! oel an! Cerri!en, !i#ine rulers of

a an! un!er the ?aters.*+F-4 6n the KMabinogiK of Branen, her brother

Bran recei#e! a caul!ron fro" to beings, a "an an! a huge o"an, ho

ca"e fro" a lake. This caul!ron as gi#en by hi" to the king of /rin,

an! it ha! the %ro%erty of restoring to life the slain ho ere %lace!

in it.*+F24

The three %ro%erties of the caul!ron&&ineIhaustibility, ins%iration, an!

regeneration&&"ay be su""e! u% in one or!, fertility an! it is

significant that the go! ith ho" such a caul!ron as associate!,

)ag!a, as a go! of fertility. But e ha#e just seen it associate!,

!irectly or in!irectly, ith go!!esses&&Cerri!en, Branen, the o"an

fro" the lake&&an! %erha%s this "ay %oint to an earlier cult of

go!!esses of fertility, later transferre! to go!s. 6n this light the

caul!ron's %oer of restoring to life is significant, since in early



belief life is associate! ith hat is fe"inine. ?o"an as the fruitful

"other suggeste! that the /arth, hich %ro!uce! an! nourishe!, as also

fe"ale. :ence arose the cult of the /arth&"other ho as often also a

go!!ess of lo#e as ell as of fertility. Cerri!en, in all %robability,

as a go!!ess of fertility, an! Branen a go!!ess of lo#e.*+F34 The

cult of fertility as usually associate! ith orgiastic an!

in!iscri"inate lo#e&"aking, an! it is not i"%ossible that the caul!ron,

like the :in!u KyoniK, as a sy"bol of fertility.*+FF4 Again, the

slaughter an! cooking of ani"als as usually regar!e! as a sacre! act in

%ri"iti#e life. The ani"als ere cooke! in enor"ous caul!rons, hich

ere foun! as an in#ariable %art of the furniture of e#ery Celtic

house.*+F4 The Luantities of "eat hich they containe! "ay ha#e

suggeste! ineIhaustibility to %eo%le to ho" the caul!ron as alrea!y a

sy"bol of fertility. Thus the sy"bolic caul!ron of a fertility cult as

"erge! ith the caul!ron use! in the religious slaughter an! cooking of

ani"al foo!. The caul!ron as also use! in ritual. The Ci"ri slaughtere!

hu"an #icti"s o#er a caul!ron an! fille! it ith their bloo! #icti"s

sacrifice! to Teutates ere suffocate! in a #at >Kse"icu%iu"K@ an! in

6relan! a caul!ron of truth as use! in the or!eal of boilingater.*+4 ike the foo! of "en hich as regar!e! as the foo! of the

go!s, the caul!ron of this orl! beca"e the "ar#ellous caul!ron of the

8ther&orl!, an! as it then beca"e necessary to eI%lain the origin of

such caul!rons on earth, "yths arose, telling ho they ha! been stolen

fro" the !i#ine lan! by a!#enturous heroes, Cuchulainn, Arthur, etc. 6n

other instances, the caul!ron is re%lace! by a "agic #essel or cu%

stolen fro" su%ernatural beings by heroes of the 9ionn saga or of

KMaerchenK.*+*4 :ere, too, it "ay be note! that the Graal of Arthurian

ro"ance has affinities ith the Celtic caul!ron. 6n the KConte !u GraalK

of %seu!o&Chretien, a cu% co"es in of itself an! ser#es all %resent ith

foo!. This is a si"%le conce%tion of the Graal, but in other %oe"s its"agical an! sacrosanct character is heightene!. 6t su%%lies the foo!

hich the eater %refers, it gi#es i""ortal youth an! i""unity fro"

oun!s. 6n these res%ects it %resents an un"istakable likeness to the

caul!ron of Celtic "yth. But, again, it as the #essel in hich Christ

ha! institute! the Blesse! 5acra"ent it containe! :is Bloo! an! it ha!

been gi#en by our or! to Jose%h of Ari"athea. Thus in the Graal there

as a fusion of the "agic caul!ron of Celtic %aganis" an! the 5acre!

Chalice of Christianity, ith the %ro!uct "a!e "ystic an! glorious in a

"ost on!erful "anner. The story of the Graal beca"e i""ensely %o%ular,

an!, !ee%ening in ethical, "ystical, an! ro"antic i"%ort as ti"e ent

on, as taken u% by one %oet after another, ho use! it as a ty%e ofthe loftiest goal of "an's effort.*++4

6n other ays "yth tol! ho the gifts of ci#ilisation ca"e fro" the

go!s' orl!. ?hen "an ca"e to !o"esticate ani"als, it as belie#e! in

course of ti"e that the knole!ge of !o"estication or, "ore usually, the

ani"als the"sel#es ha! co"e fro" the go!s, only, in this case, the

ani"als ere of a "agical, su%ernatural kin!. 5uch a belief un!erlies

the stories in hich Cuchulainn steals cos fro" their !i#ine oners. 6n



other instances, heroes ho obtain a ife fro" the Ksi!K&folk, obtain

also cattle fro" the Ksi!K.*+E4 As has been seen the sine gi#en to

Pry!eri by Aran, king of Annfn, an! hitherto unknon to "an, are

stolen fro" hi" by Gy!ion, Pry!eri being son of Pyll, a te"%orary king

of Annfn, an! in all %robability both ere lor!s of /lysiu". The theft,

in the original for" of the "yth, "ust thus ha#e been fro" /lysiu",

though e ha#e a hint in The 5%oils of Annfn that Gy!ion >Geir@ as

unsuccessful an! as i"%risone! in Annfn, to hich i"%rison"ent the

later blen!ing of Annfn ith hell ga#e a !oleful as%ect.*+14 6n a

late ?elsh M5., a hite roebuck an! a %u%%y >or, in the KTria!sK, a

bitch, a roebuck, an! a la%ing@ ere stolen by A"aethon fro" Annfn, an!

the story %resents archaic features.*+-4 6n so"e of these tales the

ani"als are transferre! to earth by a !i#ine or se"i&!i#ine being, in

ho" e "ay see an early Celtic culture&hero. The tales are attenuate!

for"s of ol!er "yths hich shoe! ho all !o"estic ani"als ere at first

the %ro%erty of the go!s, an! an echo of these is still hear! in

KMaerchenK !escribing the theft of cattle fro" fairylan!. 6n the "ost

%ri"iti#e for" of the tales the theft as !oubtless fro" the un!erorl!

of go!s of fertility, the %lace hither the !ea! ent. But ith the riseof "yths telling of a !istant /lysiu", it as ine#itable that so"e tales

shoul! connect the ani"als an! the theft ith that far&off lan!. 5o far

as the 6rish an! ?elsh tales are concerne!, the thefts see" "ainly to be

fro" /lysiu".*+24

o#e&"aking has a large %lace in the /lysiu" tales. Go!!esses seek the

lo#e of "ortals, an! the "ortal !esires to #isit /lysiu" because of

their entice"ents. But the lo#e&"aking of /lysiu" is ithout sin,

ithout cri"e, an! this %hrase "ay %erha%s suggest the eIistence of

ritual seI&unions at state! ti"es for "agical influence u%on the

fertility of the earth, these unions not being regar!e! as i""oral, e#enhen they tres%asse! on custo"ary tribal la. 6n so"e of the stories

/lysiu" is co"%ose! of "any islan!s, one of hich is the islan! of

o"en.*+34 These o"en an! their Lueen gi#e their fa#ours to Bran an!

his "en or to Mael!uin an! his co"%any. 5i"ilar islan!s of o"en occur

in KMaerchenK, still current a"ong Celtic %eo%les, an! actual islan!s

ere or still are calle! by that na"e&&/igg an! GroageH off the Breton

coast.*+F4 5i"ilar islan!s of o"en are knon to Chinese, Ja%anese,

an! Ainu folk&lore, to Greek "ythology >Circe's an! Caly%so's islan!s@,

an! to ancient /gy%tian conce%tions of the future life.*+4 They ere

also knon elsehere,*E4 an! e "ay therefore assu"e that in

!escribing such an islan! as %art of /lysiu", the Celts ere usingso"ething co""on to uni#ersal folk&belief. But it "ay also oe so"ething

to actual custo", to the "e"ory of a ti"e hen o"en %erfor"e! their

rites in seclusion, a seclusion %erha%s recalle! in the references to

the "ysterious nature of the islan!, its inaccessibility, an! its

!isa%%earance once the "ortal lea#es it. To these rites "en "ay ha#e

been a!"itte! by fa#our, but %erha%s to their !etri"ent, because of

their te"%orary %artner's eItre"e erotic "a!ness. This is the case in

the Chinese tales of the islan! of o"en, an! this, rather than



ho"e&sickness, "ay eI%lain the !esire of Bran, 8isin, etc., to lea#e

/lysiu". Celtic o"en %erfor"e! orgiastic rites on islan!s, as has been

seen.*E*4 All this "ay ha#e originate! the belief in an islan! of

beautiful !i#ine o"en as %art of /lysiu", hile it also heightene! its

sensuous as%ect.

Borroe! fro" the !elight hich the Celt took in "usic is the recurring

reference to the "ar#ellous "usic hich selle! in /lysiu". There, as

the go!!ess says to Bran, there is nothing rough or harsh, but seet

"usic striking on the ear. 6t soun!e! fro" bir!s on e#ery tree, fro"

the branches of trees, fro" "ar#ellous stones, an! fro" the har%s of

!i#ine "usicians. An! this is recalle! in the ra#ishing "usic hich the

belate! tra#eller hears as he %asses fairy&haunte! s%ots&&hat %i%es

an! ti"brels, hat il! ecstasy The ro"antic beauty of /lysiu" is

!escribe! in these Celtic tales in a ay uneLualle! in all other sagas

or KMaerchenK, an! it is insiste! on by those ho co"e to lure "ortals

there. The beauty of its lan!sca%es&&hills, hite cliffs, #alleys, sea

an! shore, lakes an! ri#ers,&&of its trees, its inhabitants, an! its

bir!s,&&the char" of its su""er haHe, is ob#iously the %ro!uct of thei"agination of a %eo%le keenly ali#e to natural beauty. The o%ening

lines sung by the go!!ess to Bran strike a note hich soun!s through all

Celtic literature(

There is a !istant isle, aroun! hich sea&horses glisten,

...

A beauty of a on!rous lan!, hose as%ects are lo#ely,

?hose #ie is a fair country, inco"%arable in its haHe.

6t is a !ay of lasting eather, that shoers sil#er on the lan! A %ure hite cliff on the range of the sea,

?hich fro" the sun recei#es its heat.

5o 8isin !escribes it( 6 sa a country all green an! full of floers,

ith beautiful s"ooth %lains, blue hills, an! lakes an! aterfalls. All

this an! "ore than this is the reflection of nature as it is foun! in

Celtic regions, an! as it as seen by the eye of Celtic !rea"ers, an!

inter%rete! to a %oetic race by the".

6n 6rish accounts of the Ksi!K, )ag!a has the su%re"acy, reste! later

fro" hi" by 8engus, but generally each oner of a Ksi!K is its lor!. 6n?elsh tra!ition Aran is lor! of Annfn, but his clai"s are conteste! by

a ri#al, an! other lor!s of /lysiu" are knon. Manannan, a go! of the

sea, a%%ears to be lor! of the 6rish islan! /lysiu" hich is calle! the

lan! of Manannan, %erha%s because it as easy to associate an o#ersea

orl! aroun! hich sea&horses glisten ith a go! hose "ythic stee!s

ere the a#es. But as it lay toar!s the sunset, an! as so"e of its

as%ects "ay ha#e been suggeste! by the glories of the setting sun, the

sun&go! ug as also associate! ith it, though he har!ly takes the



%lace of Manannan.

Most of the as%ects of /lysiu" a%%ear unchange! in later folk&belief,

but it has no beco"e fairylan!&&a %lace ithin hills, "oun!s, or Ksi!K,

of "ar#ellous beauty, ith "agic %ro%erties, an! here ti"e la%ses as in

a !rea". A on!erful o#ersea lan! is also foun! in KMaerchenK an!

tra!ition, an! Tir na n&8g is still a li#ing reality to the Celt. There

is the fountain of youth, healing balsa"s, life&gi#ing fruits, beautiful

o"en or fairy folk. 6t is the true lan! of heart's !esire. 6n the

ele#enth century M55. fro" hich our knole!ge of /lysiu" is "ainly

!ran, but hich i"%ly a re"ote antiLuity for the "aterials an! i!eas of

the tales, the Ksi!K&orl! is still the orl! of !i#ine beings, though

these are beginning to assu"e the traits of fairies. Probably a"ong the

%eo%le the"sel#es the change ha! alrea!y begun to be "a!e, an! the lan!

of the go!s as si"%ly fairylan!. 6n ?ales the sa"e change ha! taken

%lace, as is seen by Giral!us' account of /li!urus entice! to a

subterranean fairylan! by to s"all %eo%le.*E+4

5o"e of the /lysiu" tales ha#e been influence! by Christian conce%tions,an! in a certain grou%, the K6"ra"aK or oyages, /lysiu" finally

beco"es the Christian %ara!ise or hea#en. But the /lysiu" conce%tion

also reacte! on Christian i!eas of %ara!ise. 6n the Koyage of

Mael!uinK, hich bears so"e rese"blance to the story of Bran, the

Christian influence is still in!efinite, but it is "ore "arke! in the

Koyage of 5ne!gus an! MacRiaglaK. 8ne islan! has beco"e a kin! of

inter"e!iate state, here !ell /noch an! /lijah, an! "any others

aiting for the !ay of ju!g"ent. Another islan! rese"bles the Christian

hea#en. But in the Koyage of Bran!anK the %agan ele"ents ha#e

%ractically !isa%%eare! there is an islan! of hell an! an islan! of

%ara!ise.*EE4 The islan! conce%tion is the last relic of %aganis", butno the #oyage is un!ertaken for the %ur%ose of re#enge or %enance or

%ilgri"age. Another series of tales of #isionary journeys to hell or

hea#en are %urely Christian, yet the joys of hea#en ha#e a sensuous

as%ect hich recalls those of the %agan /lysiu". 6n one of these, KThe

Ti!ings of )oo"s!ayK,*E14 there are to hells, an! besi!es hea#en

there is a %lace for the Kboni non #al!eK, rese"bling the islan! of

/noch an! /lijah in the Koyage of 5ne!gusK. The connection of /lysiu"

ith the Christian %ara!ise is seen in the title KTir TairngiriK, The

an! of Pro"ise, hich is a%%lie! to the hea#enly king!o" or the lan!

floing ith "ilk an! honey in early glosses, e.g. on :eb. i#. 1, #i.

*-, here Canaan an! the Kregnu" coe4loru"K are calle! KTir TairngiriK,an! in a gloss to * Cor. I. 1, here the hea#enly lan! is calle! Tir

Tairngiri 6nna"beo, The an! of Pro"ise of the i#ing 8nes, thus

likening it to the an! of the i#ing in the story of Connla.

5ensuous as "any of the as%ects of /lysiu" are, they ha#e yet a

s%iritual as%ect hich "ust not be o#erlooke!. The e"%hasis %lace! on

its beauty, its "usic, its rest an! %eace, its obli#ion, is s%iritual

rather than sensual, hile the !elling of fa#oure! "ortals there ith



!i#ine beings is suggesti#e of that union ith the !i#ine hich is the

essence of all religion. Though "en are lure! to seek it, they !o not

lea#e it, or they go back to it after a brief absence, an! aeg says

that he oul! %refer /lysiu" to the kingshi% of all 6relan!, an! his

or!s are echoe! by others. An! the lure of the go!!ess often e"%hasises

the free!o" fro" tur"oil, grief, an! the ru!e alar"s of earthly life.

This seet an! blesse! country is !escribe! ith all the %assion of a

%oetical race ho !rea"e! of %erfect ha%%iness, an! sa in the joy of

nature's beauty, the lo#e of o"en, an! the thought of unbroken %eace

an! har"ony, no s"all %art of "an's truest life. 9a#oure! "ortals ha!

reache! /lysiu", an! the ho%e that he, too, "ight be so fa#oure! buoye!

u% the Celt as he !rea"e! o#er this state, hich as so "uch "ore

blissful e#en than the future state of the !ea!. Many races ha#e

i"agine! a ha%%y 8ther&orl!, but no other race has so fille! it ith

"agic beauty, or so %ersistently recurre! to it as the Celts. They stoo!

on the cliffs hich face! the est, an! as the %ageant of sunset %asse!

before the", or as at "i!!ay the light shi""ere! on the far horiHon an!

on sha!oy islan!s, they gaHe! ith istful eyes as if to catch a

gli"%se of /lysiu" beyon! the fountains of the !ee% an! the halls of thesetting sun. 6n all this e see the Celtic #ersion of a %ri"iti#e an!

instincti#e hu"an belief. Man refuses to think that the "isery an!

!isa%%oint"ent an! strife an! %ain of life "ust alays be his. :e ho%es

an! belie#es that there is reser#e! for hi", so"ehere an! at so"e ti"e,

eternal ha%%iness an! eternal lo#e.

988T<8T/5(

*+E*4 <utt&Meyer, i. +*E.

*+E+4 Joyce, K8CRK 1E*.

*+EE4 )'Arbois, ii. E** K6TK i. **E f. 8'Curry, KMCK iii. *.

*+E14 <utt&Meyer, i. * f., teIt an! translation.

*+E-4 K;K *+KaK ?in!isch, K6rische Gra"".K *+ f. )'Arbois, #. EF1

f. KGaelic JournalK, ii. E3.

*+E24 KT85K i#. +E1. 5ee also Joyce, K8CRK EF- =enne!y, +1.

*+E34 K;K 1E f. K6TK i. +- f. 8'Curry, KAtlantisK, ii., iii.)'Arbois, #. *3 eahy, i. 2 f.

*+EF4 9ro" Manannan ca"e foes.

*+E4 Joyce, K8CRK ++E f.

*+14 8'Gra!y, ii. +. 6n this story the sea is i!entifie! ith

9iachna's ife.



*+1*4 Joyce, K8CRK +-E f.

*+1+4 K6TK iii. +** f. )'Arbois, ii. *F-.

*+1E4 8'Curry, KM5. Mat.K EFF.

*+114 A si"ilar i!ea occurs in "any 9ian tales.

*+1-4 /#ans, K?elsh )ict. s.#.K Annfn Anyl, 2 Gai!oH, KCPK i.

+ f.

*+124 oth, i. +3 f. see %. ***, Ksu%raK.

*+134 P%. *2, **+, Ksu%raK.

*+1F4 Guest, iii. 3- oth, i. + f.

*+14 5kene, i. +21, +32. Cf. the K6lle tournoiontK of the Graalro"ances an! the re#ol#ing houses of KMaerchenK. A re#ol#ing ra"%art

occurs in Mael!uin >KRCK I. F*@.

*+-4 5kene, i. +F-.

*+-*4 P%. *E, **2, Ksu%raK.

*+-+4 Chretien, K/ricK, *EE f. Geoffrey, Kita MerliniK, 1* 5an

Marte, KGeoffreyK, 1+-. Another 6rish iban is calle! Muirgen, hich is

the sa"e as Morgen. 5ee Giral!. Ca"br. K5%ec. /ccl.K Rolls 5eries, i#.

1F.

*+-E4 ?illia" of Mal"esbury, K!e Ant. Glaston. /ccl.K

*+-14 5an Marte, 1+-.

*+--4 K8%. cit.K i#. 1.

*+-24 Joyce, K8CRK 1E1 Rhy4s, KC9K i. *3 :ar!i"an, K6rish Minst.K

i. E23 5ebillot, ii. -2 f. Giral!. Ca"br. ii. *+. The un!erorl! is

so"eti"es reache! through a ell >cf. %. +F+, Ksu%raK KT6K iii. +@.

*+-34 Ke BraHKO+, i. %. IIIiI, ii. E3 f. Albert le Gran!, Kies !e

5aints !e BretagneK, 2E.

*+-F4 A hole class of such 6rish legen!s is calle! KTo"ha!naK,

6nun!ations. A ty%ical instance is that of the ton belo ough <eagh,

alrea!y referre! to by Giral!us Ca"brensis, KTo%. :ib.K ii. cf. a

?elsh instance in K6tin. Ca"br.K i. +. 5ee Rhy4s, KC9, %assi"K

=enne!y, +F+ KRe#. !es Tra!. Po%.K iI. 3.



*+-4 K5cott. Celt. Re#.K i. 3 Ca"%bell, K?:TK <os. EF, -+ oth, i.

EF.

*+24 Curtin, KTalesK, *-F Rhy4s, KC9K i. +E.

*+2*4 <utt&Meyer, i. *-.

*+2+4 6n the e!as, /lysiu" has also a strong agricultural as%ect,

%robably for the sa"e reasons.

*+2E4 )'Arbois, ii. **, *+, EF-, #i. *3, +* KRCK II#i. *3E Kes

)rui!esK, *+*.

*+214 9or the teIt see ?in!isch, K6r. Gra".K *+( Totchurethar bii

bithbi at gerait !o !ainib Tethrach. ar&!ot&chiat each !ia i n&!alaib

tathar!ai eter !ugnathu in"aini. )r. 5tokes an! 5ir John Rhy4s ha#e

both %ri#ately confir"e! the inter%retation gi#en abo#e.

*+2-4 )ialogue of the 5ages, KRCK II#i. EE f.

*+224 Tethra as husban! of the ar&go!!ess Ba!b, an! in one teIt his

na"e is glosse! Kba!bK >Cor"ac, Ks.#.K Tethra@. The na"e is also

glosse! K"uirK, sea, by 8'Cleary, an! the sea is calle! the %lain of

Tethra >KArch. Re#.K i. *-+@. These obscure notices !o not necessarily

!enote that he as ruler of an o#ersea /lysiu".

*+234 <ennius, K:ist. Brit.K 5ec. *E )'Arbois, ii. F2, *E1, +E*.

*+2F4 KK FKbK =eating, *+2.

*+24 Both art K"otifsK an! early burial custo"s in the to countries

are si"ilar. 5ee Reinach, KRCK IIi. FF K'Anthro%ologieK, *FF, E3

5iret, Kes Pre"iere Ages !u Metal !ans le 5u!. /st. !e l'/s%agne.K

*+34 8rosius, i. +. 3* KK **KbK.

*+3*4 )'Arbois, #. EF1 8'Gra!y, ii. EF-.

*+3+4 KT85K iii. ** Joyce, K8CRK E*1. 9or a folk&tale #ersion see

K9olk&loreK, #ii. E+*.

*+3E4 eahy, i. E2 Ca"%bell, K9K + KCMK Iiii. +F- K)ean of

is"ore's BookK, -1.

*+314 8'Curry, KMCK ii. *1E Cor"ac, E-.

*+3-4 5ee %. *F3, Ksu%raK K6TK iii. +*E.



*+324 5ee Gai!oH, a ReLuisition !e l'A"our et la 5y"bolis"e !e la

Po""e, KAnn. !e l'/cole PratiLue !es :autes /tu!esK, *+ 9raser,

KPausaniasK, iii. 23.

*+334 Rhy4s, K:K E-.

*+3F4 The 5il#er Bough in 6rish egen!, K9olk&oreK, Iii. 1E*.

*+34 Cook, K9olk&oreK, I#ii. *-F.

*+F4 K6TK i. *EE.

*+F*4 8')ono#an, KBattle of Mag RathK, - )'Arbois, #. 23 K6TK i. 2.

)ag!a's caul!ron ca"e fro" Murias, %robably an o#ersea orl!.

*+F+4 Miss :ull, +11. 5cath is here the 8ther&orl!, concei#e!,

hoe#er, as a !is"al abo!e.

*+FE4 8'Curry, KMCK ii. 3, iii. 3 =eating, +F1 f. KRCK I#. 11.

*+F14 5kene, i. +21 cf. KRCK IIii. *1.

*+F-4 P. **2, Ksu%raK.

*+F24 Guest, iii. E+* f.

*+F34 5ee %%. *E, **3, Ksu%raK.

*+FF4 9or the use of a #essel in ritual as a sy"bol of !eity, see

Crooke, K9olk&oreK, #iii. E-* f.

*+F4 )io!. 5ic. #. +F Athen. i#. E1 Joyce, K5:K ii. *+1 KAntient

as of 6relan!K, i#. E+3. The caul!rons of 6rish houses are sai! in the

teIts to be ineIhaustible >cf. KRCK IIiii. E3@.

*+4 5trabo, #ii. +. * ucan, ;sener's e!., %. E+ K6TK iii. +*

KAntient as of 6relan!K, i. *- f.

*+*4 Curtin, K:T6K +1, +2+.

*++4 5ee ille"arLue, KContes Po%. !es anciens BretonsK, Paris, *F1+Rhy4s, KAK an! es%ecially <utt, Kegen! of the :oly GrailK, *FFF.

*+E4 A!#entures of <era, KRCK I. ++2 KRCK I#i. 2+, 21.

*+14 P. *2, Ksu%raK.

*+-4 P. *3, Ksu%raK.



*+24 9or %arallel "yths see KRig&e!aK, i. -E. + Ca"%bell, KTra#els

in 5outh AfricaK, i. E2 Johnston, K;gan!a ProtectorateK, ii. 31 ing

Roth, K<ati#es of 5araakK, i. E3 an! cf. the "yth of Pro"etheus.

*+34 This is foun! in the stories of Bran, Mael!uin, Connla, in 9ian

tales >8'Gra!y, ii. ++F, +EF@, in the Chil!ren of Tuirenn, an! in

Gaelic KMaerchenK.

*+F4 Martin, +33 5ebillot, ii. 32.

*+4 Burton, KThousan! <ights an! a <ightK, I. +E Cha"berlain, KAino

9olk&TalesK, EF K'Anthro%ologieK, #. -3 Mas%ero, K:ist. anc. !es

%eu%les !e l'8rientK, i. *FE. The lust of the o"en of these islan!s is

fatal to their lo#ers.

*E4 An islan! near <e Guinea is calle! the lan! of o"en. 8n it

"en are alloe! to lan! te"%orarily, but only the fe"ale offs%ring of

the o"en are alloe! to sur#i#e >K' Anthro%.K #. -3@. The 6n!ians of

9lori!a ha! a tra!ition of an islan! in a lake inhabite! by the fairesto"en >Chateaubrian!, KAutob.K *F+1, ii. +1@, an! 9ijian "ythology knos

of an /lysian islan! of go!!esses, near the lan! of the go!s, to hich a

fe fa#oure! "ortals are a!"itte! >?illia"s, K9ijiK, i. **1@.

*E*4 P. +31, Ksu%raK. 6slan!s "ay ha#e been regar!e! as sacre! because

of such cults, as the folk&lore re%orte! by Plutarch suggests >%. E1E,

Ksu%raK@. Celtic saints retaine! the #eneration for islan!s, an! lo#e!

to !ell on the", an! the i!ea sur#i#es in folk&belief. Cf. the

#eneration of eis"en for the 9lannan islan!s.

*E+4 Gir. Ca"b. K6tin. Ca"b.K i. F.

*EE4 Translations of so"e of these KoyagesK by 5tokes are gi#en in

KRCK, #ols. iI. I. an! Ii#. 5ee also i""er, Bren!an's Meerfahrt,

Keits. fuer )eut. Alt.K IIIiii. cf. <utt&Meyer, ch. 1, F.

*E14 KRCK i#. +1E.

6<)/Q

Abnoba, 1E.

A!a"nan, 3+.

Ae! Abrat, 2-.

Ae! 5lane, E-*.



Aeracura, E3, 11.

Afanc, *.

Agricultural rites, E, 1, -3, F, *3, *1, ++3, +E3. 5ee 9esti#als.

Aife, *+.

Aillen, 3.

Aine, 3 f.

Aitherne, F1.

AlbioriI, +F.

All 5aints' )ay, *3.

All 5ouls' )ay, *3.

Allat, F3, *.

Al%ine race, F, *+.

Altars, +F+ f.

A"aethon, *3, EF1.

A"airgen, --, *3+.

A"bicatus, *, +++.

A"ours ith "ortals, !i#ine, *+F, *-, E1F, E-, E--.

A"ulets, E, E+3 f., E+E.

Ancestor orshi%, *2-, +.

An!arta, 1*.

An!rasta, 1*, *+-.

AneItio"arus, *+-.

Ani"al go!s, anthro%o"or%hic, E1, +, *2, *E f., *-F, +*, +*+, ++2.

Ani"al orshi%, E, +, *1, *F2, +F f., +2.

Ani"als, burial of, *F2, +**, ++*.



Ani"als, !escent fro", +*E, +*2 f.

Ani"als, !o"estic, fro" the go!s' lan!, E3, EF1.

Ani"als, !ressing as, +*3, +2.

Ani"als, sacra"ental eating of, ++* f.

Ani"als, slaughter of, EF+.

Ani"als, tabooe!, +*.

Ani"is", *3E, *F-.

Ankou, E1-.

Annfn, *2, ***, **-, **3, E23 f., EF*.

Anu, 23 f., 3+, 3E, ++E.

Anyl, Prof., 1* note, 2.

A%ollo, +-, +3, *+-, *F, *FE, +E*.

Aran, ***, E2F, EF1, EF3.

Archaeology, +.

Ar!uinna, 1E.

Arianrho!, *1, *-, *2, * f.

Arte"is, 1+, **, *33, +1+.

Artaios, +1, *+*.

Arthur, FF, 3, *, **3, ** f., +**, +1+, E11, E2, EF*.

Arthurian cycle, **, EFE.

Artor, *+*.

Ar#alus, *+-.

Astrology, +1F.

Augustus, +E, .



Auto&suggestion, +-1.

A#ag!!u, **2.

A#allon, *+, E2.

Bacchus, +31.

Ba!b, -F, 3*, 3+, *E2, *E3, +E+.

Ba!bcatha, 1*, 3*.

Balor, E*, E- note, -1, -3, F, .

Banba, -, 3E, 31.

KBanfeinni!iK, 3+.

KBangaisge!aigK, 3+.

Ba%tis", *2 note, EF f.

Bar!s, **3, +, E+-.

Barintus, FF.

BarreI, *+-.

Barri, 5., FF.

Bear, cult of, +*+.

Be!!oe, )r., *+.

Belatuca!ros, +F, *+-.

Belenos, +2, *+, **E, *+1, +E*, +21, +F.

Belgae, f.

Beli, 2, F, *E, **+ f., *+1.

KBelinuntiaK, +2, E++.

Belinus, +2, *+, **E, *+1.

Belisa"a, 1*, 2F&2, *+-.



Bello#esus, *.

Beltane, +, *1, +E, +-, +21.

Bericynthia, 11, +3-.

Bertran!, M., E-.

KBileK, *2+, +*.

Bile, -1, 2, *E.

Bir! go!s, *F, +-, +13.

Birth, *2, E1-.

Black Annis' Boer, 23.

Blathnat, F1, *, EF*.

Blo!eue!!, *1, *- f., *F.

Bloo!, +1, +11.

Bloo!, Brotherhoo!, *E*, +1.

Boan!, F*, **.

Boar, cult of, 1+.

Bo!b, FE.

Bo!b )earg, 21, 3F, F2.

Bor"ana, 1E.

Bor#o, 1E, *FE.

Bou!icca, 3+, *+-, *2*, +*.

Boughs, +2-, +3.

Boun!ary stones, +F1.

Braciaca, +F.

Bran, E1, F, * f., *3, ***, **3, *2, +1+, E2E, E3 f.

Branen, F, *E f., EF* f., EF-.



BraHiers, go! of, 32.

Brennius, *+, **+ f.

Brennus, *2.

Bres, -E, -1, -F&-.

Brian, 3E f.

Bri!e, 5., 2.

Bri!ge, E12.

Bri!ge of ife, ++F.

Brigantia, 2F, *+-.

Brigin!o, 2F, +3-.

Brigit, 1*, -F, 2F f., , +.

Brigit, 5t., 2F f., FF note, +-3.

Broca, .

BronHe Age, *1F.

Brother&sister unions, *2, **E.

Bron Bull, *E.

Bronie, *22, *F, +1-.

KBrugK. 5ee K5i!K.

Brythons, *E.

Brythons, go!s of, F-, - f., *+1.

Buanann, 2F, 3E, ++E.

Bull, cult of, EF, *1, *F, +F, +1E.

Burial rites, E, EE3 f.

Caer 5i!i, **+, **3, E2F.



Caesar, ++, +, +*, ++E, +EE, +FE, +1, EE1.

Cakes, +22.

Calatin, *E* f.

Calen!ar, *3- f., +-+.

Ca"ulos, +F, *+-, *1.

Can!le"as, 2.

Cannibalis", +E, +3*.

Caoilte, 2*, *1+, *-+, EE2.

Caractacus, *E.

Car"an, *23.

Car%enters, go! of, 32.

Cassiteri!es, E.

Cassi#ellaunus, **E.

Castor an! PolluI, *E2.

Casallan, F, *+, **+&**E.

Cathba!, *+3.

Cathubo!ua, 1*, 3*.

CaturiI, +F.

Caul!ron, F1, +, **+, **2, *+, E2F, EF*.

Celtae, F, , *-.

Celtiberians, *32, +12.

Celtic an! Teutonic religion, **.

Celtic e"%ire, *F f.

Celtic origins, F f.



Celtic %eo%le, ty%es of, F.

Celtic religion, e#olution of, E f.

Celtic religion, higher as%ects of, 2.

Celtic religion, ho"ogeneity of, -.

Celtic religion, Ro"an influence on, -.

Celts, go!s of, *-F.

Celts, religiosity of, +.

Celts, te"%era"ent of, E, *1.

Cenn Cruaich, 22, 3 note.

Cera, 33.

Cernunnos, + f., E+, **, *E2, +*+, +F+.

Cerri!en, **2 f., E-*, E-F f.

Cessair, -.

Cethlenn, -, F*.

Cetna!, +1.

Char"s, *3+, E-2.

Church an! %aganis", 2, 3, 1F, F, **-, *E+, *-+ f., *31 f., +E f.,

+EF, +1, +-F, +3+, +F, +F-, +FF&+F, E*-, E+*, EE*, EF.

Cian, 3-, F.

Clair#oyance, E3.

Cleena, 3.

Clota, 1E, 3.

Clutoi!a, 3.

Coci!ius, *+-.

Cock, +*.



Colu"ba, 5., *3, 22, FF note, *F*, +EF, E*-, E+1, EE*&EE+, E-F.

Co"bats, ritual, +2E, +23.

Co"e!o#ae, 13.

Co"yn, M., *1E, *-*.

Conaire, F1, ++, +-+, +--.

Conall Cernach, *E1, *E2, +E, +1.

Conan, *1+.

Conce%tion, "agical, E-*.

Conchobar, *+3, *E+, *2, *F+, +E+, +-1, E1.

Conn, E23.

Conncrithir, 3E.

Connla, -, 2-, E21, E31, E33, E3, EF.

Conser#atis" in belief, *E.

Coral, E+.

Coranians, **1.

Cor!elia, .

Cor"ac, 23, 2F, FF, E22.

Corn&s%irit, +, *3, **3, *2F, *3E, +*E, +2, +2+, +3E f., +3-.

Corotacus, *+-.

Cos"ogony, ++3 f.

Cou#a!e, *E, ++1.

Crafts, go!s of, E.

Cranes, EF.

Craniology, F f.

Creation, +E.



Crei!!yla!, F-, , **E.

Crei!ne, 32, 33.

Creiry, **2.

Cro" )ubh, F.

Cro" /ocha, 3.

Cro"" Cruaich, -3, 3, +E2, +F2.

Cross, +.

Cross&roa!s, *31.

Cruithne, *3.

Cuchulainn, 3+, *, *+*, *+E, *-, *31, *3, ++, +1, +-+, +-1, EE2,

E1, E--, E-3, E2-, E2, EF*.

Cuchulainn saga, EF, 2E, 3*, F3, 3, *+3 f., *1-, +1, +3.

Culann, *+F.

Culture go!!esses, 1, 2F f.

Culture go!s an! heroes, 1, -F, +&E, *2, *+*, *+1 note, *E2.

Cu"al, *+-, *1+, *1- f., *1F f.

Curoi, *, EF*.

Cursing ells, *E3.

)ag!a, 11, 2*, 21, 2-, 3+, 31&3-, 33 f., E+3, EF3.

)a"ona, 1E, +*-.

)ance, ritual, +12, +2F, +F2.

)anu, 2E, 23 f., +, *E, ++E.

K)aoine&si!heK, 2+.

)'Arbois, M., E*, EF, -2, -, 31, 3, , *E2, *3F, +21, +E, E*1, E1*,

E-3, E31.



)ay of Ju!g"ent, E13.

)ea!, con!ition an! cult of, 2F, *2- f., +F+, EE, EEE f., E1, E11 f.,

E3F.

)ea! )ebtor, EE3.

)ea!, lan! of, an! /lysiu", E1 f.

)ea! li#ing in gra#e, EEF&EE.

)ebility of ;ltonians, 3*, *+ f., ++1.

)echelette, M., *22.

)echtire, *+3 f., E1F, E-1.

K)eiseilK, *E, +E3, +3*.

)ei Terreni, 21.

)e"eter, 11, 2F, **3, +31.

)e"ons, *3E f., *FF.

)e#orgilla, *EE.

)iana, 1+, *33.

)iancecht, 33, F1, +3, E+-.

)iar"ai!, F+, FE, FF, *, *1+, *13, *-, +*, ++, +-+, +-1, E-*,

E2-&E22.

K)ii Casses,K E.

)io!orus 5iculus, EE1.

)ionysus, +**.

)ioscuri, *E2.

)irona, 1+, 3.

)irra, 3.

)isablot, *2.



)isir, *2.

)is%ater, + f., 11, 2, *, *2, +*F, ++, E1*, E1-, E32.

)istortion, *+F, *E+, *E1.

)i#ination, +E-, +13 f., +-, +22, E1.

)i#ine !escent, E-*, E-1.

)i#ine kings, +-E.

)i#ineresses, E*2.

)i#iners, +.

)i#ining ro!, +1F.

)ol"ens, +FE, EE, E-+.

)o"estication, +*, +*1, ++-.

K)o"inaeK, 13.

)o"nu, -3 note, -, ++E.

)on, 2, 2E, *E, ++E.

)onnotaurus, *EF, +.

)ragon, **1, *+*, *FF.

)rink of obli#ion, E+1.

)rui!esses, +-, E*2.

)rui!ic :e!ge, E+1.

)rui!ic sen!ing, E+-.

)rui!s, 2, ++, 2*, 32, *-, *2* f., *3E, *F, +*, +- f., +E- f., +EF,+12 f., +-, +2-, +F&+F*, +F3 f., +E f., E*+.

)rui!s an! 9ili!, E- f.

)rui!s an! "agic, E*, E*, E+- f.

)rui!s an! "e!icine, E.



)rui!s an! "onasticis", E-.

)rui!s an! Pythagoras, EE.

)rui!s an! Ro"e, E*+ f.

)rui!s, classical references to, E* f.

)rui!s, !ress of, E* f.

)rui!s, origin of, ++ f.

)rui!s, %oe"s of, +.

)rui!s, %oer of, E*+.

)rui!s, teaching of, E3 f., E*1, EEE.

)rui!s, #arieties of, +F f.

)rune"eton, *2*, +F, E2.

)ualis", -3 f., 2 f.

)u"ias, +-.

)usii, E--.

)elling of go!s. 5ee Go!s, abo!e of.

)ylan, *1, **, *3F.

K/ach uisgeK, *FF.

/arth an! ;n!er&earth, E-, E3, 2F.

/arth cults, E.

/arth !i#inities, E*, E-, E3, 1, 1+, 11 f., -3 note, 2-, 23 f., 3+, 3F,

+, **, *2+, *2, ++3, ++ f., E1-.

/cli%ses, *3F.

/cne, 31, ++E.

/cstasy, +-*.

/gg, ser%ent's, +**.



/latha, -E, -F, 2.

/lc"ar, 3F, F3.

/le"ents, cult of, *3* f.

/l%hin, **F.

/l#es, 22 note.

/lysiu", -, 3F f., F1, F3, *+, *2, **-, **2, *+, *2E, +*, ++ f.,

E-, E2+ f.

/lysiu", an! Para!ise, EFF f.

/lysiu", characteristics of, E3E ff.

/lysiu", lor!s of, EF3.

/lysiu", na"es of, E2+.

/lysiu", origin of, E3 f.

/lysiu", #arieties of, E2E f.

/"er, *+F, *+, *E-.

/nbarr, FF, *E-.

/ochai!, FE.

/ochai! 8llathair, 3F.

/ochai! 8'9lynn, 21.

/ogabail, 3.

/%ona, 1E, *+-, *F, +*E f.

/ri, -E.

/ri!anus, +3.

/riu, 3E&31.

/sus, +, EF, *E3, +F, +E1, +F.

/tain, F+ f., ++E, E1F, E2E, EF.



/tair, F+.

/thics, E1, E3.

/thne, E* note, F.

/uhe"erisation, 1 f., F1, *, -, F, *+3.

/urossy!, *.

/#ans, )r., +.

/#il eye, -.

/#nissyen, F.

/Ioga"y, +++.

K/I #otosK, *-.

9achan, +-*.

9airies, 1E, 1- f., 2+, 21 f., 3, 3E, F, F, **1, **-, *22, *3E, *3F

note, *FE, *F- f., *, +*, +E, +2+, +2E, E3F.

9airylan!, E3+, EF-, EFF.

K9aithK, *2, E, E.

9alga, F1, F3, EF*.

9an!, 2-, F3, FF, *E-, E2-, EF.

9er!ia, *E*.

9ergus, *1+, EE2.

9ertility cults, E, -2, 3, 3E, 3F, FE, +, E, **+, **1&**-, +32, EE,

E-+, EF+ f.

9esti#als, 1, *F*, +-2 f.

9esti#als of !ea!, *23.

9etich, +F.

9iachna, FF, E-, E22, E3.



9ians, *1E, E2-.

K9ili!K, +1F f., E, E- f., E+-.

K9in!bennachK, *E.

9innen, 5., E-*.

9inntain, -.

9ionn, +F, **F, *+&*+*, *+-, *1+ f., *3, ++, +-1, E11, E-, E2-&E22.

9ionn saga, FE, 3, ***, *+, *1+ f.

K9ir )eaK, 2E.

K9ir )o"nannK, -+ f., *-3.

K9ir 5i!eK, 21, 2-.

9irbolgs, -+, -3.

9ires, * f., +-, +2* f., +2-, +2F, +3.

9ires, sacre!, 2.

9ish, sacre!, *F2, ++.

9lann Manistrech, 21.

9loo!, ++F, +E*.

9o"orians, -*, -+ f., --&-2, 2-, 3+, FE, F, , **1, *EE, *F, +E3,

+-*.

9oo! of i""ortality, E33 f.

9oo! as bon! of relationshi%, E3.

9orest !i#inities, 1E, *F.

9otla, 3E&31.

9oun!ation sacrifices, +EF.

9ountains, *3*, *31, *F*.

9ountains of youth, E3F, EFF.



9raoch, E33.

9riuch, E1.

9raHer, )r. J.G., *3, *32, +2.

9ua"nach, ++.

9uneral sacrifices, *2-, +E1, EE3.

9uture life, EEE f.

Galatae, *F.

Galli, *.

GalliHenae, E*3. 5ee Priestesses.

Galioin, -+, -3.

Garbh "ac 5tairn, *E.

Gargantua, *+1 note, +E.

Gar"an, *23.

Gauls, , +.

Ga#i!a, F, *.

KGeasaK, *+F, *E+, *E1, *11, *- f., *2, +-+ f. 5ee Tabu.

Geoffrey of Mon"outh, *+, **+, **.

Ghosts, 22, 23, *22, *2, +2+, +F*, +F1, EE, EE2.

Ghosts in trees, ++ f.

Gil!as, *3*.

Gilla Coe"ain, 21.

Gil#aethy, *1.

Glass, E3.

Glastonbury, **-, *+*, E2.



Goborchin, *F.

Go! of Connaught, +.

Go! of )rui!is", +, *-, *++.

Go! of ;lster, +.

Go!!esses an! "ortals, E--.

Go!!esses, %re&e"inence of, E, *+1, *FE.

Go!i#a, +32.

Go!s, abo!e of, ++F f., E2+, E3+.

Go!s, chil!ren of, *-.

Go!s, fertility an! ci#ilisation fro" lan! of, *, *2&*3, **+, *+*,

EF f., EFE.

Go!s uniting ith "ortals, *-.

Goibniu, 32, *E, E+-.

Goi!els, *2, *3, 2.

Goll "ac Morna, *1+.

Go""e, 5ir G.., *F*, +-.

Goose, +*.

Go#annon, * f.

Graal, EFE.

Grainne, *-, +-1.

Grannos, +2, 1+ f., 33, *+-, *FE.

Gregory of Tours, *1, *2, +3-.

Gro#es, *31, *F, +3 f.

Groth, !i#inities of, -, 11, F, F+, +, *F+.

Gruagach, +1-.



Guine#ere, *+E.

Gurgiunt, *+1.

Gutuatri, +F f.

Gal, , ***.

Geir, *2.

Gion, **3, E-*, EF*.

Gy!ion, *1, *- f., **3, E2F, EF-.

Gyn, --, **E, **-.

Gythur, --.

:a!es, *E-.

:afgan, ***, E2F.

:alloe'en, +-, +F*.

:allstatt, +F, +**.

:allucinations, E+E&E+1.

:a""er as !i#ine sy"bol, E, +*.

:a""er, Go! ith, E f., E-, E2 f., 3.

:ao"a, 32.

:are, +*.

:ar#est, +-, +3E.

:ea!&hunting, +1.

:ea!s, cult of, E1, 3*, *+, +1 f.

:ealing %lants, *E*, +2 f.

:ealing ritual, *++, *E f.

:ealing s%rings, *+E, *F2.



:earth as altar, *2- f.

:ea#en an! earth, ++3.

:en, +*.

:e%haistos, 32.

:eracles, +-, 3-, *EE.

:eroes in hills, E11.

:ills, 22.

:ol!er, A., +E.

:orne! hel"ets, +*3.

:orns, go!s ith, E+ f.

:orse, +*E f.

:u Ga!ar", *+1 note.

:y!e, )r., *1E&*11.

:y%erboreans, *F, +3.

:y%notis", E3, E*, E+E&E+1.

6berians, *E.

6cauna, 1E.

6conoclas", +F3.

6gerna, *+.

6"ages, 3, F-, +1, +33, +FE f.

K6"bas 9orosnaiK, +1F.

6""ortality, *-F, EEE, E32.

6ncantations, F, +1F f., +-1, +3, E+-.

6ncest, ++E f.



6n!ech, -1, -F.

6ns%iration, **2, **F.

6n#isibility, E++, EF.

6s, E3+.

6uchar, 6ucharbar, 2E, 3E f.

Janus, E1, *.

Joyce, )r., 2-, *1E, +E2.

Juno, 13.

Junones, 1-.

Jullian, *3F.

Ju%%iter, +.

=ale#ala, *1+.

=eane, .

=eating, -*, *1E.

=ei, *++ f.

=eres, 3+.

=ie#a, .

=ing an! fertility, 1, +-E.

=ings, !i#ine, *2 f., +1E.

=ings, election of, E2.

=ore, 11, +31&+3-.

=ronos, -.

a Tene, +F.



abrai!, 2-, E2-, E2, EF.

akes, *F*, *1.

a""as, +3E.

an! un!er a#es, E3*.

ear, F2.

er, ir, 1 note, F2, E+.

ia 9ail, E+.

iban, 2-, E2-.

ibations, +11 f., +13.

igurians, *E.

le, *, *1, *2.

lu!! laereint, F-, , *+, **E f., *+1.

lyr, F f.

ochlanners, -2, *13.

o!ens, **E.

oegaire, 21, *E3, E3.

onnrot, *1+.

oth, M., *F.

o#e, EF-.

ucan, EF, *+-, +3, +F+, EE- f., E1-.

uchtine, 32.

ucian, 3-, *+-.

ug, E* note, E- note, -, 2, 2*, 31, 3-, F f., *E, *F f., *+F, *E*,

*E1, *E3, *23, +3+, E1F, E-E f.

ugai!, *E+.



ugnasa!, *, *, *23 f., +3+ f.

ugo#es, *.

ugus, , +3+.

ycanthro%y, +*2.

Mabinogion, +, - f.

Mabon, *+E, *FE.

MacBain, )r., *2, -2, 3F.

MacCuill, MacCecht, an! MacGrainne, 31.

Macha, 3*, *+, *E3, +1*.

Mac6neely, F.

MacPherson, *1+, *-- f.

Ma!onna, +F.

Mael!uin, EF-.

Maelrubha, 5. +1E.

Magic, 2, *-, *1, ++, E*.

Magic, agricultural, +2, +2-&+22, +3*, +3E, +32 note.

Magico&"e!ical rites, EE f., EE+.

Magonia, *F.

Magture!, -E f., F1.

Man, origin of, E2, ++F.

Manannan, 1 note, 21&2-, 3, F, F2 f., +, *, *E1, *13, *3F, *F,

+E*, E- f., E-F, E21 f., EF, EF3.

Manay!!an, F3, F f., * f., ***, E2F.

Mannhar!t, +2.



Ma%onos, +3, *+E.

KMaerchenK for"ulae, 33, F+, FE, F, -, *3&*F, ***, **2, *+1, *E+, *EE,

*1E, *1F, *-+, *F3, EE3, E-E, EF1.

Marriage, sacre!, *2E, +23, +3E.

Mars, +3 f., F-, *F, +*1.

Martin, 5., *1, +1E, +2.

Martin"as, +-. f.

Math, *1 f.

Matholych, F.

Matres, 1, 11 f., 3+&3E, *+-, *2, *FE, +*1, +F-, +F.

Matriarchate, *3, ++E.

Matronae, 12, *+E, *FE.

May&!ay, **1.

May&Lueen, *2E, +23.

Me!b, *E f.

Me!icine, E f.

Me!iterranean race, .

Me!ros, F1, +.

Megaliths, ++, +3, EE, E-+. 5ee 5tonehenge.

Men, cults of, E.

Mercury, +1 f., E1, *E3, +F1 f.

Merlin, *+, *+* f.

Mer"ai!s, *.

Mete"%sychosis, EE, E1F f.

Meyer, Prof., *2, +1.



Miach, +3.

Mi!er, F+ f., +, E2E, EF&EF*.

Mi!su""er, 3, +, *32, *F1, **, *1, +, +*-, +E-, +E, +-3, +2F f.

Mile, -1.

Milesians, --, 2, 3F.

Miner#a, 1*, 2F, *+-.

Miracles, EE*, E-*.

Mistletoe, *2+, *32, *, +-, +1E f., +3.

Mithrais", +.

Moccus, +1, +*.

Mo!ranicht, *2.

Mo!ron, *+E, *FE.

Mogons, +3, *+-, *F.

Mongan, FF, *+, E- f., E-F.

Moon, *3- f., +12.

Morgen, *-, *3F, E2.

Morrigan, 3*, F*, FE, *E&*E*, *E2&*E3, *-, *3+.

Mor#ran, **2, **F.

Moun!s, 2E, 22.

Mountain go!s, E.

Mountains, *3* f.

Moat, M., EE, E2.

Muireartach, -2, *3.

Muirne, *1F.

Mule, +*1.



Mullo, +*1.

Music, E+, EF2.

Mythological school, FE, F, *F, **, *++, *EE f.

<a"e, +12.

<a"e&gi#ing, EF f.

<antos#elta, E*.

<ature !i#inities an! s%irits, 1F, E, *3* f.

<ee!fire, *.

<e"ain!, -F.

<e"an, 3*.

<e"e!ians, -* f.

K<e"etonK, *2*.

<e"etona, 1*, 3*.

<ennius, **.

<eo&)rui!ic heresy, + note.

<e%tune, F-.

<era, EE.

<essa, *+F, E1.

<et, +F, -F, 3*.

<eton, +F.

<e $ear, *3, +-, +2*.

<ight, +-2.

<iskas, *F-.

<o!ons, F-, **1, *+1, *2.



<orse influence, , *+3.

<ua!a, -E f., 2*, 33, F1, , *2.

<ua!a <echt, F- f.

<u!!, **E, **- f., *+1, *2.

<u!! :ael, F2.

<u!ity, +3-&+32, E++.

<utt, Mr., *E, E3E.

<y"%hs, 1E.

<ynnya, **E.

8ak, *.

8aths, *3+ f., ++.

8'Curry, 2-, *1E.

8')a#oren, *.

8engus, 3F, F*, F2, *12, EF3.

8gha"s, 3-.

8g"a, -1, 31&3-.

8g"ios, +-, 3-.

8ilill 8lo", 3.

8isin, *1+, *-&*-*, *-+ f., +++, E21, E3, EF3.

8"ens, +13 f.

8racles, *3, *2.

8ran, +EF.

K8rbis aliusK, E1.

8rbsen, F3.



8r!eals, *2 f., EFE.

8rgiastic rites, F, +2*, +2-, EF2.

8siris, 22.

Para!ise, EFF f.

Partholan, -*.

Pastoral stage, E, ++-, +2.

Patrick, 5., 2*. 21, 22, 3, 32, 3&F, *E+, *-*, *-+ f., *3*, *E, +E3,

+1+, +1, +-*, +F2, E*- f., E*.

Peanfahel, *3.

Peisgi, *F-.

Penn Cruc, 22.

Pennocruciu", 22.

Pera"bulation, +33.

Perse%hone, 2F, F-.

Picts, *2 f., +*3, ++, +++.

Pillar of sky, ++F.

Place&na"es, *2 note, *3, *, *+, *12, +, +**.

Plants, *32, +- f.

Pliny, *2+, *3-, *F, +- f., E+F.

Plutarch, E1E.

Pluto, E1 f.

Plutus, E-.

Poeninus, E.

Poetry, !i#inities of, 2F, 3-.



PolluI, *F.

Polyan!ry, 31, ++E f.

Polyga"y, *3, ++1.

Prayer, +1- f.

Pre&Celtic cults, 1F, F*, E, *31, *F*, +, ++, +*, ++1, +33, +1 f.,

E2*.

Priesthoo!. 5ee )rui!s.

Priestesses, 2, *F, *+ f., ++2, +12, +-, E*2, E+*.

Priest&kings, *2*, ++2, +23, +2, E3.

Proco%ius, E1+.

Pro%hecy, +- f, E f.

Pry!eri, F f., ** f., **+, E2F, EF-.

Pyll, ** f., **+, E2F, EF-.

Pythagoras, EE, EE1.

Kua!ri#iaeK, 13.

Ragnarok, +E+.

Rain&"aking, +22, E+* f.

Rebirth, FF, **3, *+F, E1F f.

Reinach, M., E* note, EF, *E3, +**, +F3, +3, E*3, E1.

Relics, EE+.

Retribution, E12.

Rhiannon, F f., ** f.

Rhy4s, 5ir J., *-, *2, +1, --, 2, 2F, 3F, F+ f., *, E, *, ** f.,

*E, *2, *F, *++, *E-, *FE, +*, +F+, +1, E-2, E32.

Rigantona, ***.



Rigisa"a, +F.

Ri#er !i#inities, 1E, 12, *+E, *F+, +1E, E-1.

Ri#ers, cult of, *3+, *F f.

Ri#ers, na"es of, *F+.

Ro"an an! Celtic go!s, ++ f., +F f.

Ro"ans an! )rui!s, E*+ f.

Rua!an, -F.

Rua!&rofhessa, 33.

Rucht, E1.

Ru!iobus, +*1.

5aar, *-.

5acra"ental rites, +++, +2, +22, +3*.

5acrifice of age!, +1+.

5acrifice of ani"als, *1, *F*, *F, +-, +1+ f., +2, +2-.

5acrifice, foun!ation, *+*, +EF f.

5acrifice, hu"an, -3, 3, *2-, *, *F, +EE f., +2*, +2-, +2, E1,

EF, E*E, EE3.

5acrifice to !ea!, *2- f., +E1, EE3.

5acrificial offerings, 2, *31, *F*, *F-, *, *1, *F, +EE f., +,

EF.

5acrificial sur#i#als, +11 f.

5aints, **-, +, +*3, +-*, +F- f., +FF, EE* f., EF2 note.

5aints an! ells, *E.

5aints' !ays an! %agan festi#als, +-F.

5al"on of knole!ge, *1, *F3, E33.



5a"hain, -2, 3, F, *23&*2F, *3, +++, +-2 f., +-F f.

5atire, E+2.

5aturn, 13.

5can!ina#ia an! 6relan!, *1F.

5cathach, *+, *E-.

K5cottiK, *3.

5ea, **, *3F.

5ebillot, E1+.

5ego"o, +*1.

5ego#esus, *.

5el#anus, E3.

5e"notheoi, +F, E*.

5eLuana, 1E.

5ergi, Prof., , +2.

5er%ent, E-, *22, *FF, +**.

5er%ent ith ra"'s hea!, E1, 11, *22, +**.

5er%ent's egg, E+F.

5er%ent's glass, E+F.

5etanta, E1.

5ha%e&shifting, *1, *-, **3, *E, *E*, *-, ++*, E++ f., E-, E-2 f.

K5i!K, 2E, 21 note, 2-, 3F.

5il#anus, +, E2, +*F.

5inen!, *F3, **.

5innan, 1E.



5irona, 1+.

5kene, )r., *2, *F.

5lain go!s an! hu"an #icti"s, *-, *2F f., *, ++2, +E-, +E, +2+, +2,

+3+.

5lee%, "agic, E+3.

5"ertullos, E-, *E2, +F.

5"iths, go! of, 32.

5"iths, "agic of, 32.

5olar hero, *EE.

5o"a, 32.

5oul as ani"al, E2.

5oul, se%arable, *1, *2+, +3.

5%ain, E3-.

5%ells, +12, +-1, E+- f.

5Luatting go!s, E+ f.

5reng, F1.

5tag, +*E.

5tanna, 1+.

5tokes, )r., *2, -2, 3*, 33, +++, +21.

5tone circles, +F*.

5tonehenge, +3, *+*, +, +F*&+F+.

5tones, cult of, *31, +F1, E+.

5ualtai", *+F.

5ub"erge! tons, +E*, E3+.

5ucellos, E f.



5uici!e, +E1, E1-.

5ul, 1*, 2, *+-.

5ule#iae, 12.

5un, *3F, +2F.

5un "yths, FE.

5an&"ai!ens, F+.

5astika, +.

5ine, +-, *2, **3, + f.

5ineher!s, The To, E1.

5y"bols, +.

Tabu, 2, *+, *+F, *E+, *11, *F2, ** f., +*, +*, +-+ f., +32, E1,

E2, E+E, E3+. 5ee KGeasaK.

Ta!g, ++*.

KTaghair"K, +1.

Tailtiu, *23, +3E, E32.

KTain bo CuailgneK, *+3, *E f.

Taliesin, -, 3, **2, E+E, EE-, E-2, E-F.

Taran, *+1.

Taranis, +, E, +E1.

Taranos, *+1.

KTarbh ;isgeK, *F.

KTar#os TrigaranosK, EF, *E3, +F, +F.

Tattooing, *3, +*3.

Tegi! oel, **2.

KTein" aeghaK, +1.



KTe"%estariiK, *3-, *F.

Te"%les, F-, +3 f.

Tethra, -F&-, 3*, 3-, E31.

Teutates, +F, *+-, +E1.

Teyrnon, ***.

Three&hea!e! go!s, E+ f.

Thu"b of knole!ge, *1.

Thurna", )r., *+.

KTir na n&8gK, *-*, E2+, E21.

To"bs as sacre! %laces, *2-.

Tonsure, E**.

TorLue, E1.

Totatis, *+-.

Tote"is", *1, *F3, +* f., +*2, E+E, E2, E3.

Toutatis, +F.

Transfor"ation. 5ee 5ha%e&shifting.

Transfor"ation Co"bat, E-E.

Trans"igration, EE1 f., E1F f., E-2, E- f.

Tree cults, *2+, *2, *31, *1, *F f., +F, +2-, +2, EE*, E3.

Tree !escent fro", ++.

Trees of /lysiu", EF.

Trees of 6""ortality, E33 f.

Tria!s, E1 f., E, - f., *, **E&**1, **-, **F, *+, *+E, *+1 note.

Tri%le go!!esses, 11 f.



Tristra", *E.

Tuan MacCairill, -3, E-3, E3-.

Tuatha )e )anann, 1 f., 2, 2*, 2E f., 22, + f., *12, *-F, *2F, *3E.

Tutelar !i#inities, 1, 1-, 3E.

Tuag, F3.

KTrch TrythK, *F, **, +**.

Tyr, F1.

;n!erorl!, 2, *+, **+, E1*.

;rien, **.

K;risgK, *F.

;thyr, **, *+, *++.

alkyries, 3+.

egetation cults, E, +*-.

egetation go!s an! s%irits, EF, +, *E, *-, *2+ f., *, +F, +*-,

+1E, +2-, +2.

enus of uini%ily, +F.

era, 3.

esta, 2.

Kierges noiresK, 12.

intius, *F.

KirginesK, 13.

i#iane, *++.

ortigern, *+*, +EF, E*-.

osegus, E.



oti#e offerings, *F-.

ulcan, 13.

?ar chants, +12.

?ar go!!esses, 3*, E.

?ar go!s, 1, +3 f., 1F, 3*, +, **-, **F, *+E, *E2.

?arrior, i!eal, *E+, *E2.

?arrior, %oer of !ea!, EEF.

?asher at the 9or!, 3E.

?ater bull, *F.

?ater fairies, 3, 3E note, *.

?ater, guar!ians of, *-.

?ater horse, *FF.

?ater orl!, *+ note, E3*.

?a#es, fighting the, *3F.

?a#es, nine, *3.

?ea%ons, +*.

?ells, 33, *F f., *F1, **, *E f., E+*, E3+.

?ells, origin of, +E.

?heel, go! ith, +.

?heel sy"bol, +, +3*, E+3.

?hite o"en, 3E.

?in!, *F.

?in!isch, Prof., *2.

?is!o", 31.

ebook - pagan texts - the religion of the ancient celts, by j. a. macculloch

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