eco 401: international economics aisha khan winter 2009 bsc iv section b & c lecture

ECO 401: International Economics Aisha Khan

Winter 2009 BSC IV Section B & C

Lecture

• International capital market▫ The group of closed interconnected markets in

which residents of different countries trade assets such as currencies, stocks and bonds

▫ This chapter focus on three main questions: How has the international capital market enhanced

countries’ gains from trade? What caused the rapid growth in international

financial activity that has occurred since the early 1960s?

How can policymakers minimize problems raised by a worldwide capital market without sharply reducing the benefits it provides?

•Three Types of Gain From Trade▫All transactions between the residents of

different countries fall into one of three categories: Trades of goods or services for goods or

services Trades of goods or services for assets Trades of assets for assets

The International Capital Market and the Gains From Trade

Figure 21-1: The Three Types of International Transaction

Goods

and

Services

Assets

Goods

and

Services

Assets

Home Foreign

• Risk Aversion▫ The risk associated with a trade of assets is shared

when assets are traded internationally. When people are risk averse, countries can gain

through the exchange of risky assets. International capital markets make these trades

possible.


• Portfolio Diversification as a Motive for International Asset Trade▫ International portfolio diversification can allow

residents of all countries to reduce the variability of their wealth.

▫ International capital markets make this diversification possible.


• The Menu of International Assets: Debt Versus Equity▫ International portfolio diversification can be carried

out through the exchange of:

Debt instruments Bonds and bank deposits

▫They specify that the issuer of the instrument must repay a fixed value regardless of economic circumstances.

Equity instruments A share of stock

▫ It is a claim to a firm’s profits, rather than to a fixed payment, and its payoff will vary according to circumstance.


International Banking and the International Capital Market

• The Structure of the International Capital Market

▫ The main actors in the international capital market are: Commercial banks Corporations Nonbank financial institutions Central banks and other government agencies

• Growth of the International Capital Market▫ The removal of barriers to private capital flows

across countries’ borders has contributed to rapid growth in the international capital market.

▫ A policy “trilemma” refers to three available options: Fixed exchange rate Monetary policy oriented toward domestic goals Freedom of international capital movements


• Offshore Banking and Offshore Currency Trading▫ Offshore banking

The business that banks’ foreign offices conduct outside of their home countries

Banks operate offshore though any of three types of institution: Agency office Subsidiary bank Foreign branch

▫ Offshore currency trading Trade in bank deposits denominated in currencies of

countries other than the one in which the bank is located

It is referred to as Eurocurrency trading.


▫ Eurodollars Dollar deposits located outside the U.S.

▫ Eurobanks Banks that accept deposits denominated in

Eurocurrencies

▫ Eurocurrency trading has grown for three reasons: Growth in world trade Evasion of financial regulations like reserve

requirements Political concerns


• The Growth of Eurocurrency Trading▫ London is the leading center of Eurocurrency

trading.

▫ The early growth in the Eurodollar market was due to: Growing volume of international trade New U.S. restrictions on capital outflows and U.S.

banking regulations Federal Reserve regulations on U.S. banks Move to floating exchange rates in 1973 Reluctance of Arab OPEC members to place surplus

funds in American banks after the first oil shock


▫ International banking facilities (IBFs) Banks that accept time deposits and make loans to

foreign customers. They are not subject to reserve requirements or

interest rate ceilings. They are exempt from state and local taxes.


Regulating International Banking

• The Problem of Bank Failure▫ A bank fails when it is unable to meet its

obligations to its depositors.▫ Governments attempt to prevent bank failures

through extensive regulation of their domestic banking systems.

▫ The main U.S. safeguards to reduce the risk of bank failure: Deposit insurance Reserve requirements Capital requirements and asset restrictions Bank examination Lender of last resort (LLR) facilities

The Fed lends to banks facing massive deposit outflows to satisfy their depositors’ claims.


• Difficulties in Regulating International Banking▫Deposit insurance is essentially absent in

international banking.▫The absence of reserve requirements reduces

the stability of the banking system.▫Bank examination to enforce capital

requirements and asset restrictions becomes more difficult in an international setting.

▫There is uncertainty over which central bank is responsible for providing LLR assistance in international banking.


• International Regulatory Cooperation▫ Offshore banking is largely unprotected by the

safeguards national governments have imposed to prevent domestic bank failures.

▫ Basel Committee It is a group of central bank heads from 11

industrialized countries. It enhances regulatory cooperation in the

international area. Its 1975 Concordat allocated national responsibility

for monitoring banking institutions and provided for information exchange.


▫ A major change in international financial relations in the 1990s has been the rapidly growing importance of new emerging markets as sources and destinations for private capital flows.

▫ The trend toward securitization has increased the need for international cooperation in monitoring and regulating nonbank financial institutions.


How Well Has the International Capital Market Performed?

• The Extent of International Portfolio Diversification▫ The international capital market has contributed to

an increase in international portfolio diversification since 1970.

▫ The extent of diversification appears small compared with what economic theory would predict.


• The Extent of Intertemporal Trade▫ Some observers claim that the extent of

international trade, as measured by countries’ current account balances, has been too small. These claims are hard to evaluate.

Figure 21-3: Saving and Investment Rates for 25 Countries, 1990-1997 Averages

• Onshore-Offshore Interest Differentials▫ If the world capital market is functioning well,

international interest rates should move closely together and not differ too greatly. Large interest rate differences would be strong

evidence of unrealized gains from trade. Data shows that rates of return on similar

deposits issued in the major financial centers are quite close.


Figure 21-4: Comparing Eurodollar and Onshore United States Interest Rates

• The Efficiency of the Foreign Exchange Market▫Exchange rates provide important signals to

those who engage in international trade and investment.

▫Studies Based on Interest Parity The interest parity condition:

Rt – R*t = (Eet+1 – Et)/Et

(21-1)where:

Rt is the date-t interest rate on home currency deposits

R*t is the date-t interest rate on foreign currency deposits

Eet+1 is the expected exchange rate

Et is the exchange rate


• The forecast error made in predicting future depreciation:

ut+1 = (Et+1 – Et)/Et - (Eet+1 – Et)/Et (21-2)

• Under interest parity, this hypothesis can be tested by writing ut+1 as actual currency depreciation less the international interest difference:

ut+1 = (Et+1 – Et)/Et - (Rt – R*t) (21-3)


• The Role of Risk Premiums▫ If bonds denominated in different currencies are

imperfect substitutes for investors, the international interest rate difference equals expected currency depreciation plus a risk premium, t:

Rt – R*t = (Eet+1 – Et)/Et + t (21-4)

• Tests for Excessive Volatility▫ They yield a mixed verdict on the foreign exchange

performance.

• The Bottom Line▫ Evidence on foreign exchange market is ambiguous;

more research and experience are needed.


eco 401: international economics aisha khan winter 2009 bsc iv section b & c lecture

Documents

international capital

worldwide capital market

private capital flows

trade of assets

currencies of countries

countries borders

assetstrades of assets

exchange of risky assets