ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS OF SEWAGE ON RIVER CAUVERY: A CASE STUDY IN

TIRUCHIRAPPALLI URBAN AREA

A thesis submitted to

BHARATHIDASAN UNIVERSITY

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

award of the Degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN ECONOMICS

By

A. ROYAL EDWARD WILLIAMS

Reg. No. 17503 / Ph.D-2/Econ. F.T. /Oct 2005.

DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS BHARATHIDASAN UNIVERSITY

TIRUCHIRAPPALLI – 620 024

February 2011

ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS OF SEWAGE ON RIVER CAUVERY: A CASE STUDY IN

TIRUCHIRAPPALLI URBAN AREA

A thesis submitted to

BHARATHIDASAN UNIVERSITY

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

award of the Degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN ECONOMICS

By

A. ROYAL EDWARD WILLIAMS

Reg. No. 17503 / Ph.D-2/Econ. F.T. /Oct 2005.

Research Supervisor

Dr. M. RAVICHANDRAN

DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS

BHARATHIDASAN UNIVERSITY

TIRUCHIRAPPALLI – 620 024

February 2011

DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS BHARATHIDASAN UNIVERSITY

TIRUCHIRAPPALLI – 620 024 TAMIL NADU, INDIA

Dr. M. RAVICHANDRAN Ph.D., Professor & Head Department of Environmental Management Bharathidasan University Tiruchirappalli – 620 024

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis “ECONOMIC AND

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS OF SEWAGE ON RIVER

CAUVERY: A CASE STUDY IN TIRUCHIRAPPALLI URBAN AREA ” ,

submitted by Mr. A. Royal Edward Williams, is a bonafide record of research

work done by him under my guidance in the Department of Environmental

Management, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli and that the thesis has

not previously formed the basis for the award to the candidate of any degree or

any other similar title. The thesis is the outcome of personal research work done

by the candidate under my overall supervision.

Date : (M. RAVICHANDRAN)

Place : Tiruchirappalli Research Supervisor

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the work embodied in this thesis has been originally

carried out by me under the guidance and the supervision of

Dr. M. Ravichandran, Professor & Head, Department of Environmental

Management, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli – 620 024. This work

has been submitted either in whole or in part for any other Degree or Diploma at

any University.

Date : (A. ROYAL EDWARD WILLIAMS )

Place : Tiruchirappalli

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I take this opportunity to thank all those who helped me to bring out this thesis

successfully.

I would like to express my deep and sincere gratitude to my supervisor,

Dr. M. Ravichandran, Professor and Head, Department of Environmental Management,

Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli. His wide knowledge and logical way of thinking

have been of great value for me. His detailed and constructive comments, and for his

important support throughout research work. My thanks are due in a great manner for his

understanding, encouraging and personal guidance has provided a good basis for this

thesis.

My sincere thanks to Dr. Chellam Balasundaram, UGC Emeritus Fellow, Dept. of

Animal Science, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, for having helped in correcting

the thesis from the beginning till the end

I am extremely grateful to Dr. C. Thangamuthu, Former Vice-Chancellor,

Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli for his keen personal interest in providing

constant encouragement, valuable comments and his vital support to undergo my research

work.

I wish to express my warm and sincere thanks to Dr. R. Mohanraj, Assistant

Professor, Dr. N.D. Srinithivihahshini, Assistant Professor, Dr. M. Prashanthi Devi

Assistant Professor and Dr. S. Rajakumar, Guest faculty, Department of Environmental

Management, Dr. S. Iyyampillai, Professor and head, Department of Economics,

Dr. J.A. Arul Chellakumar, Professor and Chair, Dr. Backyavathi, Assistant Professor,

Dr. S. Ganesan, Assistant Professor, Dr. N. Prasanna, Assistant Professor,

Dr. Natarajamorthi, Assistant Professor, Department of Economics. Dr. N. Manimekalai,

Professor and Head, Department of Women’s Studies, Bharathidasan University, for their

valuable comments and suggestions which have enriched the thesis.

I extend my sincere thanks to Dr. S. Boopathi, Assistant Professor, Bharathiar

University, Coimbatore. Dr. A. Shankaran, Assistant Professor, Pondicherry University,

Puducherry. Dr. A. Kannan, Assistant Professor, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai.

Dr. J. Sathya, Assistant Professor, Department of Economics, Saradha College for Women,

Salem and Dr. Noorjahan Sherfudeen, ICSSR Doctoral Fellow, Department of

Environmental Management, Bharathidasan University, for their comments and

suggestions.

I thank my fellow scholars Sirajuddin M. Horaginamani, P.T. Nithiya,

S. Dhanakumar, G. Solaraj, A. Arivoli, J. Saravanan, B. Brindha, R. Chithra Devi,

M. Sheelamary, D. Mahamuni and R. Vidya Lakshmi, Department of Environmental

Management, A. Selvakumar, J. Geethalakshmi and A. Aruna, Department of Economics,

Bharathidasan University, A. Dhivagar, DME, MIET, Trichy, R. Manikandan, ICSSR

Doctoral Fellow, Department of Economics, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore,

M. Balasubramanian, Department of Environmental Economics, Madurai Kamaraj

University, Madurai and M. Sangeetha, Department of Economics, JNU, New Delhi.

Whose boundless affection, timely help and moral support.

I am extremely grateful to the University Grants Commission for the financial

support during the period of my research work. I feel obliged to the authorities of Tamil

Nadu Water supply and Drainage board, Tiruchirappalli City Corporation, and Tamil Nadu

Electricity Board, for their support by providing required information.

I owe my loving thanks to my wife R. Pankajavalli and my son R.P. Shylesh

Anthony without their encouragement and understanding it would have been impossible for

me to finish this work. My special gratitude is due to my father Mr. V. Arockia Samy (late)

and my mother Mrs. A. Regina Mary, my brother Mr. A. Royal Edward Thomas and my

sisters Mrs. A Anbu Ganan Mani, Mrs. A. Stella Jaya Rani and Mrs. Gracy Mary and their

family members for their loving support.

Let me record my deep appreciation of the help rendered by Mr. G. Kumaresan and

Mr. R. Thiyagarajan of the office of the Department of Environmental Management. My

profound thanks are due to Mr. Kumar, Registrar section, Mr. R. Manimaran,

UGC-Infonet, Mr. Alagesan, finance section, Bharathidasan Univeristy.

A. Royal Edward Williams

Chapters Contents Page No.

I Introduction 1

1.1 Statement of the Problem 4

1.2 Objectives of the Study 5

1.3 Hypothesis 6

1.4 Methodology 6

1.4.1 Method of sample selection 6

1.4.2 Data source 7

1.4.3 Primary household survey period 7

1.4.4 Tools of Analysis 7

1.5 Chapter Scheme 8

1.6 Limitations of the study 9

II Concepts and review of literature 10

2.1 Concepts 10

2.2 Concepts of Financial Incentives / Disincentives 17

2.3 Theoretical Background of the study 19

2.4 Review of Literature 25

2.4.1 Health and Environmental aspect 26

2.4.2 Cost and Technological aspect 40

2.5 Critical remarks 43

III 3.1 Profile of the study area 44

3.1.1 General Profile 44

3.1.2 General information of Tiruchirappalli City Corporation

44

3.1.3 Demographic details of Tiruchirappalli City Corporation

45

3.1.4 Administrative setup 47

3.1.5 Administration function 48

3.1.6 City management and governance 49

3.1.7 Treasury 49

3.1.8 Constructions of road 50

3.1.9 Rainwater canals 50

3.1.10 Rain water harvest 50

3.1.11 Potable water 50

3.1.12 Sewage system 51

Chapters Contents Page No.

3.1.13 Solid waste management 55

3.1.14 Industrial development 55

3.1.15 Transportation 57

3.1.16 Important places 58

3.1.17 Circuits 60

3.2 Existing Sewage Treatment Plant in The Study Area 63

3.2.1 Old Trichy area 65

3.2.2 Treatment Process in Panjapur is Waste Stabalization Pond

66

3.2.3 Operation Requirements for the various units uniformly

69

3.2.4 Operation and Maintenance of Sewage Treatment Plant

70

3.2.5 Monitoring STP Performance 71

3.2.6 Staff requirement 72

3.2.7 Total cost of Sewage Treatment Plant 73

3.2.8 Details of Sewage Treatment Plant 74

3.3 Treatment System 76

3.3.1 Background of the study 76

3.3.2 Domestic wastewater treatment 76

3.3.2.1 Ancient age (3500 B.C. to 500 B.C.) 76

3.3.2.2 Middle age (500 B.C. to 1500 B.C.) 77

3.3.2.3 Modern age (C.E. 1500 to C.E. 1900) 78

3.3.3 Current scenario of wastewater recycling 78

3.3.4 Centralized and Decentralized wastewater treatment system

79

3.3.4.1 Centralized wastewater treatment system 79

3.3.4.2 Decentralized wastewater treatment system 80

3.3.5 Cost comparison between the treatment systems 83

3.3.6 The principal of comparing these systems 84

3.3.7 Analytical framework of DEWATS and CEWATS 86

3.3.8 Policy and institutional frameworks in wastewater treatment and reuse practice of Some Asian countries

86

Chapters Contents Page No.

VI Secondary Data Analysis 92

4.1 Introduction 92

4.2 Global Scenario 94

4.3 Scenario of Asian countries 95

4.4 National Status 97

4.5 Status of Tamil Nadu 99

4.6 Water Related Diseases 99

4.7 Sewage Treatment Methods 101

4.8 Sewage Treatment in India 102

V Details about River Cauvery 106

5.1 Introduction 106

5.2 Water supply and discharge of wastewater in major rivers of Tamil Nadu

107

5.3 Wastewater discharge into river Cauvery in Tiruchirappalli city region

110

5.4 Impact of water sources on human health 116

5.5 Impact of urbanization of river Cauvery 118

5.6 Recycling of domestic wastewater 124

VI Analysis of Primary Household Survey Data and Discussion 125

6 Sewage disposal practices 126

6.1 Socioeconomic characteristic of sample households 126

6.2 Age group 128

6.3 Education 129

6.4 Family size 131

6.5 Family size and water consumption 133

6.6 Ownership of the house 135

6.7 Income 137

6.8 Income and water consumption 139

6.9 Water supply 141

6.10 Ownership of the house and water availability 143

6.11 Utilization of water sources in domestic sector 145

6.12 Water sources and sewage generation 149

6.13 Toilet facilities and ownership of house 150

6.14 Toilet availability 152

Chapters Contents Page No.

6.15 Availability of toilet facilities 154

6.16 Waste water 157

6.17 Type of wastewater 159

6.18 Open drainage system 162

6.19 Sewerage connection or underground drainage system 164

6.20 Ownership of house and underground sewerage system 166

6.21 Bottlenecks in availing the sewerage connection 168

6.22 Quantum of sewage water generation 168

6.23 Type of wastewater and sewerage system 171

6.24 Regression results – Per capita sewerage water disposal 172

6.25 Per capita sewerage generation 175

6.26 Availability of sewerage system 176

6.27 Contaminations 178

6.28 Contamination of drinking water 181

6.29 Contamination of drinking water sources and its realization 182

6.30 Water-borne diseases 185

6.31 Regression results for water borne disease 186

6.32 Expenditure on sewage disposal 189

6.33 Poverty 194

6.34 Poverty level and sewage generation 196

6.35 Economics of willingness to pay (WTP) 197

6.36 Income and willingness to pay 199

6.37 ANOVA 204

VII 7.1 Health Impact in the study area 208

7.1.1 Social Factor 210

7.1.2 Education qualification of the respondents 211

7.1.3 Income status of the household 212

7.1.4 Availability of sanitation facilities 213

7.1.5 Comparison of health damage and family income 220

7.1.6 Occurrence of water borne disease associated with gender

221

7.1.7 Expenditure Patten of the household 222

7.1.8 Incidences of water borne diseases among the family members

224

Chapters Contents Page No.

7.1.9 T-Test Analysis 225

7.1.10 Water borne diseases as per the secondary data 231

7.1.11 Referral cases 235

7.2 Policy Implication (Sanitation Tax) 237

7.2.1 Tax calculation for public sewerage system 237

7.2.2 The guide lines in simple adopt area-based assessment

238

7.2.3 Cost benefit analysis of sanitation tax 241

7.2.4 Calculations 244

VIII Summary of findings and conclusion 246

8.1 Summary of major findings 249

8.1.1 Secondary sources 249

8.1.2 Salient findings of primary survey 251

8.2 Sewerage Tax 253

8.3 Positive Externality 253

8.4 Suggestions for policy improvement 254

8.5 Conclusion 256

Bibliography

Annexure

Photos

Interview scheduled

Tax form

Correlation matrix

General abstract of STP

Estimated cost of the treatment system

List of publication

LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Title Page No.

3.1.1 General Information of TCC 45

3.1.2 Distribution of population in TCC 45

3.1.3 Administrative zones of TCC 48

3.1.4 Source point of water supply 51

3.1.5 Zone wise distribution of drainage and well in TCC 52

3.1.6 List of Industries in TCC 56

3.1.7 Number of registered hotels in TCC 56

3.1.8 Number of registered hospital in TCC 56

3.1.9 Parks in Tiruchirappalli City Corporation 57

3.2.1 Location of sub pumping station 65

3.2.2 Effluent criteria 72

3.2.3 Staff is deployed for O & M of STP scheme 72

3.2.4 Fixed cost for the construction of STP 73

3.3.1 Comparison of benefits between the centralized and decentralized wastewater treatment system

82

3.3.2 The comparison cost of centralized and decentralized wastewater treatment system

84

3.3.3 Comparison of socio-economic, environmental criteria between centralized and decentralized system

85

3.3.4 Water sample report of DEWATS and CEWATS 86

4.1 Water and sewerage Tariffs at global level 94

4.2 Utilization of sewerage facilities in developing countries 95

4.3 Wastewater generation from Asian countries 96

4.4 Zone wise urban sewerage generation at national level 98

4.5 Sewage generation in Tamil Nadu state at Municipal Corporation level

99

4.6 Standards set for sewage 100

4.7 Analysis of water borne disease with the help of Paired Sample correlations

101

4.8 Sewage treatment technology adopted by various states in India

103

4.9 Sewage gap at the National level – 2007 105

5.1 Statistics of Cauvery basin 106

5.2 River basin wise domestic wastewater available for reuse in Tamilnadu (2001 census)

108

5.3 Population of Tiruchirappalli City Corporation 109

5.4 Utilization of water and discharge of domestic wastewater at zone wise

111

5.5 Water Channels in Tiruchirappalli Corporation 112

5.6 River water sample analysis 112

5.7 Quantity of wastewater discharged into river Cauvery 113

5.8 Sources of Water Supply and the occurrence of water borne disease

117

5.9 Impact of urbanization on River Cauvery 121

5.10 Correlations between the wastewater generation and urban area in the bank of River Cauvery

123

6.1 Distribution of respondents with reference to Age (years) group in the sampled zones

128

6.2 Educational status of the respondents at the samples zones in Trichirapalli City Corporation

130

6.3 Family size of the sampled house holds in different zones 131

6.4 Family size (persons/ family) water consumption and sewage generation (liters)

133

6.5 Category of house ownership and their sources of water supply for domestic use

135

6.6 Income of the family members in the households at zone level

138

6.7 Level of water consumption based on households income size

140

6.8 The availability of water supply (in liters) for the domestic purpose at the household level

142

6.9 Ownership of House and water availability 144

6.10 Distribution of water sources at the household level 148

6.11 Sewage generation and Sources of Water Supply 149

6.12 Category of house ownership and availability of toilet facilities

151

6.13 Toilet availability and sewage disposal 153

6.14 Availability of toilet facilities in the households at the zonal level

156

6.15 Mode of dispose of household’s wastewater 157

6.16 Type of wastewater and its mode of disposal 160

6.17 Mode of disposal of domestic wastewater into ODS 163

6.18 Cross tabulation of family size and households connected with sewerage system

165

6.19 Ownership of house connected with underground sewerage system

166

6.20 Difficulty faced during and after Sewerage connection 168

6.21 Sewage generation from the household at the zonal level 169

6.22 Type of wastewater disposed in the sewerage system 171

6.23 Regression coefficient of Per capita Sewage Water Disposal (PSWD)

174

6.24 Details of TCC population and the quantum of sewage disposal

175

6.25 Availability of sewerage system and incidence of water borne disease among the family members

177

6.26 Contamination of potable water sources and its mode of supply

179

6.27 Contamination of drinking water by sewage water 181

6.28 Contamination of drinking water source and its realization 183

6.29 Water born diseases among the household members 185

6.30 Regression Model for estimating the health impact. 187

6.31 Households annual expenditure for various purposes. 190

6.32 Poverty level among the sample households 193

6.33 Poverty level and their expenditure pattern 194

6.34 Poverty level and Sewage generation 196

6.35 The influence of education level on willingness to pay 198

6.36 The influence of income on willingness to pay 200

6.37 Correlation Matrix for willingness to pay 202

6.38 ANOVA 205

6.39 Duncan test used to estimating Per capita Sewage generation 205

6.40 Duncan test used to estimating the family size at the zone level

206

6.41 Duncan test used to estimating the variation in LPCD of water supply between the zones

207

7.1.1 Water supply and its status in two zones 210

7.1.2 Education qualification of the household respondent 211

7.1.3 Family size and their annual income 213

7.1.4 Availability of toilet facilities along with septic tank 214

7.1.5 Contamination in the drinking water source 215

7.1.6 Source of water supply and occurrence of water born disease 216

7.1.7 Contamination of water sources and the incidence of water born disease

217

7.1.8 Incidence of water born disease owing to stagnation in the ODS

219

7.1.9 Incidence of water born diseases in the family and their annual income of the household

221

7.1.10 Incidence of water borne disease – gender wise 222

7.1.11 Income loss of the family members due to health damage 223

7.1.12 The incidence of water born disease among the family members in the house

224

7.1.13 One-Sample Statistics 225

7.1.14 One-Sample Test for significance 226

7.1.15 Incidence of water borne diseases in the family at the household level

227

7.1.16 Availability of toilet facilities and sewerage connection taken by the households

228

7.1.17 Analysis of Drinking water quality in the study area 230

7.1.18 Water born disease for the year 2008 – 2009 234

7.1.19 Number of Referral cases infected with water borne diseases 235

7.2.1 Tax rate fixed by Tiruchy Corporation (zone wise) for property tax (in Rupees)

239

7.2.2 Percentage population covered by sewerage–Tiruchirappalli City Corporation

240

7.2.3 O & M Cost of Centralized Wastewater Treatment System (CEWATS)

240

7.2.4 Tax Rate fixed for sanitation - Zone wise ( in Rupees ) 241

7.2.5 Medical Treatment cost of the household at zone level 243

LIST OF FIGURES

Figures No.

Title Page No.

1.1 Sampling Design 8

3.1.1 Distribution of drainage in Srirangam zone area in sq.m 53

3.1.2 Distribution of drainage in Ariyamagalam zone area in sq.m 53

3.1.3 Distribution of drainage in Ponmalai zone area in sq.m 54

3.1.4 Distribution of drainage in K. Abishekapuram zone area in sq.m 54

4.1 Percentage of wastewater generation from Asian countries 97

5.1 Demography of Tiruchirappalli Corporation 110

5.2 Quantity of wastewater disposed in river Cauvery. 113

6.1 Family size at zone level 132

6.2 Category of house ownership and their sources of water supply for domestic use

136

6.3 Category of house ownership and availability of toilet facilities 151

6.4 Ownership of house connected with underground sewerage system

167

6.5 Type of wastewater disposed in the sewerage system 172

6.6 Contamination of potable water sources and its mode of supply 180

6.7 Contamination of drinking water by sewage water 182

6.8 Contamination of drinking water source and its realization 184

6.9 Poverty level among the sampled households 196

7.1 Contamination in the drinking water source 216

7.2 Incidence of water born diseases in the family at the household level

228

7.3 Water born disease for the year 2008 - 2009 233

7.4 Number of Referral cases infected with water borne diseases. 236

LIST OF MAPS

Map No. Title Page No.

1 Zone Map of Tiruchirappalli Corporation 46

2 Layout of sewerage system in Tiruchirappalli City Corporation

64

3 Layout of sewage treatment plant 74

4 The stretch of river Cauvery 107

5 Ward map of Tiruchirappalli City Corporation 127

6 Map representing the percentage of water borne disease due to sewage contamination

192

7 Ward Map of the Health Impact area 209

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AD Anno Domini ADD Acute Diarrhoeal Disease AMC Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation ANOVA Analysis of Variance APL Above Poverty Line ASTP Aquaculture Sewage Treatment Plant Avg Average BC Before Christ BPL Below Poverty Line BOD Biological Oxygen Demand BW Black Water CE Christian Era COD Chemical Oxygen Demand CPCB Central Pollution Control Board CPHEEO Central Pollution Health and Environmental Engineering Organization CSE Centre for Science and Environment CV Contingent Valuation CEWATS Centralized Wastewater Treatment System DEWATS Decentralized Wastewater Treatment System df Degree of freedom DJB Delhi Jal Board DM Dry Matter DO Dissolved Oxygen E.coli Escherichia coli Eco.san Ecological Sanitation G.O.I Government of India GAP Ganaga Action Plan Govt. Government GW Gray Water HSC House Service Connection HHs Households HT High Tension Kgs Kilograms km2 Kilometer square LCA Life-Cycle Assessment LPCD Liter Per Capita per Day Lt Liter LT Low Tension m Meter

MCM Million Cubic Meters mg Mile gram ml Mile liter MLD Million Liters per Day MPN Most Probable Numbers MPS Main Pumping Station MSW Municipal Solid Waste N / No. Number NA Not Available NGO Non-Governmental Organization NSSO National Sample Survey Organization O&M Operation and Maintenance ODS Open Drainage System OHT Over Head Tank POTWs Publicly Owned Treatment Works ppm Parts Per Million PWD Public Works Department Qty Quantity Rs. Rupees SCWO Supercritical Water Oxidation SEA Strategic Environmental Assessment Sq. km Square kilometer SS Sewerage System Std. Standard STP Sewage Treatment Plant SW Solid Waste TCC Tiruchirappalli City Corporation TCE Tata Consulting Engineers tn. Tonnes TNPCB Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board TSS Total Suspended Solid TWAD Tamil Nadu Water Supply and Drainage Typ Typhoid ULBs Urban Local Bodies UGDS Underground Drainage System UV Ultra Violet WHO World Health Organization WTP Willingness To Pay YW Yellow Water