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Critical Thinking. Special Collection Number 3.ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading and CommunicationSkills, Bloomington, IN.Office of Educational Research and Improvement (ED),Washington, DC.91RI8806200152p.; Published by EDINFO Press.ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading and CommunicationSkills, Indiana University, 2805 E. 10th St., Suite150, Bloomington, IN 47408-2698 ($5.95 plus $2.00postage and handling).Information Analyses - ERIC Clearinghouse Products(071) -- Collected Works - General (020) -- ReferenceMaterials - Bibliographies (131)

MFOl/PC03 Plus Postage.Brain Hemisphere Functions; Critical Reading;*Critical Thinking; Elementary Secondary Education;English Instruction; Higher Education; Metacognition;Semiotics; Television Viewing; *Thinking Skills

Designed to help practitioners become more familiarwith the underpinnings, currents, pros and cons, and research studiesproduced by the critical-thinking movement in the United States, thisspecial collection offers eight digests and thIee FAST (FocusedAccess to Selected Topics) annotated bibliographies concerningcritical thinking at all educational levels. The material in thespecial collection is designed for use by teachers, students,administrators, researchers, policy makers, and parents. A profile ofthe ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading and Communication Skills(ERIC/RCS), and information on requesting a computerized searchservice, searching ERIC in print, submitting material to ERIC/RCS,books available from ERIC/RCS, and an order form are attached.(RS)

***********************************************************************Reproductions supplied by EDRS are tne best that can be made

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Critical Thinking

E.IPINFer

in cooperation with

IC

Ed.-cation Information Press

Clearinghouse on Reading and Communication Skills

Published 1991 by:EDINFO

Carl B. Smith, DirectorSmith Research Center, Suite 150

2805 East 10th StreetIndiana University

Bloomington, ladiana 47408-2698in cooperation with

ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading and Communication SkillsCarl B. Smith, Director

ERIC (an acronym for Educational Resources Information Center) is a national network of 16 clearing-houses, each of which is responsible for building the ERIC database by identifying and abstracting variouseducational resources, including research reports, curriculum guides, conference papers, journal articles,and government reports. The Clearinghouse on Reading and Communication Skills (ERIC/RCS) collectseducational information specifically related to reading English, journalism, speech, and theater at all levels.ERIC/RCS also covers interdisciplinary areas, such as media studies, reading and writing technology, masscommunication, language arts, critical thinking, literature, and many aspects of literacy.

This publication was prepared with partial funding from the Office of Educational Research and Improve-ment, U.S. Department of Education, under contract no. RI88062001 Contractors undertaking suchprojects under government sponsorship are encouraged to express freely their judgment in professional andtechnical matters. Points of view or opinions, ha ever, do not necessarily represent the official view oropinions of the Office of Educationai Research and Improvement.

AcknowledgementsWe want to acknowledge the valuable contributions of several of the ERIC/RCS professional staff: Nola

Aiex, Digest Editor; Michael Shermis, FAST Bib Editor; Warren Lewis, Academic Publications Editor; andCarolyn McGowen, our Office Coordinator.

II

Table of Contents

Introduction v-vi

Digests 1

A New Look at Literature Inscruction 1-2

Semiotics and the English Language Arts 3-5

Schema Activation, Construction, and Application 7-9

How to "Read" Television: Teaching Students to View TV Critically 11-13

Critical Thinking: Promoting It in the Classroom 1 5-1 7

Thinking Skills in Englishand across the Curriculum 19-21

Metacomprehension 23-25Critical Thinking in College English Studies 27-29

FAST Bibs 31

Introduction 31

Creativity 33-35Critical Reading and Thinking: Instructional Strategies 37-40Left Brain/Right Brain: Research and Learning 41-44

A Profile of ERIC/RCS 45-46Computer Search Service 47-48ERIC in Print 49-50Submitting Material to ERIC/RCS 51-52Books Available from ERIC/RCS 53Order Form 54

iii

"4,

ERIC/RCS Special Collection 3:Critical Thinking

What Are ERIC/RCS SPECIAL COLLECTIONS?Each ERIC/RCS Special Collection contains ten or more Digests and F kST Bibs offering a varkIty of

viewpoints on selected topics of interest and importance in contemporary education. ERIC Digests are briefsyntheses of the research that has been done on a specific topic. FAST (Focused Access to Selected Topics)Bibs are annotated bibliographies with selected entries from the ERIC database. Both Digests and FAST Bibsprovide up-to-date information in an accessible format.

This material cuts across educational levels and can be applied to elementary, secondary, highereducation, and special populations. Our Special Cllections are intended as a resource that can be usedquickly and effectively by teachers, students, administrators, researchers, policy makers, and parents.

What Is Critical Thinking?This Special Collection is about critical thinking, which has been defined in various ways. Here are a few

exam ples:

a process that includes an attitude of suspended judgment, incorporates logical inquir, and problem solv-ing, and leads to an evaluative decision or action

reasonable, reflective thinking that is focused on deciding what to believe or doa way of reasoning that combines a demand for adequate support for one's beliefs with an unwillinpessto be persuaded unless the support is forthcoming

No matter how "critic3l thinking' is defined, teachers at all levels, in classrooms across the United Statesand around the world, are being called upon to use a critical-thinking approach and to develop critical-think-ing skills in their students.

Why Should We Teach Critical Thinking?Democrac ,es need citizens who can engage in careful, critical tninking with respect to political and

economic choices that they must make. Alm, thinking clearly and critically is an integral aspect of most jobsin the contemporary workplace. Problem solving, which is important both at home and at work, is animportant part of critical thii-..king.

People are gradually realizing that thinking critically does not just 'happen% it must be encouraged andtaught. The classroom environment is the right place tc promote the making of informed judgments. Theteacher, through modeling, rehearsal, and coaching, may become many students' first and best example of acritical thinker.

Educators are in substantial agreement about the importance of promoting students' ability to analyze,evaluate, and synthesize the information they learn. These are truly "basic skills." Instead of teaching skills inisolation, language-arts teachers are being urged to incorporate both creative and critical thinking into allaspects of literacy education aid to develop activities that cultivate students' higher-level cognitive processesawl problem-solving skills, inc uding inferencing, evaluation, and decision making.

Unfortunately, mary schools fail to provide adequate resources for integrating critical- thinking instructioninto the language arts. It may be up to the individual teacher to fill this void. Teachers who accept the needfor critical thinking are looking for practical suggestions so that they can modify and supplement theirteaching methods to emphasize the development of thinking skills.

This collection of ERIC materials is intended to help you become more familiar with the underpinnings, thecurrents, the pros and cons, and the research studies produced by the critical-thinking movement in theUnited States.

We hope you will find it useful.

6

Recent Journal ArticlesThe following recent articles, written by people at ERIC/RCS, supplement the Digests and Fast Bibs in this

Special Collection. They are likely to be available in your local library or through inter-library loan.

"Encouraging Critical Thinking in the Language Arts," Language Arts, 67 (7), November 1990, pp.780-782, by Mary Morgan

"Two Approaches to Critical Thinking," The Reading Teacher, 44 (4), December 1990, pp. 350-351, byCarl B. Smith

Other ResourcesFor those who wish more detailed information on critical thinking, ERIC/RCS offers these books on the

topic:

Monographs on "Teaching Critical Thinking" (Jerome Harste, Series Editor):

Critical Thinking: A Semiotic Perspective, by Marjorie Siegel and Robert F. Carey

Critical Thinking and Reading: Empowering Learners to Think and Act, by Allan R. Neilsen

Critical Thinking and Writing: Reclaiming the Essay, by Thomas Newkirk

A Commitment to Critical Thinking, by Carl B. Smith

Critical Thinking, Reading and Writing, by Mary Morgan and Michael Shermis (A TRIED [TeachingResources in Education] volume)

More Information from the ERIC DatabaseA number of citations may be found in the annotated bibliographies included in this collection. Still others

may be found by searching the ERIC database. A few of the terms that would be useful in a search are:Critical-Thinking, Problem-Solving, Thinking-Skills, Convergent-Thinking, Divergent-Thinking, and Evaluative-Thinking.

Ellie MacfarlaneEditor, ERIC/RCS Special Collections

7

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*Ric] 1)gestClectringhouse on Reading and Communication Skills EDO-CS-91 -08Indiana University Bloomington, IN 47408-26982805 E. 10th SL, Suite 150 (812) 835,5847

A New Look at Literature Instructionby Judith Langer

The teaching of literature is not weil understoodin American schools. It is often considered a way toindoctrinate student; into the cultural knowledge,good taste, and high culture of our society, but itsrole in the development of the sharp and criticalmind is largely ignored. And so, when budgets arecut, literature is high on the list of expendables, andwhen critical thinking is in, English teachers areasked to do as everyone else, teach critical readingfor particular right answers.

In secondary schools there has been no majorchange in conceptualizing literature instruction inthe past 25 years (except for what individual teach-ers have been doing). While there has been exten-sive change in English classes, the concern has beenprimarily with writing. And despite the fact thatmore than 80% of the writing that goes on in Englishclasses is about literature, there has been little re-cent research on the teaching of literature. Englishand language arts teachers have come to feel schiz-oid in their clases, using process-oriented ap-proaches to writing, and very traditional approachesto the teaching of literature.

No research in literature has etempted to help itkeep pace with what we've lea'ned about writingtheoryor learning theory. In particular, there hasbeen virtually no study of how students come tounderstand literature parallel to the study of thewriting process.

Across the years, scholars have made distin....tions between literary and scientific thoughtsug-gesting that together they form the multiple sourcesof reason we can draw upon when constructingmeaning. For instance, Suzanne Langer speaks ofsubjective and objective realities, Louise Rosenblattspeaks of aesthetic and efferent readings, and Je-rome Bruner speaks of narrative and paradigmatic

Judith Langer is Co-Director of the Center for the Learning andTeaching of Literature, SUNY/Albany.

thought. However, none of these has been system-atically studied.

Related works suggests that literary thinking is anatural and necessary part of the well-developedintellect. A series of studies show that doctors, phy-sicians, and lawyers use both modes of thought tosolve problems. A recent study at Xerox Parc dem-onstrated that machine repairers use storytelling tosolve their problems.

Yet nonetheless the literary way of thinking hasbeen largely unexplored. We know a lot about sci-entific, but not about literary (or subjective, or aes-thetic understanding). And the teaching of literaturehas become "rudderless"without a strong theoryof what it's about.

For the past few years, Judith Langer has beenJeveloping an under!ying theory for the teaching nfliterature. To do this, she has been studying thenature of literary understanding, and identifying theways in which the understanding of literature differsfrom understanding other coursework. She hasbeen using this information as a way to rethinkinstruction.

Her studies show that during reading, there are aseries of relationships the reader takes toward thetexteach adding a somewhat different dimensionto the readers growing understanding of the piece.

The four major stances in the process of under-standing are:

Being Out and Stepping Into an EnvisionmentIn this stance, readers attempt to make initial

contacts with the genre, content, structure, and lan-guage of the text by using prior knowledge, experi-ences, ind surface features of the text to "identify"essential elements in order to begin to construct anenvisionment.

Being In and Moving Through an EnvisionmentIn this stance, readers are immersed in their un-

derstandings, using their previously-constructed en-

8

visionments, prior knowledge and the text itself tofurther their creation of meaning. For the reader,meaning-making moves along with the text. In thisstance, for example, the reader may be caught up ina story or may be carried along by the argument ofa non-literary work.

Stepping Back and RetMnking What One KnowsIn this stance, readers use their envisionments to

reflect on their own previous knowledge or under-standings. While prior knowledge informs their en-visionments in the other stances, in this case readersuse their envisionments to rethink what they alreadyknow.

Stepping Out and Objecfifying the ExperienceIn this stance, readers distance themselves from

their envisionments, reflecting on and reacting tothe content, to the text, or to the reading experi-ence itself.

These stances are not linear, can occur and recurat any point in the reading, and help us understandwhere to provide support in helping students movethrough the process.

While readers work through these stances inreading both literary and non-literary works, theirorientation toward meaningwhat they're afterdif-fers substantially. Langer describes readers' orienta-tions toward literary and nonliterary readings in thefollowing ways:

Reaching toward a Horizon of PossibilitiesDuring the reading of literature, the sense of the

whole changes and develops as the envisionmentunfoldsit exists as a constantly moving horizon ofpossibilities. These possibilities emerge out of theenvisionment itself, focusing on the human situationwith all its uncertainthn and ambiguitiesbringingto bear all the reader knows about people, situa-tions, relationships, and feelings. The reading of liter-ature is guided by inquisitiveness, by the opening ofpossibilities. Readers take each idea they read andtry to understand it in terms of their sense of thewhole, rather than as a stepping stone along theway. They clarify ideas as they read and relate themto the growing and changing horizonthat horizonmodifies the parts and the parts modify the horizon.They do this by searching feelings, intentions, moti-vations, implications, assumptions, values, and atti-tudes.

Maintaining a Point of ReferenceIn non-literary contexts, on the other hand, the

sense of a the whole provides a steady referencepoint. As the envisionment unfolds, the new detailsmay clarify the nature of the whole, but they rarely

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A New Look at Literature Instruction

change it. The reader relies on the constancy orsense of the whole in order to monitor Initial under-standings (or misunderstandings) of the details.Thus, although readers of both literary and non-liter-ary texts continually maintain a sense of the whole,the nature of this whole is somewhat different. Theirunderstanding of literary texts seems to be con-strained by their notions of human (or imaginary)possibility, while their understanding of non-literarytexts seems to be constrained by their perceptionsof the topic.

The reading of literature, then, involves a greatdeal of critical thoughtparticularly characterizedby the exploration of possibilities. But it is differentfrom the kinds of thinking that students engage inwhen they read science or social studies pieces,where the pattern is to use the content they read togain facts.

These notions, both the stances and orientationstoward meaning, provide useful guidelines forteachers to use in support of students' processes of"coming to understand."

For further information, see ED 315 755, Langer,Judith (1989), The Process of Understanding Litera-ture, Report Series 2.1. May be purchased fromCenter for the Learning & Teaching of Literature,1400 Washington Avenue, University at Albany, Al-bany, NY 12222, price $5.00.

Additioval ReadingsHynds, Susan. "Bringing Life to Literature and Litera-

ture to Life: Social Constructs anci Contexts ofFour Adolescent Readers." Research in theTeaching of English 23 (1) February 1989, 30-61.[EJ 385 1251

lser, Wolfgang. The Act of Reading. Baltimore: JohnsHopkins University Press, 1978.

Langer, Judith. "The Process of Understanding:Reading for Literary and Information Purposes."Research in the Teaching of English 24 (3) Octo-ber 1990, 229-60. [EJ 414 747]

Langer, Judith. Literary Understanding and LiteratureInstruction, Report Series 2.11. Albany: Centerfor the Learning and Teaching of Literature,1991. [CS 212 918]

Purcell-Gates, Victoria. "On the Outside LookingIn." Research in the Teaching of English, forth-coming issue.

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LERIC1 DigestClearinghouse on Repding and Communication Skills EDO-CS-91-04Indiana University Bloomington, IN 47408-26982805 E. 10th St., Suite 150 (812) 855-5847

Semiotics and the English Language Artsby Charles Suhor

Semiotics has been condemned as an imperialis-tic discipline and praised as the most comprehen-sive of fields. Jonathan Culler, a well-known theorist,acknowledges that "the major problem of semioticsis its ambitions," but he notes that "the value ofsemiotics Is linked to its unwillingness to respectboundaries, . . . to the conviction that everything isa sign." The central concerns of this wide-rangingfield can be defined, though, and its implications forteaching can be outlined.

What is Semiotics?Semiotics Is the study of signs. A sign is some-

thing that stands for something else. There are threekinds of signs:

1. symbolssigns that bear an arbitrary relationshipto that which they stand for (e.g., the word"apple" by convention stands for the fruit weidentify with the word).

2. iconssigns resembling that which they stand for(e.g., a painting of an apple looks like the fruitit represents).

3. indexessigns that are indicators of a fact or con-dition (e.g., a chest pain can indicate heart-burn; smoke usually indicates fire).

Additionally, signs can be organized into systemsof objects and behaviors. The arts and the academicdisciplines are highly complex, interrelated sign sys-temsformulations and configurations of symbolsand/or icons. The way you set your table is part of asystem of cultural signs, as is your choice of clothes,wallet photos, and bumper stickers. Ideas are signstoo, since they stand for entities as defined in one'sculture. Your idea of snow, for instance, is deter-mined by the repertoire of words, categories, pic-

Charles Suhor is the Deputy Executive Director of the NationalCouncil of Teachers of English.

tures, and other interpretants provided by your cul-ture.

There are three basic areas of semioticsseman-tics, pragmatics, and syntactics. Semantics dealswith the meanings of signs and sign systems; that is,meanings of words, sentences, gestures, paintings,mathematical symbols, etc. Stated another way, se-mantics attempts to specify the cultural definitionsof all kinds of signs and sign combinations. Pragmat-ics, broadly speaking deals with inferential mean-ingnot merely logical inference, but the subtleraspects of communication expressed through indi-rection ("It's drafty in here" "Close the door") andthrough social contexts (as when a threat is under-stood as horseplay among boasting friends). Syntac-tics deals with the structure of signs and signsystems (such as the structure of a sentence, novel,film, fugue, or ceremony). Linguistic syntactics (pho-nology, morphology, and syntax) is best known byteachers, but semiotics also deals with the "syntax"of nonlinguistic sign systems.

The above definitions, adapted from UmbertoEco, Charles Morris, Charles Sanders Peirce, andothers, are necessarily over-simplifications. Yet theyprovide some sense of the vast range of semiotics,suggesting its relationships to communication, an-thropology, psychology, and various traditionalschool subjects.

Has Semiotics Influenced the Teachingof English and Language Arts?

In oral language, reading and literature, prag-matics has had a growing influence. Literary theo-rists, researchers, and classroom teachers findcommon ground in the notion that reading andwriting are not mere message transmission but com-plex response processes in which the readers andwriters cooperate in creating meanings (Beach,1990; Harste, et al., 1984). The student's back-

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ground knowledge, indeed the student's entire rep-ertoire of life experience, determines the quaties ofmeaning derived from a text. Similarly, the class-room culture set by the teacher influences not onlyhow well students understand texts, but how theyconceptualize the very acts of reading and writing.These are not merely theoretical observations. Theteacher who stresses word-calling and five-para-graph themes is sending a different pragmatic mes-sage about the nature and purpose of literacy thana teacher who stresses comprehension and processwriting.

Reading researchers, moreover, are asking a vari-ety of pragmatic questions about reading: How canour understanding of children's oral language, draw-ings, and writing be used to enhance emergentliteracy? How, and at what ages, do children de-velop schemata for reading different kinds of storiespredictively? How can Peirce's theory of cognition(especially, abductive inference) advance our un-derstanding of reading comprehension?

What Are the General Implications ofSemiotics for Teaching?

A comprehensive view of curriculum is implicitin semiotics insofar as all existing school subjectsand even subjects not yeP formulatedare by theirnature ways of organizing signs. If we think of learn-ers as individuals with the potential for understand-ing and communicating through a variety of signs(such as linguistic, gestural, pictorial, musical, andmathematical signs) and sign systems, we gain afresh perspective both on human potential and onthe organization of schctol subjects.

A constellation of cognitive, aesthetic, and psy-chomotor skills is brought to the surface when weconsider students' abilities to understand and per-form in numerous sign systems. The role of lan-guage in the curriculum, moreover, takes on newpower in the semiotic perspective. Language is themain arbiter as students learn to use and under-stand all of the other symbol systems. Language isused by musicians and visual artists in articulatingtheir intentions and describing their techniques.Analysis of the syntax of any nonlinguistic object,from an equation to a piece of sculpture, involveslanguage. So does description of the ideas or emo-tional responses that the object evokes in us.

The centrality of language in semiotics can bedisputed on theoretical grounds, but a5 Eco (1978,p. 174) says, "Language is the most powerful semi-otic device that man has invented." Piaget (1970,pp. 45-46) states that "language is but one among. ..many aspects of the semiotic function, even thoughit is in most instances the most important." John

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Semiotics and the English Language Arts

Carroll acknowledges the educational importanceof pictorial forms but notes that they "are almostalways accompanied by language and often requirelanguage to make them int&ligible" (1974, p. 156).Language across the curriculum, then, is not a merebuzzphrase; it is an essential condition for learning.

Semiotics is an overarching conception that pro-vides a stronger basis for interdisciplinary studiesthan traditional rationales like the humanities andaesthetic education, or more recent ones like globaleducation and visual literacy. (Suhor and Little,1988) Consistent with Howard Gardner's theory ofmultiple intelligences (1989), a semiotics-based cur-riculum would in Dyson's phrase, seek to help chil-dren to "develop as symbol users" (1986, p. 800). Itwould encourage students to talk about the paint-ings and music they produce, to create collagesexpressing the themes of novels and plays, to writeabout the things they see under microscopes, andto engage in a variety of purposeful cross-mediaactivities.

The richness of skills required in a semiotics-based curriculum is evident. Salomon (1970) pointsto the broad range of mental skills required in multi-media reception and production. Dickson sees innew technologies an immense potential for "juxta-posing symbol systems" in ways that "contribute tothe development of metacognitive awareness andhigher-order problem-solving skills" (1985, p. 37).The very range of semiotics and its potential fororganizing our thinking about curriculum in newways can add structure and substance to argumentsfor the things that teachers value: oral language, thewritten word, the arts, interdisciplinary study, andthe articulate exchange of ideas and feelings amongstudents.

Sources for Further ReadingBeach, Richard, "New Directions in Research in

Response to Literature." In E. Farrell and J.Squire, Eds. Transactions with Literature. Urbana,IL: NCTE, 1990. [ED 318 036]

Carroll, John B., "Potentialities and Limitations ofPrint as a Medium of Instruction." In Media andSymbols: Forms of Expression, Communication,and Education, D. R. Olson, Ed. Chicago, IL: Uni-versity of Chicago Press, 1974.

Culler, Jonathan, "Semiotic Ambitions." AmericanJournal of Semiotics, 6(2-3) 1989.

Dickson, W. Patrick. "Thought-Provoking Software:Juxtaposing Symbol Systems." Educational Re-searcher, 14(5) 1985, 30-38. [EJ 317 769]

Dyson, Anne Haas. "The Imaginary Worlds of Child-hood: A Multimedia Presentation." Language

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Semiotics and the English Language Arts

Arts, 63(8) December 1986, 799-808. [ED 345179]

Eco, Umberto, A Theory of Semiotics. Bloomington,IN: University Press, 1978,

Gardner, Howard and Thomas Hatch. "Multiple In-telligences Go To School." Educational Re-searcher, 18(8) 1989, 4-9. [EJ 408 0161

Harste, Jerome, et a/. Language Stories and LiteracyLessons. Portsmouth, NH: Heineman, 1984. (ED257 113]

Morris, Charles. Signs, Language, and Behavior. NewYork, NY: Braziller, 1946.

Peirce, C. S. Collected Papers. C. Hartshorne and P.Weiss, Eds. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UniversityPress, 1933.

Piaget, Jean. Genetic Epistemology. Translated by E.Duckworth. New York, NY: Columbia UniversityPress, 1970.

Salomon, Gavriel. "What Does It Do '10 Johnny?"Viewpoints: Bulletin of the School of Education,46(5) 1970, 33-62. [EJ 027 785]

Scholes, Robert. "Textuality: Power and Pleasure."English Education, 19(2) May 1989, 69-82. [EJ350 6061

Suhor, Charles. "Towards a Semiotics-Based Curric-ulum." Journal of Curriculum Studies, 16(3) July-September 1984, 247-57. [EJ 300 655]

Suhor, Charles and Deborah Little. "Visual Literacyand Print LiteracyTheoretical Considerationand Points of Contact." Reading Psychology, 9(4)1988, 469-81. [EJ 392 019]

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[kRic1 DigestClearinghouse on Reading artd Communication Skills EDO-CS-89-09Indiana University Bloomington, IN 47408.26982805 E. 10th St., Suite 150 (812) 8554847

Schema Activation, Construction, andApplication

by Marino C. Alvarez and Victoria I. Risko

Readers rely on their prior knowledge and worldexperience when trying to comprehend a text. It isthis organized knowledge that is accessed duringreading that is referred to as schema (plural sche-mata). Readers make use of their schema when theycan relate what they already know about a topic tothe facts and ideas appearing in a text. The richerthe schema is for a given topic the better a readerwill understand the topic.

Schema theorists have advanced our under-standing of reading comprehension by describinghow prior knowledge can enhance a reader's inter-action with the text. Accordingly, comprehensionoccurs when a reader is able to use prior knowledgeand experience to interpret an author's message(Bransford, 1985; Norris & Phillips, 1987). Educatorsand researchers have suggested numerous instruc-tional strategies to help students activate and useprior knowledge to aid comprehension. Yet,schema theory does not explain how readers mod-ify and create new schema when presented withnovel information in texts.

Schema ActivationBecause texts are never completely explicit, the

reader must rely on preexisting schemata to provideplausible interpretations. Yet, there is much evi-dence that good and poor readers do not alwaysuse schemata appropriately or are unaware ofwhether the information they are reading is consis-tent with their existing knowledge. Also, there isevidence that students who do not spontPneouslyuse schemata as they read will engage them if given

Marina C Alvarez is a professor at Tennessee State University;Victoria I. Risko is a professor at Peabody College of VanderbiltUniversity.

explicit instructions prior to reading (e.g., Bransford,1979).

Prereading strategies have been developed tohelp students relate new information appearing inwritten discourse to their existing knowledge. Thedesign of many of these preorganizers reflectsAusubel's (1959) definition of readiness and thepurpose of their use is to create a mind set prior toreading. These preorganizers have included ad-vance organizers (Ausubel, 1960), structured over-views or graphic organizers (Alvermann, 1981),previews (Graves, et al., 1983), concept maps(Novak & Cowin, 1984), and thematic organizers(Alvarez, 1980, 1983; Alvarez & Risko, 1989; Risko& Alvarez, 1986).

Schema Construction and ApplicationLearning novel concepts may require the reader

to connect new information to a congruent mentalmodel. Mental models represent an individual'sconstrual of existing knowledge and/or new infor-mation in the domain even though this informationmay be fragmentary, inaccurate, or inconsistent(Gentner & Gentner, 1983). A person's mentalmodel is a representation of a particular beliefbased on existing knowledge of a physical systemor a semantic representation depicted in a text. Forexample, a person may hold a belief that balls areround, inflatable and are made to bounce. How-ever, this person may encounter a football (an ellip-soid) that is kicked or thrown, or ball bearings thatare solid, or a bowling ball that is solid and has holesdrilled into it for the purpose of rolling rather thanbouncing. This new knowledge is integrated into anew, more complex, mental structure about theshape, substance, form, and function of balls.

13 7

As Bransford (1985) points out, schema activa-tion and schema construction are two differentproblems. While it is possible to activate existingschemata with a given topic, it does not necessarilyfollow that a learner can use this activated knowl-edge to develop new knowledge and skills.Problemsolving lessons and activities can provide learnerswith situations that aid in schema constructionwhich includes critical thinking. Critical thinking the-ory enables a reader to analyze an ambiguous text.When versed in this proces a reader can eitherweigh alternative interpretations, dismiss others,make a decision to evaluate multiple possibilities, oraccept the information as being reasonable. Thisprocess helps students to modify or extend theirmental model, or existing knowledge base, for tar-get concepts.

Several teacher-directed and self-initiated activi-ties can be used to promote schema constructionand application of knowledge to novel situations.Four such strategies that are designed to fostershared meaning between and among teachers andpeers are: cases, interactive videodiscs, hierarchicalconcept maps, and Vee diagrams.

Cases that present learners with single and var-ied contexts across disciplines provide learners withscenarios that can be discussed and analyzed frommultiple perspectives (e.g., see Christensen, 1987;Spiro, et al., 1987). These cases can include writtendocuments, recorded (musical as well as narrative)interludes, paintings, artifacts, video portrayals, andother pertinent substances and materials. Anotherteacher-directed strategy is the use of interactivevideodiscs. Bransford and his colleagues are devel-oping episodes, revolving around problem-orientedlearning environments, that can be computer-ac-cessed by learners to invite critical thinking andschema construction (see Bransford, et al., 1989;Bransford, et al., in press).

Hierarchical concept maps and Vee diagramsare two methods that students can initiate on theirown for schema construction and application. Hier-archical concept maps (Novak & Gowin, 1984) aredesigned to help the reader clarify ambiguities of atext while simultaneously revealing any misconcep-tions that result from a reading. More importantlythey provide the learner with a tool from which toinitiate ideas that can be shared by visual inspectionwith someone else. The Vee diagram (Gowin,1981/1987) is a method by which a learner canlearn about the structure of knowledge and knowl-edge-making within a given discipline and use thisknowledge in novel contexts.

Students can be taught to incorporate new infor-mation into their existing world knowledge. This can

8

Schema Activation, Construction, and Application

be accomplished through teacher guided instruc-tion and self-initiated strategies that includes meth-ods and meaningful materials that induce criticalthinking with conceptual problems. In order forschema construction to occur, a framework needsto be provided that helps readers to elaborate uponnew facts and ideas and to clarify their significanceor relevance. Students need to learn more aboutthemselves as learners. Notable in this learning con-text is the relationAip between facts and ideaslearned in formal school settings and those encoun-tered in everyday learning environments. Perhapswithin this inquiry we will be led to discover theways individuals choose to relate new informationto existing schemata and how this new informationinfluences their future knowledge and decision-mak-ing.

Additional material on schemata can be found inthe ERIC database. Some recent articles are:Anstey, Michele. Helping Children Learn How to

Learn, Australian Journal of Reading 11 (4) No-vember 1988, p. 269-77. [EJ 383 6641

Blachowicz, Camille L Z. and Fisher, Peter J. L Defin-ing is an Unnatural Act: A Study of Written Defini-tions. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting ofthe National Reading Conference, 1988. 17 p. [ED301 854]

Bloom, Charles P. The Roles of Schemata in Memoryfor Text. Discourse Processes, 11 (3) July-Septem-ber 1988, p. 305-18. [EJ 381 725]

Mealey, Donna L. and Nist, Sherrie L. Postsecondary,Teacher Directed Comprehension Strategies, Jour-nal of Reading, 32 (6) March 1989, p. 48493. [EJ383 759]

Scales, Alice M. "Teaching College Reading andStudy Skills through a Metacognitive-Schema Ap-proach." Paper presented at the Annual Meetingof the International Reading Association, 1987. 39p. [ED 298 428]

ReferencesAlvarez, M. (1983). Using a thematic pre-organizer

and guided instruLtion as an aid to concept learn-ing. Reading Horizons, 24, 51-58.

Alvarez, M. (1980). The effect of using an associatepassage with guided instruction to evoke thematicconceptual linkage. Dissertation Abstracts interna-tional, 41, 1000A. (University Microfilms No.8019163).

Alvarez, M. & Risko, V. (1989). Using a thematic orga-nizer to facilitate transfer learning with college de-velopmental studies students. Reading Researchand Instruction, 28, 1-15.

Alvermann, D. (1981). The compensatory effect ofgraphic organizers in the learning and retention of

1 4

Schema Activation, Construction, awd Application

meaningful verbal material. Journal of Educational

Research, 75, 44-48.Ausubel, D. (1960). The use of advance organizers in

the learning and retention of meaningful verbalmaterial. Journal of Educational Psychology, 51,

267-272.Ausubel, D. (1959). Viewpoints from related disci-

plines: Human growth and development Teachers

College Record 60, 245-254.Bransford, J. (1985). Schema activation and schema

acquisition. In H. Singer & R. B. Ruddell (Eds.), The-

oretical models and processes of reading, 3rd ed.

Newark, DE: International Reading Association,

385-397.Bransford, J. (1979). Human cognition: Learning un-

derstanding and remembering. Belmont, CA:Wadsworth Publishing Company.

Bransford, J., et al., (in press). Teaching thinking and

content knowledge: Toward an integrated ap-proach. In B. F. Jones & L. Idol (Eds.), Dimensions

of thinking and cognitive instruction. Hillsdale, NJ:

Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Bransford, J., et at, (1989). New approaches to in-

struction: because wisdom can't be told (pp. 470-

497). In Vosniadou, S. & A. Ortony (Eds.), Similarity

and analogical reasoning. New York:CambridgeUniversity Press.

Christensen, C. (1987). Teaching and the casemethod. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School.

Gentner, D. & Gentner, D. (1S83). Flowing waters or

teeminz crowds: Mental models of electricity (pp.

99-129). In D. Gentner & A. L Stevens (Eds.), Men-

tal models. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Asso-

dates.Cowin, D. (1981/1987). Educating. Ithaca, NY: Cor-

nell University Press.Graves, M., et al., (1983). Effects of previewing diffi-

cult short stories on low ability junior high school

students' comprehension, recall, and attitudes.Reading Research Quarterly, 18, 262-276.

Norris, S. & Phillips, L (1987). Explanations of reading

comprehension: Schema theory and critical think-

ing theory. TEachers College Record, 89, 2, 281-

306.Novak, J. & Gowin, D. (1984). Learning how to learn.

New York: Cambridge University Press.

Risko, V. & Alvarez, M. (1986). An investigation ofpoor roaders' use of a thematic strategy to com-prehend text. Reading Research Quarterly, 21, 298-

316. [EJ 337 4011Spiro, R., et at, (1987). Knowledge acquisition for ap-

plication: Cognitive flexibility and transfer in com-

plex content domains (pp. 177-199). In B. K.

Britton & S. M. Glynn (Eds.), Executive control pro-

cesses in reading. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum

Associates, Publishers.

r)

9

IERICI )gestClearinghouse on Reading and Communicalion Skills EDO-CS-89-07Indiana University Bioomington, IN47408-26982805 E. 10th St., Suite 150 (812) 855-5847

How to 11Read" Television: Teaching Studentsto View TV Critically

by Nola Kortner Alex

In light of the current explosion of mass mediaproducts and technology, most education practi-tioners would probably agree about the urgentneed for students to develop critical viewing abili-ties along with critical thinking abilities.

At the close of UNESCO's 1982 InternationalSymposium on Media Education, the representa-tives of the 19 countries in attendance issued aunanimous declaration that called upon competentauthorities to "initiate and support comprehensivemedia education programsfrom pre-school to uni-versity level, and in adult educationthe purpose ofwhich is to develop the knowledge, skills, and atti-tudes which will encourage the growth of criticalawareness and, consequently, of greater compe-tence among the users of electronic and printmedia. Ideally, such programs should include theanalysis of media products, the use of media asmeans of creativ expression, and effective use ofand participation in available media channels. Train-ing courses should be developed for teachers andintermediaries both to increase their knowledgeand understanding of the media and train them inappropriate teaching methods." [Dwyer andWalshe, ED 250 651]

Although there is some evidence that media liter-acy programs are well underway in classrooms inmany countries around the world, such as France,Switzerland, West Germany, England, and the Scan-dinavian countries [Gambiez, ED 243 408], as wellas Australia [Dwyer and Walshe, ED 250 651], cur-ricula in American schools still give little consider-ation to any systematic study of the ubiquitous massmedia.

:1

Media Study in High SchoolSneed [ED 307 654] argues that the best time

and place for students to begin a serious study otthe media is in the high school social sciences cur-ricula. English/Language Arts high school teacherssurveyed by Koziol [ED 309 493] also felt that massmedia education was better suited to a social stud-ies department In adolescence, young people be-come acutely awve of the vast and sometimesconfusing array of mass media that permeate theirlives.

For example, a recent study on the effects oftelevision tested attitudes of students in grades 6-10and found that older students were more balancedin their assessments of the influences of the me-dium, both positive and negative, than were theiryounger counterparts. These findings suggest thataudiences in general, and young people in particu-lar, are far more involved and mentally active whenwatching TV than has been previously thought.[Krendl and Lasky, ED 287 181] It follows that thepublic needs to develop skills that can help thembetter interpret arid analyze a variety of video mes-sages. Formal study of the media in high school willalso make for better informed citizens. People mustbecome critical viewers, particularly of television"both the most powerful communication mediumever developed, and the most effective medium forreaching a great number of pecple simukaneously."[Metallinos, ED 312 675]

Critical Viewing ConceptsSneed [ED 307 654] believes that the key com-

ponent to media literacy is understanding the sym-bols, information, ideas, values, and messages thatemanate from the media. O'Reilly and Splaine [ED289 796] enumerate a number of basic critical view-

How to °Read" Television: Teaching Students to View TV Critically

ing concepts which apply to all visual media, andespecially TV: (1) the direction of the camera willaffect how a particular scene is perceived; (2) adirector can choose a camera position to impartalmost any desired message; (3) even though theevent is live," the director can still "edit" the eventby selecting which camera will portray the event;and (4) after an event, the editor can juxtapose aseries of images to convey virtually any desiredmessage. In addition, most TV screens are small andprovide an III-defined image, a technical limitationwhich directly affects the content and methodologyof the medium.

Models for Critical ViewingSpecific models for criticai viewing of television

have also beer, developed by O'Reilly and Splaine.Viewers should first ask themselves when watchingtelevision: what is this program's point of view, whatinferences can be drawn from the program, whatpersuasive techniques are used, and what evidenceis used to support the program's argument? Afterthis initial questioning, separate models can be usedfor viewing news programs, political advertisementsor debates, interviews, entertainment programs,sports, or commercials.

For example, the entertainment analysis model,VIPE, asks: V-What values does the program con-vey? I-Did the program involve the viewer? P-Whatpoint is the program making? E-What are the emo-tional appeals? A similar analysis model for commer-cials is called MAIL. MAIL asks: M-What was themain point of the commercial? A-What appeals didthe advertiser use? I-What images were used toimpart the advertiser's message? L-Wiil the com-mercial have a long term effect on the viewers?(O'Reilly and Splaine, ED 289 7961 O'Reilly andSplaine also caution viewers to remember that com-mercial TV networks are profit-making businesses,that television thrives on simplicity and avoids com-plexity in program content, that the omnipresenceof television makes most viewers more susceptibleto its me5sages, and that commercial TV programsare generally aimed at the lowest common denomi-nator.

Suggestions for Class ActivitiesA companion teacher's guide [O'Reilly and Sp la-

_ ine, ED 289 797] to "Critical Viewing: Stimulant toCritical Thinking" offers suggestions for in-class ac-

tivities as well as longer-term projects and researchpapers that will interest students at the high schoollevel. Dwyer and Walshe's guide, "Learning to Read

the Media" (ED 250 6511 developed for elementaryschool level students in Australia, can be adaptedfor almost any academic level. This teacher's guide

12

presents over 100 classroom activity units to bringpurpose and critical interactions to young persons'encounters with the mass media.

Ploghoft [ED 291 636] provides guidelines and

techniques for focusing on TV news programmingto help prepare students for their roles as citizens bydeveloping the ability to distinguish between objec-tive and subjective reporting. Among the goals ofthe suggested activities are for students to be ableto (1) distinguish between local, national and inter-national news; (2) analyze the TV news program asto the priorities given to news items; (3) compareand contrast the nightly newscasts of the three net-works for the content, selection, and emphasis ofthe day's news; (4) establish their own criteria forlocal, state, national, and international news and toanalyze the TV news using these criteria; (5) com-pare the TV news to newspapers and news maga-zines in terms of content, depth, emphasis, andobjectivity; and (6) become aware of the process ofnews gathering on a local, state, national, and inter-national level.

Implications for the FutureMass media technology is shaping young

people's lives far more than print, and for the tradi-tional public school system to avoid withering, itmust take an active role in helping students inter-pret television imagery. Contrary to some claims,the significance of imagery as an intellectual tool forunderstanding concepts and processes will not re-duce the importance of print in a literacy intensivefuture environment. Both forms of reading will takeon even greater importance, both in the "real"world and the educational world. Print, however,will no longer be considered sacred, and pictureswill acquire a newfound respectability. The resultwill be a more active and rigorous process of teach-ing and learning. [Adams, ED 260 371)

ReferencesAdams, Dennis M. 'Critical Reading: Visual Skills."

Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of theColorado Council of the International ReadingAssociation, 1985, lOpp. [ED 260 371]

Dwyer, Barry, and Walshe, Bob. Learning to Readthe Media: A Teacher's Guide to Media Educa-tion. Rozelle, Australia: Primary English TeachingAssociation, 1984. [ED 250 651]

Gambiez, Claude. The Use of the Media at School toPrepare Youngsters for Life. Strasbourg, France:Council for Cultural Cooperation, 1982. [ED 243408]

Koziol, Robert V. "English/Language Arts Teachers'Views on Mass Media Consumption Education

17

How to °Read° Television: Teaching Students to View TV Critically

in Maryland High Schools." Paper presented atthe Annual Meeting of the Association for Educa-tion in Journalism and Mass Communication,1989, 67 pp. [ED 309 493]

Krendl, Kathy A., and Lasky, Kathryn. "The Effects ofTelevision: Views from the Next Generation."Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of theSpeech Communication Association, 1987,3Opp. [ED 287 181]

Metal linos, Nikos. "Media Software: The Develop-ment of Cross-Cultural Teievision Programming."Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of theInternational Communication Association, 1987,12pp. [ED 312 675]

O'Reilly, Kevin, and Splaine, John. Critical Viewing:Stimulant to Critical Thinking. South Hamilton,Massachusetts: Critical Thinking Press, 1987. [ED289 786]

1 s

O'Reilly, Kevin, and Splaine, John. Critical Viewing:Stimulant to Critical Thinking. Teacher's Guide.South Hamilton, Massachusetts: Critical ThinkingPress, 1987. [ED 289 797]

Ploghoft, Milton. "Children and Television: A BasicConcern in Social Science Education." Occa-sional Paper No. 6. Oxford: Ohio Council for theSocial Studies, 1985, 26pp. [ED 291 636]

Sneed, Don, et al. "Media Literacy Ignored: A Qual-itative Call for the Introduction of Media Studiesacross the High School Social Science Curricu-lum." Paper presented at the Annual Meeting ofthe Association for Education in Journalism andMass Communication, 1989, 13pp. [ED 307654]

13

ERIC VigestClearinghouse on Reading and Communication Skills EDO-CS-89-03Indiana University Bloomington, IN 47408-26982805 E. 10th St., Suite 150 (812) 855-5847

Critical Thinking: Promoting It in the Classroomby M. Carrol Tama

The NCTE Committee on Critical Thinking andthe Language Arts defines critical thinking as "aprocess which stresses an attitude of suspendedjudgment, incorporates logical inquiry and problemsolving, and leads to an evaluative decision or ac-tion." In a new monograph copublished by the ERICClearinghouse on Reading and CommunicaVonSkills, Siegel and Carey (1989) emphasize the rolesof signs, reflection, and skepticism in this process.

Ennis (1987) suggests that "critical thinking isreasonable, reflective thinking that is focused ondeciding what to believe or dc." However defined,critical thinking refers to a way of reasoning thatdemands adequate support for one's beliefs and anunwillingness to be persuaded unless the support isforthcoming.

Why should we be concerned about criticalthinking in our classrooms? Obviously, we want toeducate citizens whose decisions and choices willbe based on careful, critical thinking. Maintainingthe right of free choice itself may depend on theability to think clearly. Yet, we have been bom-barded with a series of national reports which claimthat "Johnny can't think" (Mullis, 1983; Gardner,1983; Action for Excellence, 1983). All of them callfor schools to guide students in developing thehigher level thinking skills necessary for an informedsociety.

Skills needed to begin to think about issues andproblems do not suddenly appear in our students(Tama, 1986; 1989). Teachers who have attemPtedto incorporate higher level questioning in their dis-cussions or have administered test items demandingsome thought rather than just recall from their stu-dents are usually dismayed at the preliminary re-sults. Unless the students have been prepared forthe change in expectations, both the students andthe teacher are likely to experience frustration.

What is needed to cultivate these skills in theclassroom? A number of researchers claim that theclassroom must nurture an environment providingmodeling, rehearsal, and coaching, for students andteachers alike, to develop a capacity for informedjudgments (Brown, 1984; Hayes and Alvermann,1986).

Teacher ChangeHayes and Alvermann found that coaching

teachers led to significant changes in students' dis-cussion, including more critical analysis. The super-vision model that was used allowed teachers andresearchers to meet for preobservation conferencesin order to set the purpose for the observation.Then, each teacher's lessons wer e. videotaped andobservers made field notes to supplement the vid-eotape. After the lesson, the researchers met toanalyze the tape and notes and to develop strate-gies for coaching the teachers. In another post-ob-servation meeting the teachers and supervisorsplanned future lessons incorporating the changesthey felt necessary to promote and improve criticaldiscussion in the classes.

Hayes and Alvermann report that this coachingled teachers to acknowledge students' remarksmore frequently and to respond to the studentsmore elaborately. It significantly increased the pro-portion of text-connected talk students used assupport for their ideas and/or as cited sources oftheir information. In addition, students' talk becamemore inferential and analytical.

A summary of the literature on the role of "waittime," (the time a teacher allows for a student torespond as well as the time an instructor waits aftera student replies) found that it had an impact onstudents' thinking (Tobin, 1987). In this review ofstudies, Tobin found that those teachers who al-lowed a 3-5 second pause between the questionand response permitted students to produce cogni-

1 5

tively complex discourse. Teachers who consciouslymanaged the duration of pauses after their ques-tioning and provided regular intervals of silence dur-ing explanation created an environment wherethinking was expected and practiced.

However, Tobin concludes that "wait time" inand of itself does not insure critical thinking. Acurriculum which provides students with the oppor-tunity to develop thinking skills must be in place.Interestingly, Tobin found that high achievers con-sistently were permitted more wait time than wereless skilled students, indicating that teachers need tomonitor and evaluate their own behavior whileusing such strategies.

Finally, teachers need to become more tolerantof "conflict," or confrontation in the classroom.They need to raise issues whicii create dissonanceand refrain from expressing their own bias, lettingthe students debate and resolve problems. Al-though content area classroom which encouragescritical thinking can promote psychological discom-fort in some students as conflicting accounts ofinformation and ideas are argued and debated, suchfeelings may motivate them to resolve an issue(Festinger, 1957). They need to get a feel for thedebate and the conflict it involves. Isn't there ampleeveryday evidence of this: Donahue, Gera ldo Ri-vera, USA Today?

Authors like Frager (1984) and Johnson andJohnson (1979) claim that to really engage in criticalthinking, students must encounter the dissonance ofconflicting ideas. Dissonance, as discussed byFestinger, 1957 promotes a psychological discom-fort which occurs in the presence of an inconsis-tency and motivates students to resolve the issue.

To help students develop skills in resolving thisdissonance, Frager (1984) offers a model for con-ducting critical thinking classes and provides sam-ples of popular issues that promote it: for example,banning smoking in public places, the bias infusedin some sports accounts, and historical incidentswritten from both American and Russian perspec-tives.

If teachers feel that their concept of thinking isinstructionally useful, if they develop the materialsnecessary for promoting this thinking, and if theypractice the procedures necessary, then the use ofcritical thinking activities in the classroom will pro-duce positive results.

Matthew Lipman (1988) writes, "The improve-ment of student thinkingfrom ordinary thinking togood thinkingdepends heavily upon students' abil-ity to identify and cite good reasons for their opin-ions."

16

Critical Thinking: Promoting It in the Classroom

Training students to do critical thinking is not aneasy task. Teachin g which involves higher level cog-nitive processes, r.omprehension, inference, and de-cision making often proves problematic forstudents. Such instruction is often associated withdelays ;n the progress of a lesson, with low successand Lompletion rates, and even with direct negotia-tions by students to alter the demands of work(Doyle, 1985). This negotiation by students is under-standable. They have made a career of passivelearning. When met by instructional situations inwhich they may have to use some mental energies,some students resist that intellectual effort. Whatemerges is what Sizer (1984) calls "conspiracy forthe least," an agreement by the teacher and stu-dents to do just enough to get by.

Despite the difficulties, many teachers are nowpromoting critical thinking in the classroom. Theyare nurturing this change from ordinary thinking togood thinking admirably. They are 1) promotingcritical thinking by infusing instruction with opportu-nities for their gudents to read widely, to write, andto discuss; 2) frequently using course tasks andassignments to focus on an issue, question, or prob-lem; and 3) promoting metacognitive attention tothinking so that students develop a growing awareness of the relationship of thinking to reading, writ-in, ;peaking, and listening. (See Tama, 1989.)

Another new ERIC/RCS and NCTE monograph(Neilsen, 1989) echoes similar advice, urging teach-ers to allow learners to be actively involved in thPlearning process, to provide consequential contextsfor learning, to arrange a supportive learning envi-ronment that respects student opinions while givingenough direction to ensure their relevance to atopic, and to provide ample opportunities for learn-ers to collaborate.

ReferencesAction for Excellence. A Comprehensive Plan to Im-

prove Our Nation's Schools. Denver: EducationCommission of the States, 1983. 6Opp. [ED 235588]

Brown, Ann L. "Teaching students to think as theyread: Implications for curriculum reform." Papercommissioned by the American Educational Re-search Association Task Force on Excellence inEducation, October 1984. 42pp. [ED 273 567]

Doyle, Walter. "Recent research on classroom man-agement: Implications fmr teacher preparation."Journal of Teacher Educeion, 36 (3), 1985, pp.31-35.

Ennis, Robert. "A taxonomy of critical thinking dis-positions and abilities." In Joan Baron and Robert

0

Critical Thinking: Promoting lt in the Classroom

Sternberg (Eds.) Teaching Thinking Skills: Theoryand Practice. New York: W.H. Freeman, 1987.

Festinger, Leon. A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance.Evanston, Illinois: Row Peterson, 1957.

Frager, Alan. "Conflict: Th,e key to critical readinginstruction." Paper presented at annual meetingof The Ohio Council of the International ReadingAssociation Conference, Columbus, Ohio, Octo-ber 1984. 18pp. [ED 251 806]

Gardner, David P., et a/. A Nation at Risk: The Inver-ative for Educational Reform. An Open Letter tothe American People. A Report to the Nation andthe Secretary of Education. Washingtor, DC: Na-tional Commission on Excellence in Education,1983. 72pp. [ED 226 006]

Hayes, David A., and Alvermann, Donna, E. "Videoassisted coaching of textbook discwsion skills:Its impact on critical reading behavior." Paperpresented at the annual meeting of the AmericanResearch Association, San Frs. .o: April 1986.llpp. [ED 271 734]

Johnson, David W., and Johnson, Roger T. "Conflictin the classroom: Controversy and learning," Re-view of Educational Research, 49, (1) Winter1979, pp. 51-70.

Upman, Matthew. "Critical thinkingWhat can itbe?" Educational Leadership, 46 (1), September1988, pp. 38-43.

Mullis, Ina V. S., and Mead, Nancy. "How well canstudents read and write?" Issuegram 9. Denver:

Education Commission of the States, 1983. 9pp.[ED 234 352]

Neilsen, Allan R., Critical Thinking and Reading: Em-powering Learners to Think and Act. Mono-graphs on Teaching Critical Thinking, Number 2.Bloomington, Indiana: ERIC Clearinghouse onReading and Communication Skills and The Na-tional Council of Teachers of English, Urbana,Illinois, 1989. [AvailablE. from ERIC/RCS andNCTE.]

Siegel, Marjorie, and Carey, Robert F. Critical Think-ing: A Semiotic Perspective. Monographs onTeaching Critical Thinking, Number 1. Blooming-ton, Indiana: ERIC Clearinghouse on Readingand Communication Skills and the NationalCouncil of Teachers of English, Urbana, Illinois,1989. [Available from ERIC/RCS and NCTE.]

Sizer, Theodore. Horace's Compromise: The Di-lermia the American High School. Boston:Houghton-N.1;Rn, 1984. [ED 264 171; not avail-able from EDRS.]

Tama M. Carrol. "Critical thinking has a place inevery classroom," Journal of Reading 53 (1), Oc-tober 19P9.

Tama, M. Carrol. "Thinking skills: A return to thecontent area classroom.' Paper presented at theannual meeting of the International Reading As-sociation, 1986. 19pp. [ED 271 737]

Tobin, Kenneth. "The role of wait time in highercognitive level learning," Review of EducationalResearch, 57 (1), Spring 1987, pp. 69-.95.

1 7

ERIcf VigestClearinghouse on Reading and Communication Skills

Indiana University2805 E.10th St., Suite 150

Bloomington, IN 47408-2698(812) 855-5847

Thinking Skills in EnglishAnd across the Curriculum

by Charles Suhor

Widespread concern about students' poor think-ing skills has been expressed recently by educators,journalists, and the public at large. The NationalAssessment of Educational Progress has reportedthat students show weaknesses in the logical pro-cesses required for clear communication. In A Na-tion at Risk, The National Commission onExcellence in Education noted that students have apoor command of such intellectual skills as drawinginferences and solving problems. The CollegeBoard's Project Equality booklet, Academic Prepara-tion for College, called for the teaching of reasoningas a basic academic competency, along with read-ing, writing, speaking, listening, and mathematics.Finally, employers frequently report that young peo-ple lack the ability to think through problems andoffer alternative solutions.

In spite of acknowledgement of the need to helpstudents develop intellectual skills, little consensusexists about how thinking skills should be taughtand who should teach them. Should thinking betaught as a separate skill, as part of each subjectarea, or as both? Do English and language artsteachers have a special role in the teaching of think-ing skills? How do concepts like language and writ-ing across the curriculum relate to thinking skillsins...4ction? These issues will be discussed in thisdigest.

Thinking Skills Taught in IsolationNumerous researchers and teachers believe that

thinking skills can and should be the focus of specialexercises, texts, and programs. Lochhead (1972)speaks of the need "to isolate specific cognitiveskills and to design instructional material appropri-ate for each skill." DeBono, author of the CoRTthinking skills program, claims that "generalizablethinking skills" can and should be taught, in addition

22

to "local skills" required in particular subject matterareas. Howard Citron of Innovative Sciences be-lieves that we must "systematically developstudents' thinking and reasoning abilities in a 'purer'sense and directly build . .. transfer of these abilitiesto academic learning and real behavior." The ideathat certain generic thinking abilities underlie schoollearning is basic to thinking skills programs like Stra-tegic Reasoning, Structure of Intellect, and others(Bossone 1983).

However, there is little agreement among psy-chologists on what constitutes thinking, and no onehas developed a compelling taxonomy .f thinkingskills for use in educational programs. Different pro-gram developers cite Piaget, Bloom, Guilford,Feuerstein, Erikson, and others as credible sourcesfor their work. Each argues persuasively for a partic-ular theoretical approach and makes claims for thefeasibility of classroom applications. Researchers'claims for the effectiveness of various approachesare advanced cautiously and disputed vigorously.

Thinking Skills Taught in Each Subject AreaIdeally, training in thinking processes would be

woven into subject area study. Two decades ago,much attention was given to Bruner's idea that theconcepts central to each discipline can be taughtthrough the discovery method (1960). In recentyears, specialists in mathematics, visual arts, music,and other subjects have claimed that unique as-pects of their disciplines involve distinctive mentalskills, requiring specially tailored strategies for learn-ing.

While some subject-specific thinking skills un-doubtedly exist, it is also clear that numerous cogni-tive skills cut across several school subjects. In bothhistory and literature, students must be able to infer

19

.,

motivation, understand sequences,and tracecause/effect relationships. Skill in estimation, mea-surement, and visual imagery is essential to wood-working and geometry alike. All subjects involvedefinitions that in turn include classification andspecification, comparison and contrast. No disci-pline can claim exemption from many of the mentalprocesses that the advocates of isolated instructionin thinking skills see as generic.

Thinking Skills in the English LanguageArtsThe English language arts, pre-K through col-

lege, inherently involve a wide range of essentialthinking skills because of the close relationshipsbetween thinking and language as established byPiaget, Vygotsky, Luria, and others. Additionally,many aspects of reading and writing are pertinent toimportant thinking skills, as evidenced by the 1981National Assessment of Educational Progress Re-port on Reading, Thinking, and Writing. Student writ-ing samples were found to lack the cognitivesuperstructures that inform clear writing, such as,organization of ideas, continuity, and cohesion.

Numerous theorists, researchers, and practition-ers have linked generic thinking skills with subjectmatter traditionally associated with English and lan-guage arts instruction. Moffett and Wagner's (1983)K-13 program is perhaps the most expansive of thecognitive-based language arts curricula. Hays andothers (1983) have explored writing as a mode ofthinking. Relationships between class discussionand thinking have been articulated by Stanford andRoark (1974) and Staton (1984). Pearson andTierney (1984) are among those who see reading asan active mental process involving the constructionof meaning. The NCTE "Essentials of English" statement holds that teaching of creative, logical, andcritical thinking is close to the core of effectiveEnglish instruction.

English teachers have a special role in the teach-ing of thinking skills, precisely because of whatBoyer(1983) calls "the centrality of language" in thecurriculum. But of course, this role does not implythat language and thinking are the exclusive domainof English teachers. A broader conceptualization isneededone that places language in perspectivewith both the subject-specific and the genericthinking skills involved in other disciplines.

Language and Thinking across the Cur-rkulum

The pervasiveness of language in the teaching ofall subjects and the close ties of oral and writtenlanguage to thinking suggest that language acrossthe curriculum is a primary concept in developing

20

Thinking Skills in EnglishAnd across the Curriculum

all thinking skills. Carroll (1974) stated that "thevarious forms of pictorial expression are almost al-ways accompanied by language and often requirelanguage to make them intelligible." Piaget (1971)has written that "language is but one among . . .

many aspects of the semiotic function, even thoughit is in most instances the most important" Eco(1972) agrees that language is "the most powerfulsemiotic device that man has invented." Certainlylanguage is used by musicians and visual artists inarticulating their intentions and describing theirtechniques. And critical analysis of the elements inany nonlinguistic work involves language, as doesdescription of the responses that the work invokesin us. Even highly abstract visualization processes inmathematics and intuitive psychomotor activities inathletics are, to some extent, mediated by languagein school settings.

The student who is articulate in oral and writtenlanguage has an indispensable tool for all schoollearning, because the ability to give shape tothought through language is a necessary (thoughnot of course sufficient) skill in every subject. Lan-guage, thinking, and learning are inseparable, ac-cording to Thaiss (1984). "If we do not apply the fullrange of language resources to our learning of anysubject, then we stifle thought, conscious and un-conscious, and so deprive ourselves of more thanthe most superficial understanding."

Thaiss does not call for teachers of other subjectsto assume the English teacher's responsibility forteaching sentence structure, standard English usage,or compositional form and style. Rather, languageacross the curriculum means verbalization as thefulfillment of understanding within each subjectarea. A close look at good writing across the curric-ulum materials (for example, LiveWire or Tch. -di andothers, 1983) supports this notion. The writing as-signments call for exercise of students' genericthinking processes and those pertinent to the sub-ject area. Oral and written "prewriting" activitiesserve as mental organizers, leading towards a coher-ent writing product that demonstrates deep under-standing of the subject.

Finally, simple introspection provides a com-mon-sense verification of the idea that skill in lan-guage is closely related to significant learning. Indealing with new and difficult content, from intrica-cies of grammar to computer programming, each ofus tends to go through an initial "grasping" in whichwe understand key concepts but cannot conversefluently, much less write cogently, about them. Asour exposure to the material increases, we are ableto shape our comprehension through questions,tentative verbalizations, informal talks with others,

4)9i.... J

Thinking Skills in EnglishAnd across the Curriculum

reorganization of notes, and so forth. Through lan-guage, then, we gradually mold nascent insightsinto more cohesive forms. We not only recognizethe structure of the subject (as one does in merelytaking an objective test) but also verbally manipu-late its ideas, expressing its orderliness in personal-ized and unique ways.

Language as a way of thinking and learning,then, is not merely a pedagogical catchphrase. It isan essential element in every classroom and themost persuasive way of insuring that thinking skillsare, in fact, being taught effectively in every subjectarea.

ReferencesBossone, Richard. The Fourth R: Reasoning. New

York: City University of New York, 1983.

Boyer, Ernest. High School. New York: Harper andRow, 1983.

Bruner, Jerome. The Process of Education. NewYork: Vintage Books, 196(./.

Carroll, John. "Potentialities and Limitations of Printas a Medium of Instruction." In Media and Sym-bols: The Forms of Expression, Communication,and Education, edited by D. R. Olson. Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 1974.

College Board. Academic Preparation for College.New York: College Board, 1983.

Eco, Umberto. A Theory of Semiotics. Bloomington,IN: Indiana University Press, 1976.

Hays, Janice, and others. The Writer's Mind. Urbana,IL: National Council of Teachers of English, 1983.

Lochhead, Jack, and John Clements, Editors. Cogni-tive Process Instruction. Philadelphia: Franklin In-stitute Press, 1972.

LiveWire. Periodical for elementary teachers, Ur-bana, IL: National Council for Teachers of En-glish.

os,

Moffett, James, and B. J. Wagner. Student CenteredLanguage Arts and Reading: A Handbook forTeachers. 3d edition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin,1983.

National Assessment of Educational Progress. Read-ing, Thinkit.;, and Writing. Denver, CO: NAEP,1981.

National Commission on Excellence in Education. ANation at Risk. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Depart-ment of Education, 1983.

National Council of Teachers of English. "Essentialsof English." Urbana, IL: NCTE, 1982.

Pearson, P. David, and Robert Tierney. "On Becom-ing a Thoughtful Reader: Learning to Read Like aWriter." In Becoming Reackrs in a Complex Soci-ety, edited by A. Purves and 0. Niles. Part I ofYearbook lf the National Society for the Study ofEducation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,1984.

Piaget, Jean. Genetic Epistemology. Translated by E.Duckworth. New York: Norton, 1971.

Stanford, Gene, and Albert Roark. Human Interac-tion in Education. Boston: Allyn and Bacon,1974.

Staton, Jana. "Thinking Together: Language Interac-tion in Children's Reasoning." In Speaking andWriting, K-12: Classroom Strategies and the NewResearch, edited by C. Thaiss and C. Suhor. Ur-bana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English,1984.

Thaiss, Christopher. "Language Across the Curricu-lum." ERIC Digest. Urbana, IL: ERIC Clearing-house on Reading and Communication Skills,1984.

Tchudi, Stephen, et al. Teaching Writing in the Con-tent Areas. 3 vols. Washington, D.C.: NationalEducation Association, 1983.

0 4!

21

IERICI DigestClearinghouse on Reading and Communication Skills

Indiana University2805 E 10th St, Suite 150

Metacornprehensionby Sally N. Standiford

Teachers make many instructional decisionsbased on their assessments of student comprehen-sion. "Excellent" students, for example, are oftengiven enrichment materials, so they will not bebored while the teacher wooec with other students;"poor" students, on the other nand, are often givenremedial materials to help them "catch up." Almostalways, such decisions are based on what a studentknows or does not know relative to the teacher'squestions. Assessment of a student's comprehen-sion, although necessary and important, is not al-ways sufficient. Teachers might consider anotherdimension: the student's metacomprehension, orawareness of his or her own understanding.

What is Metacomprehension?Who of us has not had the experience of reading

a book and becoming aware that we have notunderstood the content of the last few pages? At thepoint of that awareness, our metacomprehensionwas very highwe knew we had not processedanything just read. On the other hand, while wewere reading absentmindedly, our metacomprehen-sion was very lowwe were unaware of our ownlevel of understanding. Metacomprehension, then,is the awareness of and conscious control overone's own understanding or lack of it.

Regardless of whether or not students are "doingwell" (by whatever grading scheme we use), theymay or may not be aware of their own degree ofunderstanding. Students with high metacomprehen-sion are either those who know they understandwhen, in fact, they do, or those who know they donot understand when, in fact, they do not. Theirawareness of their understanding accurately reflectstheir comprehension.

Students have inaccurate or lowmetacomprehension if they are uncertain or if theyare unaware that they do or do not understand.Poor metacomprehension may be exhibited in dif-

Bloomington, IN 47408-2698(812) 855-5847

ferent ways: there are students who are sure theyjust "blew" tests on which they subsequently gettop scores, students who believe that they have thematerial "down pat" and perform poorly, and stu-dents who just have not thought about their ownstate of understanding.

By combining -.omprehension-metacomprehen-sion dimensions, we can divide students into thefollowing four groups:

High Comprehension-High Metacomprehen-sion (students who know and are aware thatthey know)

Low Comprehension-High Metacomprehen-sion (students who do not know and realizethey do not know)

High Comprehension-Low Metacomprehen-sion (students who know but think they do notknow)

Low Comprehension-Low Metacomprehen-sion (students who do not know but think theydo know)

Why is Metecomprehension Important?One of the primary goals of instriction is to help

students become efficient and effective learnerstohave them become responsible for their own learn-ing. Effective learning requires awareness of one'sunderstanding or lack of it, as well as knowing whatto do when one fails to understand.

Baker and Brown (1980) have identified threemain reasons for comprehension failures:

the learner does not have enough informationabout the topic to interpret the message (writ-ten or oral)

the learner has the appropriate schemata, crprior knowledge, but there aren't enoughclues in the message to suggest them to thelearner

r,IJ 23

the learner interprets ths message consistently,but the interpretation is different from the oneintended by the author or speaker

It is very unlikely that students in the third groupwill take remedial action, because they will not real-ize that their comprehension has failed. Studentswho fail to construct consistent interpretations aremore likely to attempt actvities to clarify their un-derstanding. 'Such self-awareness is a prerequisitefor self-regulation, the abiiity to orche3trate, moni-tor, and check one's own cognitive activities," ac-cordio; to Brown, Campione, and Day (1980).

What Can English/Language Arts Teach-ers Do?

Asserting that sophisticated reading is a com-plex, acquired skill, Stewart and Tei (1983) state thatreaders need to learn how to engage in certainactivities to achieve the goals of reading. One suchgoal, for example, is reading to study. This mayinvolve skills such as recognizing and retaining mainpoints, rereading important sections, making adjust-ments in reading rate, and self-testing to monitorthe success of various strategic activities. Aware-ness of the understanding and use of these skills isnecessary to metacomprehension.

Schallert and Kleiman (1979) have identifiedsome strategies reading teachers can use to helpstudents' metacomprehension:

Focusing the student's attention on the mainideas

Asking students questions about their under-standing to help them monitor their comprehension

Relating the student's relevant prior knowl-edge to the new information

As teachers we need to teach students how touse such activities and encourage their independentuse.

For students with low comprehension-highmetacomprehension, teacher questions and feed-back designed to help students apply appropriatestudying strategies and techniques can be effective.These students do not gain from those teacher re-sponses that simply indicate that they are wrongthey already know that. As teachers betterunderstand these strategies and techniques, theycan train students to use them more effectively. Forexample, instructing students to summarize a read-ing without giving them any criteria for develop-ment of a summary does a disservice to thosestudents who are aware that they do not know howto construct such summary.

24

Metacomprehension

Students with high comprehension-lowmetacomprehension need consistent, positive ver-bal and written reinforcement. Although some research has demonstrated that the positivereinforcement of confirming correctness for somestudents is ineffective, regular positive reinforcement is effective for this subset of students, sincetheir lack of confidence is critical.

The approach for students with low comprehen-sion-low metacomprehension should be to focuson the metacomprehension dimension fi r s t , break-ing through their false sense of understanding ratherthan teaching them content. One might ask thesestudents questions that help them recognize a con-tradiction between what they really know and whatthey think they know, but don't. For example, astudent who draws an illogical inference from areading passage due to incomplr,e backgroundknowledge may be unconvinced if simply told thathe or she is wrong. Such a student could be con-fronted with his or her misunderstanding by beingshown similarities and/or differences between thepassage in question and analogous material morefamiliar to the student.

How Can Teachers Evaivate Student Meta-comprehension?

One of the simplest ways to assess a student'sawareness of understanding is to ask the student torate the certainty that he or she has answered cor-rectly or incorrectly. Students with goodmetacomprehension will respond that they are rela-tively certain that their correct answers are corrector that their incorrect answers are incorrect. Poormetacomprehenders will have a mismatch betweentheir answers and their confidence ratings. A wordof caution: younger students frequently respondpositively when questioned on how sure they are ofwhat they know, regardless of the truth of theirassertions (Baker and Brown 1980). More directevidence of metacomprehension for these studentsmight come from monitoring the self-correction oftheir errors during such learning activities as read-ing.

"The ability to reflect on one's own activities ... isa late developing skill with important implications....If ... the child is not aware of his own limitations as alearner or the complexity of the task at hand, thenhe can hardly be expected to take preventive ac-tions in order to anticipate or recover from prob-lems" (Baker and Brown 1980).

It is not enough for a teacher to be aware of thedimension of comprehension awareness. Develop-ment ot the student's own awareness is crucial. Tobetter serve their students, English language arts

0t.)

Metacomprehension

teachers should regularly and actively integratemetacomprehension strategies In their classrooms.

Sources for Further ReadingBaker, Linda, and Ann L. Brown. Metacognitive Skills

and Reading. Technical Report No. 188. Cam-bridge, MA: Bolt, Beranek, and Newman andChampaign, IL: Center for the Study of Reading,1980. ED 195 932.

Brown, Ann L, Joseph C. Campione, and Jeanne D.Day. Learning to Learn: On Training Students toLearn from Texts. Technical Report No. 189.Cambridge, MA: Bolt, Beranek, and Newmanand Champaign, IL: Center for the Study of Read-ing, 1980. ED 203 297.

ERIC/RCS Fact Sheet "Schemata," Urbana, IL:ERIC/RCS, 1982. ED 234 337.

Markman, E. M. "Realizing That You Don't Under-stand: Elementary School Children's Awarenessof Inconsistencies." Child Development 50(1979):643-658.

Schallert, Diane L., and Glenn M. Kleiman. SomeReasons Why Teachers are Easier to Understandthan Textbooks. Reading Education Report No.9. Cambridge, MA: Bolt, Beranek, and Newmanand Champaign, IL: Center for the Study of Read-ing, 1979. ED 172 189.

Standiford, Sally N., Kathleen Jaycox, and AnneAuten. Computers in the English Classroom: APrimer for Teachers. Urbana, IL: ERIC Clearing-house on Reading and Communication Skillsand National Council of Teachers of English,1983. ED 228 654.

Stewart, Oran, and Ebo Tei. "Some Implications ofMetacognition for Reading instruction." Journalof Reading 27 (October 1983):36-43.

Wagoner, Shirley A. "Comprehension Monitoring:What It Is and What We Know about it." Read-ing Research Quarterly XVIII (Spring 1983):328-346.

2 725

8

I ERIC DigestClearinghouse on Reading and Communication Skills

Indiana University Bloomington, IN47408-26982805 1 10th St., Suite 150 (812) 855-5847

Critical Thinking in College English Studiesby Donald Lazere

The Critical Thinking MovementA key event in the phenomenal growth of the

critical thinking movement in American higher edu-cation was Chancellor Glenn Dumke's ExecutiveOrder 338 (1980) announcing the requirement offormal instruction in critical thinking throughout thenineteen California State University campuses, serv-ing some 300,000 students. Similar requirementsquickly followed in California community collegesand high schools.

The pertinent section of Executive Order 338reads as follows:

"Instruction in critical thinking is to be designedto achieve an understanding of the relationship oflanguage to logic, which should lead to the ability toanalyze, criticize, and advocate ideas, to reasoninductively and deductively, and to reach factual orjudgmental conclusions based on sound inferencesdrawn from unambiguous statements of knowledgeor belief. The minimal competence to be expectedat the successful conclusion of instruction in criticalthinking should be the ability to distinguish fact fromjudgment, belief from knowledge, and skills in ele-mentary inductive and deductive processes, includ-ing an understanding of the formal and informalfallacies of language and thought."

In California and elsewhere, college-level criticalthinking instruction has largely been assumed to bethe realm of philosophy departments. Within thediscipline of philosophy, however, the critical think-ing movement has turned from an emphasis onformal logic and linguif.tic analysis, and toward infor-mal logic, or the application of principles of reason-ing to everyday situations. The movement has alsoseen a growing attention to the mental attitudes andemotional "dispositions" that foster or impede criti-cal thinking within the broader context of psycho-k-gical, cultural, social, and political influences. This

28

changing emphasis within philosophy has promotedinterdisciplinary coordination of critical thinkingstudies with English and rhetoric along with manyother fieldspreeminently developmental psychol-ogy.

The stage-developmental schemas of psycholo-gists like Piaget, Kohlberg, Gilligan, Perry, andBloom have suggested supplementary criteria ofcritical thinking. (Applications of such criteria havebeen somewhat speculative and disputable to date,to be sure, as are stage-developmental theories ingeneral.) These criteria include the ability to reasonback and forth between the concrete and the ab-stract, the personal and the impersonal, the literaland the hypothetical or figurative; facility in perceiv-ing irony, ambiguity, and multiplicity of meanings orpoints of view; and the development of open-mindedness, reciprocity (Piaget's term for ability toempathize with other individuals, social groups, ide-ologies, etc.); and autonomous thought.

Critical Thinking in Composition StudiesThe incorporation of developmental psychology

into critical thinking studies converges with its re-cent incorporation into composition research andinstruction. Several reports of the National Assess-ment of Educational Progress have indicated thatstudent writers' main weakness occurs in the pro-gression from narrative and descriptive modes tomodes directly requiring critical thinkinganalysis,synthesis, argumentation, and evaluation of sourcesand ideas. Researchers in collegiate basic writinghave addressed problems impeding this progressionand have explored pedagogical strategies for over-coming them.

Shaughnessy's seminal Errors and Expectationsnot only pinpointed some of these cognitive imped-iments but also identified elements that can be con-sidered prerequisites to critical thinking. These

27

include the ability to concentrate, to retain materialstudies, to sustain an extended line of reasoning inreading or writing, and to reason back and torthamong the past, present, and future. Shaughnessyfurther delineated students' difficulties with "the vo-cabulary of general literacy" (1977, 216-221), herterm for the codes of academic discourse whichencompass the language both of critical thinkingand of what Hirsch .has called "cultural literacy."Lunsford (1980), in "The Content of Basic Writers'Essays," explicitly applied Piaget and Kohlberg tothe designing and evaluation of writing assignmentsfostering development from egocentric to recipro-cal and from conventional to autonomous moralreasoning.

Composition textbooks and courses can bestincorporate critical thinkingand in some caseshave done sonot only in units on logic and persua-sion, but in those in diction and semantics, tone,audience, and writing from sources. Several recenttextbooks are expressly devoted to logic in writing,while a growing number of others combine thisapproach with critical reading. There is some indica-tion that rhetorics and anthologies are moving awayfrom a structure based on modes of exposition to-ward a developmental sequence of modes of rea-soning designed to build critical thinking skills.Sternglass (1983) and Kytle (1986) have writtentextbooks and Olson (1984) and Lazere (1986)have published course descriptions structured inthis way.

Kytle's C/ear Thinking for Composition, first pub-lished nearly twenty years ago, anticipated the cur-rent emphasis on attitudes or dispositions in criticalthinking instruction. Its chapter "Blocks to LogicalThinking" considers culturally conditioned assump-tions, prejudice, ethnocentrism, primary certitude(absolutism), authoritarianism and unconcretizedabstractions. Other forerunners emphasizing psy-chological dispositions include Altick, whose Pref-ace to Critical Reading first appeared in 1946, andHayakawa, whose Language in Thought and Actionwas first published in 1941. Hayakawa's generalsemantics approach has been perpetuated by thejournal ET CETERA, especially under Neil Postman'seditorship, and the NCTE Comm:ctee on PublicDoublespeak.

A political approach to critical thinking in com-position courses is provided in teachers' guides byShor (1980) and Lazere (1986). This approach gen-erates writing assignments out of Frankfurt Schoolcritical theory, emphasizing critical consciousnesstoward mass culture, and out of Paulo Freire's no-tion of liberatory literacy.

28

Critical Thinking in Caw. English Studies

Critical Thinking in Literary StudiesA strong case can be made that literatureprop-

erly reunified with rhetoric and compositionis thesingle academic discipline that can come closest toencompassing the full range of mental traits cur-rently considered to comprise critical thinking. Themental dispositions increasingly emphasized withincritical thinking circles have a familiar ring to teach-ers of literature and literary criticismthe capacities:to unify and make connections in one's experience;to follo ! an extended line of thought through prop-ositional, thematic, or symbolic development; toengage in mature moral reasoning and to form judg-ments of quality and taste; to be attuned to skepti-cism and irony; and to be perceptive of ambiguity,relativity of viewpoint, and multiple dimensions ofform and meaning (literal and figurative language,syntactic and structural complexity, etc.).

Paul (cited in Walsh and Paul, 1985, 11-12)asserts thara setting that facilitates the exchange offree dialogue between opposing views is essentialto any authentic exercise of critical thinking. Thetradition of humanistic and creative literature is pre-eminently a tradition of dialogue from Socrates andGreek tragedy to Albert Camus's "civilization ofdialogue." Every great work of literature engagesthe reader in critical dialogue with its author, lan-guage, and characters, and in the dynamic interac-tion that Emerson characterized as Man Thinking.

Moreover, a growing body of research in bothEnglish and psychology strongly indicates that nei-ther critical thinking nor cognitive development caneffectively advance except in dialectical interactionwith a substantial body of domain-specific knowl-edge (see McPeck, 1981; Hirsch, 1987). Clearly,that particular body of knowledge contained in liter-ature, in its broad sense of humanistic letters," iseminently congenial in its subject matter and in thequalities of mind it reflects, to the essential traits ofcritical thinking. Nearly every other discipline hascome forth to claim th; it too has been fosteringcritical thinking all along, but in none of these is thevery concept of "criticism" central as it is in litera-ture.

No more powerful case could present itself topersuade the public of the value of reemphasizingthe study of literature at all levels. Ironically, how-ever, although many courses, textbooks, and re-search projects have emerged in composition forcritical thinking, there are very few to date in litera-ture. (Scholars, including Kohlberg, 1981; Gilligan,1982; Meyers, 1986; and Bergstrom, 1983, haveapplied principles of cognitive development to thestudy of literary works.) What is called for is perhapsno more than a minimal rethinking of the discipline

f) (4...* 1

Critical Thinking in College English Studies

to bring the tacit component of critical thinking inliterary study to the surface. The explicit effort tomake critical thinking the primary reason for beingof literary scholarship might well provide the rejuve-nating force the profession has long been missing.

ReferencesAltick, Richard D.; and Andrea Lunsford. Preface to

Critical Reading 6th ed. New York: Holt, Rinehartand Winston, 1984.

Bergstrom, Robert F. "Discovery of Meaning: Devel-opment of Formal Thought in the Teaching ofLiterature." College English 45 (1983): 745-755.

Bloom, Benjamin S., ed. Taxonomy of EducationalObjectives: Cognitive Domain/Affective Domain.New York: David McKay Company, 1956.

Dumke, Glenn. "Chancellor's Executive Order338." Long Beach: Chancellor's Office, Califor-nia State University, 1980.

Gilligan, Carol In A Different Voice: PsychologicalTheory and Women's Development. Cambridge:Harvard University Press, 1982.

Hayakawa, 5.1. Language in Thought and Action. 3ded. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1972.

Hirsch, E.D., Jr. Cultural Literacy: What Every Ameri-can Needs to Know. New York: Houghton Miff-lin, 1987.

Kohlberg, Lawrence. Essays on Moral Development:Volume 1, The Philosophy of Moral Develop-ment. San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1981.

Kytle, Ray. Clear Thinking for Composition 5th ed.New York: Random House, 1986.

Lazere, Donald. Composition for Critical thinking: ACourse Description. Rohnert Park, CA: Center forCritical Thinking and Moral Critique, SonomaState University, 1986. ED 273 959.

Lunsford, Andrea. "The Content of Basic Writers'Essays." College Composition and Communica-tion 31 (1980): 278-290.

McPeck, John. Critical Thinking arid Education. NewYork: St. Martin's, 1981.

Meyers, Chet. Teaching Students to Think CriticallySan Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1986.

Olson, Carol Booth. "Fostering Critical ThinkingSkills Through Writing." Educational Leadership(1984): 28-39.

Perry, William. Forms of Intellectual and Ethical De-velopment in the College Years. New York: Holt,Rinehart and Winston, 1970.

Piaget, Jean. The Language and Thought of theChild. New York: New American Library, 1955.

Shaughnessy, Mina P. Errors and ExpectationsAGuide for the Teacher of Basic Writing. NewYork: Oxford University Press, 1977.

Shor, Ira. Critical Teaching and Everyday Life. Bos-ton: South End Press,I980. ED 183 094.

iglass, Marilyn S. Reading Writing, and Reason-ing New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc.,1983.

Walsh, Debbie; and Richard Paul. The Goals of Crit-ical Thinking: From Educational Ideal to Educa-tional Reality. Washington, DC: EducationalIssues Department, American Federation ofTeachers, 1985.

29

Introduction to FAST BibsTwo types of citations are included in these bibliographiescitations to ERIC documents

and citations to journal articles. The distinction between the two is important only if you areinterested in obtaining the full text of any of these items. To obtain the full text of ERICdocuments, you will need the ED number given in square brackets following the citation.For approximately 98% of the ERIC documents, the full text can be found in the ERICmicrofiche collection. This collection is available in over 800 libraries across the country.Alternatively, you may prefer to order your own copy of the document from the ERICDocument Reproduction Service (EDRS). You can contact EDRS by writhig to 7420 Fuller-ton Road, Suite 110, Springfield, VA 22153-2852, or by telephoning them at (800)443-ERIC (3742) or (703) 440-1400. For those few ERIC documents which are notavailable by these means, information regarding their availability is provided in the squarebrackets.

Full text copies of journal articles are not available in the ERIC microfiche collection orthrough EDRS. Articles can be acquired most economically from library collections orthrough interlibrary loan. Articles from some journP-, are also available through UniversityMicrofilms International at (800) 732-0616 or through the Original Article TearsheetService of the Institute for Scientific Information at (800) 523-1850.

331

ERIC IFocused Access to Selected Topics

a FAST Bib by theClearinghouse on Reading and Communication Skills

Creativityby Gail lonclergan

This bibliography brings together recent researchand literature reviews from the ERIC database onthe topic of creativity. Citations which give over-views of recent research and theory are presentedfirst. These are followed by references to work inthe two areas which many creativity scholars nowconsider the most promising lines of inquiry. Thefirst of these is that of "problem finding" (as op-posed to "problem solving"); the second is the areaof social influences on creativity, focusing in partic-ular on the critical importance of intrinsic motiva-tion to the creative effort. References to other workson the impact of family and of school on creativeindividuals and their behavior then are listed. Cita-tions on adult creativity and creative growth acrossthe lifespan follow next. References to two workswhich touch on private aspects of the creative expe.rience close that section and complete the bibliog-raphy.

OverviewsGardner, Howard. "Creativity: An Interdisciplinary

Perspective," Creativity Research Journal, vl p8-26Dec 1988.

Several research disciplines have contributedto an emerging picture of creative individuals,processes, and achievements. Contributions to ascience of creativity are reviewed, focusing onthe psychometric approach, cognitive ap-proaches, studies of personality and motivation,sociological and historiometric investigations,and neurobiological aspects of unusual humanperformance.

Torrance, E. Paul. "Some Products of Twenty FiveYears of Creativity Research," Educational Perspec-tives, v22 n3 p3-8 Fall 1984.

Describes what the author regards as 25 ofthe m)st significant outcomes of 25 years ofcreativity research. Some were selected for theinfluence they have had on educational prac-tices; others were selected for their potential inmaking a difference in future educational prac-tice.

32

Woodman, Richard W.; Schoenfeldt, Lyle F. "An Inter-actionist Model of Creative Behavior," Journal ofCreative Behavior, v24 n1 pl 0-20 1990.

Proposes an interactionist model of creativebehavior which combines elements of the per-sonality, cognitive, and social psychology per-spectives on creativity. The model considers theinterplay of factors including antecedent condi-tions, creative behavior, consequences, the indi-vidual, cognitive style/ability, personality traits,contextual influences, and social influences.

Hayes, John R. "Cognitive Processes in Creativity."Occasional Paper No. 18. Center for the Study ofWriting, Berkeley, CA.; Center for the Study ofWriting, Pittsburgh, PA. Also appears in Glover, J.A., ed., and others. Handbook of Creativity, Assess-ment, Research, and Theory. New York, PlenumPublishing Corporation, 1989. [ED 317 947]

What are creative people like? Four personal-ity traits appear to differentiate more creativefrom less creative people: devotion to work, in-dependence, drive for originality, and flexibility.Creative people do not have higher IQs or getber.er school grades than othersin fact, no cog-n;dve abilities have been identified which reliablydistinguish between creative and non-creativepeople. All of the variables which discriminatebetween creative and non-creative people aremotivational. Over a period of time, these differ-ences in motivation cause cognitive differences(such as the acquisition of extensive knowledge)which contribute in critical ways to creative per-formance. These motivational and cognitive dif-ferences jointly account for the observeddifferences between creative and non-creativeindividuals, but the origin is in motivation, not incognition.

Problem FindingGetzels, J. W. "Problem Finding and the Enhance-

ment of Creativity," NASSP Bulletin, v69 n482p55-61 Sep 1985.

Describes a 20-year study of 31 artists asstudents and as professionals that reveals that

33

skills in finding and formulating problems aresignificantly related to creative achievement. Ac-cordingly, educators should turn their attentionto teaching such skills.

Moore, Michael T. "The Relationship between theOriginality of Essays and Variables in the Problem-Discovery Process: A Study of Creative and Non-creative Middle School Students," Research in theTeaching of English, v19 n1 p84-95 Feb 1985.

Reports on a study conducted to determinewhether there is a relationship between problemdiscovery and the assessed originality of the writ-ten product, and whether problem-solving be-havior is observable in student writers. Resultsdid indicate a . alationship between problemfinding and the originality of the product.

Runco, Mark A.; Okuda, Shawn M. "Problem Discov-ery, Divergent Thinking, and the Creative Process,"Journal of Youth and Adolescence, vl 7 n3 p211-20 Jun 1988.

The role of problem solving in divergent think-ing and creative performance of 19 male and 10female adolescents was studied. The subjectsgenerated significantly more responses to dis-covered problems than to presented problems.The unique variance of discovered problems wasrelated to five indices of creative performance.

Subotnik, Rena F. "Factors from the Structure of !ntel-lect Model Associated with Gifted Adolescents'Problem Finding in Science: Research with Wes-tinghouse Science Talent Search Winners,"Journalof Creative Behavior, v22 n1 p42-54 Jan-Apr1988.

A study of 147 Westinghouse Science TalentSearch winners classified 57 subjects as indepen-deM problem finders. They were asked to selectfive of the 31 factors in Guilford's Structure ofIntellect model which best described the processof choosing their research question. Discussesimplications for educating secondary sciencestudents.

Social InfluencesAmabile, Teresa M. "Social Influences on Creativity:

Interactive Effects of Reward and Choice." Paperpresented at the Annual Convention of the Ameri-can Psychological Association, 1985. 17p. [ED265 705]

In a test of the intrinsic motivation hypothesisof creativity, 60 undergraduate women did anartistic creativity task with either the expectationof receiving a reward or no expectation of re-ward. The lowest creativity was exhibited by sub-

34

Creativity

jects who had contracted to receive the reward.Results suggest that creativity can be under-mined by reward that is contingent upon taskengagement.

Amabile, Teresa M. and others. "Immunizing Childrenagainst the Negative Effects of Reward." Paperpresented at the Biennial Meeting of the Societyfor Research in Child Development, 1987. 22p.[ED 285 655]

To determine whether training could counterdeleterious effects of reward on motivation andcreativity, 68 students in grades 3, 4, and 5 wereassigned to one of four conditions in which in-trinsic motivation training and rewards were ei-th er provided or withheld. The rewardcontingency produced the predicted decrementin creativity for control group subjects. In con-trast, rewarded students who received intrinsicmotivation training were judged significantlymore creative than those receiving training andno reward.

At Home, At SchoolSingh, R. P. 'Parental Perception about Creative Chil-

dren," Creative Child and Adult Quarterly, v12 n1p39-42 Spr 1987.

The "Torrance Ideal Child Checklist" was ad-ministered to 260 mothers and fathers, and theresults were correlated with the judgments of 10experts on creative personality. Concludes thatparents did not perceive the personality charac-teristics of cre,Viyig children favorably or in thesame way as the experts did.

Olszewski, Paula and others. "The Influence of theFamily Environment on the Development of Tal-ent: A Literature Review," Journal for the Educationof the Gifted, vl 1 n1 p6-28 Fall 1987.

A literature review on families of gifted andtalented individuals sought to determine the im-portance of several broad areas on talent devel-opment (structural or demographiccharacteristics, family climate or environment,values espoused and/or enacted by parents).Family climate variables differed between indi-viduals exhibiting creative versus academicachievement.

Hennessey, Beth A.; Amabile, Teresa M. 'Creativityand Learning: What Research Says to theTeacher." National Education Association, Wash-ington, D.C., 1987. 34p. [ED 312 835]

Reviews research on creativity and applies itto the learning process. After discussing the defi-nition and measurement of creativity, the corn-

33

Creativity

ponents of creative performance are outlined,includirg domain-relevant skills, creativity-rele-vant skills, and intrinsic task motivation. Strate-gies for nurturing intrinsic motivation andcreativity in classrooms are explored.

Cohen, Leonora M. "Developing Children's Creativity,Thinking, and interests. Strategies for the District,School, and Classroom." Oregon School StudyCouncil, Eugene, 1988. 71p. [ED 296 449]

Te foster individual development, educatorsmust seek the gifts in every child, in those notdemonstrating academic abilities as well as inthe most brWiant. Currently, a big discrepancyexists between the child's potential and whatschools actually value or stimulate. To produceRenaissance or visionary men and women willrequire a reexamination of play, interest develop-ment, self-regulation, k.rid autonomy in early cre-ative development.

A Lifetime of CreativityJohnson, Scott H. "A Cognitive-Structural Approach

to Adult Creativity." Paper presented at the AnnualSymposium of the Jean Piaget Society, 1987. 17p[ED 285 972]

Suggests a framework for the study of adultcreativeness from a cognitive-structural orienta-tion, reconciling traditional developmental the-ory with a nontraditional approach to thedefinition and study of inventiveness. Reports ona study undertaken to investigate the possibilitythat the pi oblem-finding stage of cognitive de-velopment is inseparable from creativity. Dataare shown that imply that problem finding is acritical component in the creative process.

Richards, Ruth L and others. "Assessing Creativity atWork and Leisure: The Lifetime Creativity Scales."Paper presented at the Annual Convention of theAmerican Psychological Association, 1985. [ED274 891]

Describes a new research instrument, TheLifetime Creativity Scales (LCS), as providingbroad-based assessment of innovative activity atvt ork and leisure, without lie requirement thatactivities be socially recognized or limited toparticular fields of endeavor, allowing for studyof real-life creativity in general populations. Thescales show high interrater reliability and multi-ple indications of construct validity. Findings arepresented which raise interesting questions in-volving the relationship between vocational and

avocational creativity, and equality of vocationalopportunity for men and women.

Dacey, John S. "Peak Periods of Creative Growthacross the Lifespan," Journal of Creative Behavior,v23 n4 p224-47 1989.

Reviews the literature on two questions:What is the normal course of creative develop-ment? and Do peak periods exist during whichpeople are most open to efforts to foster creativeabilities? Six specific periods are identified aspeak periods of creative growth.

Dohr, Joy H.; Forbess, Linda A. "Creativi-: Arts, andProfiles of Aging: A Reexamination," EducationalGerontology, v12 n2 pl 23-38 1986.

Presents findings from a study exploring cre-ative activity and motivational interest of 75 ruralolder adults on a creative arts community pro-gram, home environment, and non-arts commu-nity senior programs. Results indicate that olderadults do not necessarily perceive a decline increative capacity with age.

Shaughnessy, Michael F. 'Toward a Creative Female'sLife Cycle," Creative Child and Adult Quarter/y,v12 n2 p84-92 Sum 1987.

Cites the work of prominent life cycle theo-rists and gives brief summaries of the lives ofseveral famous women and their accomplish-ments. With emphisis on particular attributescommon to the creative, gifted, and vientedfemale, a tentative life cycle model is forr- Jted.

Pickard, Eileen. "Toward a Theory of Creative Poten-tial," Journal of Creative Behavior, v24 n1 p1-91990.

Outlines cognitive processes underpinningcreative ability, considers their development,ano discusses the creative potential of the indi-vidual at various life stages. Creativity is viewedas an outcome of self-directed transformationalactivity. F- itasy and imagination are discussed,as are pui.. _ versus private creativity.

Bruch, Catherine B. "Metacreativity: Awareness ofThf.ughts and Fee!ii 1gs during Creative Experi-et.% -es," Journal of Creative Behavior," v22 n2p112-22 1988.

Metacreativity is described as the study ofinternal observatkms of creative processing. Theconcept is defined in relation to metacognition,related research is reviewed, and models whichpoint to relevant cognitive, affective, and physi-cal/sensory qualities are discussed.

35

CRic Focused Access to Selected Topicsa FAST Bib hy the

Clearinghouse on Reading and Communication Skills

Critical Reading and Thinking:Instructional Strategies

by Michael Shennis

Helping students develop higher-level and ana-lytical skills, such as critical reading and thinking,can be a challenging undertaking. This FAST Bibprovides a number of resources to help with thatendeavor. A search of the ERIC database producedthe following references from the period 1985 to1989. The citations include instructional strategiesfor teaching visual literacy, religion, spelling, re.ing, semiotics, problem solving, literature and co 41-

position, metaphorical thinking, and homeeconomics. Some focus on particular groups, suchas adolescents or at-risk students.

Activities to Promote Critical Thinking. Classroom Prac-tices in Teaching English, 1986. National Council ofTeache:s of English, Urbana, IL, 1986. 158p. [ED2P s85J

Outlines ways to teach literature and compo-sition that engage the students in such thinkingprocesses as inferriry , sequencing, predicting,classifying, problem solving, and synthesizing.The activities are divided into categories for com-position, speaking and listening, literature study,additional creative and critical thinking activities,and speaking and writing across the curriculum.

Barwick, Joseph T. ";..iterature and Student Cognition."Paper presented at the 3rd Annual City Collegesof Chicago Literature Conference, 198g. 17p. [CS211 594]

Asserts that an important task for literatureteachers is to develop students' capacity for ab-stract thinking so that it can be employed onproblems at will and by choice. The first processof abst:act thinking is one which enables a per-son :o see a connection between A and B, in-cluding processes of cause/effect, makinganalogies, or making comparisons. Another typeof abstract thinking is that which enables a per-son to see a relacionship between A and B thatyields C, which uses inductive and deductivereasoning, and pi-oduces inferences and conclu-sions. The third al id final type of abstract thinking

is the process that enables a persor: to under-stand A so that what is learned can be appliedelsewhere, enabling a person to generalize. Thestudy of literature is particularly well-suited toteach this cognitive skill, because the purpose ofliterature is to transcend the narrow boundwiesof the story and find some essential meaning forall .)f humanity. Teachers need to break downthe conePt of cognition into it' componentparts, in order 'co develop more effective strate-gies for teaching abstract thinking.

Bathardt, Donald A. "Confronting the Concrete andthe Abstract in Critical Thinking." Pdper presentedat the ,Annual Meeting of the International Societyfor Exploring Teaching Alternatives. 1988. 12p. [CS506 4811

States that the principles of synergy, the pro-cess by which one need or person combinesoptimally with another, can be applied to criticalthinking in television broadcasting. Analysis ofwhat one sees and hears on television, throughquestioning the abstract and concrete aspects ofinformation, establishes a way to make themedia problematic to students.

Carpenter, Donna. "The Original 'Fatal Attraction':Metaphorical Thinking and 'Medea." English Jour-nal, v77 n8 p42-44 Dec 1988.

Stresses that metaphorical thinking encour-ages students to see relationships and requiresthem to use higher level critical thinking, particu-larly analysis and synthesis. Describes strategiesto help students to think metaphorically in orderto understand the elements of Greek tragedy.

Cianciolo, Patricia J. Critical Thinking in the Study ofChildren's Literature in the Elementary Grades, Ele-mentary Subjects Center Series No. 5. Institute forResearch on Teaching. Michigan State University,East Lansing MI, 1988. 66p.[CS 211 6531

Explores some alternative ways to think aboutcritical thinking in the study c,f Iit.-Irature in the

37

elementary grades. Addresses the following top-ics: (1) the major factors infi-^ncing the trends inthe literature curricult.m. the elementarygrades within the past 30 years; (2) substantiveresearch focusing on critical thinking aboutchildren's literature, selection of materials for usein the teaching of critical thinking about litera-ture, especially critical thinking about literatureas art; and (3) literature programs originatingfrcm various sources, i.e., children's literaturetextbooks developed in colleges, or by state de-partments of education, and commercialchilwen's literature programs. Argues that whenliterature is viewed as an art, students can studyliterature in its truest sensethat is, engage incritical thinking when interpreting and evaluatingit.

Commeyras, Michelle. Analyzing a Critical-ThinkingReading Lesson. Technical Report No. 464. Bolt,Beranek and Newman, Inc., Cambridge, MA; Cen-ter for the Study of Reading, University of Illinois,Urbana, IL, 1989. 23p. [CS 009 580]

Analyzes the transcript of a critical-thinkingreading lesson for sixth grade students to exam-ine the interdependent relationship between crit-ical thinking and reading comprehension, and toshow critical thinking can be infused into class-room instruction using ordinary classroom mate-rials (e.g. selections from a basal reading series).

Dilworth, Collett B. 'Critical Thinking and the Experi-ence of Literature." Paper presented at the 75thAnnual Meeting of the t 'ational Council of Teach-ers of English, 1985. 13p. L:-.D 266 477]

Asserts that, despite the current emphasis onthinking skills and the resulting concentration onlists and taxonomies that do not succeed beyondresearch contexts, critical thought relies not onapplying mental steps but on simply trying tofigure out what might be right or wrong. Thisdepends on one basic cognitive act, contrast-ingdirecting one's initial thoughts to the crucialdifferences between things or to the distinctionsthat reveal essential characteristics. This thinkingis necessary and natural in the study of literatirebecause writers often use comparison and con-trast in their writing, while readers must compareand contrast their understanding against the cri-terion of the text's assumed coherence. To helpstudents enjoy literature's resonances (the rela-tionships of such elements as images, characters,and circumstances), teachers must tniter theircritical perceptions and contrastive powersthrough recognizing and app!ying contrastivethought. Such critical thought can be taught by

38

Critical Reading and Thinking: Instructional Strategies

example, guided discussion, and independentwriting, particularly through use of a dividedreader's journal in which students paraphraseand quote contrastive parts of literature texts.

Goldstone, Bettep. "Visual Interpretation of Children'sBooks," Reading Teacher, v42 n8 p592-95 Apr1989.

Examines how visual literacy (the ability tointerpret the visual images of advertisements, il-lustrations, television, and other visual media)can promote creative and analytic thinking. Pro-vides several instructional strategies to teach vi-sual literacy through book illustrations. Notesthat visual literacy is essential in a world increas-ingly dominated by visual messages.

Hepburn, Velma. "A Professor's Formula for TeachingCritical Thinking." 1989. 7p. [CS 009 539]

Presents a formula for writing critical thinkingassignments on different academic levels whichprofessors can use in training elementary andsecondary educators and in developing criticalthinkers. Includes lists of terminology, instruc-tional materials, and assignments (at various aca-demic levels) which may be combined into avariety of assignments.

"Higher Order Thinking Skills: A Catalog of Products,Publications, and Services." Southeastern Educa-tional Improvement Lab., Research Triangle Park,NC, 1989. 10p.[CS 009 524]

Lists and describes 31 products, publications,and services available from the nine regionaleducational laboratories funded by the Office ofEducational Research and Improvement, UnitedStates Departnient of Education.

Jago, Carol. "Flotation Strategies for Sinking Students:Kids, Cops, and Communication," English Journal,v78 n2 p19-22 Feb 1989.

Presents a model for working with students atrisk, helping them d.. )lop critical thinking, listen-ing, reading, and wr. .tg skills.

Keating, Daniel. ' Adolescents' Ability to Engau,e inCritical Thinking." National Center on Effe :tiveSecondary Schools, Madison, WI, 1988. 23. [CS009 423]

Presents several issues as central themes forthe analys6 of possible constraints on criticalthinking among adolescents. First is the degreeto which such thinking can more usefully beconsidered as a general ability, instead of neces-sarily being tied to specific domains of contentknowledge. Second is whether the metaphor of

:3 (;

Critical Reading and Thinking: Instructional Sfrategies

"skill" is in fact the most appropriate one. Third iswhether it is helpful to regard the various aspectsof thinking as relatively more independent (andperhaps hierarchical) or more interdependent,even unitary. A synthesis of research supportsthe belief that fundamental developmental limi-tations are not a significant source of perfor-mance limitations for adolescents. An evaluationof current research suggests that the source ofthe limitations is more likely to be found in oureducational practices. For a truly open, criticaldiscourse, the recognition that knowledge is"problematic and tentative" is essential. Thisviewpoint, however, runs counter to the sociallyappointed authoritarian role that is imposed onteachers. Thus, a host of factors conspire to limitdiscourse, and discourse ser,ms essential to thedevelopment of critical thinking and reasoning.Two routes to meeting this challenge are tostudy teachers who are able to create an effec-tive classroom climate for discourse, despite theconstraints; and to examine more closely theorganizational and systemic factors which rein-force the current framework.

Mader, Thomas F.; Mader, Diane C. "The Languageof Critical Thinking: Logical Exercises and LegalCases for Use in the Speech CommunicationClassroom." Paper presented at the 79th AnnualMeeting of the Eastern Communication Associa-tion, 1988. 26p. [ED 293 166]

Addresses two recurrent concerns in educa-tional debatehow a discipline can contribute tostudents' analytical and critical thinkirtl, and howto impro,.'e students' ability to expre >s them-selves orally and in writing. The Language ofCritical Thinking course is designed tostrengthen critical thinking skills by using a legalcase study approach. This method allows stu-dents to concentrate on the analysis of issues, onthe development, evaluation, and organizationof arguments, and on perfecting a L,ar and ef-fective style.

Marzano, Robert J. "Policy Constraints to the Teach-ing of Thinking." Mid-Continent Regional Educa-tional Lab, Inc., Aurora, CO, 1988. 12p. [CS '009511]

Reflects the growing agreement on a nationaland local level that direct instruction in higherorder thinking skills should be a major educa-tional focus. To satisfy this gr-wing awarenessand perceived need, a number of programs havebeen developed. Given the widespread interestin teaching thinking and the increasing numberof proprams to satisfy that interest, it could be

3

assumed that the incidence of direct instructionin thinking at the classroom level would be rap-idly increasing. However, the implementation ofthinking skills programs appears to be a slowprocess, with many hurdles to overcome. A cur-riculum which included the teaching of thinkingwould necessarily have a balance among factualcontent objectives, metacognitive objectives,and cognitive objectives. Those in positions ofauthority at the local, state, and national levelsshould mandate that assessment techniquesshould not be comprised primarily of objective,quantitative measures. Instead, more holistic andqualitative measures must be legitimized withineducation. Finally, distinctions as to the domainof responsibility of educators versus non-educa-tors must be established and articulated at allpolicy levels.

Neilsen, Allan R. Critical Thinking and Reading: Em-powering Learners to Think and Act. Monographon Critical Thinking Number 2. Monographs onTeaching Critical Thinking Series. ERIC Clearing-house on Reading and Communication Skills,Bloomington, IN; National Council of Teachers ofEnglish, Urbana, IL, 1989. 54p. [CS 009 640]

Argues that the present educational systemcan do little to foster critical thought because it isrooted in a world view that sees thinking andreading as isolated "skills" that can be transmit-ted to learners via a teacher-centered peda-gogy. Suggests that educators consider aperspective from which reading and thinking areseen as critical attitudes or states-of-mind thathelp to shape one's daily life. Contends that thisshift in perspective on thinking and reading mustbe accompanied by a shift to a more learner-centered pedagogy that provides students withopportunities and incentives to develop criticalminds by engaging in projects that are of per-sonal interest and consequence.

Norris, Stephen P. Verbal Reports of Thinking andMultiple-Choice Critical Thinking Test Design.Technical Report No. 447. Bolt, Beranek and New-man, Inc., Cambridge, MA; Center for the Study ofReading, Univeristy of Illinois, Urbana, IL, 1989.28p. [CS 009 477]

Describes a methodology for using verbal re-ports of thinking to develop and validate multi-ple-choice tests of critical thinking. These verbalreports of individuals' thinking on draft it-rtis ofmultiple-choice critical thinking tests can beused systematically to provide evidence of thethinking processes elicited by such tests, and in

39

this case were used to develop and validate atest of observation appraisal.

Rosebery, Ann S.; and others. "The Problem-SolvingProcesses of Writers and Readers." OccasionalPaper No. 7. Center for the Study of Writing,Berkeley, CA; Center for the Study of Writing,Pittsburgh, PA, 1989. 30p. [CS 211 679]

Argues that while young children's problem-solving models are not as elaborate as those ofolder students, they share an important belief,namely, that writing and reading are fundamen-

tally purposeful acts of communication. Focusing

on the interpretation of process, in particular onwriting and reading as forms of problem solvingthat are shaped by communicative purpose,three sets of vignettes show students at differentstages of schooling as they write and read. Theyillustrate the nature of problem solving in skiiledreading and writing processes that are held asgoals for college students; place these processesin context by considering some of the factorsthat influence students' problem solving as theywrite and read in response to typical class assign-

ments; and explore the problem-solving skillsthat young studentschildren learning to writeand read and adolescents expanding their writ-ing and reading abilitiesbring to their school

assignments.

Roth, Rita; Adler, Susan. "Critical Inquiry in TeacherPreparation." Paper presented at the 69th AnnualMeeting of the American Educational Research As-sociation, 1985. 381.).[ED 264 187]

Presents a case study of a recently reconcep-tualized teacher education program which has acritical inquiry base and an emphasis on "lan-guage across the curriculum." Describes theprogram's rationale, organization and practice,along with a description of the ongoing processof program devAopment.

S!egel, Marjorie; Carey, Robert F. Critical Thinking: A

Semiotic Perspective. Monograph on CriticalThinking Number 1. Monographs on TeachingCritical Thinking Series. ERIC Clearinghouse on

40

Critical Reading and Thinking: instructional Strategies

Reading and Communication Skills, Bloomington,IN; National Council of Teachers of English, Ur-bana, IL 1989. 55p. [CS 211 649]

Encourages teachers to consider the notionthat thinking critically !s a matter of reading signs,that it is the function of signs that makes reflec-

tive thinking possible. Contains the followingchapters: (1) "Beyond a Literal Reading"; (2)"Current Thinking on Critical Thinking"; (3) "TheRoots of a Semiotic Perspective: C. S. Peirce andSemiosis"; (4) "Critical Thinking in Semiotic Per-

spective: A Process of Inquiry"; (5) "The Practice

of Critical Thinking"; and (6) "Classrocm Con-texts for Critical Thinking."

Smith, Carl B. "Prompting Critical Thinking(ER)C/RCS)," Reading Teacher, v42 n6 p424 Feb1989.

Discusses how teachers can provide class-room experiences that lead young readers toreact cOtically to what they read. Suggests waysto focus attention and target evaluative re-sponses to literature.

Thomas, Ruth G., ed. Higher Order Thir king: Defini-

tion, Meaning and Instructional Approaches. HomeEconomics Education Association, Washington,DC, 1987. 79p. [ED 287 998; not ndiiabIe fromEDRSJ

Presents current thinking, research, anJ prac-t.ce in the area of higher order thinking skills withhome economics educators, including teachers,supervisors, and teacher educators.

Tierney, Robert J.; and others. "The Effects of Readingand Writing upon Thinking Critically," Reading Re-search Quarter/y, v24 n2 p134-73 Spr 1989.

Examines whether writing in combinationwith reading prompts more critical thinking thaneither activity alone, or either activity combinedwith questions or with a knowledge activationactivity. Finds that students who both wrote andread made more revisions (prompted by morecritical thinking) than students in any other treat-ment group.

3 3

I lc Focused Access to Selected Topicsa FAST Bib by the

Clearinghouse on Reading and Communication Skills

Left Brain/Right Brain: Research and Learningby Ruth Eppele

The Americal school system has often been de-scribed as a left-brain centered system, that is per-taining to the more scientific or logic basedhemisphere of the brain. Research or± brain orienta-tion shows that a good portion of the population isright-brain dominant and learns, or struggles tolearn, to conform to this left-brain orientation.Many articles and papers dealing with left-brain/right-brain theory and its affect on languagelearning have been appearing at conferences and invarious trade journals over the past decade. There issome controversy over this issue as it challenges thestructure and history of the American educationsystem and many of the applications proposedwould change the focus of the classroom from thegroup as a whole to the individual student andhis/her individual brain orientation or learning style.

This bibliography represents the scope of mostof the articles added to the ERIC database from1983 through 1988 on left-brain/right-brain re-search, theory and application as it relates to class-room incorporation. This bibliography does includeconflicting opinions as to the usefulness of left-brain/right-brain studies and their application in thelearning environment. However, the majority of thearticles in the database describe learning activitieswhich incorporate the research and support appli-cation in the classroom. Many of the authors pro-pose ways for people to become more"whole-brained".

An OverviewSegal, Bertha E. 'Teaching English through Action:

Total Physical Response (T.P.R.). A Right-Brain/Left-Brain Approach to Language Acquisi-tion. A Workshop." Paper presented at the 21stAnnual Meeting of the International Association ofTeachers of English as a Foreign Language, 1987.10 p. Adapted from a chapter in the author'sTeaching English through Action, (1981); see ED224 291. [ED 285 428]

Pre-sents materials from a teacher workshopon the Total Physical Response method forteaching English as a second language. De-scribes the process of first language acquisition;uses physical activities in the classroom to rein-

force learning; gives basic procedures for a lis-tening lesson, a vocabulary unit, an initial lessonin basic commands, a lesson in body parts, alesson in classroom objects, and a review lesson;and provides a chart to record student progress.

Stacks, Don W.; Andersen, Peter A "Toward a Holis-tic Neurophysiological Understanding of Intraper-sonal Communication." Paper presented at the73rd Annual Meeting of the Speech Communica-tion Association, 1987. 33 p. [ED 289 181]

Reviews how the brain operates at the mostbasic level of interest to human communicationtheorists, intrapersonal communication. Includesa table of brain functions and structures and adiagram of the triune brain.

Theory and Recent LiteratureHaring, Ed. Teaching and Learning Styles. Illinois,

1985. 17 p. [ED 258 658]

Reviews recent literature on learning stylesand teaching styles, and the relationship be-tween the two. Presents a brief overview of brainresearch with respect to learning styles, followedby a series of suggestions for teachers to helpthem recognize different aspects of learners andmake the instructional changes which allow stu-dents a better opportunity to learn and to bemore responsible for their own learning.

Herrmann, Ned. "The Creative Brain," NASSP-Bulle-tin, v66 n455 p31-46 Sept 1982.

Outlines the differences between left-brainand right-brain functioning and between left-brain and right-brain dominant individuals, andconcludes that creativity uses both halves of thebrain. Discusses how both students and curricu-lum can become more "whole-brained."

Hines, Terence. "Left Brain, Right Brain: Who's onFirst?" Training and Development Journal, v39 n11p32-34 Nov 1985.

States that none of the left-brain/right-brain"mythology" is supported by the actual researchon the differences between the left and righthuman cerebral hemispheres.

3 f) 41

Lord, Thomas R. "A Plea for Right Brain 'sage/' Jour-nal of College Science Teaching, v14 .r2 p100-2Nov 1984.

Offers reasons why educators should empha-size right-brain understanding in educationalcurricula at all levels.

Recent ResearchReifschneider, Thomas J., ed.; and others. "The

Human Brain: Cognition in Education." Report ofthe First Annual Conference, September 24-25,1982. 94 p. [ED 234 035]

The papers in this monograph were pre-sented at the first annual conference on theoriesand research related to learning styles,hemisphericity, and other cognitive-related is-sues in education. Includes Jack Kreitzer's"Poems Take Two Brains (or: Poetry Ain't forHalfwits)."

Millard, David E.; Nagle, Stephen J. "Minds, Brains,and the Language Arts: A Cautionary Note." Paperpresented at the 37th Annual Meeting of the Con-ference on College Composition and Communica-tion, 1986. 18 p. [ED 283 2211

Provides reasons for writing teachers to waitto use mind-brain research to revise pedagogi-cal literature.

Coulson, Louis T.; Strickland, Alison G. "Your BrainTells Plenty about Your Management Skills," Exec-utive Educator, v5 n7 p22-23, 27 Jul 1983.

Comparison of the thinking styles of 21 :or-porate chief executive officers (CEO's) and 23school superintendents from across the Ur :"edStates reveals CEO's as right-brain oriented kin-novative, intuitive), and superintendents as left-brain oriented (logical, rational). Suggests bothgroups strive for "whole-brained thinking," bal-ancing both orientations.

Mounts, Deborah S.; Street, Steven C. Whole BrainLearning Summer School Project. Migrant Child Ed-ucation-Region II, California, 1983. 46 p. [ED 237289]

Describes a summer school project for 200migrant children (K-8) to determine whether sig-nificant change in teacher and student behaviorswould result from combining right-brain andleft-brain learning activities for 34 school days.

Robbins, Steven B. "Left-Right Brain Research and ItsPremature Generalization to the Counseling Set-ting," Journal of Counseling & Development, v64n4 p235-39 Dec 1985.

Brain lateralization research has led to specu-lation about counseling and guidance implica-

42

Left Brain/itr6;.1 drain: Research and Learning

tions of left-right brain differences. Serious limi-tations in these implications are highlighted.

Keenan, Donna; Smith, Michael. "Sex Discriminationand Cerebral Bias: Implications for the ReadingCurriculum," Reading Improvement, v20 n1 p50-53 Spr 1983.

Reviews research supporting the concept thatgirls usually outperform boys on tasks requiringverbal skills and that boys outperform girls ontasks using visual and spatial skills. Offers anexplanation for this situation based on left-brain/right-brain research. Concludes that thecurriculum in American schools is clearly left-brain biased.

Hauck, LaVerne S., Jr. "Differences in InformationMapping Strategies in Left and Right Brain Learn-ers." Paper presented at the Annual Meeting ofthe American Vocational Association, 1985. 9 p.[ED 270 474]

Describes research on the Information Map-ping technique which was used to present alearning packet; its usefulness in helping right-brain cerelwally dominant students to achievethe same level of subject mastery as their left-brain counterparts was examined.

Bohning, Gerry; Read, Donna. 'Selected SymposiumSummaries, 21st Annual Conference of the FloridaReading Association, 1983." Florida EducationalResearch and Development Council Bulletin, v17n4 Spr 1984. 56 p. [ED 253 864]

Eight papers summarized in this collectionwere drawn from a 1983 conference symposiumdesigned to expand and disseminate increasedunderstanding about reading and its instruction.One paper focuses on what research says to thereading teacher about left brain/right brain mo-dality preference.

Dombrower, Jule; and others. "The Criterion-RelatedValidity of Two Tests Hypothesized to RepresentLeft Brain and Right Brain Function for a Group ofElementary School Children," Educdtional and Psy-chological Measurement, v42 n3 p927-33 Fall1982.

Investigates the concurrent and postdictivevalidity of two newly-devised tests of contrast-ing hemispheric function (Test of Right Hemi-sphere Ability, Test of Left Hemisphere Ability)relative to scores earned on the reading andmathematics portions of the ComprehensiveTests of Basic Skills.

4 c.

Left Brain/Right Brain: Research and Learning

Program and Curriculum ApplicationThomas, Yvonne A.; Thomas, Stephen B. "Cerebral

Lateralization and Its Effect on Drawing," Educa-tion, v104 n1 p47-50 Fall 1983.

Discusses the importance of both sides of thebrain for the development of drawing skills butnotes that the left brain can inhibit the action ofthe right brain. Provides a discussion of cerebrallateralization and child development. Suggestsfive drawing exercises to help develop hemi-spheric cooperation.

Badian, Nathlie A. "Nonverbal Disorders of Learning:The Reverse of Dyslexia?" Annals of Dyslexia, v36p253-69 1986.

Teacher perceptions of the social-behavioralcharacteristics of 99 boys (aged 7-14) identifiedby their nonverbal learning abilities found thatlow nonverbal bubjects showed good left-brainfunctioning, good reading, poor right-brain func-tioning, poor arithmetic skills, low motivation,poor work habits, disorganizatiGn, and poor rela-tionship with peers.

Stein, Harry. "Visualized Notemaking: Left-RightBrain Theory Applied in the Classroom," SocialStudies, v78 n4 pl 63-68 Jul-Aug 1987.

Encourages visual notetaking to help studentsimprove learning. Emphasizes that when stu-dents use verbal and visual cues, the entire brainis called to action. Specific examples of notetak-ing such as "T-line," "Stickperson," and "Starmodels" are illustrated.

Blake, William E. "Science and Creative Writing: AnAd(d)verse Relationship?"Science Teacher, v50 n9p30-33 Dec 1983.

Suggests integrating creative writing activitiesinto field trips or outdoor education experiencesin science as a method of providing "right-brain"and "left-brain" activities in the same exercise.Provides instructions given to students and a

poem written from student "photographs" usingimaginary cameras.

Yellin, David. "Left Brain, Right Brain, Super Brain: TheHolistic Model," Reading World, v23 n1 p36-44Oct 1983.

Argues that, despite nearly three decades ofresearch into cognitive processes that hasyielded a great deal of information about howhumans learn, little of this research has found itsway into classroom application. Suggests waysthat a holistic approach to education can im-prove student cognitive performance.

Wess, Robert C. "Creativity and Composing: TheComposition Teacher as Student," Teaching En-glish in the Two Year College, v12 n3 p191-97Oct 1985.

Proposes that teachers use their own writingas a teaching tool. Discusses both the left-brainlogical, rational approach and the right-brain in-tuitive approach to invention and states that incomposing their own methods and materials,instructors can stress both patterns of creativityby illustrating how each complements the other.

Steinley, Gary. "Left Brain/Right Brain: More of theSame?" Language Arts, v60 n4 p459-62 Apr 1983.

Suggests several activities designed to stimu-late both the right and left sides of the brainwhen students are reading literary texts.

Lewallen, Martha. An Annotated Bibliography of theLiterature Dealing with the Incorporation of Right-Brain Learning into Left-Brain-Oriented Schools.Exit Project, Indiana Un:versity at South Bend, Indi-ana, 1985. 52 p. [ED 258 722]

Articles and documents concerning braingrowth and hemispheric specialization, theoriesof cognitive style, educational implications ofbrain research, and right-brain learning activitiesare cited in this annotated bibliography. Cita-tions are preceded by a glossary of terms andfollowed by a brief review of the assembled liter-ature. Thirteen classroom techniques for stimu-lating the right brain are listed and brieflydescribed.

Struve, Nancy. The Beautiful Brain: A Unit for Grades5-9 with Further Explorations for Gifted and Tal-ented. Area Education Agency 7, Cedar Falls, IA.,1982. 62 p. [ED 244 430]

Provides information on the study of thehuman brain for students in grades 5-9, withsuggestions for extending the lessons for giftedand talented students. This document is part of acollection of materials from the Iowa Area Edu-cation Agency 7 Teacher Center Project.

Huck, Sharon; Rosenblum, Eileen. "Innovations in ESLCurriculum Design: Kindergarten through Grade12." Paper presented at the 4th Annual Confer-ence of the Northern Regional Chapter of IllinoisTeachers of English as a Second Language/Bilin-gual Education, 1982. 30 p. [ED 232 466]

A proposed approach to English as a secondlanguage (ESL) curriculum design for kindergar-ten through grade 12 is based on Bloom's taxon-omy and McCarthy's four learning styles forright/left-brain learning.

4 1 43

Stahl-Gemake, Josephine; And Others. "The RightBrain: An Active Partner in Written Literacy."Paper presented at the 4th Annual Meeting of theEastern Regional Conference of the InternationalReading Association, 1982. 17 p. [ED 228 610]

Describes a graphic configuration called a"web," a visual-spatial network with nodes andemanating lines representing the connectionsamong ideas in our mind, which has been devel-oped to provide reading and writing activitiesthat integrate the processing power of bothhemispheres. Webs have been used to help stu-dents visualize how new information fits into

44

Left Brain/Right Brain: Research and Learning

their existing cognitive framework, to promoteprediction of story events, to serve as advancedorganizers for disabled readers, and to provide ameans to build vocabulary.

Rubin, Janet E. "Back to Basics through Creative Dra-matics." (1978) 9 p. [ED 219 769]

Argues for the continued use of creative dra-matics in the English classroom because it helpsto develop the entire child. The effects of cre-ative dramatics on both left- and right-brainlearning proves that it is a sound educationaltechnique.

tcl'

ERIC/RCS

FERICI

JOIA,A Profile

Clearinghouse on Reading and Communication SkillsIndiana UniversitySmith Research Center, Suite 150Bloomington, IN 47408-2698(812) 855-5847

ERIC/RCSClearinghouse on

Reading and Communication Skills

THE ERIC NETWORKERIC, the Educational Resources Information Centersponsored by the Office of Educational Research andImprovement of the U.S. Department of Education, is anational educational information system designed to dothe following:

MAKE AVAILABLE hard-to-find educational materials,such as research reports, literature reviews, curriculumguides, conference papers, projects or program reviews,and government reports.

ANNOUNCE these materials in Resources in Education(RIE), a monthly journal containing abstracts of each item.

PUBLISH annotations of joumal articles in Current Indexto Journals in Education (CUE), a monthly guide to currenteducational periodicals.

PREPARE magnetic tapes (available by subscription) ofthe ERIC database (RIE and CUE) for compoter retrieval.

CREATE products that analyze and synthesizeeducational information.

PROVIDE a question-answering service.

Most of the educational material announced in RIE maybe seen on microfiche in one of the more than 700educational institutions (college and university libraries;local, state, and federal agencies; and not-for-profitorganizations) that have complete ERIC collections. It canalso be purchased from the ERIC Document ReproductionService (EDRS) on microfiche, a 4" x 6" microfilm cardcontaining up to 96 pages of text; or paper copy, aphotographically reproduced copy.

Journal articles announced in CUE are not availablethrough ERIC, but can be obtained from a local librarycollection, from the publisher, or from UniversityMicrofilms International.

ERIC/RCSWhere would you go to find the following kinds ofinformation?

Suggested activities and instructional materials to teachelementary school students listening skills.

Instruction in writing that focuses on the writing process.

A list of suggestions for parent involvement in readinginstruction.

Your answer should include the ERIC Clearinghouse onReading and Communication Skills (ERIC/RCS). Eachyear ERIC/RCS helps thousands of people find usefulinformation related to education in reading, English,journalism, theater, speech and mass communications.While we cannot meet every educational informationneed, anyone with a strong interest in or involvement withteaching communication skills should look to ERIC/RCSas a valuable resource.

The ERIC/RCS Clearinghouse is now located at IndianaUniversity, in Bloomington, Indiana.

Wiite or call ERIC/RCS for the following information:How to submit material for inclusion in the ERICdatabase.

How to conduct manual or computer searches of theERIC database.

Where to get an ERIC computer search.

Which organizations and institutions near you haveERIC microfiche collections.

To obtain a list of ERIC/RCS publications.

ERIC/RCS PUBLICATIONSThese publications represent a low-cost way to build yourown personal educational library and are an excellentaddition to a school professional library. They are theresults of the clearinghouse's efforts to analyze andsynthesize the literature of education into researchreviews, state-of-the-at: studies, interpretive reports ontopics of current interest, and booklets presentingreseorch and theory plus related practical activities for theclassroom teacher.

ERIC/RCS FAST BIBS (Focused Access to SelectedTopics): abstracts or annotations from 20-30 sources inthe ERIC database.

ERIC/RCS NEWSLETTERS concerning clearinghouseactivities and publications, featuring noteworthy articlesfor communication skills educators.

4 3 45

ERIC DIGESTS with information and references on topicsof current interest.

ERIC/RCS SERVICESAs part of its effort to provide the latest information oneducation research and practice, ERIC/RCS offers thefollowing services:

Question-answering, a major clearinghouse priorityalong with processing documents and producingpublications.

ERIC orientation workshops ot local, regional, andnational levels, at cost.

Multiple copies of ERIC/RCS no-cost publications forworkshop distribution.

Clearinghouse-sponsored sessions at professionalmeetings on timely topics in reading andcommunication skills.

Customized computer searches of the ERIC database.(The charge for this service is $30 for the first 50citations.)

ERIC COMPONENTS

ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational EducationOhio Stale UniversityCenter on Education and Training for Employment1900 Kenny RoodColumbus, OH 43210-1090(614) 292-4353(800) 848-4815

ERIC Clearinghouse on Counseling and Personnel ServicesUniversity of MichiganSchool of Education, Room 2108610 East University StreetAnn Arbor, MI 48109-1259(313) 764-9492

ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational ManagementUniversity of Oregon1787 Agate StreetEugene, OR 97403-5207(503) 346-5043

ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood EducationUniversity of IlrloisCollege of Education805 West Pennsylvania AvenueUrbana, IL 61801-4897(217) 333-1386

ERIC Clearinghouse on Handicapped and Gifted ChildrenCouncil for Exceptional Children1920 Association DriveReston, VA 22091-1589(703) 620-3660

ERIC Clearinghouse on Higher EducationGeorge Washington UniversityOne Dupont Gird., NW.Suite 630Woshirgion, DC 20036-1183(202) 296 2597

ERIC Clearinghouse on Information ResourcesSyracuse UniversityHuntington Hall, Room 030150 Marshall StreetSyracuse, NY 13244-2340(315) -443-3640

46

ERIC Clearinghouse for Junior CollegesUniversity of California at Los AngelesMath-Sciences BuBding, Room 8118405 Hilgard AvenueLos Angeles, CA 90024-1564(213) 825-3931

ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistic.Center for Applied Linguistics1118 22nd Street, N.WWashington, DC 20037-0037(202) 429-9551

ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading and Communication SkillsIndiana Uriversity, Smith Research Center2805 East 10th Street, Suite 150Bloomington, IN 47408-2698(812) 855-5E147

ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small SchoolsAppalachia Educational Laboratory1031 Ouarrier StreetP O. Box 1348Charleston, W 25325-1348(800) 624-9120 (Outside WV)(800) 344-6646 (In WV)

ERIC Clearinghouse for Science, Mathematics, and EnvironmentalEducationOhio State University1200 Chambers Rood, Room 310Columbus, OH 43212-1792(614) 292-6717

ERIC Clearinghouse for Social Studies/Social Science EducationIndiana UniversitySocial Studies Development Center2805 East 10th Street, Suite 120Bloomington, IN 47408-2698(812) 855-3838

ERIC Clearinghouse on Teacher EducationAmerican Association of Colleges for Teacher EducationOne Dupont Circle, N.W, Suite 610Washington, DC 20036-2412(202) 2912450

ERIC Clearinghouse on Tests, Measurement and EvaluationAmerican Institutes for Research (AIR)Washington Research Center3333 K Street., N.W.Washington, DC 20007-3541(202) 342-5060

ERIC Clearinghouse on Urban EducationTeachers College, Columbia UniversityInstitute for Urbon ond Minority EducationMoin Hall, Room 300, Box 40525 W. 120th StreetNew York, NY 10027-9998(212) 678-3433

ERIC ProoessIng and Reference FacilityARC Professional Services GroupInformation Systems Division2440 Research Boulevard., Suite 400Rodcville, MD 20850-3238(301) 258-5500

ERIC Document Reproduction Service (EDRS)Cincinnati Bell Information Systems (CBIS) Federal7420 Fullerton Rood, Suite 110Springfield, VA 22153-2852(oo) 443-ER1C (3742)

ACCESS ERICAspen Systems Corporation1600 Research BoulevardRockvik, MD 20850

ERIC/RCS

IERICr

ANI

ComputerSearch Service

Clearinghouse on Reading and Communication SkillsIndiana UniversitySmith Research Center, Suite 150Bloomington, IN 47408-2698(812) 855-5847

WOULD YOU LIKE EASY ACCESS TOEDUCATIONAL INFORMATION?If you are involved in graduate studies, developingand evaluating programs or curricula, designing anew course or revamping an old one, writing a report,or any of countless other projects in the areas ofreading, English, journalism, speech, or drama, thenyou already know how important it is to locate and usethe most relevant and current resources. And if youhave not been using ERIC, you have been missing alot, simply because many resources in the ERICdatabase are not available anywhere else.

These resources cover all arecw of education, includingresearch reports, case studies, bibliographies, surveys,government reports, curriculum guides, teachingguides, program descriptions and evaluations,instructional materials, course descriptions, speeches,and conference reports.

Currently about 700,000 document abstracts andjournal article annotations make up the ERICdatabase, which grows at the rate of approximately30,000 entries per year. In order to make theseresources more accessib' to you, the ERICClearinghouse on Reading and Communication Skillsoffers a computerized database search service.

WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWE ii ACOMPUTER SEARCH AND A MANUAL SEARCH?

The computer is much faster and far more efficient.Some highly complex searches that a computer can doin minutes would be virtually impossible for a personto do using the ERIC indexes Resources in Educationand Current Index to Journals in Education. Thecomputer offers the opportunity to search underseveral index terms at the same time

HOW DOES A COMPUTER SEARCH WORK?

ERIC usea a coordinate indexing system, with eachdocument indexed under as many as 12 index terms,

or "descriptors." These descriptors identify theeducational level and content areas of a document. Acomputer search involves combining the descriptorsfor the specific search question into a searchstatement, which is then entered into the computer.Those documents that meet the requirements of thesearch statement are retrieved.

WHAT DO I GET?

You receive a printout of ERIC references that includecomplete bibliographic citations, annotations ofjournal articles, and 150- to 250-word abstracts ofdocuments on your topic.

WHAT DOES IT COST?

The minimum charge for a customized computersearch is $30 for up to 50 journal citations and/ordocument abstracts, plus $.10 for each additionalreference. This fee includes handling and mailing. Youwill be billed for the cost upon completion of thesearch.

HOW LONG DOES IT TAKE?

Generally, the time from our receipt of your request toyour receipt of the printout is two weeks.

WHAT DO I HAVE TO DO?

No prior knowledge of computers or computersearching is necessary. A member of our staff can helpyou define your search question. Our knowledge ofthe ERIC database, especially in the areas of readingand the other English language arts, can be animportant aid in developing a successful search.

If you would like our clearinghouse to run a computersearch on a topic of your choice, fill out and return theattached order form. If your question needs furtherclarification, a member of our staff will call you beforeconducting the search.

4 547

COMPUTER SEARCH SERVICE ORDER FORM

Name

Position

Organization

Street

City State

Zip Phone

Purpose of search:

Education level

Format (circle one):

Research reports Journal citations only

Practical applications Document abstracts onlyBoth Both

Known authority in field (if any)

Possible key words or phrases:

Restrictions: Year(s)

Monetary

Statement of search question:

4

48

ER/C/R CS

I ER IC I

ERIC in Print

Clearinghouse on Reading and Communizition SkillsIndiana UniversitySmith Research Center, Suite 150Bloomington, IN 47408-269E(812) 855-5847

Searching ERIC in PrintERIC (the Educational Resources Information Center) isan information resource designed to make educationalliterature easily accessible through two monthlybibliographic pubrications: Resources in Education (RIE)and Current Index to Journals in Education (CUE). Byfollowing the steps below, individuals can quickly locateliterature for their specific educational information needs.

1. Phrase Your Question as Precisely as Possible.Then list the key concepts of that question in asfew words or phrases as possible.

2. See If Your Indexing Terms are Listed in theThesaurus of ERIC Descriptors. If they are listed,look for other descriptors that come close tomatching your terms. To help you in thisprocedure most descriptors are listed with adisplay of cross-references to other descriptors,including narrower terms (NT); broader terms(BT); and related terms (RT) within the same areaof classification.

3. Go to the Subject Index Sections of the Monthly,Seminannual, or Annual Issues of RIE. Readthe titles listed under the descriptors you havechosen and note the six-digit ED (ERIC Document)numbers for those documents that seemappropriate for your information needs.

4. Locate and Read the Abstracts of TheseDocuments in the Main Entry Sections of theMonthly RIEs. Main entries are listed consecutivelyby ED number.

5. To Find the Complete Text of the Document,First Examine the Abstract to See if It Has anEDRS Price. If it does, the document is availableboth in ERIC microfiche collections (which areowned by over 700 libraries nationwide) andthrough the ERIC Document Reproduction Service(EDRS) in Virginia. EDRS ordering information isgiven in the back of every RIE. If the document isnot availoble through EDRS, it is due to copyrightrestrictions placed on the document by its authoror publialer. In these cases, ordering informationwill be given in the document abstract in a notelabeled "available from."

6. If You Have Trouble With Your Search (e.g., thedocuments are not exactly what you want or youfind no documents), return to steps one and two,checking your search terms. You also may wont to

ask your librarian for assistance in identifyingdescriptors.

If you want to expand your search to include journalarticles, use CUE in addition to RIE. Remember, however,that copies of journal articles are not available fromEDRS. If you want to read the complete article, you mustobtain the journal from a local library, the publisher, orUniversity Microfilms International.

A. A kindergarten teacher has been asked by some ofhis neigf bore who have preschoolers if there isanything they can do at home to help theirchildren get ready for writing in school. Theteacher decides that the key concept involved isWriting Readiness.

B. The teacher checks that term in the ERIC Thesaurusat a nearby university library and finds it listed.

C. Selecting one of the library's volumes of RIE, in thiscase the January-June 1988 semiannual index,the teacher finds the following documents in thesubject index:

Writing ReadinessChildren's Names: Landmarks for Literacy?

ED 290 171Integrating Reading and Writing Instruction at the

Primary level. ED 286 158Sister and Brother Writing Interplay.

ED 285 176Writing Begins at Home: Preparing Children for

Writing before They Go to School.ED 285 207

D. ED 285 207 Looks like an appropriate resource, sothe teacher finds that ED number in a monthlyissue of RIE "January 1988" in the documentresume section:

4

ED 285 207 CS 210 790

Clay, MarieWriting Begins at Home; Preparing Children for

Writing before They Go to School-Report No.JSBN-0-435-08452-6Pub Date_87Note_64p.Available from_Heinemann Educational Books Inc.,

70 Court St., Portsmouth, NH 03801 ($12.50)Pub type_Books (010) - Guides - Non-Classroom

(055)

49

Document Not Available from EDRS.Descriptors_Case Studies, Family Environment,

Language Acquisition, *Parent ChildRelationship, Parent Participaticrt, Parent Role,'Preschool Children, Preschowi Education,Psychomotor Skills, Reading WritingRelationship, Writinf; Exercises, 'WritingReadiness, 'Written Language

Identifiers2Childrens Witing, 'Emergent Literacy,Writing Attitudes

Intended for parents of preschoolers, thisbook offers samples of children's writing(defined as the funny signs and symbols thatpencils make) and attempts to show how parentscan support and expand children's discovery ofprinted language before children begin school.Each of the eight chapters contains numerousexamples of young chikiren's drawing andprinting, as well as helpful comments andpractical considerations to orient parents. Thechapters are entitled: (1) Getting in Touch; (2)Exploration and Discoveries; (3) I Want to Recorda Message; (4) Ws Follow Sally Ann's Progress;(5) Individual Differences at School Entry; (6)How Can a Parent Helot; (7) The Child atSchool; and (8) Let Your Child Read. (Referencesand a list of complementary publications areattached.) (NKA)

E. The teacher notes the price and orderinginformation for his neighbors. The teacher canthen select other RIE documents to review fromother volumes of the RIE index, or check CUE forjournal articles on writing readiness.

KEYS TO USING ERIC

Thesaurus of ERIC DescriptorsThe ERIC Thesaurus is the key to a search of the ERICdatabase, with approximately 10,000 terms andcross-references in the fields of education. Scope notesserve as definitions for most descriptors. Each documentin the ERIC system is assigned several descriptors fromthe Thesaurus that indicate the essential content of thedocument. Once you have familiarized yourself withERIC's descriptors and the Thesaurus, you have putthousands of pages of educational materials at yourfingertips.

Resources in Education (RIE)

This publication prints the abstracts of documentsprocessed and indexed for the ERIC system. About 1000abstracts from ERIC Clearinghouses appear each month,

50

arranged by ED number in the main entry section of RIE.In additi Ito the main entry section, each volume of RIEcontains three indexes. Document titles are listed bysubject (descriptor term), author, and institution. Unlessotherwise noted, copies of documents abstracted in RIEare available from the ERIC Document ReproductionService.

Current Index to Journals in Education (CUE)This ERIC publication dinIcts you to educational articlesfrom over 800 educational journals. Annotationsdescribing over 1400 articles each month are arrangedin the main entry section of CUE according to El (ERICJournal) number and are listed in subject, author, andjournal indexes. Copies of journal articles annotated inCUE are not available from the ERIC DocumentReproduction Service but may be obtained from locall.brary collections, from the publisher, or (in most cases)from University Microfilms International.

Semiannual and annual issues of RIE and CUEconsolidate the monthly subject, author, and institutionindexes.

COMPUTER SEARCHES

Over 900 organizations across the nation, including theindividual ERIC Clearinghouses, provide co nputerizedsearches of the ERIC database. The searchstrategyselecting the key descriptors and scanning thedocuments under those subject headingsis the same asfor manual searching. The differences are in time andcost. When you search by computer, you can combineseveral terms instantaneously for any or all issues ofRIE/CLIE; in effect, you thumb through more than 200issues of RIE at once. Costs for these services vary; whilesome institutions offer computer searches at no cost toin-state educators, others may charge trom $5 to $300,depending upon the complexity and depth of the searchor the kind of feedback requested. Our Clearinghousecan assist you in developing computer search strategy,and can provide information about computer searchfacilities near you. No prior knowledge of computers orcomputer searching is necessary.

CUSTOMIZED SEARCHES AVAILABLE

Customized computer searches of the ERIC database willbe performed for you by the ERIC/RCS Clearinghouse, ifyou wish. The charge for this service is $30 for the first50 citations. If your search problem does not fall withinthe scope of ERIC/RCS, we will refer your question to oneof the other Clearinr,h-wses in the ERIC System, o; helpyou contact the opprupriate Clearinghouse directly.

ERIC/RCSSubmittingMaterial

Clearinghouse on Reading and Communication SkillsIndiana UniversitySmith Research Center, Suite 150Bloomington, IN 47408-2698(812) 85! ta47

WHY NOT SEND YOUR MATERIALTO ERIC/RCS?The ERIC system is always looking for high-qualityeducational documents to announce in Resources inEducation (RIE), ERIC's monthly index of documentabstracts. ERIC, Educational Resources InformationCenter, sponsored by the Office of EducationalResearch and Improvement of the U.S. Departmentof Education, is a national educational informationsystem designed to make available hard-to-findeducational materials (such as research reports,literature reviews, conference papers, curriculumguides, and other resource information). Through anetwork of clearinghouses, each of which focuses ona specific field in education, materials are acquired,evaluated, cataloged, indexed, abstracted, andannounced in RIE.

The Clearinghouse on Reading and CommunicationSkills is responsible for educational materials andinformation related to research, intlruction, andpersonnel preparation in such areas as Englishlanguage arts, reading, composition, literature,journalism, speech communication, theater anddrama, and the mass media.

ERIC relieves you of the need to maintain copies ofyour materials for distribution to people ororganizations requesting them, since documents canbe ordered individually in both microfiche and papercopy formats from the ERIC Document ReproductionService (EDRS) in Springfield, Virginia.

Dissemination through ERIC provides a wideaudience for your materials since there are morethan 700 ERIC microfiche collections throughout theworld. In addition, your material can be retrieved atthe more than 450 locations that provide computersearches of the ERIC database.

Because your documents are permanently indexedin RIE and on computer tape, ERIC serves anarchival function as well as keeping users informedof current theories and practices.

We depend on our network of volunteer contributorsto accomplish our goal of making informationreadily available to the educational community andto the general public.

HOW TO SUBMIT YOUR MATERIALPlease follow the guidelines listed below forpreparation of documents. Send two clean,dark-print copies, at least six pages in length, eitherin original or photocopied form to Coordinator ofDocuments, ERIC/RCS, 2805 East Tenth Street,Smith Research Center, Suite 150, Bloomington,Indiana 47408-2698.

Document Preparation. The following guidelinesare designed to ensure that documents will INlegible on microfiche and that readable copits willbe available to ERIC users:

Standard 8 1/2" x 11" white or light-tinted paperis preferred.

Double-spaced pages prin:ed on a laser printeror typed on a standard typewriter (pica or elite)photograph best. Dark-print dot-matrixcomputer printouts are acceptable.

Letters and line drawings must be unbroken andas black as possible. Very small or finely drawnletters, as well as photographs and edited copy,will not reproduce well.

Purple diftos and most colored pages will notphotograph clearly.

WHAT HAPPENS NEXT...To ensure its usefulness to the educationalcommunity, each document submitted is evaluatedfor quality and significance by one of approximately200 specialists from various universities and thefollowing professional organizations:

International Reading Association; Western CollegeReading Association; College Reading Association;National Reading Conference; North CentralReading Association; National Council of Teachersof English; Conference on College Composition and

51

Communication; Association for Education inJournalism and Mass Communication; JournalismEducation Association; and Speech CommunicationAssociation.

If your document is approved by the reviewers, it willbe indexed and an abstract of it will cgrear in RIE inapproximately three to four months. At the time ofissue you will be sent o complimentary microfiche ofyour material.

52

If you would like to know the disposition of yourdocument please include a riamped, self-addressedenvelope.

The indusion of your document in the ERICdatabase in no way affects your copyright oryour right to oubmit it for publication elsewhere.Your document will not be edited but willappear in its entirety.

r,

Books on CRITICAL THINKING from ERIC/RCS

...for use in the classroom

Critical Thinking Reading and Writingby Mary Morgan and Michael Shermis (T03; $12.95)

Lesson plans for classroom use by teachers that encourage critically reflective, inventive thinking. Thesetried and tested lessons have been selected from among the thousands reported in the ERIC database andredesigned for maximum effectiveness. Lessons applicable at both the elementary and secondary levels in-volve students in role playing information analysis, problem solving journal writing Whole Language analy-sis of literature, categorization and analogy, and much more.

...for use in your study

Critical Thinking: A Semiotic Perspective,by Marjorie Siegel and Robert F. Carey (G01; $6.95)

Critical Thinking and Reading: Empowering Learners to Think and Act,by Allan R. Neilsen (G02; $6.95)

Critical Thinking and Writing: Reclaiming the Essay,by Thomas Newkirk (G03; $6.95)

This is a Critical Thinking scries that roots and grounds the language-arts educator solidly in an intellectualtradition that upholds schoolteaching as an endeavor to hone growing minds to a keen edge. Siegel andCarey draw on the thought of C.S. Peirce; Neilsen draws on the thought of John Dewey; Newkirk draws onthe thought of Michel de Montaigneall of them stimulate a higher order of thinking and teaching, readingand writing, critical reflection and language mastery. Series editor, Jerome C. Harste; copublished withNCTE.

...for use in your mind

A Commitment to Critical Thinking,by Carl B. Smith (G24; $9.95)

"Critical Thinking" is a good idea and a bit of a buzz word. How do we get beyond talking about it to actu-ally getting our students to do it? Carl ;:mith, Director of ERIC/RCS, enables schoolteachers to see throughthe theories, and actually to "engage their students in the daily exercise of critical reading." A section on"the art of questioning" shows you how to be a Socrates in your classroom. Smith explores Critical Thinkingas a social process, documents the changing philosophies that underlie the enterprise, and supplies manypages of amusing. practical, and provocative activities that work in the classroom. The 30-page annotatedbibliography on Critical Thinking is the best on the subject.

53

Order Form

ship to:

name

address

city/state/zip phone ( )

Item No. Qty. Abbreviated This Price Total Cost

001 Critical Thinking: A Semiotic Perspective $6.95_

002 Crkical Thinking and Reading: EmpoweringLearners to Think and Act

$6.95

003 Critical Thinking and Writing: Reclaiming theEssay

$6.95

-

G24 A Commitment to Critical Thinking $9.95

T03 Critical Thinking, Reading, and Writing $12.95

Subtotal

Minimum order $5.00 Plus Postage and Handling

TOTAL Purchase

method of payment:

C3 check 0 money order

C3 P. O. #

C-.) MasterCard 0 VISA

cardholder

card no.

expiration date

Make checks payable to ERIC/RCS.

Send order form to:ERIC/RCS

Indiana University2805 E 10th Street, Suite 150Bloomington, IN 47408-2698

Phone: (812) 855-3847Fax: (812) 855-7901

54

Order Subtotal Postage and Handling

$5.00410.00 $2.00

S10.01425.00 $3.00

$25.01450.00 $4.00

$50.01 -$75.00 $5.00

$75.01-$100.00 $6.00

$100.01-$125.00 $7.00

$125.01-$150.00 $3.00

over $150.00 $9.00