Edexcel IGCSE History

Option C8: The Changing Nature of

Warfare c1936-c2003

Student Notes

By Steve Waugh, Chief Examiner

© Edexcel 2010

Chapter 1: Warfare at the end of the First World War

The First World War brought about import ant changes in land and sea warfare as wel l as

t he st art of air warfare.

Land warfare

The failure of t he German Schl ief fen Plan in 1914 led t o t rench warfare on t he West ern

Front which last ed for over t hree years. This was a period of st at ic warfare as of fensives

by bot h sides fai led t o achieve a breakt hrough because defences were t oo st rong.

Nevert heless, t his st alemat e encouraged t he development of new weapons which it was

hoped would achieve a breakt hrough.

New weapon

Development and use

How effective

Art i l lery Huge f ield guns had been

developed before t he First World

War. During t he war t hey were

used t o bombard t he enemy

t renches, of t en as a sof t ening up

process before an at t ack. One

example was t he Somme, 1916,

when t he Brit ish bombarded t he

German t renches before t hey

launched t heir of fensive.

The bombardment was not always

accurat e, of t en fai led t o dest roy t he

barbed wire prot ect ing t he t renches,

creat ed huge crat ers in no-man’ s

land, and warned t he enemy of an

imminent at t ack. During t he Somme,

t he Brit ish developed a new t act ic,

t he creeping barrage, which

combined an art i l lery and infant ry

at t ack.

Gas Poisonous chlorine gas was f irst

used by t he Germans against t he

Brit ish at t he Second Bat t le of

Ypres, Apri l 1915. In 1917, t he

Germans used an even more

deadly gas, must ard gas, which

had a perfumed smell and

burned, bl inded and slowly ki l led

t he vict im over four or f ive

weeks.

The main ef fect was psychological

because soldiers on bot h sides l ived

in fear of a gas at t ack. In fact only

3,000 Brit ish t roops act ual ly died

f rom t he ef fect s of gas. It was less

ef fect ive because bot h sides

developed gas masks whilst , in t he

last year of t he war, t he Germans

ran short of t he chemicals needed t o

manufact ure t he gas.

Tanks These were developed by t he

Brit ish t o t ry t o achieve a

breakt hrough. They were f irst

used during t he Bat t le of t he

Somme, 1916, when t hey crashed

t heir way t hrough t he German

t renches. However, t hey were

very slow and many broke down.

They were used t o much great er

ef fect at Cambrai, November

1917, when t hey achieved a

breakt hrough and as a bat t ering

ram for t he Al l ied of fensives of

1918.

The most signif icant new weapon

which was t o have long last ing

signif icance for land warfare. They

provided a psychological boost for

Brit ish t roops and were able t o blast

t heir way t hrough enemy l ines.

However t hey had a l imit ed impact

on t he First World War. Only in 1918

were t hey used correct ly as a

bat t ering ram support ed by t he

infant ry. Moreover, by 1918 t he

Germans had developed armour-

piercing machine-gun bul let s and

had adapt ed f ield-guns t o f ire at

t anks which were easy t arget s.

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Sea warfare

During t he First World War t he Brit ish navy imposed a long-range blockade of Germany and

t he German navy. The only maj or surface sea bat t le t ook place at Jut land in May 1916

when t he German f leet t r ied t o break t he Brit ish blockade. Alt hough t he Brit ish suf fered

heavier losses, t he German f leet f led t he bat t le and remained in port for t he rest of t he

war.

U-boats

Brit ish cont rol on t he surface, forced t he Germans t o use a dif ferent met hod of sea

warfare, t he submarine or U-boat . Submarines had been developed before t he First World

War but were used in a dif ferent way by t he Germans: t o t ry t o st arve Brit ain out t he war

by unrest r ict ed warfare, sinking as many ships as possible t rading wit h Brit ain. They

almost succeeded. By June 1917, Brit ain had lost 500,000 t ons of shipping t o t he U-boat s

and, at one point , i t was est imat ed t hat London had only six week’ s supply of food lef t .

Anti-U-boat measures

The Brit ish used a variet y of met hods t o deal wit h t he U-boat t hreat

Method

Key features

Effectiveness

Q-boat s These were f irst used in 1915. It

looked l ike a harmless merchant ship

but i t carried powerful but hidden

guns. When a U-boat surfaced t o

search t he ship, t he guns would shel l

t he submarine.

By 1918, 200 Q ships had sank

14 U-boat s at a cost of 27 Q

ships. U-boat s event ual ly

st opped surfacing.

Convoy

syst em

Int roduced in May 1917. Merchant

ships would t ravel in large numbers

under t he prot ect ion of naval

dest royers f i t t ed wit h hydrophones

and dept h charges.

By June 1918, 16,539 ships

had sailed in convoys and

only 154 were t orpedoed. In

addit ion many more U-boat s

were sunk at t acking convoys.

Raids on U-

boat bases

In early 1918 t he Brit ish at t empt ed

t o block of f t he U-boat bases at

Ost end and Zeebrugge by sinking

block ships at t he harbour ent rances.

These t wo at t acks had very

l imit ed success and did not

complet ely block of f t he t wo

port s.

Hydrophones Some ships, especial ly dest royers,

were f i t t ed wit h hydrophones or

l ist ening devices. An operat or wit h

headphones could hear a nearby

submarine engine.

Very ef fect ive in convoy

syst em alt hough not always

successful in det ect ing U-

boat s.

Air warfare

This saw t he great est changes in warfare. When war broke out in 1914, aeroplanes were

st i l l undeveloped. Aircraf t were mainly used for reconnaissance. By 1918 dif ferent aircraf t

had been developed including f ight er planes and bombers. However, air warfare was st i l l

seen as a side show t o land and sea warfare.

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Zeppelins

These were huge airships used by t he Germans as bombers. The f irst raids hit Brit ish t owns

in early 1915 and had a psychological ef fect on Brit ish civi l ians who no longer fel t safe

f rom t he enemy. For t he f irst t ime, civi l ians were direct ly under t hreat f rom t he enemy.

However, t he Zeppel ins had l imit ed impact :

• They could not carry enough bombs t o cause serious damage.

• The Brit ish government pul led back f ight er planes t o defend Brit ain against t hese at t acks whilst explosive bul let s were used t o set t he hydrogen on f ire.

• Of t he 130 Zeppel ins used by t he Germans, 7 were lost t o bad weat her, 38 were lost in accident s and 39 were shot down by t he Brit ish.

Bomber planes

The development of bomber aeroplanes was of much great er signif icance. By 1917, t he

Germans had developed t he f irst ef fect ive bomber, t he Got ha, which carried out a few

raids on Brit ain, especial ly London. The biggest Got ha raid was on t he night of 19 May

1918, when 38 Got has bombed London. However, t he Germans suf fered heavy losses

wit h six Got has shot down by int ercept ors and ant i-aircraf t f ire. Af t er t his raid, Got has

were rest r ict ed t o t act ical raids along t he West ern Front .

Similarly, Brit ain developed t he huge Handley Page which was capable of bombing Berl in

but never got t he chance t o do so. Alt hough of l i t t le import ance in t he out come of t he

First World, t he Germans had shown t he pot ent ial for using aircraf t t o bomb enemy

civi l ians and cause psychological as wel l as physical damage.

Fighter planes

The Germans made t he f irst advances when t hey developed an aircraf t in which machine

guns could f ire bet ween t he propel ler blades. This t urned t he aircraf t int o a f ight ing

machine. Fight er planes were used t o at t ack enemy t renches and support of fensives by

bot h sides. Moreover, t he f ight er aces on bot h sides t ook part in aerial combat above t he

t renches wit h t he most famous being Baron von Richt hofen or t he Red Baron.

 

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Chapter 2: Changing methods of land warfare

There were considerable changes in land warfare during and af t er t he Second World War,

as t he t ank made warfare became more mobile whilst t he conf l ict in Viet nam highl ight ed

t he ef fect iveness of guerri l la t act ics.

Developments during the Second World War

The st at ic warfare on t he West ern Front , 1914-18, gave way t o much more mobile t act ics

known as Bl i t zkrieg.

Blitzkrieg

This was a new met hod of warfare which was developed by Hit ler. It meant ‘ l ight ning war’

and was devised t o achieve a quick vict ory and avoid t he deadlock experienced on t he

West ern Front during t he First World War. Bl it zkrieg used shock t act ics wit h t he aim being

t o paralyse t he enemy by a devast at ing use of t he most up-t o-dat e t echnology.

Airpower was used to bomb enemy airfields and communications and slow down their

reactions to Blitzkrieg

↓ 

The Germans deliberately attacked a weak spot in the enemy defences

↓ 

This attack was carried out with maximum force and speed by motorised vehicles,

tanks and air power, especially dive bombers known as Stukas

↓ 

The attack was co-ordinated by radio communications as they pushed deep into enemy

territory

↓ 

Reinforcements would then follow the advance forces and take secure hold of the

territory which had been captured

© Edexcel 2010

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The success of Blitzkrieg 1939-40

Event

Key features

Reason for success

Poland

Sept ember

1939

On 1 Sept ember 1939, Germany

invaded Poland using Bl it zkrieg

t act ics. Pol ish air f ields were

bombed and t he air force was

dest royed before it could get of f

t he ground. Wit hin t wo days t he

f irst l ines of Pol ish defences had

been breached and f ive days lat er

Danzig was capt ured. Warsaw

surrendered on 28 Sept ember af t er

several days of severe bombing.

More t han 200,000 Pol ish t roops

were capt ured.

• Poland was also invaded f rom t he East on t he 17 Sept ember

by t he Soviet Union.

• The Poles received no help f rom Brit ain and France who

fel t i t was t oo far away.

• They were t aken surprise by t act ics which had never been

used before.

• The Poles had t o defend a long f ront ier of 500 miles and it was

easy for t he Germans t o

ident ify and at t ack weak spot s.

Low

Count ries

and France

May 1940

On 10 May t he Germans at t acked

Belgium and Hol land. Bot h

count ries were no mat ch for t he

Germans. It t ook f ive days t o

defeat Hol land, who surrendered

af t er a huge bombing raid on

Rot t erdam. On 12 May German

armies invaded France t hrough t he

wooded area known as t he

Ardennes. German armies quickly

crossed t he River Meuse and

out f lanked t he Brit ish and French

armies. By 20 May, huge numbers

of Brit ish and French soldiers found

t hemselves cut of f f rom t he rest of

t heir forces. Fight ing cont inued in

France for anot her four weeks

unt i l , on 21 June, t he French

surrendered.

• The Brit ish and French had made no preparat ions t o deal

wit h Maginot despit e t he

lessons of Poland. Indeed

during t he so-cal led ‘ Phoney

War’ period of Sept ember

1939-April 1940, t hey remained

on t he defensive.

• The French did not expect t he Germans t o at t ack t hrough t he

Ardennes because t his was a

heavily wooded area which

t hey bel ieved was unsuit able

for t anks. This area was weakly

defended.

• The speed of t he Bl it zkrieg at t ack t ook t he Brit ish and

French by surprise and enabled

t he Germans t o out f lank t he

Brit ish and French armies.

Dunkirk

May-June

1940

Brit ish and French forces ret reat ed

t o t he port of Dunkirk where t hey

were surrounded by t he German

armed forces. The Royal Navy and a

host of vessels ranging f rom yacht s

t o pleasure boat s and paddle

st eamers crossed t he Channel t o

rescue t he st randed t roops. The

evacuat ion began on 27 May and

last ed unt i l 4 June. Event ual ly

338,226 Brit ish and French t roops

were rescued, al t hough much

needed equipment including t anks

and f ield guns, had t o be lef t

behind.

• On 20 May Hit ler gave t he order t o halt t he t anks out side of

Dunkirk. He expect ed t he

Luf t waf fe t o complet e t he

dest ruct ion of t he Al l ied

forces. This al lowed t he Brit ish

a breat hing space.

• The RAF gave some prot ect ion t o t he t roops on t he beaches

before and during t he

evacuat ion and inf l ict ed heavy

losses on t he Luf t waf fe.

• The bravery of t he many ships and pleasure boat s t hat carried

out t he evaluat ion.

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Blitzkrieg in the Soviet Union, 1941-42

In June 1941, German forces invaded t he Soviet Union. Alt hough successful at f irst ,

Bl it zkrieg event ual ly fai led in Russia. It was a t hree pronged invasion wit h t he aim of

capt uring Leningrad in t he Nort h, Moscow in t he cent re and St al ingrad and t he rich oil

area of t he Caucasus t o t he Sout h. The German armies advanced rapidly wit h Soviet t roops

everywhere in ret reat . By Sept ember t hey were near t o Leningrad in t he Nort h and

Moscow in t he cent re. This early success was due t o several fact ors:

• The speed of t he German at t acks t ook Russia by surprise.

• St al in, t he Soviet leader, had made few preparat ions for such an invasion. He had seriously weakened t he leadership of his armed forces by removing senior of f icers

during his purges of t he lat e 1930s.

• The Luf t waf fe est abl ished cont rol of t he air and was able t o support t he German advances.

However, by lat e November t he German advance had halt ed, t heir armies had not

achieved t he capt ure of t heir principal t arget s, Leningrad, Moscow and St al ingrad and t he

Soviet armed forces had not been defeat ed. Bl it zkrieg did not succeed in t he Soviet Union

for several reasons:

• The invasion had been sanct ioned t oo lat e, June. There was not enough t ime t o achieve it s obj ect ives before t he onset of wint er. The delay was due t o event s in

t he Balkans where Hit ler had t o prop up his It al ian al ly, Mussol ini. Moreover,

Operat ion Barbarossa was t oo ambit ious wit h it s t hree-pronged at t ack dividing t he

German forces.

• St al in provided f irm leadership and ordered t he Soviet armies t o ret reat so t hey could f ight anot her day. During t his ret reat , t hey carried out t he scorched eart h

pol icy by which t hey dest royed al l resources which could be used by t he advancing

German armies.

• The most import ant reason was t he change in t he weat her condit ions in November 1941. Heavy rain dest royed t he already poor Russian road syst em and slowed down

t he advancing German armies. It was fol lowed by t he severe Russian wint er wit h

t emperat ures fal l ing below -30 degrees cent igrade. The German armed forces were

not equipped for such severe weat her condit ions and many died of f rost bit e.

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D-Day and after

This t ook place in June 1944, and was t he largest ever amphibious operat ion. It involved

al l t hree armed forces – t he air force, army and navy.

Preparations

The Brit ish and Americans had been

preparing for D-Day for t wo years.

• The Al l ies t ook count less aerial phot ographs of t he Normandy area

before deciding on t he most suit able

f ive beaches.

• Thousands of US t roops arrived in Brit ain and were t rained, t oget her wit h Brit ish

t roops, in landing on defended beaches.

• The Al l ies ensured air superiorit y by at t acking Luf t waf fe bases and t he

German aircraf t indust ry.

• To ensure t hat t hey could supply t he t housands of t roops t hat landed,

f loat ing harbours, cal led Mulberries,

were const ruct ed and an underwat er

pipel ine nicknamed PLUTO was creat ed

t o ensure a rapid supply of oil .

The landings

D-Day began on t he night of t he 5-6 June

when parat roopers and soldiers in gl iders

landed in Normandy t o dest roy

communicat ions and secure vit al bridges.

Almost 7,000 naval vessels assembled

crossed t he Channel carrying t roops which

landed on f ive beaches as early as 6.30 am:

• Brit ish and Canadian t roops on Gold, Juno and Sword.

• American t roops on Ut ah and Omaha.

By t he end of t he day t he Al l ies had landed

156,000 t roops wit h support ing mechanised

vehicles. Al l t he landings were

st raight forward and faced l i t t le opposit ion

wit h t he except ion of Omaha, where t he

Americans came up against a t op division of

t he German army, t here on a t raining

exercise. Alt hough t he beach was secured,

it was at a cost of 3,000 American

casualt ies.

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D-Day Landings: Reasons for success

There were several reasons for t he success

of t he landings:

• The Germans were slow t o react t o t he landings and send

reinforcement s because t hey were

convinced t hat i t was a decoy and

t he real landings would t ake place

near Calais.

• The invasion was wel l led by t he overal l commander-in-chief ,

Eisenhower who, al t hough American,

welded al l t he Al l ied t roops int o an

ef fect ive t eam.

• All ied bombing of t he Calais area in t he mont hs before hand fooled t he

Germans int o bel ieving t his was

where t he Al l ies int ended t o land.

• The German defences in t he Normandy area were not st rong

because t hey had such a long

coast l ine, t he whole of Nort hern

France, t o prot ect .

D-Day Landings: Follow-up/ importance

The landings were import ant because t hey

gave t he Al l ies a much needed foot hold on

t he cont inent . The Mulberrries were quickly

erect ed as make shif t harbours unt i l t he

Al l ies capt ured Cherbourg on 25 June,

which meant t hey had a deep wat er port .

Furt her advances were made in Normandy

in July wit h t he capt ure of Caen, St . Lo and

Avranches.

A maj or breakt hrough came at Falaise

where t he Al l ies surrounded t he German

Sevent h Army and Fif t h Panzer Army. In t he

space of eight days at Falaise, t he Germans

lost more t han 10,000 men whilst 50,000

were t aken prisoner.

Af t er Falaise, t he Al l ies made rapid

advances t hrough Nort hern France, reaching

Paris which was of f icial ly l iberat ed on 25

August .

The Allied advance, 1944-45

Two event s slowed down t he al l ied advance t o Germany and meant t hat Soviet t roops

reached Berl in f irst .

1. The Arnhem Operat ion of Sept ember 1944 was an at t empt by t he Al l ies t o achieve a rapid advance t hrough Hol land. It was t he brainchild of t he Brit ish General

Mont gomery t o use parat roopers behind German l ines t o secure t he Rhine bridges

whilst ground t roops rapidly advanced t o t he river. The Operat ion began on 17

Sept ember wit h early successes. However, Brit ish t roops failed t o t ake t he key

bridge at Arnhem whilst advancing Al l ied land t roops were held up by bad weat her

and t he presence of st rong German t roops. Eisenhower had never been keen on

t he plan and revert ed t o a slow, careful advance on a broad f ront .

2. The Bat t le of t he Bulge, December 1944, furt her delayed t he advancing Al l ied armies. Hit ler decided on one last desperat e at t empt t o defeat t he Al l ies, choosing

t he Ardennes, t he area of success for Bl it zkrieg in 1940. The at t ack was launched

on 16 December and t ook t he American t roops complet ely by surprise. They were

surrounded in t he Bast ogne area. Reinforcement s secured Bast ogne as t he German

advance, short of fuel, ground t o a halt . The Germans, who suf fered 100,000

casualt ies, had used up t heir f inal reserves of t roops, planes and t anks and were

now defeat ed. However it t ook t he Al l ies several weeks t o recapt ure t he areas

init ial ly lost t o t he Germans. Alt hough in March 1945, t he Al l ies f inal ly crossed t he

River Rhine and advanced on Berl in, i t was Soviet t roops who, in Apri l , reached t he

German capit al f irst .

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Developments 1945-2003

There were furt her development s in land warfare in t he years af t er 1945, more especial ly

during t he Arab-Israel i conf l ict s of t he 1960s and 1970s and t he First Gulf War of 1991. The

creat ion of t he st at e of Israel in 1948 was not accept ed by it s Arab neighbours and led t o a

series of conf l ict s.

Arab-Israeli Wars

Conflict

Key events

Reasons for Israeli success

The Six Day

War, 1967

Wit hin six days, 10-15 June 1967, t he

Israel is had defeat ed t heir Arab

neighbours using t he Bl it zkrieg

t act ics of t he Second World War,

wit h more up-t o-dat e t anks and

aircraf t .

• On 5 June Israel i planes dest royed t he Egypt ian air

force before it could get of f

t he ground.

• Israel i t anks, support ed by t he air force, dest royed

Egypt ian forces in t he Sinai.

• The Israel i air force also dest royed t he air power of

Syria and Jordan, capt ured

t he Golan Height s and t he

Syrian army.

• The Israel is used speed and surprise, at t acking wit hout

warning.

• They were equipped wit h t he most up t o dat e planes and

t anks suppl ied by t he USA.

• They had one unif ied command which act ed

quickly and decisively.

• They used careful ly planned t act ics which ensured cont rol

of t he air and t he ef fect ive

use of t ank warfare which

was ideal in t he desert areas

of t he Sinai and Golan

Height s.

The War of

Yom

Kippur,

1973

During t his conf l ict t he Arab st at es

were, at f irst successful, but were

lat er defeat ed by Israel.

• Their early success was due t o t he element of surprise.

Egypt ian and Syrian forces

at t acked Israel i forces in t he

Sinai and on t he Golan

Height s on t he Jewish Holy

Day of Yom Kippur. They

inf l ict ed heavy losses on t he

Israel is.

• However, Israel recovered and drove t he enemy back in

bot h areas. In t he largest t ank

bat t le since t he Second World

War, Israel defeat ed t he

Egypt ians and almost

surrounded t he Egypt ian Third

Army. The USA and t he Soviet

Union t hen int ervened and

arranged a ceasef ire.

• Israel had wel l t rained and discipl ined armed forces

which quickly recovered f rom

t he surprise at t ack.

• Superior t anks and aircraf t proved decisive during t he

Sinai t ank bat t le against

Egypt .

• Egypt and Syria lacked a unif ied command.

• Ef fect ive use of t anks wit h air cover by t he Israel is.

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The First Gulf War

The Arab-Israel i Wars had conf irmed t he import ance of cont rol of t he air. The First Gulf

War was t he f irst t ime t hat t he land campaign support ed t he air of fensive, however it st i l l

highl ight ed t he cont inued import ance of land forces in direct ly defeat ing t he enemy.

In August 1990 Saddam Hussein, t he dict at or of Iraq, invaded t he oil r ich st at e of Kuwait .

Having been a former al ly of t he USA, Saddam did not expect t he Americans t o obj ect t o

t he invasion.

However t he USA support ed by Brit ain and ot her count ries, launched Operat ion Desert

Shield t o force Saddam out of Kuwait . The Coal it ion forces were led by an American,

General Norman Shwarzkopf , who carried out t he campaign in t wo st ages:

• St age 1 was an air of fensive against Iraq which was launched on 16 January 1991 and last ed for nearly a mont h. In a short t ime, a variet y of aircraf t , including

St ealt h aircraf t , cruise missiles and precision-guided weapons seriously damaged

Iraq’ s mil i t ary and economic inf rast ruct ure.

• St age 2 was Operat ion Desert Saber which was launched on 23 February 1991. Land forces advanced int o Kuwait and, wit hin four days, had l iberat ed t he count ry.

Guerrilla warfare

Guerri l la warfare was t o play a signif icant role in several conf l ict s during t he t went iet h

cent ury more especial ly t he war in Viet nam in t he 1960s and Afghanist an t went y years

lat er. It showed t hat smaller forces wit h fewer resources could inf l ict defeat on

superpowers such as t he USA and t he Soviet Union.

Meaning

The t erm ‘ guerri l la’ is a Spanish word which dat es back t o t he Napoleonic Wars of t he

early ninet eent h cent ury and, more especial ly, t he Peninsular Campaign in Spain and

Port ugal. The Spanish ‘ guerri l las’ t ook advant age of t he mount ainous t errain t o carry out

‘ hit -and-run’ t act ics against t he much larger occupying French army. They f requent ly

ambushed French t roops and t hen disappeared int o t he count ryside, of t en support ed and

hidden by t he local populat ion.

Such t act ics were also employed by Mao Zedong, t he leader of t he Chinese Communist

Part y, against occupying Japanese forces and t he Chinese Nat ional ist s during t he 1930s

and 1940s. Hit and run raids and ambushes proved very ef fect ive. Moreover, Mao st ressed

t he import ance of winning t he support of t he local peasant ry t o ensure t he success of

guerri l la t act ics. His soldiers had t o fol low a st rict code of conduct which included helping

t he peasant s in t heir daily work.

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Vietnam

The Viet cong mainly used guerri l la t act ics t o f ight t he war in t he Sout h because of t he

st rengt h of US resources and equipment . The NVA and Viet cong were no mat ch for t he USA

and ARVN in open warfare.

Ho Chi Minh had st udied t he guerri l la t act ics used by Mao Zedong in t he 1930s and 1940s in

his successful st ruggle against t he Chinese Nat ional ist Part y. Minh had used t hese t act ics

against t he Japanese during t he Second World War and t he French in t he years t hat

fol lowed. However such t act ics were dependent on t he support of t he local peasant ry,

who would be expect ed t o hide t he Viet cong. The Viet cong f ight ers were expect ed t o be

court eous and respect ful t o t he vi l lagers. Indeed t hey of t en helped t he peasant s in t he

f ields during busy periods.

On t he ot her hand, t he Viet cong could be rut hless when necessary. They were quit e

prepared t o ki l l peasant s who opposed t hem or who co-operat ed wit h t he enemies. They

also kil led pol ice, t ax col lect ors, t eachers and ot her employees of t he government of

Sout h Viet nam. Bet ween 1966 and 1971, t he Viet cong kil led an est imat ed 27,000 civi l ians.

The aim of t he t act ics was t o wear down enemy soldiers and wreck t heir morale. This was

very ef fect ive, as t he US soldiers l ived in const ant fear of ambushes and booby t raps. In

fact , eleven per cent of deat hs were caused by booby t raps. These were cheap, easy t o

make and very ef fect ive. Sharpened bamboo st akes, hidden in shal low pit s under st icks

and leaves, could easily pierce a boot .

The Viet cong were almost impossible t o ident ify. They did not wear uniforms and had no

known base camp or headquart ers. They worked in small groups and were hard t o

dist inguish f rom t he peasant s in t he vil lages. They at t acked and t hen disappeared int o t he

j ungle, int o t he vil lages or int o t heir t unnels. These t unnels were self -cont ained and

booby-t rapped and provided not only refuge f rom t he bombing, but also a safe haven for

t he guerri l la f ight ers. They were also general ly a deat h t rap for US and ARVN forces. Over

250 kilomet res of t unnels were buil t in Viet nam, some of which passed under US mil i t ary

bases.

Guerri l la t act ics proved decisive in forcing t he event ual wit hdrawal of American t roops.

This was because of several fact ors:

• Support f rom t he peasant s in Viet nam who had been al ienat ed by dif ferent American pol icies including St rat egic Hamlet and Search and Dest roy t act ics. Many

of t he Viet cong were recruit ed f rom t he local vi l lages.

• Essent ial suppl ies f rom t he Nort h coming t o t he Sout h via t he Ho Chi Minh Trail . Up t o 40,000 Viet namese worked t o keep t he t rail open. Many of t hese suppl ies were

provided by t he Soviet Union and China.

• Knowledge and underst anding of t he j ungles of Sout h Viet nam. US at t empt s t o dest roy t he j ungles t hrough t he use of chemicals furt her al ienat ed t he local

populat ion.

• The inexperience of t he US t roops. The USA had no experience or knowledge of guerri l la/ j ungle warfare carried out by t he Viet cong. This inexperience was

worsened by t he fact t hat most of t he US t roops, especial ly af t er 1967, were not

ful l combat t roops but men (ninet een was t he average age) who were draf t ed int o

t he armed forces and general ly served only one year in Viet nam.

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Afghanistan

Guerri l la t act ics were also successful in Afghanist an in t he 1980s. The Soviet Union

invaded Afghanist an in December 1979 and set up a puppet government which was

propped up by a Soviet army of occupat ion of 100,000. This occupat ion faced opposit ion

f rom a Musl im fundament al ist organisat ion known as t he muj ahideen. These were

essent ial ly Afghan t ribesmen t rying t o defeat one of t he superpowers by using guerri l la

t act ics.

The guerri l las concent rat ed on bot h civi l ian and mil i t ary t arget s, knocking out bridges,

closing maj or roads, at t acking convoys, disrupt ing t he elect ric power syst em and indust rial

product ion, and at t acking pol ice st at ions and Soviet mil i t ary inst al lat ions and air bases.

They assassinat ed government of f icials and laid siege t o small rural out post s

The Soviet Union spent a fort une in t rying, unsuccessful ly, t o deal wit h t his t hreat . In

1988, t hey wit hdrew f rom Afghanist an having suf fered casualt ies of over 20,000 wit h most

of t he count ry in t he cont rol of t he muj ahideen. Once again guerri l la t act ics had been

successful against an enemy wit h far great er resources and manpower.

• The muj ahideen were recruit ed f rom and support ed by t he local populat ion many of whom hat ed t he Soviet invaders. There were at least 4,000 bases f rom which

muj ahideen unit s operat ed.

• They used hit -and-run t act ics, at t acking Soviet t roops and supply l ines and t hen disappearing int o t he local count ryside. The muj ahideen favoured sabot age

operat ions. The more common t ypes of sabot age included damaging power l ines,

knocking out pipel ines and radio st at ions, blowing up government of f ice buildings,

air t erminals, hot els, cinemas, and so on.

• The t errain was ideal - a mount ainous area t ailor made for ambushes.

• Pakist an provided much needed suppl ies as wel l as t raining bases for t he act ivit ies of t he Afghan guerri l las.

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Question guidance for Section C

Question (a)

Part (a) quest ions wil l ask you t o get three point s f rom t he source. This is a

comprehension quest ion, wort h t hree marks, so spend about 5 minut es on t his

quest ion.

Source A: From a history textbook, published in 1996

Lat e in 1941, t he German advance was halt ed by t he

heavy rains of November which made many roads

impassable. This was fol lowed by t he severe Russian

wint er, wit h many German t roops unable t o cope wit h

t he of t en sub -30 degree cent igrade t emperat ures.

St al in used t his t ime used t his t ime t o st rengt hen t he

Red Army giving it great er f reedom and independence

t o act .

(a) What does Source A t el l us about t he reasons for t he failure of Bl it zkrieg t act ics in t he Soviet Union in 1941?

(3 marks)

• Ensure you underst and t he focus of t he quest ion. Highl ight or underl ine key words or phrases in t he quest ion.

• As you read t he source highl ight at least t hree point s in t he source.

• Describe t hese point s. You could signpost your answer by t el l ing t he examiner each t ime you get a point f rom t he source.

• You do not need t o include your own knowledge, in ot her words knowledge f rom out side t he source. Own knowledge wil l not be credit ed and wil l wast e valuable

t ime.

Possible answer

This source t el ls me t hat German Bl i t zkr ieg t act ics f ai led because t he German advance was slowed down by heavy rain in November which badly af f ect ed t he roads whi lst many German t roops could not cope wit h t he severe cold. In addit ion, St al in improved t he Red Army by giving i t great er f reedom and independence.

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Have a go at t his next quest ion.

Source B: From a history of the Second World War, published in 2006

The D-Day landings t ook place on f ive dif ferent beaches

and were support ed by parat roopers dropped f rom planes

or landed in gl iders. The Al l ies only suf fered 11,000

casualt ies during t he landings – remarkable in an

operat ion t hat had brought 130,000 men across t he

Channel by sea and 23,000 by air.

What does Source B t el l you about t he D-Day landings of June 1944?

(3 marks)

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Chapter 3: Changing methods of sea warfare

There were t wo import ant changes in sea warfare in t he years af t er 1939:

• Development s in submarines including new U-boat t act ics and t he development of nuclear submarines.

• The emergence of t he aircraf t carrier during t he War in t he Pacif ic and it s development in t he years af t er.

Developments in submarines

The Germans had used U-boat s during t he years 1915-18 t o t ry t o st arve Brit ain out of t he

war. These t act ics had failed mainly due t o t he use of t he convoy syst em. However, during

t he Second World War, U-Boat s posed an even great er t hreat .

The Battle of the Atlantic

There were t wo main phases t o t he Bat t le of t he At lant ic:

• German success in t he years 1939-42

• All ied success against t he U-boat s, 1943-45

Phase

Key events

Reasons for success

German

success

1939-42

The Germans knew t hat f rom

t he st art of t he war t hey had t o

cut of f Brit ish suppl ies f rom t he

USA. For t hree years, German U-

boat s were very ef fect ive. For

example t hey sank 1,000 ships, a

quart er of Brit ain’ s merchant

f leet , in 1940. By 1942 t his

number had reached 1,661

Al l ied ships and Brit ain was only

able t o import one-t hird of what

it would normally import in

peacet ime. Moreover, by

January 1943, t he navy had only

t wo mont hs’ supply of oil lef t .

There was no doubt t hat t he U-

boat s had t he upper hand in t his

period. Churchil l described t his

as t he Bat t le of t he At lant ic and

said: ‘ The only t hing t hat ever

real ly f r ight ened me was t he

Bat t le of t he At lant ic.

• The Germans used new ‘ wolf -pack’ t act ics. They had cracked

t he Al l ied codes which meant

t hat U-boat s could l ie in wait

for At lant ic convoys and at t ack

in numbers.

• The Brit ish ant i-U-boat t act ics were not very ef fect ive and

t hey used out -of -dat e escort

vessels. Air cover was ef fect ive

but could only st ret ch so far

across t he At lant ic. This lef t a

mid-At lant ic gap where many

U-boat at t acks t ook place.

• By at t acking f rom t he surface and at night , U-boat s were able

t o avoid det ect ion by ASDIC,

t he Brit ish ant -submarine

device which rel ied on sound

waves t ravel l ing t hrough t he

wat er.

• The ent ry of t he USA int o t he war in December 1941 gave many more t arget s for t he U-

boat commanders.

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Phase

Key events

Reasons for success

All ied success

1943-45

From 1942 Churchil l gave

priorit y t o defeat ing t he U-boat

t hreat . This result ed in t he

sinking of many more U-boat s

while, at t he same t ime,

reducing Al l ied shipping losses.

For example, bet ween June and

December 1943 t he Germans

lost 141 U-boat s whilst t he Al l ies

only lost 57 ships. Admiral

Donit z, t he German U-boat

commander, was unable t o replace t he lost U-boat s and, in

March 1944, cal led of f t he

Bat t le of t he At lant ic.

• Long range aircraf t such as t he Liberat or gave much needed

prot ect ion t o t he convoys,

assist ed by t he use of t he

Azores as al l ied air bases which

closed t he At lant ic gap.

• The Al l ies were able t o decode German radio messages and

knew in advance t he

whereabout s of t he U-boat

packs.

• Improved t raining for convoys and bet t er escort vessels.

These escort vessels were

equipped wit h t he Hedgehog

dept h charge, which f ired

clust ers of bombs over a wide

area.

• The Al l ies, especial ly t he Americans, were able t o build

ships fast er t han t he U-boat s

could sink t hem.

Nuclear submarines

Submarines underwent maj or changes in t he years af t er 1945, and t he development of

nuclear submarines played an import ant role in t he Cold War bet ween t he USA and t he

Soviet Union.

The USA were t he f irst t o develop nuclear-powered submarines wit h t he launching USS

Naut i lus on January 21, 1952. Wit hin t en years, t he Soviet Union had developed it s own

version. A nuclear submarine works on nuclear t echnology rat her t han convent ional air-

breat hing diesel engines. These nuclear-powered submarines were subsequent ly armed

wit h powerful nuclear weapons and t he development of cruise missiles gave submarines a

subst ant ial and long-ranged abil i t y t o at t ack bot h land and sea t arget s wit h a variet y of

weapons ranging f rom clust er bombs t o nuclear weapons.

The Brit ish developed t heir own nuclear submarines in t he 1960s, wit h t he launching of

HMS Resolut ion in 1968 which carried Polaris missiles. This was changed t o Trident wit h

t he launching of HMS Vanguard in 1994.

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Nuclear submarines: Advantages

Nuclear submarines: Disadvantages

Nuclear submarines have numerous

advant ages over convent ional diesel

submarines. They do not need t o surface

f requent ly as t hey are independent of air.

Unl ike convent ional submarines, power

generat ed by t he nuclear react or is huge

and hence, t hey can run at high speeds for

prolonged periods and don’ t need refuel l ing

int ervals as t hey can operat e under wat er

t hroughout t heir l i fet ime. Because of t heir

st ealt h, t hey can force an enemy navy t o

wast e resources searching large areas of

ocean and prot ect ing ships against at t ack.

Moreover, t hey have played an import ant

role in several conf l ict s including t he

Falklands War, 1982, when a Brit ish

submarine sank an Argent ine cruiser and

t he f irst Gulf War, when, in 1991,

submarines were used t o launch Tomahawk

Cruise Missiles at st rat egic t arget s inside Iraq.

There have been several accident s involving

nuclear submarines because of t he dangers

inherent in operat ing for long periods of

t ime under t he ocean.

• In 1963, t he Unit ed St at es Navy suf fered t he loss of t he USS Thresher

wit h 16 of f icers, 96 enl ist ed men and

21 civi l ians onboard. While 220 miles

east of Cape Cod, t he Thresher

report ed problems t hrough a garbled

t ransmission, t hen went si lent .

• In 2000, t he Soviet submarine Kursk sank during mil it ary t raining

exercises, wit h t he loss of 118 crew

members. The ship is bel ieved t o

have been dest royed by an explosion

t hat led t o t he det onat ion of t he

onboard t orpedoes.

The aircraft carrier

The development of t he aircraf t carrier was t he most import ant development in sea

warfare before and during t he Second World War. The aircraf t carrier was t o play an

import ant role in several conf l ict s in t he second half of t he t went iet h cent ury, especial ly

t he Falklands War, 1982, and t he f irst Gulf War, 1991-91.

Timeline of key developments in the aircraft carrier

Date Development

1912 Lieut enant Charles Sant on f lew a biplane of f a plat form const ruct ed on a

st at ionery bat t leship.

1914-18 HMS Fur ious was convert ed int o an aircraf t carrier wit h a small t ake-of f deck.

A small plane landed on t he carrier but went over t he side, ki l l ing t he pilot . In

1918 HMS Fur ious successful ly launched six aircraf t .

1922 The Japanese designed t he f irst aircraf t carrier, Hosho

1923 The f irst specif ical ly made Brit ish aircraf t carrier, Hermes

1940 Aircraf t carriers played an import ant role in t he Bat t le of Tarant o. Swordf ish

f rom t he aircraf t carrier, HMS Il lust r ious, at t acked t he It al ian f leet which was

in port in Tarant o, 250 kilomet res away. The Swordf ish damaged or dest royed

t hree It al ian bat t leships and ended It al ian naval power. The Japanese saw t he

success of t his bat t le and employed similar t act ics j ust over a year lat er at

Pearl Harbor.

Lat er

1940s

The slant ed deck was int roduced which gave carriers t wo runways f rom which

t o conduct operat ions.

1961 The launching of t he f irst nuclear-powered carrier, USS Ent erpr ise. This had a

crew of over 5,000 and carried over 100 j et aircraf t .

1970s The development of Nimit z-class aircraf t carriers which are super carriers wit h

an overal l lengt h of 333 met res and are t he largest capit al ships in t he world.

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Battle of the Pacific, 1941-45

This was t he war bet ween t he USA and Japan which highl ight ed t he import ance of aircraf t

carriers in naval conf l ict s. Cont rol of t he vast Pacif ic area was dependent on air power

which, in t urn, was decided by whichever side made t he more ef fect ive use of t heir

aircraf t carrier f leet . Indeed, aircraf t carriers played a decisive role in several bat t les.

• Pearl Harbor, December 1941. On 7 December 1941, t he Japanese launched a surprise at t ack on t he US Pacif ic Fleet at Pearl Harbor. The Japanese st rike force

t ravel led 3,000 miles and launched 360 planes and bombers f rom aircraf t carriers

about 400 kilomet res f rom t he naval base. Alt hough inf l ict ing considerable damage

and casualt ies on t he US f leet , t he at t ack was not decisive because America’ s four

aircraf t carriers were not in port on t hat day.

• The Bat t le of Coral Sea. This bat t le t ook place in early May 1942. US int el l igence decoded Japanese messages and sent an aircraf t carrier f leet t o int ercept t he

Japanese navy. During t he subsequent bat t le, which was fought bet ween aircraf t

launched f rom t he aircraf t carriers of t he t wo sides, t he Japanese lost t wo and t he

USA one aircraf t carrier.

• The Bat t le of Midway. This was t he most decisive naval bat t le of t he Second World War. It was fought in June 1942 when t he Japanese f leet decided t o launch an

at t ack on t he Midway Islands. Once again, US int el l igence knew of t hese plans and

int ercept ed t he Japanese carrier f leet . During t he subsequent bat t le, US dive

bombers sank t hree Japanese aircraf t carriers and badly damaged a fourt h.

Alt hough t he USA lost one aircraf t carrier, t he bat t le was a decisive t urning-point

in t he war in t he Pacif ic. It gave t he Americans cont rol of t he sea and t he air,

which enabled t hem t o begin t he t act ic of island-hopping, t o f ree islands of t heir

Japanese invaders.

The Falklands War, 1982

This conf l ict i l lust rat ed t he import ance of sea power in deciding t he out come of a war and

in part icular t he submarine and t he aircraf t carrier. In April 1982, Argent ina invaded t he

Falkland Islands in t he Sout h At lant ic. These islands were t housands of miles away so t he

Brit ish sent a naval t ask force t o regain t he islands.

• This t ask force included t wo aircraf t carriers, Invincible and Hermes, which were pot ent ial t arget s for Argent ine submarines. Indeed, it was revealed af t er t he war

t hat t he Argent ines had f ired six t orpedoes, none of which had hit t heir t arget s.

These aircraf t carriers served as f loat ing airf ields, wit h Sea Harriers f rom bot h

vessels t aking part in air st rikes on Port St anley. Moreover, t hey prot ect ed t he

landings of Brit ish t roops when t hey landed on t he islands and event ual ly defeat ed

t he Argent ine invaders.

• During t he war, t he Brit ish nuclear-powered submarine HMS Conqueror sank t he Argent ine cruiser General Belgrano. Af t er t he sinking t he Argent ine Navy

recognised t hat t hey had no ef fect ive defence against submarine at t ack, and t he

Argent ine surface f leet wit hdrew t o port for t he remainder of t he war, t hough an

Argent ine submarine remained at sea.

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Question guidance for Section C

Question (b)

Quest ion (b) wil l give you a choice of t wo fact ors. You have t o choose one of t hese

and describe it s key features. This quest ion is wort h 7 marks so spend about t en

minut es writ ing your answer.

Here is an example:

Describe t he key feat ures of either t he Bat t le of Midway (1942) or t he U-boat successes,

1939-42.

(7 marks)

• Ensure you make t he right choice. In ot her words t he fact or you can writ e most about .

• St ick t o your choice. Some st udent s writ e a paragraph about one fact or, cross it out and writ e about t he second fact or. This wast es valuable t ime.

• Highl ight or underl ine key words or phrases in t he quest ion. This should ensure t hat you focus on t he quest ion.

• Aim t o writ e at least t wo key feat ures or paragraphs.

• Key feat ures can include causes, event s and result s.

• Try t o make l inks bet ween each of t he key feat ures. Use l ink words or phrases such as however, consequent ly, t heref ore, as a resul t , t his led t o.

Possible answer

The f i rst key f eat ure of t he U-Boat successes of 1939-42 was t he use of new t act ics. The

U-Boat s used wol f -pack t act ics t o ensure t hat t he Al l ied convoys were at t acked by groups

of U-boat s. German int el l igence decoded Br i t ish messages and was able t o pinpoint Al l ied

convoys. Radio communicat ions ensured t hat several U-boat s could simul t aneously at t ack

t he convoys.

As a resul t of t hese t act ics, t he U-boat s enj oyed great success in t he f i rst t hree years of

t he Second World War. For example, in 1942 t he Al l ies lost 1,300 ships and by 1942 were

ser iously short of suppl ies. Furt hermore, t he ent ry of t he USA in December 1941 gave t he

U-boat s even more opport uni t y t o sink Al l ied shipping, more especial ly t he American

East ern seaboard when many American ships, at least at f i rst , sai led wit hout escort .

Have a go at t he ot her key feat ure of t he Bat t le of Midway.

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Chapter 4: Changing methods of air warfare

Air warfare experienced rapid changes during and af t er t he Second World War and became

far more import ant in deciding t he out come of conf l ict s.

During the Second World War

Airpower played an import ant role in:

• Blitzkrieg wit h t he Luf t waf fe t arget ing enemy aircraf t and airf ields and ensuring t hat t he Germans had cont rol of t he air, especial ly during t he invasions of Poland,

t he Low Count ries and France. Dive bombers, t he St ukas, were used t o support t he

ground forces and t anks t o creat e maximum t error.

• Dunkirk when t he RAF did much t o prot ect t he t roops on t he beach await ing evacuat ion and t he vessels sent across t he Channel t o evacuat e t he Al l ied t roops.

• D-Day landings. Al l ied aircraf t had bombed t he Normandy hint erland before t he invasion in order t o disrupt German communicat ions and slow down t he possibil i t y

of reinforcement s. In addit ion, regular bombing of t he Calais area had convinced

Hit ler t hat t his was where t he invasion would t ake place.

• Bombing had proved decisive in t he early mont hs of t he war. The German bombing of Warsaw, in Sept ember 1939, brought t he f inal surrender of Poland whilst t he

dest ruct ion of Rot t erdam by t he Luf t waf fe, May 1940, had a similar ef fect on t he

Dut ch government .

Battle of Britain

Air power was t o prove decisive in prevent ing a German invasion of Brit ain. Fol lowing t he

defeat of France in June 1940, Hit ler put t oget her Operat ion Seal ion which was t he

codename for t he German invasion of Brit ain. However, before t he invasion could t ake

place, t he Lut waf fe needed t o est abl ish cont rol of t he air space over t he Channel and

Sout hern Brit ain in order t o prot ect t he invasion barges and t he subsequent landings. They

needed t o dest roy t he RAF t oget her wit h Brit ish airf ields. The Bat t le of Brit ain was not a

single bat t le but a series of bat t les, day af t er day, during t he summer of 1940. Waves of

German bombers, escort ed by f ight er aircraf t at t acked key t arget s mainly in sout h-east

England and were of t en int ercept ed by Brit ish f ight er planes. Key event s included:

• On t he 13 August , t he Germans began ful l scale raids on t he Sout h-East of England t arget ing radar and sect or st at ions.

• Five days lat er t he Luf t waf fe t arget ed air f ields in t he Sout h-East t rying t o dest roy t he Brit ish f ight er planes.

• By early Sept ember, Brit ain had few reserves of f ight er planes and pilot s and was close t o defeat . However on 7 Sept ember, Brit ain got lucky. On t he verge of

vict ory, Hit ler gave Brit ain a breat hing space by divert ing t he Luf t waf f e t o t he

bombing of London.

• On 15 Sept ember, t he Luf t waf fe t r ied t o bomb London in dayl ight and lost 56 planes. Two days lat er Hit ler decided t o post pone t he invasion of Brit ain.

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The RAF success was due to several factors:

• The Brit ish had developed radar in t he 1930s and by 1940 had a net work of radar st at ions which could det ect t he whereabout s of German aircraf t and ensure t hat

t he Brit ish f ight er planes were in posit ion and ready t o at t ack. The Luf t waf fe was

general ly unable t o cat ch t he Brit ish f ight ers on t he ground and dest roy t hem as

t hey had wit h t he Pol ish air force.

• In addit ion Brit ain had a series of sect or st at ions which act ed as t he nerve cent re of int el l igence, gat hering informat ion f rom radar and direct ing t he f ight ers t o

int ercept t he German bombers.

• The Brit ish f ight er planes, Hurricanes and Spit f ires, were more t han a mat ch for t heir German count erpart , t he Messerschmit t 109.

• RAF pilot s who bailed out over Brit ain could ret urn t o f ight ing but German pilot s became prisoners of war.

• There were also weaknesses in t he German aircraf t . The St uka was a dive bomber geared t owards support ing ground t roops but was not equipped t o deal wit h enemy

f ight er planes. In addit ion, German f ight er planes only had enough fuel for 30

minut es of f lying which meant t hat German bombers of t en f lew unescort ed, easy

t arget s for t he Brit ish f ight ers.

The Bat t le of Brit ain was import ant because it prevent ed a German invasion, ensured

Brit ish survival and provided a much needed morale boost er for t he Brit ish publ ic.

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Blitz

From Sept ember 1940, Hit ler t urned his at t ent ion on t he Bl it z, t he name given t o t he

German at t empt t o bomb Brit ain out of t he war. The aim was t o:

• Dest roy t he morale of t he Brit ish people.

• Seriously disrupt Brit ish indust rial product ion and communicat ions.

Place Key features

London The main t arget was t he East end of London especial ly t he docks and

fact ories. However most of inner London suf fered. From 2 Sept ember

t o 2 November 1940 London was bombed every night . The House of

Commons and Buckingham Palace were damaged. These raids

cont inued right t hrough unt i l early May 1911. Over 15,000 were ki l led

and 250,000 made homeless.

Covent ry Covent ry suf fered it s worst at t ack on 14 November 1940, wit h t he

t arget being it s aircraf t fact ories. It was hit by 30,000 incendiary

bombs. Much of t he cit y, including t he cat hedral, was dest royed.

However, despit e t he raids t he aircraf t fact ories resumed product ion

wit hin f ive days.

Liverpool This cit y suf fered it s worst at t ack by 500 bombers on 3 May 1941. It

lost some of it s f inest buildings and f ires burned out of cont rol .

Belfast Belfast was badly bombed in Apri l and May of 1940. At least 1,000

people were ki l led and 150,000 made homeless.

Glasgow This cit y was at t acked on t he 13-14 March 1941 wit h t he main t arget

being t he shipyards on t he Clyde. Over t wo night s more t han 500

people were ki l led, hundreds inj ured and t he communit y dest royed

by air raids. Out of over 12,000 houses only seven were lef t

undamaged.

Plymout h The royal dockyards at Devonport were t he main t arget . In early

1941, f ive raids reduced much of t he cit y t o rubble. The last at t ack

came on 30 Apri l 1944. During t he 59 bombing at t acks, 1,172 civi l ians

were kil led and 4,448 inj ured.

Hit ler cal led of f t he bombing campaign in May 1941. This was mainly because he needed

t o divert t he Luf t waf fe t o support t he impending invasion of t he Soviet Union. The Brit ish

people suf fered a second bl it z in t he last year of t he war, f rom t he V-1 and V-2 missiles.

• The V-1 was a f lying bomb powered by a rocket engine. It f lew t owards a t arget area and t hen came down whenever it ran out of fuel. 6,000 V-1 bombs act ual ly

reached Brit ish t arget s causing casualt ies of 20,000 and considerable damage t o

houses. However, t he Al l ies used f ight er planes t o int ercept t hese bombs and were

able t o capt ure t he launch sit es in Nort hern France and Belgium in t he mont hs

af t er t he Normandy landings.

• The V-2 was more dangerous because it was so fast t hat it could not be shot down or even seen. It was a genuine guided missile and f lew at supersonic speeds of

4,000 kilomet res an hour. About 500 V-2s hit London bet ween Sept ember 1944 and

March 1945, causing approximat ely 900 casualt ies. However, i t was developed and

used t oo lat e in t he war t o have a decisive impact .

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What was the impact of the blitz?

Positive

Negative

In many respect s t he bl i t z was count er-

product ive. Rat her t han dest roying t he

morale of t he Brit ish people it made t hem

even more det ermined t o resist t he

Germans and support t he war ef fort .

Moreover, t he V1 and V2 bombers were

developed t oo lat e t o have a signif icant

impact on t he war. It did not great ly reduce

or disrupt product ion as damage t o

buildings and communicat ions was quickly

repaired. The German bombers were not big

or accurat e enough t o cause maj or damage

t o Brit ish t owns and cit ies.

• Over t hree mil l ion homes were dest royed. In each week of

Sept ember 1940, 40,000 t o 50,000

people lost t heir homes.

• About 60,000 civi l ians were ki l led.

• There was evidence, especial ly in t he East End of London, of serious

af fect s on civi l ian morale.

• The V-1 and V-2 t hreat came lat e in t he war and did cause some alarm

and damage.

Allied bombing of Germany

The Al l ied bombing of Germany was one of t he most cont roversial aspect s of t he Second

World War. The bombings were carried out :

• To disrupt German war product ion by t arget ing German indust rial product ion and communicat ions.

• To reduce t he morale of t he German civi l ian populat ion by dest roying t heir homes.

• Air Marshal l Harris became Head of Brit ish Bomber Command in 1942. He f irmly bel ieved t hat air power alone could lead t o t he defeat of t he Germans. The

Germans could be bombed int o submission.

In May 1942, t he Al l ies launched t he f irst ‘ t housand bomber raid’ on t he cit y of Cologne

which ki l led about 40,000 people. In t he fol lowing year, Hamburg was virt ual ly dest royed

by a f irest orm which caused over 60,000 deat hs and dest royed most of t he cit y. Berl in

was a regular t arget but t he most cont roversial raid was on Dresden in February 1945.

Here, t he Al l ies used incendiary bombs which, in t urn, creat ed a f irest orm. Dresden was

not an indust rial cent re and, moreover, t he cit y was ful l of refugees f leeing t he Russian

f ront . There may wel l have been over 100,000 casualt ies in Dresden.

The Al l ied bombing only sl ight ly reduced German war product ion but did prevent it f rom

great ly expanding. It drew of f German aircraf t f rom t he Russian f ront and it did af fect t he

moral and everyday l i fe of t he German people.

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However, t here have been a number of crit icisms of t he Al l ied bombing:

• It was moral ly wrong t o t arget civi l ians especial ly in cit ies such as Dresden which were of no mil i t ary import ance. The number of deat hs increased due t o t he use of

incendiary bombs.

• It was count er-product ive. Far f rom reducing t he moral of t he German people, i t made t hem even more det ermined t o support t he German pol icy of t ot al war.

Goebbels made ef fect ive use of t he bombing for propaganda purposes, convincing

many Germans t hat t he Al l ies were evil .

• It had l i t t le ef fect on German indust ry. For example, i t has been est imat ed t hat in 1944 German indust rial out put only fel l by 10%. Most German indust ry adapt ed and

moved underground.

• The cost in Al l ied l ives, 140,000 airmen, and planes, 21,000, was t oo great .

• It showed t hat air power alone, especial ly bombing, could not bring about t he defeat of a det ermined enemy. It was t he advance of Al l ied t roops f rom t he West

and Russian t roops f rom t he East which event ual ly brought about t he German

surrender.

1945-2003

The Cold War bet ween t he USA and t he Soviet Union accelerat ed t echnological

development s in aircraf t in t he years af t er 1945, as t he sides compet ed in producing t he

most dest ruct ive mil i t ary aircraf t .

• Bot h sides developed j et aircraf t which could t ravel at higher al t i t ude and great er speed. These were used t o carry newly developed nuclear weapons.

• This was fol lowed by t he emergence of t he Int er-Cont inent al Bal l ist ic missile as wel l as high-alt i t ude f ight ers t hat could int ercept t hese missiles.

• Furt her change came wit h air-t o-air guided missiles as wel l as at t ack aircraf t t hat could f ly ‘ under t he radar’ , as low as a few hundred feet , as seen in t he First Gulf

War.

The import ance and l imit at ions of air power was t o be highl ight ed in various conf l ict s

during t he second half of t he t went iet h cent ury.

The Six Day War

Air power was t o prove decisive t o t he out come of t he Six Day War. The event ual Israel i

vict ory in t he Six Day War of 1967, was due mainly t o cont rol of t he air which, in t urn, was

due t o t he act ions of t he Israel i air force on t he f irst day of t he war, 5 June 1967. By

night fal l , Israel had dest royed 416 Arab aircraf t , while losing 26 of t heir own in t he f irst

t wo days of t he war. Israel 's f irst and most crit ical move was a surprise pre-empt ive at t ack

on t he Egypt ian Air Force. Egypt had by far t he largest and t he most modern of al l t he

Arab air forces, consist ing of about 420 combat aircraf t , al l of t hem Soviet buil t . At t acks

were t hen carried out t hat af t ernoon against Jordanian, Syrian, and Iraqi air f ields which

wiped out most of t hose nat ions' air forces. By t he evening of t he f irst day, t he Jordanian

air force was wiped out . Subsequent Israel i bl i t zkrieg t anks, support ed by air at t ack, were

carried out wit hout fear of enemy at t acks f rom t he air.

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Vietnam War

This conf l ict highl ight ed t he l imit at ions of air power against a det ermined enemy using

guerri l la t act ics. The US employed air power in t hree dif ferent ways, t o bomb Nort h

Viet nam, chemical weapons t o dest roy t he j ungles of Sout h Viet nam and hel icopt ers t o

support Search and dest roy missions.

How used How effective

Bombing of

North

Vietnam

On 7 February 1965, t he USA

launched ‘ Operat ion Rol l ing

Thunder’ . This involved widespread

bombing raids on mil i t ary and

indust rial t arget s in Nort h Viet nam. It

was t he beginning of an air of fensive

t hat was t o last unt i l 1968. Gradual ly

t he t arget s were ext ended t o include

cit ies in Nort h and Sout h Viet nam.

The original int ent ion was for an

eight -week bombing of fensive but i t

act ual ly last ed for more t han t hree

and a half years. The USA dropped

more bombs in Viet nam t han were

dropped by t he Al l ies (t he USA and

Brit ain) during t he whole of t he

Second World War.

It damaged Nort h Viet nam’ s war

ef fort and disrupt ed it s supply rout es

and caused considerable damage t o

cit ies and t owns in Nort h Viet nam.

However, Nort h Viet nam had few

fact ories t o bomb. The count ryside

was most ly af fect ed. It encouraged

even great er support for t he war

f rom Nort h Viet nam. Furt hermore, it

did not st op t he suppl ies t o t he

Viet cong f rom t he Nort h. Final ly, t he

cost was horrendous. In 1967 t he

American magazine Life calculat ed

t hat i t cost t he USA $400,000 t o ki l l

one Viet cong f ight er.

Chemical

weapons

The USA could not force t he Viet cong

int o bat t le. The decision was

t herefore made t o use chemical

weapons t o dest roy t he j ungle t hat

hid t he enemy and t heir food

suppl ies. One such weapon was

known as ‘ Agent Orange’ , a highly

t oxic weed kil ler used t o dest roy t he

j ungle. The Americans used 82

mil l ion l i t res of Agent Orange t o

spray t housands of ki lomet res of

j ungle. Napalm was anot her chemical

weapon widely used by t he USA. It

was a t ype of bomb t hat exploded

and showered t he surrounding

vict ims wit h a burning pet roleum

j el ly. Napalm st icks t o t he skin and

burns at 800 degrees cent igrade. In

ot her words, it burned t hrough t he

skin t o t he bone.

These defol iant s or chemical

weapons had l i t t le ef fect in t erms of

f lushing out t he Viet cong. Indeed,

such met hods were

count erproduct ive because t hey

increased support for t he

communist s and made peasant s more

l ikely t o hide Viet cong members.

Many innocent civi l ians were inj ured

or even ki l led by t hese weapons

whilst t he USA lost much world

sympat hy by t he use of chemical

weapons which caused long t erm

damage t o t he count ryside of Sout h

Viet nam.

Search and

Destroy

The USA launched ‘ Search and

Dest roy’ t act ics using hel icopt ers.

They would descend on a vi l lage

suspect ed of assist ing t he Viet cong

forces and dest roy it . The t roops

cal led t hese at t acks ‘ Zippo’ raids

af t er t he name of t he l ight ers t hey

used t o set f ire t o t he t hat ched

houses of t he vi l lages.

These raids would ki l l a number of

Viet cong guerri l la f ight ers and

showed t he ef fect iveness of

hel icopt ers in support ing ground

t roops. However, Civil ian casualt ies

were of t en very high wit h most

having l i t t le or no connect ion wit h

t he Viet cong.

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First Gulf War

Air power was also import ant in t he event ual out come of t he First Gulf War, 1990-91. The

Persian Gulf War st art ed wit h an ext ensive aerial bombing campaign on 17 January 1991.

The coal it ion f lew over 100,000 sort ies, dropping 88,500 t ons of bombs, and widely

dest roying mil i t ary and civi l ian inf rast ruct ure, especial ly t he Iraqi air force and ant i-

aircraf t facil i t ies, command and communicat ion facil i t ies. The aircraf t were launched

most ly f rom Saudi Arabia and t he six Coal it ion aircraf t carrier bat t le groups in t he Persian

Gulf and Red Sea. About one-t hird of t he air at t acks also t arget ed t he Iraqi Scud missile

launchers.

The t erm ‘ st ealt h’ is commonly appl ied t o aircraf t or missile syst ems t hat have been

designed t o produce as small a radar signat ure as is pract icable. These were used by t he

USA during t he First Gulf War, in part icular t he F-117 Blackhawk and t he B-2 Bomber. The

shape of t hese aircraf t ensured t hat radio waves bounced of f at odd angles and were not

ref lect ed back t o t he enemy radar st at ions. They were also coat ed wit h radar-absorbing

mat erial t o reduce t he int ensit y of radar being bounced back.

Question guidance for Section C

Question (c)

Quest ion (c) is asking you t o writ e an essay about change over a period of t ime. This

means you must show change eit her by comparing t he sit uat ion before and af t er t he

development or you must show how it developed during t he period. The quest ion wil l

give you four point s known as scaf folding t o help you wit h your essay. Remember t his

is t he highest -scoring quest ion on t he paper and requires a subst ant ial and det ailed

response. It is about change. You must show change eit her by comparing t he sit uat ion

before and af t er t he development or you must show how it developed during t he

period is wort h 15 marks. You should al low 30 minut es for t his quest ion.

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Here is an example:

In what ways did t he use of air power change in t he years 1939-73?

(15 marks)

You may use t he fol lowing informat ion t o help you wit h your answer.

• The Bl it z • All ied bombing of Germany • Arab-Israel i wars • Viet nam War

• Focus on t he quest ion. It is about change so ensure you writ e about changes. Do not j ust t el l t he st ory.

• Use at least t hree of t he scaf folding point s. However, you may wish t o use one of your own fact ors or add an addit ional fact or t o t hose ment ioned in t he

quest ion.

• Writ e a paragraph on each of t he fact ors. At t he beginning of each paragraph give t he change and t hen ful ly explain it . Using t he word ‘ because’ of t en helps

you t o give a developed explanat ion.

• For t he higher marks you also have t o make l inks bet ween each fact or. This means explaining how one change led t o t he next . Link words or phrases of t en

help t o achieve t his. Here are some examples: t his led t o, as a resul t , moreover,

f ur t hermore, as a consequence, in addit ion.

• Writ e a conclusion showing how t he fact ors you have writ t en about act ed t oget her t o bring about change.

Part of a possible answer

The Bl i t z brought bot h change and cont inui t y in t he use of air power. Cont inui t y wit h

t he First World War when t he Germans had used Zeppel ins and Got has t o bomb

Bri t ain, t arget ing civi l ian morale. Hit ler had much t he same aim dur ing t he Second

World War but on a much great er scale. German bombers at t acked most Br i t ish t owns

and ci t ies and caused considerable damage. Moreover, t owards t he end of t he war,

t he Germans used even more advanced met hods of air power, t he V-1 and V-2

bombers which were t he precursors of t he lat er j et ai rcraf t and missi les. On t he

ot her hand, because t he Bl i t z f ai led in i t s obj ect ive of dest roying t he morale of t he

Br i t ish people, i t also highl ight ed t he l imit at ions of aer ial bombing.

Now complet e t his answer by:

• Linking t he f irst paragraph (bul let ) t o t he next .

• Explaining t he ot her t hree point s in t he scaf folding.

• Writ ing a conclusion.

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Chapter 5: The development of atomic and nuclear weapons

The great est change in warfare in t he t went iet h cent ury was t he development of nuclear

weapons wit h t he pot ent ial t o dest roy t he world many t imes over. Conversely, fear of t he

dest ruct ive powers of t hese weapons, meant t hat al l wars since 1945 have used

convent ional weapons.

The atomic bombs of 1945

In 1945, t he US President , Truman, decided t o use t he at omic bombs on Japan. There

were several mil i t ary, pol it ical and economic reasons for t his decision.

Military

Polit ical

Economic

Japanese cult ure did not

accept t he concept of

surrender. As a result t he US

t act ic of island-hopping in

t he Pacif ic had result ed in

very heavy casualt ies. It was

est imat ed t hat it could cost

at least half a mil l ion US

casualt ies t o invade t he

Japanese mainland and

would prolong t he war by up

t o a year.

Truman was very aware of

t he t hreat posed by t he

Soviet Union and was

det ermined t o prevent t he

spread of communism. The

at omic bomb would be a

t imely reminder t hat t he

USA was ahead in any arms

race t hat might develop in

t he early years of t he

subsequent Cold War.

The USA had spent a fort une

on t he Manhat t an Proj ect t o

develop t he at omic bomb

before any of it s rivals. The

use of t he at omic bomb on

Japan would provide some

j ust if icat ion for al l of t his

spending.

Effects of the atomic bombs

On t he 6 August 1945 t he f irst bomb was dropped on t he Japanese cit y of Hiroshima.

Three days lat er a second bomb was used against Nagasaki. Their use was t o have

signif icant immediat e and long t erm consequences for t went iet h cent ury warfare.

Immediate

Long term

The bombs caused horrif ic damage t o bot h

cit ies. The explosions creat ed winds of 800

kilomet res an hour which crushed many

people. Many people died f rom radiat ion –

80,000 immediat ely in Hiroshima, fol lowed

by a furt her 58,000. The Japanese did

immediat ely surrender. However, t he use of

t he at omic bomb annoyed St al in and

cont ribut ed signif icant ly t o t he beginning of

t he Cold War.

• It sparked of f a nuclear arms race bet ween t he t wo superpowers, as

t hey compet ed t o produce ever

more dest ruct ive weapons.

• However, t he ext ent of t he damage cause by t he t wo at omic bombs,

act ed as a warning and meant t hat

neit her side was prepared t o use

such weapons in subsequent

conf l ict s.

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The nuclear arms race

The Cold War bet ween t he USA and t he Soviet Union, which last ed f rom 1945 t o 1991,

feat ured a nuclear arms race during which each superpower developed more advanced

weapons of mass dest ruct ion.

The arms race 1945-60

The nuclear arms race was cent ral t o t he Cold War. Many feared where t he Cold War was

going wit h t he bel ief t hat t he more nuclear weapons you had, t he more powerful you

were. Bot h America and Russia massively buil t up t heir st ockpiles of nuclear weapons.

• By 1949, t he Soviet Union had successful ly t est ed it s own at omic bomb.

• President Truman t hen ordered a new, more powerful weapon t o be buil t – t he hydrogen bomb which was successful ly t est ed in 1952.This one bomb was smaller in

size t han t he Hiroshima at omic bomb but 2,500 t imes more powerful . The Russians

produced t heir own H-bomb in 1953. H-bombs provided large explosions wit h

smaller, l ight er warheads. Weight had always been a problem and t hese new

l ight er missi les were much more accurat e.

• USA produced a bomber - t he B52 - t hat could f ly 6,000 miles and del iver a nuclear pay-load.

• In Oct ober 1957, Sput nik was launched by t he Soviet Union. This was t o lead t o Int er-cont inent al bal l ist ic missiles (ICBMs).

• By t he end of t he 1950s t he Unit ed St at es overcame t his problem by developing t he Minut eman missile. This missile st ored it s fuel in it s own engines. It was now

possible t o f ire a missile in t hirt y seconds. These missiles were also fair ly small (54

feet long and 10 feet in diamet er) and could be st ored in si los under t he ground,

prot ect ed f rom an enemy at t ack.

• In t he 1950s t he Soviet Union had been producing medium-range bal l ist ic missiles (MRBMs) and int ermediat e-range bal l ist ic missiles (IRBMs). The idea was t o use

t hese t o support t roops if a war broke out in Europe. If t hey were t o be used

against t he Unit ed St at es, t he Soviet Union needed a nuclear base in t hat area. At

t he end of t he 1950s, American Int el l igence est imat ed t hat in a Russian missile

at t ack, 20 mil l ion Americans would die and 22 mil l ion would be inj ured.

Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD)

The MAD t heory developed during t he Cold War as bot h superpowers developed enough

nuclear weapons t o dest roy t he ot her. The t heory was t hat t he ful l -scale use of nuclear

weapons by t wo opposing sides would ef fect ively result in t he dest ruct ion of bot h t he

at t acker and t he defender. In ot her words t his t heory had t wo very cont rast ing ef fect s:

• It encouraged bot h superpowers t o cont inue t o develop ever more powerful nuclear weapons in order t o maint ain t his idea of balance and t hreat .

• At t he same t ime act ing as a det errent t o t he use of such weapons because of t heir dest ruct ive powers. No side would dare st rike f irst when it knew t hat t he at t ack

would dest roy it self as wel l .

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The arms race 1960-91

By 1961, t here were enough bombs t o dest roy t he World. During t he 1960s, t he Soviet

Union put t heir money int o producing more missiles regardless of qual it y while America

buil t fewer but bet t er qual it y missiles - t he At las could go 5,000 miles at a speed of 16,000

mph.

Despit e t his, great emphasis was put on new weapon syst ems - mobile missile launchers

were buil t , missiles were housed underground in si los and in 1960 t he f irst Polaris

submarine was launched carrying 16 nuclear missi les. Each missile carried four warheads

which could t arget ed on dif ferent cit ies. One submarine ef fect ively carried 64 nuclear

warheads.

In 1967, China exploded an H-bomb. China was a communist count ry. In t he west , NATO

fel t out -numbered as t he t able below shows and so had t o place her fait h in nuclear

missiles. Ot her import ant development s included:

• Submarine-launched bal l ist ic missiles (SLBMs) which had t he advant age in t hat t hey could be launched f rom t he sea.

• MIRVs – Mult iple independent ly-t arget ed re-ent ry vehicles which was a missile wit h several warheads which could be f ired at dif ferent t arget s.

By t he early 1980s t here was more or less parit y bet ween t he t wo superpowers in t he

development of nuclear weapons. By 1981, USA had 8,000 ICBM’ s and USSR 7,000 ICBM’ s

By 1981, USA had 4,000 planes capable of del ivering a nuclear bomb. Russia had 5,000.

ICBMs Planes capable of

carrying nuclear

weapons

USA 8,000 4,000

Soviet

Union

7,000 5,000

However, t he US President , Ronald Reagan, changed t he whole balance of t he nuclear

arms race wit h t he St rat egic Defence Init iat ive of 1983. He was det ermined t o win t he

Cold War and bel ieved t hat t hey could be forced t o disarm by his new init iat ive: SDI

(St rat egic Defence Init iat ive).

SDI, which became known as ‘ St ar Wars’ , t ook t he nuclear arms race t o a new level. It

proposed a ‘ nuclear umbrel la’ , which would st op Soviet nuclear bombs f rom reaching

American soil . Reagan’ s plan was t o launch an army of sat el l i t es equipped wit h powerful

lasers, which would int ercept Soviet missiles in space and dest roy t hem before t hey could

do any harm t o t he USA. He bel ieved t hat ‘ St ar Wars’ t echnology would make Soviet

nuclear missiles useless and force t he USSR t o disarm.

SDI proved t o be a t urning point in t he arms race. During det ent e, t he superpowers had been evenly mat ched and had worked t oget her t o l imit t he growt h of nuclear st ockpiles.

SDI was a complet e break f rom t his pol icy. Soviet leaders knew t hat t hey could not

compet e wit h Reagan’ s ‘ St ar Wars’ plan. They were behind t he USA in space and comput er

t echnology whilst t he Soviet economy was not producing enough wealt h t o fund even more

defence spending.

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Attempts at arms limitation

In t he years af t er 1960 t here were several at t empt s at arms l imit at ion. This was for

several reasons:

• During t he 1950s t here was much more awareness of t he pot ent ial t hreat of nuclear warfare and t he dest ruct ion of t he world. The Campaign for Nuclear

Disarmament (CND) organised prot est marches and did much t o publ icise t he

dangers of nuclear warfare.

• During t he Cuban Missiles Crisis, t he superpowers came very close t o nuclear warfare when t he US President , Kennedy, ordered t he blockade of Cuba t o prevent

t he arrival of a Soviet convoy which was carrying missiles for t he missile sit es which

had been const ruct ed on t he island. Fort unat ely, t he Soviet leader, Khrushchev,

ordered t he convoy t o t urn around whilst t he t wo leaders reached a compromise

agreement . This led t o t he t wo leaders t o set up t he hot l ine in Washingt on and

Moscow and begin arms l imit at ion t alks.

• The lat er 1960s and 1970s was a period of det ent e, or relaxat ion of relat ions, in t he Cold, wit h bot h superpowers prepared t o agree t o arms l imit at ions.

• The USA and t he Soviet Union needed t o f ind ways of cut t ing t heir excessive expendit ure on t he arms race. In t he case of t he Soviet Union, i t was having

crippl ing ef fect s on t heir economy.

Attempts at arms limitation

Date

Agreement

Key features

1963 Part ial Test Ban Treat y This was signed by over 100 count ries and banned

al l nuclear explosions except t hose underground.

Over 100 count ries signed.

1968 Non-prol iferat ion Treat y This was also signed by over 100 count ries. Non-

nuclear power nat ions agreed not t o develop

nuclear weapons whilst count ries wit h nuclear

weapons agreed t o negot iat e t o reduce t heir

number.

1972 SALT 1

(St rat egic Arms Limit at ions

Talks)

The superpowers agreed t o l imit cer