ebscohost_ messengers of hope in haggai-malachi
TRANSCRIPT
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Journal for the Study of the Old TestamentVol 32.1 (2007): 113-131
g 2007 SAGE Publications (Los Angeles, London, New Delhi and Singapore)
DOI: 10.1177/0309089207083768
http://JSOT.sagepub.com
Messengers ofHopein Haggai-Malachi
MARK J. BODA
McMaster Divinity College, McMaster University, Divinity Room 233,1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada
Abstract
Recent work on the Book of the Twelve has consistently identified various sections ofHaggai-Malachi as a corpus that existed prior to its incorporation into the Book of theTwelve. Many see Haggai/Zechariah 1-8 as an initial collection to which Malachi andZechariah 9-14 were later added (prior to and/or after inclusion in the Book of theTwelve). This study investigates this corpus by interacting with past research and the text
of these prophetic sections to argue that although each section in the corpus (Haggai,Zech. 1-8, Zech. 9-14, Malachi) displays an integrity of its own, the corpus as a whole iswitness to a developing tradition, the resulting literature of which has been unified througha 'messenger'leitmotif.Thisleitmotif,however, rather than signalling the end of prophecy(as argued by some), identifies the importance of prophetic, priestly and royal streams tothe emerging hope for a heavenly visitation.
Keywords: Messengers, angels, Haggai, Zechariah. Malachi, Book of the Twelve,redaction criticism, messianism.
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114 Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 32.1 (2007)
assumedthatat least Haggai andZechariah18 comprised a preexistent
collectionthatthenentered into the Book oftheTwelve.This position is
oftenbased on the work ofEricand Carol Meyers in their AnchorBibleCommentary,in which they argued that Haggai andZechariah 18 were
composed prior to andpossiblyfor the dedication of thetemple.1Their
argumentis baseduponstriking similarities on literary (especially super-
scriptions) andthematic(especially temple rebuilding) grounds between
Haggai and Zechariah 18 along with the absence of any mention ofthe
completion ofthetemple in these books.
Positions havedivergedover theissueof whatfollowedZechariah 8,
either inthepreBook oftheTwelvephase or in later redactional activity
onthe Book of theTwelve.For many, some form ofMalachi followed
immediately after Zechariah 8, evidence for which is provided in, for
example, Nogalski's list of catch words {Stichwortverkettung) linking
Zechariah8 and Malachi 1 aswellas Bosshard and Kratz's listofcon-
nections between the Haggai/Zechariah 18 corpus and Malachi.2In a
later phase, Zechariah 914 was inserted between Zechariah 8 and
Malachi 1 and, according to Redditi, with its ubiquitous intertextualallusions to earlier prophetic literature, Zechariah 914 represented a
reflection on the Book of the Twelve as a whole and was intended to
shape one's reading ofthebook ofMalachi.3Onepossiblereason it was
1. C.L. Meyers andE.M.Meyers,Haggai,Zechariah 18: A New Translationwith
Introduction and Commentary(AB, 25B;GardenCity:Doubleday. 1987).pp.xlivxlv.
2. Forcatchwords(e.g.'loveV'hate*in Zech.8.17and Mai.1.23;'entreat theface of
YHWH' inZech. 8.22 andMai.1.9), see especially J.D.Nogalski,LiteraryPrecursorsto the Book of the Twelve (BZAW, 217; Berlin: W. de Gruyter. 1993), pp. 5356;
J.D.Nogalski.Redactional Processes in the Book of the Twelve(BZAW, 218; Berlin:
W. deGruyter,1993),p. 187.21,where he lists 12 wordsorphrasescommon to Zech.
8.923andMai.1.114.ForNogalski,Haggai/Zech.18enteredtheBookfirst,thencame
Malachiand finallyZech.914. For the connectionsbetween Malachi and the larger
corpus of HaggaiZech. 18, see E. Bosshard andR.G.Kratz, 'Maleachi imZwlf-prophetenbuch\BN 52(1990),pp.27-46. who see Malachi as originally the continuationof Zech. 7-8, although later expanded in two phases. See the criticism of using the
catchword phenomenon for redaction theory in B.A. Jones.TheFormation oftheBook ofthe Twelve- A Study in Text and Canon(SBLDS, 149: Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1995),
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temple rebuilding ceremonies and texts.9Its abrupt endingisrelatedtothefact that it represents a copy of a text that was created not for the dedi
cation of the temple, but rather for its foundation laying. On the otherhand, the superscriptions in Haggai/Zechariah 1-8 are not as common incharacter as one would expect in a unified corpus (such as Ezekiel).10
More importantly, Zechariah 1-8 represents an expansion of the vision ofrestoration far beyond the rebuilding of the temple. Even if Halpern'sevidence for the temple restoration character of every pericope in thenight visions sequence can be accepted (and at times it seems to be astretch),11 the vision of restoration clearly exceeds the temple focus to
include the restoration of the entire city and province on a physical andeconomic level (Zech. 1-2), the punishment of the nations who haveabused the people{passini),11the return oftheexilic community (Zech.2),the renewal of the leadership of the community (Zech. 3-4), and thecleansing of the community from impure religious practices (Zech. 5).Moving beyond the night visions and investigating the prose-sermonsections that now bracket the entire collection (Zech. 1.1-6; 7.1-8.23),
one finds emphasis on penitential renewal rather than temple reconstruction.13The influential role that this penitential inclus ioplays in thefinal shape of Zechariah 1-8 leads one to conclude, in contrast to theMeyers, that those responsible were suggesting thatthecompletion of thetemple was not the sign of the much-anticipated restoration. The reasonfor this is linked explicitly to the way in which the early Persian periodcommunity was replicating the behavioral patterns that had brought about
9. M.J. Boda, 'From Dystopia to Myopia: Utopian (Re)Visions in Haggai andZechariah 1-8', in E. Ben Zvi and M. Floyd (eds.),Utopia and Dystopia in PropheticTexts (Publications of the Finnish Exegetical Society; Helsinki: Finnish ExegeticalSociety/University of Helsinki; Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2006).
10. M.J. Boda, 'Zechariah: Master Mason or Penitential Prophet?', inB.Becking andR. Albertz (eds.), Yahwism After the Exile: Perspectives on Israelite Religion in thePersian Era(Studies in Theology and Religion; Assen: Van Gorcum, 2003), pp. 49-69;contra, for instance, Schart, 'Eschatological Visions', p. 334 n. 2, who claims that the
'narrative framework' (a term he prefers to 'superscription') in Haggai and Zech. 1-8'seamlessly combines the prophecies of Haggai and Zechariah'.
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118 Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 32.1 (2007)
theexilein thefirstplace. Ratherthanbeing evidence for the setting for
which Haggai/Zechariah 18 was compiled, themissingreference to the
temple's completion is evidence ofasober evaluation ofthe significanceof this project for the community. Thus, the theory of a preexisting
Haggai/Zechariah 18 collection is difficult to sustain.
Zechariah914 itselfis clearly comprised of disparate oracularmateri-
als, but these have been drawn together into a whole, unified by redac-
tional pieces containing the leitmotif of sheep and shepherd.14
At the
center of this sequence is the prophetic signact of Zech. 11.416,the
content of which helps transition the reader from the positive Judah
Ephraimvision oftheoracles in Zechariah 910 to the negative Judah
Jerusalem vision of the oracles in Zechariah 1214. The redactional
shepherd pieces represent a subtle trajectory thatresults ultimately in the
destructionoftheshepherd in ch. 13 and its attendant ramifications for
theirflock.The two references toKCCat the beginning ofchs.9 and 12
appear at the beginning of these two disparate oracular sections (chs. 9
10 vs. chs.1214)andmay indeed have functionedtomarkthebeginning
of two originally separate collections.Zechariah914 in its present form,
however, represents a unified literary complex.
With Malachi one enters a different literary world. Indeed, its super-
scriptioncontainsvocabulary encounteredinZechariah914, that is, the
phrase~"KCE, followedby a preposition(Mai.1.1). However, to
this is added the phrase 'through(TU)Malachi',a featuremissingin the
previous two superscriptions. Beyond this is a radically different literary
style (with its questionanswer) and gone are the carefully designed
redactionalshepherd pieces.This evidence suggests that the Book of theTwelve ends with four
collections, each of which displays its own integrity: Haggai 12,
Zechariah18,Zechariah914 andMalachi13.1 have argued elsewhere
thatZechariah 78 appears to prepare the reader for the more negative
14. M.J. Boda, 'Reading BetweentheLines:Zechariah11.416 in its LiteraryCon-texts',in BodaandFloyd(eds.),BringingOut the Treasure,pp.27791; M.J.Boda and
S E P *Li h Thi d D P h i Z h i h 9 14 d h P i
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120 Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 32.1 (2007)
Theweakness of his argument, however, is thediversecharacter of
eachofthesupposed strategies of linkage, highlightingmorethedisunity
than the unity. In addition, the arguments for commonality betweenZechariah 18 and 914 are too general (prophetic material often does
speak of salvationandwarning),and thedifferences in thesuperscriptions
are ignored infavor of thesimilarities. While it is true that there is an
increased use of interrogatives in HaggaiMalachi, Pierce's presentation
focuses on thelowestcommondenominatorwith littlesensitivityto the
uniqueness ofeachcorpus in their respective use of interrogatives.19
It is
difficult enoughtocompare the rhetorical and priestly torahquestions of
Haggai withthequestionanswer format inMalachi,letalonetrytocom-
pare these with the visionary dialogues ofthenightvisionsofZechariah
18. Ofcourse,interrogativesdonotappearinZechariah914, but Pierce
usesthis as evidence that Zechariah 11 is the focal point of thecorpus.
Othersmay explaintheanomaly differently, arguingthatZechariah 914
was never related to this collection apart from the Book oftheTwelve.
Finally, Pierce's examples of narrative can be affirmed in comparing
Haggai and Zechariah 18, but beyond that there is little similarity innarrative use. Pierce mustreducehis definition of narrativeto'thirdparty
objectivity',20
in order toclassify Hag.1.1215withMai.3.1.
A second attempt to establish rhetorical unity in HaggaiMalachi is
displayed in Bauer'sapproach,which highlightsakeytheme and rhetori-
cal structure.21
Bauer concluded that Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi
weredrawn togetherin thePtolemaicperiod in acollectionwith a chiastic
design emanating from the central pericope in Zechariah 78, pairing
Zechariah 16 and 914 and then Haggai andMalachi.The themes thatunified these books are all socioeconomic, identifying obedience to
social justice as key to prosperity for the Jewish community. However,
his rhetorical designrunsroughshod overthesuperscriptions ofZechariah
18 and the bracketing character oftheprose sermoninclusio(Zech1.-
;7.18.23), and the theme of social justice is present but certainly not
dominantin these books.
House's reading oftheBook oftheTwelverepresents a third attempt
at unity for HaggaiMalachi. He offers synchronic reflection on the
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character of Haggai-Malachi within the book of the Twelve, withHaggai-Malachi developing the theme of'restoration' asthe resolution to
a plot that began in Hosea-Micah as 'sin' and developed into 'punishment' in Nahum-Zephaniah.22 The difficulty with this approach hasalready become obvious in my reading of the various sections of Haggai-Malachi. Although the collection begins with great hope, such hope issoon dashed in light of the realities of the Persian-period Yehudite community.
A fourth proposal for unity was provided by Lescow who used thetheme of Torah as the unifying principle of his leaner Haggai, Zechariah1-8, Malachi corpus.23This has been challenged as being too simplistic,especially in view of the light treatment of this theme in Haggai andZechariah1-8.24
Finally, although certainly not concerned with redactional history andlevels,25 Conrad capitalizes on the use of 'messenger' terminology inHaggai-Malachi and argues forthekey role that Haggai-Malachi play inthe Book of the Twelve and possibly also the Latter Prophets as a whole.26
The use of messenger terminology is evidence ofaclear break betweenan earlier age of prophetic witness when there was confusion over theidentification of prophets and the later age of Haggai-Malachi whichclarifies this issue. Statements in Zech. 1.1-6 and Zechariah 7 about the'former prophets' who are now quoted, coupled with Conrad's appro-
22. P.R. House,The Unity of the Twelve(Bible and Literature Series, 27; Sheffield:Almond Press, 1990).
23. T. Lescow,Das Buch Malchi: Texttheorie-Auslegung-Kanontheorie (Arbeitenzur Theologie, 75; Stuttgart: Calwer Verlag, 1993), pp. 186-87; cf. T. Lescow, 'Sacharja1-8: Verkndigung und Komposition', V68 (1993), pp. 75-99; cf. Redditi, 'Twelve',pp.247-48.
24. Cf. Redditi, 'Twelve', pp. 247-48.25. As seen in Conrad's works:Reading Isaiah(OBT,27;Minneapolis: Fortress Press,
1991),pp. 12-20; 'Prophet, Redactor and Audience: Reforming the Notion of Isaiah'sFormation', in M.A. Sweeney andR.F.Melugin(eds.),NewVisionsof Isaiah(JSOTSup,214; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996), pp. 306-25; Zechariah (Readings;Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1999), pp. 16-18. See my review, 'Review ofConrad:Reading the Latter Prophets (2003)',RBL (2005), available online at
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122 Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 32.1 (2007)
priationof thetraditional critical interpretation ofZech.13.26, that is,
that all prophecy had ceased, leads him to argue that the 'prophets are
portrayed as being from formertimes'.2TConradclaimsthatintheirplacenow are found messengers, displayed bythereference to Haggai in Hag.
1.13.ForConrad, the"[K^E,who appears, forinstance,inZechariah
3,is Haggai, not some heavenly figure, and the figure"ZDK C ('my mes-
senger') in the book traditionally calledMalachi,is Zechariah.28
Conrad
closely associates this focusonIITK^C with the emphasis on the rebuild-
ing of the temple, that sacred space which blurs the distinction between
earth and heaven.29
The problem with this approach is that it does not comport with the
evidence in the book. First, both Haggai and Zechariah are explicitly
referred to as 8*2: in the superscriptions and are portrayed in roles
where they deliver propheticlike speech ().30 Secondly,
Zechariahis never calleda"[K^E,discountingthetheorythatHaggai was
atransition figure from prophet to messenger. Thirdly, Conrad's inter-
pretationofZech.8.913, that it is a reference to the reading ofprophetic
scrolls on the day offoundation laying, is astretch,especially in light ofthe fact that we have extant witnesses to the speeches of both Haggai
(Hag. 2.1023) and Zechariah (Zech. 4.6b10a) on that day. Fourthly,
Zech.13.26 does not claimthatprophecy has ceased, but rather focuses
onthe eradication offalseprophecy linked to idolatry. Finally, Conrad
assumes that HaggaiMalachi is consumed by the theme of temple
rebuilding, a point that cannot be sustained for Zechariah 914 and
Malachi and the majority of Zechariah 18. In light of this,Conrad's
theoryonthemessengerthemein HaggaiMalachi is insufficient. Never-theless, even though Conrad'sargumentationhas been found lacking, the
evidence he has culled from the corpus provides a way forward for our
discussion.
27. Conrad,LatterProphets,p.260; as Conradsaysin 'End of Prophecy',p.67: 'The
Twelveas a collage pictures theriseandfallof a prophetic past and the reinstitution ofan
angelic/messenger presence. Prophecy in theTwelveis valued as a past institution that is
coming to an end.'
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miTl^b in Haggai-Zechariah-Malachi
The greatest concentration of the term "[N^C in Haggai-Malachi is theZechariah 1-8 corpus where, in the night vision sequence, the prophet istaken on a journey to be given insight. There three individuals are callediphto: ylZ (Zech. 1.9,13,14;2.2,7; 4.1,4,5; 5.5,10; 6.4,5),^ (2.7),andT.IVipbtl (1.11,12; 3.1,3,6). These passages offerus insights into the heavenly realm and the workings of the heavenly hostwhom God sends out to patrol the earth (vision 1, see Job 1, 2) andamong whom God holds court (vision4).31Outside this section, however,
the term"[K C is rarely used. As noted by Conrad, it does appear in Hag.1.13 in the phrase miT "[K^Q in reference to the prophet Haggai. The nextappearance is in Zech. 12.8 where, in a comparison between TITandC^CIT2CT, the house ofDavidis comparedto both deity (^) and
""Jfcbc andthe inhabitantsofJerusalemtoDavid.32
Thefinalappear-
anceis inMai. 2.7 in which the"is identified as "[K^C.
This final reference in Mai. 2.7 has drawn much attention from
scholarship,often identified as evidencethatthe priests had taken overpropheticprerogatives. Thistransition,itisclaimed,was foreshadowed in
thereferenceinZech.3.7btoJoshuathehighpriest being given 'a way of
access' tothedivine council and atransitionnecessitated by thecrisis in
prophecydepicted inZech. 13.26.33
However, besides the fact thatthe
traditionaltranslation ofZech.3.7b and the traditional interpretationof
Zech.13.26can nolonger be sustained(inmyopinion),34
what has been
31. W.M.Schniedewind,The Word of God in Transition:FromProphettoExegetein
the Second TemplePeriod(JSOTSup, 197; Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1995), p. 62,notes:
'The use of angels to mediate the prophetic word thenis characteristic of postexilic
prophecy'.
32. For theroyal figuretobe identified orcomparedtoa"fc^C of God is not surprising and can be found at three places in the Former Prophets (1 Sam. 29.9; 2 Sam. 14.17;19.27). The comparison to 'God' is also not odd, in light of the fact that the king isdescribed in Ps. 2.7 as the adopted son of deity; cf. D.L. Petersen,Zechariah 9-14 and
Malachi: A Commentary (OTL; Louisville, KY: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1995),
p. 119. Petersen's view, however, on Zech. 12.8 is rather odd, in that he says the versegives David divine status and then democratizes David as the people (cf. Isa. 55.3), which
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124 Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 32.1 (2007)
missed is that the term"[K^Cis used to refer to prophets in a book as late
as Chronicles, and that mrV'fK^Q is used in Hag. 1.13 to refer to a
prophetand inZech.12.8 to refer to a royal figure.As 7T~r"[K^C,the prophetic figure Haggai is seen as one who brings
the message of God, which is recognized as authoritative by the com-
munity. In similar fashion, the priestly figure in Mai. 2.7 is seen as one
who is to preserve knowledge as he instructs the people. In contrast,
however, the royal figure inZech.12.8 is linked to the7 "[K^Cin the
role of leadership ofthepeople going into battle.35
Focusingattention, then,on the phrase"[S^C,one discovers out-
side ofZechariah 18 one reference to a*"[fc^C in each of thethree
corpora and each reference links this identity with one of thethree key
sociofunctionaries in ancient Israel: prophet (Hag. 1.13), king (Zech.
12.8)andpriest(Mai.2.7).InZechariah 18, where miT"[K^Cappears to
be limited to a heavenly rather than human figure, these three socio
functionaries all enter into the scene at one point oranother.Of course, a
propheticfigure is evident throughout the night vision sequence and the
enduring importance of prophecy is clear fromthefactthattheprophet isconsistently given messages to declare to the people. At two points,
however, the night visions emphasizetherole oftheprophet,bothtohave
access into God's presence (Zech. 3, in thegift to the priestly caste of
prophets whowill have access to the divine council) and toserve as a
conduitfor God's presence into the community (Zech. 4). Not only the
prophet,but also the priest is emphasized in the night vision sequence,
first inthereinstatement and reclothing of Joshua in Zechariah 3, but also
Thrones: Prophet, Priest and King in Zechariah 1:76:15', in Ehud Ben Zvi (ed.),
PerspectivesonHebrew Scriptures(Piscataway,NJ:Gorgias Press, 2006),pp. 379404.
35. K.J. Larkin,TheEschatologyof Second Zechariah: A Study of theFormationof a
MantologicalWisdomAnthology(CBET,6:Kampen:Kok. 1994),p.159, linkstheimage
hereto that oftheangelic presence leadingthepeople intheExodus (Exod. 14.19) and to
the angel who defended Jerusalem against Sennacherib (2 Kgs 19.35): cf. G. Gaide,
Jrusalem, voici ton roi: Commentaire du Zacharie 9-14 (LD. 49; Paris: Les Editions du
Cerf,1968), pp. 126-27. She also, however, does note that in 2 Sam. 14.20 the comparisonof David with a ^ " " ^ ^ is related to his wisdom and omniscience, citing then
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in the provision of a crown and throne to the priest in Zech. 6.915.
Althoughthepriest istorespecttherole ofthecomingroyal figure(*),
he and his associates are to serve a significant function within therestorationcommunity.Finally,theroyal figure isnotonlyprophesiedin
thenightvisionsequenceasthedivinecourtlooks fortheexpected figure
calledUt2 (Zech.3,6), but a royal figure is addressed directlyandgiven
thepromisethathewillbe responsible for the completionofthetemple
(Zech.4).Thus,the night vision sequence portraysprophetic,royal and
priestly figures inintimatecontactwith the realm whereCDK^Cdwell,
thatspace between earth and heaven(Zech.5).
What is interesting,however, isthatthethreereferences to"[N^E
outsidethe night vision series all appear inverseswhose 'authenticity'
hasbeen debatedontextcriticaland literary grounds.36
Elsewhere inthe
bookofHaggai,Haggai is called *rz:rr (1.1,3, 12; 2.1, 10), but in Hag.
1.13, eventhoughreferencehasjust beenmadeto Haggai astheprophet
(1.12),he is givenanothertitleinthisverynextverse,namely,m""K^C.There are challenges within 1.13 itself with what appears to be a dittogra-
phy in the phrases:*HID^C::mir "fate";n. Notonly isthelead wordin the second phrase ^ a hapax legomena in the HebrewBible, it is not represented in some of theSeptuagint textual traditions
whereonefinds only: ayyeos .3"Isitpossiblethattheconfusiononthe textcritical level can be traced to the intrusive character ofthis
phrasein this text, onethatwas glossed at somepointby aphrasewhich
soughttoplay downtheexplicit reference to Haggai as a"[fc^C?
Thereferenceto""]*7inZech.12.8 reads as intrusivetothetext.
Thisverse claimsthateventhe feeblest amongtheinhabitantsofJerusa-lemwillbe 'likeDavid',andDavidwillbe 'likeGod,liketheTi IT ipbnbefore them'. While the inhabitants of Jerusalem are compared to only
36. See W. Bhme, 'Zu Malchi und Haggai',ZAW1 (1887), pp. 210-17; H.G.T.Mitchell, J.M.P. Smith and J.A. Brewer, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on
Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi and Jonah(ICC; Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1912). pp. 55,57.Verhoef notes Keil's observation that this interpolation emphasizes Haggai's position
as extraordinary messenger, and cites the argument of T. Chary, Agge-Zacharie,Malachie(Paris: J. Gabalda, 1969), p. 22, who sees 'il conviendrait mieux comme con
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126 Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 32.1 (2007)
oneindividual ('David'), it is oddthatDavid iscomparedto both 'God'
and 'the "]&*?:'. This extra text has often been attributed to the
uncomfortabilityoflaterJewish scribestogrant Davidevenindirectattri-butionofdeity(whatMitchellcalled 'aglossby some one "very jealous
for Yahweh'");38
thus,immediately the word 'God' is glossed as "jK^C
to lessen the comparison.39
However, it is interestingthatwhen a
similarcomparativestructure is usedtoexplaintherelationshipbetween
Moses and Aaron in Exod. 4.16 (:^'~".^:^"[^"^:^, ,
1
C'M^K1?),noglossisintroducedinto thetext.
40Again,couldtheintrusive
characterofthisphrase be traced at least in part to aredactionalagenda
relatedto the status oftheroyal house?
Finally,the reference to"171**~\$hll inMai.2.7 also has beennotedas
secondary to its context, as Bhme observed nearly 120 years ago.41
Malachi 2.1-4 addresses the priests directly ('you'), warning them aboutthe seriousness of action that YHWH will take against them if they do notheed his word. At the end ofthat section,YHWHreveals his desire that thecovenant with Levi continue. Malachi 2.5-6 then unpacks the character of
this covenant, continuing God's speech still in the first person, speakingabout God's relationship with Levi, and expressing it in a way thatpersonalizes the covenant as if with an individual. In 2.8-9, the speechthen returns to address the priests directly with the 'you', while God isstill speaking in the first person. However, 2.7 stands out in this flow as it
38. Mitchell, Smith and Brewer,Haggai,p. 326; see the list of earlier scholars inR.A. Mason, 'The Use of Earlier Biblical Material in Zechariah 9-14: A Study in InnerBiblical Exegesis', in Boda and Floyd (eds.),Bringing Out the Treasure,p. 156 n. 22;
R.C. Dentan, 'Zechariah 9-14\ in G.A. Buttrick(ed.).The Interpreter'sBible(New York:Abingdon. 1956), p. 1107; P.R. Ackroyd, 'Haggai/Zechariah\ in M. Black and H.H.Rowley (eds.).The New Peake's Bible Commentary (London: Thomas Nelson, 1962),p.654.
39. There is no question that there is great discomfort with this phrase as attested inthe ancient versions. The Targum translates 'the house of David shall be like princes(~~) and shall flourish like kings'; theLXXreads 'the weakest amongtheminthat
dayasthehouseofDavid,andthehouseofDavidasthehouseofGod.astheangel ofthe
Lordbeforethem'(^cosKOS,
OKOSeosteos.cos$ ).SeeMitchell, Smith andBrewer.Haggai.p.329;Mason,'Use',p.156:C.L.Meyersand E.M.Meyers,Zechariah
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speaks ofthepriesthoodinabstracttermsandnotdirectly ('apriest', 'his
mouth') and refers to God in the third person ('the Lord Almighty').
Malachi 2.7 also repeats the same theme already found in 2.6, usingsimilar vocabulary, but recasting it in a style thatstands out in the pas-
sage. Here again is evidence in a versecontainingthe phrase7l'~*"[K^C
ofintrusioninto the text.
Conclusionand Implications
Thisarticle has arguedthatalthough each section intheHaggaiZecha-
riahMalachicorpus displays an integrity of its ownandthuspossesses auniqueredactionhistory,thecorpus asawhole is witnesstoa developing
tradition, the resulting literature of which has been unified around the
nightvision series inZechariah 18 through the insertion ofthephrase
Who, then,was responsible for this redaction? Who has taken these
corpora anddrawnthemtogetherintoaunified whole?IfMai.1.1and3.1
were original to the corpus we now find inMalachi,thenit is very likely
itwas the one(s) responsible for theMalachi section who accomplished
thiswork, aconclusionthatwouldmeanthatZechariah914 was part of
thecorpus fromtheoutset.However, it is also possiblethatthoserespon-
sibleshapedthefinalsection(thebook ofMalachi)inawaythatmatched
theiragendatoemphasizetheir"[K^Cideals,aviewthatwould leaveopen
the possibility for a later inclusion of Zechariah 914.42
Nevertheless,
there are indications in Malachithat those responsible are seeking to
create links not only with Zechariah 914 (KCC)but also with Haggaiand Zechariah 18. The selfidentification as 'my messenger' ("DK^C),
'through' () whom YHWH has communicated this KC to Israel,creates a nice link with the opening section of the Haggai section of theHaggai-Malachi collection where the word of YHWH comes 'through'
42. As I neared the completion of this study I was delighted to find support for thislink between "S'TE and redaction from the Meyers who suggested that the phraseP"! K E in Zech. 12.8 'could well be the mark of a redactor or compiler of the Book ofZechariah. Such a person might also be the one who redacted or influenced the redactor ofthe Book of Malachi [who ] in the reference to "Angel" places these prophetic words
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128 Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 32.1 (2007)
(TI )Haggai,who iscalled"ipft. Additionally, the opening (1.2-3)and closing (8.14) sections of Zechariah 1-8 contain the call 'return to me
and I will return to you', a phrase that is echoed in Mai. 3.7. Throughthese echoes the ones responsible for this final section in Malachi identify themselves with the earlier Haggai-Zecharian tradition and furtherstrengthen the integrity of the corpus.
What, then, is the significance of this redaction? The first half of theHaggai-Malachi complex (the sections using the historical superscriptions) offers a positive view of the future of reinstated socio-functionariesin the restored Yehudite community. These figures are identified as real
human figures who are linked to pre-exilictraditions.The second half ofthe Haggai-Malachi complex (the sections using the ACQ superscriptions)offers a more sober vision of the future, expressing concern over thepresent crisis inroyal,priestly and prophetic streams in the early Persianperiod. This collection which represents the collation of four verydifferent bodies ofliterature,but which could come from a common streamof prophetic tradition, has been drawn together through the use of theleitmotifof PuPP"[8^0,which elevates roles originally associated with theearthly society of Yehud into the realm described in the night visionswhich is between 'earth and heaven' (Zech. 5.9). As the crisis darkens inthe later period possibly associated with the texts now found in Zechariah9-14 and Malachi, hope shifts increasingly to an inbreaking of CDK^Cassociated with traditional Israelite socio-functionary roles, yet withheavenly contact if not origins.43
43. See the work of N.G. Cohen, 'FromNabitoMaPakto "Ancient Figure" \ JJS26(1985), pp. 12-24. The association of these figures with the heavenly realm is not soshocking. The prophet was always associated with the heavenly realms, especially as theone who had access to the divine council, appearing in the divine realm in such passagesas Isa. 6, Ezek. 1-3 and2Kgs 20 (cf. Jeremiah's comments about prophets in the council).The priest's association with the heavenly realms comes through his role in entering thesanctuary and the presence of God, the holy of holies being depicted as an entrance to ifnot the divine council. On Yom Kippur the high priest entered once a year. To find thehigh priest in the divine council in Zech. 3 is not surprising (for the high priest was
allowed to enter God's presence once a year), but in Zech. 3 it does not appear to be onthe same level as membership, since he is the one accused. Although the king is never
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BODA Messengers of Hope in Haggai-Malachi 129
The two roles associated with these CDK^Q, messenger figure andmilitary leader, are interestingly the two roles associated with the being
called ^DK^C in Exod. 23.20-33, a passage which Berry has argued liesbehind the reference to "[K^E in Mal.3.I.44Exodus 23.20-21 describes afigure closely associated with deity ('my name is in him') who will notonly guard and guide them in the conquest of the land, but whose voicemust be carefully heeded.45This intertextual link draws in the only otherreferences to CDK^C outside the night vision corpus, and suggests thatthese figures originally associated with the earthly roles of prophet, kingand priest are possibly being likened to (or even assuming) the ancientrole of theipbu who led Israel into the conquest oftheland, now withthe purpose of cleansing the people (Mai. 3.1).
Although the majority of recent scholars have linked Mai.3.22-24toredactional processes related to the development of the Book of theTwelve or even theNevPim as a whole, it is possible that the presentredactional theory may explain why Malachi ends with a vision of thereturn of Elijah.46 It was Elijah whose earthly ministry ended with his
direct transmission to heaven on a fiery chariot pulled by horses; theexpected return of a prophetic figure thus is that of one who literally hadhovered between earth and heaven.47Additionally, in recent years there
44. Berry, 'Dual Design', pp. 269-302 (281-82).45. As 'Dual Design',p.282, says: 'This messenger mysteriously combines the roles
of prophet and angel'.
46. The view that dominates scholarship is that Mai.3.22-24is a conclusion to largercanonical units, such as the Book of the Twelve or even theNevPim as a whole; cf.Nogalski,Redactional Processes,p.185; Schart,Entstehung,pp. 302-303;Curtis, *Zion-Daughter Oracles', pp. 166-84; Redditi, 'Capstone', p. 323. However, see Glazier-McDonald,Malachi,pp. 244-70, who argued that '3.22-24 comprises the climax of theprophecy. In them Malachi brings together elements from his preaching into a sharperfocus. Indeed, all the major themes of the prophecy are found in these final verses...'(p.267). Similarly, J.M. O'Brien,Priest and Lvite in Malachi (SBLDS, 121;Atlanta:Scholars Press, 1990), p.145.Jones,Formation,pp. 236-37, sees3.23-24as a later addi
tion to explain Mai.3.1;thus
k
the original literary horizon of Mai.3.22-24was limited tothe Book of Malachi'. However, he then notes that the shift of this pericope from its orderin the LXX (which was Mai 3 24 22 23 which he considers earlier) to its order in MT
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130 Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 32.1 (2007)
has been much debate over the use of angelic motifs or theology for
understanding Christology in the New Testament.48
It may be that the
whoacts in more ofadivinethanhumanrole'. Suchchariotsand horses also appear in
Zech.16, as theyenterthisspacebetweenearth andheaventofulfil God'swillonearth.
48. See especiallyJ.H.Charlesworth,"ThePortrayaloftheRighteousasanAngel',
inJ.J.CollinsandG.W.E.Nickelsburg(eds.),IdealFiguresin Ancient Judaism:Profiles
and Paradigms (SeptuagintandCognate Studies;Chico,CA:Scholars Press.1980),pp.
13551 (145). who, speaking of documentsin Judaism andChristianityin the first few
centuriesCE.saysthatthey'pointtoaconceptthatseemstohavebeendevelopingwithin
Judaismprior to the second centuryCE.Figures in Israel's past, especially Adam andJacob,couldbeportrayedasangels;others,notablytheRechabites. couldbethoughtof as
having been transformedintoangels. Some Jews conceived of thepossibility7 for the
faithfulprobably onlya\ery select fewtotranscendhumanity andbecomeangels...*:
seeC.C.Rowland,'The Vision oftheRisen Christ in Rev.i.l3ff:TheDebtofanEarly
Christologyto an Aspect of Jewish Angelology\ JTS(1980),pp. 111;idem, TheOpen
Heaven(London:SPCK,1982):idem. ManClothedinLinen:Daniel10.6ffandJewish
angelology',JSNT24 (1985), pp. 99110. L.T. Stuckenbruck,Angel Veneration and
Christology:A StudyinEarly Judaism andintheChristologyoftheApocalypseof John
(WUNT,70;Tbingen: J.C.B. Mohr, 1995), pp. 271-72, speaking of the book of Revelation, notes: 'That there isan analogy between Christology and angelology is apparent
from 1.12-20,from attributes shared with some of the angels (e.g.. 10.1 and 15.6). andespecially from 14.14-20. At the same time, this association seems to be severed emphatically in the \ision of the Lamb in chapter 5\ See now idem, "'Angels'' and "God":Exploring the Limits of Early Jewish Monotheism', in L.T. Stuckenbruck and W.E.Sproston North (eds.).EarlyJew ishand Christian Monotheism(JSNTSup, 263;London:T&T Clark International. 2004).pp.45-70. P.R. Carroll,Jesus and the Angels: Angelologyand the Christology of the Apocalypse of John(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1997), p. 226, draws Zech. 1-6 and even 12.8 into the discussion, concluding: 'Angelol
ogy has influenced the christology of the Apocalypse in such a way that one of itsimportant strands is an angelomorphic Christology which upholds monotheism whileproviding a means for Jesus to be presented in \isible. glorious form to his church*. Alsosee N.R. Petersen. 'Elijah, the Son of God, and Jesus: Some Issues in the Anthropology ofCharacterization in Mark*, in R.A. Argali,. BowandR.A. Werline(eds.).For a LaterGeneration: The Transformation of Tradition in Israel, Early Judaism, and Early
Christianity (Harrisburg,PA:TrinityPressInternational,2000),pp.23240, who argues
for angelicpossession ofJohnandJesus.Finally,seeC.H.T.FletcherLouis.AlltheGloiy
ofAdam:LiturgicalAnthropologyinthe DeadSeaScrolls(STDJ,42:Leiden:Brill. 2002)
p. 32. who, highlighting the three figures of king. Moses and priest, writes: 'Thecharacterizationofhumansin such angelictermshas itsrootsin thebiblicaltext,but it is
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BODA Messengers of Hope in HaggaiMalachi 131
genesis of this development can be traced to the redactor responsible for
the HaggaiMalachi corpus or even to the Book of the Twelve as a
whole.49
Inthewake oftheexileand thefailed restoration,those responsible for
the redaction of the HaggaiMalachi corpus do not lose hope in the
promised renewal ofprophet,priest and king, but now look for these as
'messengers ofhope'with heavenly origins. If this 'messenger' redaction
canbe linked to the final redaction of thebook of the Twelve, it would
suggest that greater attention needs to be given to the theme of future
leadership hope in our reading oftheBook ofthe Twelve.
50
49. See further M.J. Boda, 'Figuring theFuture:The Prophets and the Messiah', in
S.E.Porter(ed.),Messiah (McMasterNew Testament Studies;GrandRapids:Eerdmans,
2006), pp. 3574.
50. See now P.L. Redditi, 'The King in HaggaiZechariah 18 and the Book ofthe
Twelve', inM.J.BodaandM.H.Floyd(eds.),Tradition in Transition(LHBOTS;London:
T&T ClarkInternational, forthcoming). Those responsible for this messenger redaction
andits inclusioninto theBook oftheTwelvemay be playing off oforeven be responsiblefor the inclusion of sections ofHos. 12, with its reference to the struggle between Jacob
and the 'messenger' who is closely associated with 'God' ('the Lord God Almighty the
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^ s
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