Edmund Malesky, UCSD

IRGN 463

October 15, 2008

Definition of termsPutting the nation-state in historical contextWorld War II and decolonizationThe Cold War and SEA state formationIssues on SEA state formation and

nationalism

NationStateNation-stateImperial stateNationalismDecolonizationCold War

Control of the region by a single power—the JapaneseThe dual role of Japan in the region

Exposed weakness of Western colonial control

Rise of nascent armed liberation movements (e.g. Indonesia and Indochina)

Rangoon University Students 1936 Aung San (Third from Left)

British Chindit Column cross river in Burma 1943

Chakri dynasty dates all the way back to 1782 after Taksin was executed and Chaophraya Chakria came to power.Power expands through the dynasty under three successive RamaModernization accelerates under the rule of Chulalongkorn (1868-1910): abolishment of slavery, financial and legal reforms, development of modern university system.Dynasty survives a coup in 1912.But King Prajadhipok (Rama VII) offered a ripe target. He was young, inexperienced and made some policy mistakes, such as tax increases and freezes on civil servant salaries, which upset the Bangkok elite.

A coup in the name of the People’s party succeeded and obliged King Rama VII to surrender the monarchy’s absolute powers and accept constitutional status in 1932.

In December 1932, the people’s party enacted a constitution, with a National Assembly half appointed and half indirectly elected.

King Rama VII announced his abdication because of the internal conflict with the people’s party in 1935.

The government then chose Prince Ananda Mahidol to be the next king (King Rama VIII).

Phibun who was the leader of the military faction became Prime Minister in 1938 when he headed a cabinet of predominantly military men.

Ananda Mahidol

Military wing of People’s Party Philbun

Phibun rapidly adopted some features of dictatorship.

Pursuing his nationalist goals, Phibun changed the country’s name from Siam to Thailand in 1939.

Phibun commanded Thai forces to invade Laos and Western Cambodia in 1940. The Japanese

stepped into mediate and award provinces of

Cambodia and Laos to Thailand. During WWII, the Thai government entered a military alliance with Japan.A free Thai movement began to grow amongst overseas Thais.Phibun resigned from his position in 1944, followed by Japanese surrender in 1945.

**This victory was popular in Thailand and Phibun was considered a true leader.**

First Filipino Independence movement, the Nacionalistas, occurs during US rule in 1907

In 1942, the Japanese captured the Philippines, forcing American forces, led by Douglas MacArthur, into a defensive position on Corregido Island.

Jose Laural was installed as a puppet leader and the Japanese declared the Philippines independent.

An indigenous group favoring land reform, formed a group called Hukbalahap, Anti-Japanese People’s Army.

They fought a guerilla war against the Japanese, aided US soldiers captured during the Batan death march

After the war, they became the military arm of the Communist Party of the Philippines.

After trying political accommodation and running for Congress, the Huks, changed their name to the People’s Liberation Army and began an insurgency.

Resoundingly defeated in 1950.

Americans overlook Filipino elite cooperation with Japanese, and supported move toward indpendence in 1946.

Industrialist Manual Roxas became the first leader.

Magsaysay, a former guerilla stirred up public imagination but died tragically in 1957.

Last independent President before Marcos.

RoxasQuiriño

Magsaysay Garcia

Resistance to British rule begins in 1920Takes greater shape under Aung San and the Rangoon

University Students Association in 1930s.World War II intervenesAung San leads “Thirty Comrades” to form Burma

Independence Army – fights with JapaneseLoses faith in Japanese support, joins British – expel

Japanese togetherAnti-Fascist People’s Freedom League January 1947 – Aung San negotiates settlement with

British for total independence July 19, 1947 – Aung San and cabinet assassinated – U

Nu steps in.U Nu well-liked, but faces too many problems amidst

post-war decimation – achieving socialist democratic ideal unlikely.

1958 – General Ne Win’s caretaker government “restores law and order”

Almost constant revolts during French colonization, some were highly influential Phan Boi Chau “Letter Inscribed in Blood from Abroad” and

Restoration Societies (1860-1940) Phan Chu Trinh advocated Western Style Constitution

(1871-1926) Cao Dai and Hoa Hao sects (1920s). Vietnamese Nationalist Party, Nguyen Thai Hoc, founded to

model Sun Yat Sen’s Guomindang. Killed in 1929. Nguyen Tat Thanh (Ho Chi Minh) (1890-1969).

Ho was an obscure French photo shop employee when he tried to contact Woodrow Wilson about Vietnamese Independence during the Versailles Peace Conference.

Eventually, he would turn toward a Leninism, speaking at the Third Communist International.

Originally, Ho cooperated with nationalists until their defeat in Yen Bai in 1929.

Later, he would return to Cao Bang province, founding the Vienamese Independence Solidarity League (the Viet Minh) in 1941.

Devastating famine in 1944, strengthens their hand, as they are the primary providers of food and shelter in rural villages.

Originally, Japan allowed Vichy French regime to govern Vietnam after the occupation, as long as it allowed transit for Japanese troops.

But Japanese grew frustrated with feeble French regime, overthrowing it and forcing the Nguyen dynasty (Emperor Bao Dai) in 1945 to sign on to Japan’s Greater Co-Prosperity Sphere.

When Japan surrendered to allies in August 1945, Viet Minh’s liberation army (led by Giap) was best positioned to benefit.

Independence was declared in 1946.Chinese invasion in the North frightened Ho, declaring “I

would rather eat French shit for 10 years than Chinese for 1000,” he pretended to disband and began guerilla warfare.

1945-54: 1st Indochinese war vs. France1954: Vietnamese crush French at Dien Bien Phu,

leading to formation of North and South Vietnam as separate states, divided at the 17th Parallel by the Geneva Agreements.

1956 Elections in South Vietnam are canceled1959 US sends in military advisers to help Diem

Regime with NLF resistance.1961 US ups the number of advisers to 32001964 Gulf of Tonkin Resolution and the onset of

war.1973 US withdraws and signs Paris Peace Accords

(Kissenger and Le Duc Tho win Nobel Peace Prize).1976: formal proclamation of the Socialist Republic

of Vietnam

After brief war with Thailand in 1941, French Cambodia lost Battambang and Siem Reap territories.

Territorial loss and the sudden death of King Monivong, created a power vacuum that they chose to fill by declaring the young Sihanouk, a student in Sai Gon as King.

‘Independent’ Kampuchea declared March 9, 1945 under Japanese alliance France still controls finance, defense, foreign affairs (1946) First time political groups encouraged

1953: neutralization of Cambodia under Prince Norodom Sihanouk, who abdicates throne and assumes governmental responsibilities.

1970: US-backed coup against Sihanouk. Lon Nol takes over as Prime Minister.

1975: victory of Khmer Rouge and proclamation of Democratic Kampuchea

1976: Year Zero

French protectorate: 1893-1941Lao Issara (Independence): At Japanese

request, King Sisavong Vong of Luan Prabang declares independence. Short-lived due to French return.

1951: formation of 1st Royal Lao Government1961: Geneva conference for neutralization of

LaosLate 1960s-1975: participation of Laotian

forces in 2nd Indochinese war as Pathet Lao.1975: formation of the Lao People’s Democratic

Republic

December 1941, Japan invades Malaysia and Singapore From their landing at Kelantan, they took over the entire

colony in 10 weeks Harsh treatment is enacted against Chinese residents.

Unlike other Southeast Asian States, independence was not actively promoted.

During this period a group of ethnic Chinese arose to Challenge the Japanese. In addition to their ethnic distinction, the group were also Communist.

The British returned after the war and began to prepare for Unified Malayan State. Harsh response from Malaysians ended the plan and the Federation of Malaysia was declared in 1948.

The Malayan Communist Party did not like the settlement and began a series of attacks to disrupt the economy (rubber and tin mines).

The resulting emergency lasted 12 years. The techniques use to break it are now considered standard operating procedure for counter-insurgency.

Political Development (1946-1955) UMNO was formed in 1946 in opposition to the “Malayan

Union” which it saw as taking away rights from ethnic Malays. The Chinese not busy fighting take the time to form the Malay-

Chinese Association (MCA). Indians form the Malay Indian Congress (MIC). UMNO, MCA, and MIC are the 3 dominant political parties in

Malaysia.

Constitution (1955) UMNO, MCA, and the British create the framework of what

would eventually become an independent Malaya. UMNO concessions: all races gain equal citizenship. MCA concessions: head of state be drawn from among Malaya’s

sultans, Malay would be the official language and Malay education and would be subsidized; UMNO gets to run military and civil service.

Abdul Rahman became the first Prime Minister of independent Malaya.

United Malaysia (1963) Rahman suggests uniting Malaya, Singapore, Sabah, Sarawak,

and Brunei into “Malaysia”. Unified territories would (1) Prevent Chinese chauvinism from

asserting itself from an independent Singapore and (2) Allow the central government to better fight communist insurgents

British liked the idea so much they drafted a constitution for this new “Malaysia”.

Constitution enshrined “Bumiputra” privileges for Malay population.

Independent Malaysia (1963) Independent Malaysia came into being on August 31 1963,

consisting of the Malaya, Brunei, Singapore, Sabah and Sarawak.

Brunei pulled out after armed insurrection. Singapore leaves following Malay fears of Chinese and Lee

Kwan Yew’s People’s Action Party (PAP) violating agreement not to run candidates outside Singapore.

Japanese defeat Dutch in 1942 after intense Naval battle. As in other countries, they work to inspire an indigenous

nationalist movement. Sukarno and Muhammed “The Proclimator” Hatta, both

imprisoned under the British, are resurrected.1945: declaration of independence by Sukarno and HattaDutch return and grab Batavia, the heart of their old

colonial empire.A series of small police actions take place to extend Dutch

reach. Predominantly end up empowering nationalists.

1945-9: revolutionary war against the Dutch and the British; Madiun uprising

1949: settlement with the Netherlands for the creation of the federated Republic of the United States of Indonesia (RUSI) joining Java and Sumatra with 15 outlying, Dutch-created states

Universalization of the nation-state idea after WWII; nation-building efforts by Cold War rivals

Modernization theory emerged to counter the appeal of Communism during the Cold War period

Modernization and political development theory: steady progress leading to a relatively universal form of capitalist modernity

The global spread of nationalism carried the idea of equality of all nations and of all citizens within all nations

US commitment to construct an open (liberal) world economy while promoting state-mediated national development to contain Soviet expansion

Modernization paradigm was guide to entire effort

Development economics emphasized the importance of foreign savings, infrastructure development, and later import substitution.

Political development theory: response to failure of prescriptions of development economistsResponse to guerilla communismMilitary modernization

Lucien PyeArgued that the basis of communism’s appeal

was the insecurity suffered by peoples in transition from traditional society to modernity

The way to defeat guerillas is to build governing institutions that were more effective, more appealing and more modern than those provided by the communists

Stressed the psychological difficulties of nation building in traditional societies

Walt Whitman RostowThe stages of growth: A non-communist

manifesto (1960)Ironically advocated government planning and

state intervention to facilitate the movement of a developing nation to reach the crucial ‘take-off’ stage

Strategic hamlet program (1962-63)Removal and concentration of peasants from

widely dispersed villages to concentrated settlements which could be controlled by the Saigon government

Expected to weaken Viet Cong’s ability to get intel, food and other supplies and recruit from villagers

NLF effectively countered by promising peasants (already hostile to the coercive resettlement) that they would be allowed to return to their old villages after revolutionary victory

Order & coercive counterinsurgencyEmphasis on military solution rather than

winning-hearts-and-minds strategy (Pauker)Clear, Hold, and Build.Huntington argued that instability is result of

rapid social change and political enfranchisement; the US has failed to fill the political gap while focusing on the economic gap; the lack of an effective structure of political authority is behind communist gains; helped bring the Americanization of the war

The contrasting case between French Indochina and Dutch East Indies

French Indochina is now three modern states

Dutch East Indies is now IndonesiaIntegrative nationalism is the most usual

pattern of anti-colonial nationalism as shown by the typical correspondence of modern national boundaries with colonial delineations

Imperial over-stretch: the case of the British empire in Asia; the US in Indochina

Opposition of domestic economic interests: the case of the Philippines

Hostile domestic and international public opinion: the case of France and US in Indochina

Basic contradiction between democracy at home and imperialism overseas (in the name of anti-communism

Originally sprawling disparate collections of colonial territories and protectorates

Unified as bureaucratic states only in the early 20th century

Vietnam annexed as a unified monarchical state by French in 19th century; most historians assert that Vietnam constituted a nation since the 10th century before French colonization; hatred of Chinese was basis for pre-colonial nationalism

In contrast, the Javanese and Sumatran kingdoms were long extinct before the Dutch consolidated colonial control; rival indigenous rulers looked at the Dutch for support

Javanese unity is almost entirely an internal ideal

Vietnamese unity has been honed by sustained conflict with foreign states (China, France, and US)

The French decided to promote mass literacy using the main vernacular languages instead of French

The Dutch also favored indigenous languages but Malay was taught in areas where it was not the vernacular; Malay will become national language of modern Indonesia

The French restricted Cambodian and Laotian officials to bureaucratic careers in home territories; improvement in educational facilities stopped them from studying in Hanoi and Saigon; Vietnamese were also employed as civil servants outside Vietnam; many Laotians and Cambodians felt ‘twice colonized’

The Dutch allowed outer islanders to seek state employment throughout the archipelago including Java

Indochina was not a unified colonial state; federation of 5 territories (Cochinchina, Annam, Tongkin, Cambodia and Laos)

Dutch East Indies was more centralized; People’s Council (Volksraad) created 1918 was important arena for all nationalists to meet and forge common identity against the colonial state

Change from royalist nationalism to modern nationalism

From loyalty to the Vietnamese emperor and territory, or quoc (against the Chinese) to the notion that the people are in the fact the country; quoc dan—country of people

Sinicized Vietnam vs. Indianized Cambodia

Vietnamese pre-colonial imperialism victimized Khmers

Vietnamese had only imperial condescension vis-à-vis Cambodians and Laotians; Cambodian and the separate courts were respected however as discrete kingdoms

IndonesiaInitially, Javanese nationalists rejected the

concept of Indonesia as too artificial or too colonial

Anderson argues that they eventually accepted the idea given the predominance of the Malay language, particularly in the press

Since Dutch imperialism was not limited to Java, Sukarno’s call for a ‘brown front’ of all indigenous peoples was the best way to oppose it

Public knowledge of the Madjapahit empire enabled a larger reinterpretation of Java

Ironically, this knowledge is a product of Dutch research

Despite the existence of ICP, Vietnamese were not very successful in recruiting Laotians and Cambodians

The ethnic emphasis in Vietnamese communism is reconfirmed with the formation of Viet Minh

Vietnam survived as an exclusive nation not because it had always been one but because it was a major pre-colonial state conquered almost intact and at a sufficiently late date to provide the most meaningful frame of reference for the inevitable nationalist reaction of the 20th century

Java did not emerge as a discrete nation not because it has never been one but because it lost its political unity and independence well before the nationalist era and was gradually absorbed into a highly centralized colonial state which eventually evoked an integrated nationalist reaction from the whole of Indonesia.