Educating the next generation of doctorate holders elsewhere

Analysis of Mechanisms of Retribution associated with International Fellowships of Postgraduate Studies

Roxana Chiappa | PhD © University of WashingtonCenter for Innovation and Research in Graduate Education (CIRGE)

Presentation for Webinar on “Movilidad de Conocimiento y Retribución a Chile”,Organized: Red de Investigadores Chilenos en Canada REDICEC.

September 29th 2016

Source: CIRGE

Agenda

§ Context à fellowships and academic mobility

§ Research questions

§ Methodology

§ Findings1. Evidence from postgraduate fellowship and

mechanisms of retribution

II. Factors influencing individuals decision of going back after degree obtained

§ Final Remarks

Why is important to discuss about mechanisms of retribution associated to international postgraduate fellowships?

§ Many governments have implemented international fellowships programs in the last decade.

§ Little attention to mechanisms of retribution. Governments have been more concerned of increasing the number of highly skilled professionals, rather than paying attention on how the national labor market will retain/absorb the new generation of highly skilled individuals educated overseas (British Council & DAAD, 2014).

§ Chilean government launched Becas Chile in 2008. It is one of the largest program of international fellowships in Latin American region (OECD & World Bank, 2010). More than 5,000 fellowships for masters and doctorates degrees awarded within the period 2009 and 2014 (CONICYT, 2014).

§ Concerns about imposed mechanisms of retribution. Becas Chile mandates fellows to go back to the country after completing their postgraduate degrees or pay back the entire amount of the fellowship (CONICYT, decree 664). Chilean fellows studying masters and doctorates overseas are concerned that they will not have enough job positions and funding sources to develop their research projects when they go back to the country.

Why is important to discuss about mechanisms of retribution associated to international postgraduate fellowships in the context of Chile?

§ International fellowships are not a new phenomenon.

§ More than 180 international fellowships programs, involving 102countries (Perna et al., 2014).

§ National governments are one of the main drivers of academic mobility (British Council & DAAD, 2014).

§ International fellowships have many purposes: • International academic mobility• Increase scientific and technological capacity • Enhance international positioning of national countries• Diplomatic relationships

International fellowships programs in the literature

Source: CIRGE

Chilean government is an important driver of international academic mobility

Source: Own elaboration with data from a DIPRES (2007). Minuta Ejecutiva Evaluación en Profundidad de Becas de Postgrado, DIPRES, Santiago

b CONICYT (2014). 25 años Becas de Doctorado CONICYT, Santiagoc From 2001 to 2005, the data was obtained from the source a. For the period 2006 and 2010, the data considered the source b.

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

Total Number of PhD Fellowships funded by the Chilean Government

Total Number of Fellowships

National

Foreign

International academic mobility occurs in a larger context of historical power asymmetries among countries and institutions

3,242 international students in Chile (2014), who come mainly from Colombia, Peru, Ecuador and Brazil.

8,937 Chileans studying abroad (2014), who are concentrated in USA, Spain, UK, France, Australia and Germany.

Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics – Global Flow of Tertiary Level Students

Note: Numbers include exchange students and students seeking academic degrees funded with different sources (undergraduate, masters and doctorates)

80.00% 69.39% 58.91% 53.68% 40.40% 27.60%

Social (N=305)

Eng Tech (N=196)

Hum (N=129)

Agric (N=95)

Med (N=99)

Nat (N=366)

Distribution of PhD by Disciplinary field

Factors associated with conducting a PhD degree abroad: gender and disciplinary field of studyEvidence from Chilean doctorate holders living in the country in 2011, who studied their doctorate degree abroad funded with multiple sources, such as gov. fellowship, TA, RA position, and other sources (N: 1,190).

56.70% 49.74%

male (N=806) female (N=384)

foreign PhD Chile PhD

Distribution by Gender

Source: Own elaboration using data of Career of Doctorate Holder Survey.. This survey was applied in December 2011 to all doctorate holders living in the country. Sample includes only doctorate holders that completed their doctorate degree between 2002-2011 and studied their high school and undergraduate in Chile.

Social class of origin of doctorate holders seems to be related with country of destination

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

Chile Spain USA Reino Unido

Francia Alemania Canada Brazil Mexico Italia Belgium Australia Japan Other 8 countries

Private HS NonPrivate HS

33% 38%

63%

41%50%

57%47%

21%

50% 50%

30%

67%

17%

53%

% Private HS

Distribution of Chilean doctorate holder per country of study and type of high school

Note: Private high school is used as a proxy of upper social class. Evidence from Chilean doctorate holders living in the country in 2011, who studied their doctorate degree abroad funded with multiple sources, such as gov. fellowship, TA, RA positions, and other sources (N: 1,190).

Source: Own elaboration using data of Career of Doctorate Holder Survey.. This survey was applied in December 2011 to all doctorate holders living in the country. Sample includes only doctorate holders that completed their doctorate degree between 2002-2011 and studied their high school and undergraduate in Chile.

§ What type of mechanisms of retribution are requested by international postgraduate government fellowships that are funded by Latin American governments?

§ What factors influence individuals decision of going back home after having completed doctorate degree overseas?

Research Questions

Source: CIRGE

Methodological approach

• Mostly descriptive.• Systematization of secondary data from institutional reports from international

agencies (World Bank, OECD, respective governments from Brazil, Chile and Mexico). • Interviews with key informants (fellow doctorate students from Mexico (N=2)

and Brazil (N=1).• Preliminary results from quantitative component of the research project: “New

Generation of Doctorate Holders in Chile”: Analysis of the effect of social class of origin in professional trajectories.

Analytical rubric to compare international fellowship programs

Policy Design Implementation

Geographic/selected HEis

Equity component

Disciplinary Fields

Sectorial /Econ Sector

Academic

Language Prof

Impacts

Production of Science/Innovation

Institutional Level Improvements

Individual LevelCareer Path (employability, mobility)

Benefits

Retribution commitment

Stipend

Tuition, fees

Other

Who applies/who gets it?

Emphases

Funding sources/budget

Institutional capacity

Higher Education and Research Capacity of the countrySource: Own elaboration

Analysis about government funded fellowships to complete postgraduate degrees

Criteria of Context Brazil Mexico Chile

Populationa 201 M 118.8 M 17,6 M

Per-Capita USD (PPP)b 11,700 15,400 15,732

HE enrolled (20-29 years old)c 21.1% 14.7% 28.9%

Public resources in total funding of HE 67.8% 34.6%

Int mobility students rateInbound-Outbounbde

56:100 29:100 36:100

R&D as a percentage of GDPf 1.19 0.53 0.38

N Researchers per 1000 employedg 1.35 0.59 0.96Sources: a: OECD – year 2014b: OECD – year 20013c: OECD – last year available 2014d: Mexico & Chile: OECD ; Chile: MINEDUC 2015e: UNESCO 2013f: Brazil: RICYT last year available 2013; Mexico & Chile: OECD last year available 2014g: Brazil: RICYT last year available 2010; Mexico: OECD last year available 2011; Chile: OECD last year available 2014;

Fellowship Design

Fellowship

Rationale

Funding sources

Magnitude

Disciplinary focus

Selected Institution

Brazil

Brazil Scientific Mobility Programs (2011)Science without Borders

International acad mobility,foster research & innov

75% government25% Private

Plan: 101,000 (2011-2014)75,000 fellowship awarded until Dec 2013

Selected fields in STEM

Institutional agreements with 250 institutions selected according positioning in rankings

Mexico

CONACYT International Fellowships (2008 – reglamento)

Develop the next generation of faculty for the expansion of HE

100% government

3000 fellowships a year

Preferentially STEM

Institutional agreements + 100 top ranked universities (international rankings)

Chile

Becas Chile (2008)

Increase scientific capacity,international positioning of Chile in the knowledge econ

100% government

Plan: 3,300 fellowships a year2,284 PhD; 3,080 Masters within 2008-2014

No-disciplinary focus, most of fellowships in social sciences and hum

Has changed. 150 top ranked universities and/or highly selective academic programs

Source: Own elaboration based on institutional documents found in institutional repositories of the respective countries and interviews with key informants. Brazil- Bases:http://www.cienciasemfronteiras.gov.br/en/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=9faad6eb-897a-430c-840c-8176214f375d&groupId=214072BrazilQ&A:http://www.cienciasemfronteiras.gov.br/web/csf/duvidas-frequentesMexicoBases:http://conacyt.gob.mx/images/conacyt/becas/extranjero/2014/REGLAMENTO_DE_BECAS-vig.pdfMexicoQ&A:http://conacyt.gob.mx/index.php/becarios-extranjerosChileDecreto 664:http://www.conicyt.cl/becas-conicyt/files/2012/10/Decreto.664.2008.pdf

Fellowship Implementation

Type of fellowships

Benefits

Mechanisms of retribution

Brazil

Exchange 1-year: PhD & UG; Post doctoral; PhD degree- 4 years; Masters Visiting scholars;Young international researchers

Fees, stipend, health insurance, language course,

Fellows have to comeback for the same duration of the fellowship.Fellows can postpone their return if they present a STI project before they finished their program, after three supervisors authorized.Or payback the fellowship (fees, tuition, stipend)

Mexico

PhD degrees-4Y;Masters-2Y

Fees, stipend, health insurance

Return within the 12 monthsafter degree obtained. Return can be accredited by either:- Living in Mexico for at least 6 m- Professional activities in Mexico- Working or collaborating with

public and/or private institutions located in Mexico

Chile

PhD-4Y; Masters-2Y; post-doc-2Y,Masters for teacher-2Y; technicians-2Y: Med spec: 3Y-; internsips:10 to 12m

Fees, tuitions, stipend, health insurance, language course,

Return within 1– 2years according degree obtainedGoing back at least same number of years of the duration of the fellowshipOr payback the fellowship (fees, tuition, stipend)

International Fellowship Program Typology: 183 initiatives analyzed (Perna et al. 2014)

Type of Fellowship

Degree of Education

Focus of the fellowship program

Retribution

Type I(n=19)

Undergrad attainment

Development of Basic skills

Type II

(n=18)

Postgradattainment

Development of Advanced knowledge in developing nations

- 100% of the program request going back

Type III (n=94)

Postgrad attainment

Development of Advanced knowledge in developed nations

- 55% of the program request going back.

Type IV(n=13)

Exchange all levels

Promotion of short-term study abroad

Students go back to end their program

Source: Adapted table from Perna et al (2014). Promoting Human Capital Development: A Typology of International Scholarship Programs in Higher Education. Educational Researcher, 43, 63-73. 10.3102/0013189X14521863

Albania’s Excellence Fund, Saudi Arabia’s King Abdullah, Turkey’s Gov

Examples

Fulbright initiatives in Bosnia- Herzegovina, Mexico (COMEXUS), Pakistan, Rwanda

Becas Chile, Fulbright initiatives in innovation driven economies

Brazil Scientific Mobility Program, Germany DAAD

Source: CIRGE

Factors influencing decision of going back, staying in the host country and/or going elsewhere after degree obtained

Push/Pulling factors affecting decision of highly skilled individuals after degree attained overseas

Individual § Strategic consideration taking into account job opportunities and social status (Zweig and

Changgui, 1995; Cantwell et al. 2009; Lee et al. 2006)§ Personal and familial reasons (e.g. partner, future of kids) § Political reasons (free speech, political stability, security)

National Policies§ Pull factors: National immigration policies and incentives for attracting and/or retaining foreign

scientists and innovators from elsewhere (Policies fostering brain Gain)§ Push factors: Low salaries, lack of meritocracy, political instability, lack of job opportunities may

des-incentivize the return of highly skilled individuals (Factors causing Brain Drain; )§ Pull factors: Incentives to attract international diaspora of scientists after they have developed

their professional career overseas (Policies fostering “Brain Circulation”)

The group of Chilean doctorates holders with temporary visa in the USA appears the least interested in staying in the USA after PhD earned compared to other countries from the Americas.

Source: Own elaboration based on data from NSF (2016). Survey of Earned Doctorates 2014. TABLE 53. Doctorate recipients with temporary visas intending to stay in the United States after doctorate receipt, by country of citizenship: 2008–14

Percentage of doctorate graduates from USA universities in 2014 attempting to stay in the USA after PhD degree obtained

(Nationalities from countries in the Americas)

83%

64% 60% 57% 55% 55% 51%

35%

Venezuela (N=40)

Argentina (N=67)

Other (N=303)

Colombia (N=216)

Canada (N=484)

Mexico (N=193)

Brazil (N=140)

Chile (N=99)

Descriptive Analysis: Reasons associated to going back to Chile after PhD degree obtained elsewhere

§ Options marked by Chilean doctorate holders that studied their doctorate degree abroad and went to back to Chile (n=648) .

Reasons N subjects reporting each option

Doctorate program ended 424Personal factors 124Requirement of the fellowship 76Academic factors 52Other factors 42Other reasons 16Labor contract ended 14Complete a post-doc 14Came back, but planning to leave 24

Options are not exclusive

Source: Own elaboration using data of Career of Doctorate Holder Survey. This survey was applied in December 2011 to all doctorate holders living in the country. This sample includes only doctorate holders that completed their doctorate degree abroad between 2002-2011 and studied their high school and undergraduate in Chile.

§ Brazil and Chile request fellows to go back to the country or paying the entire amount of the fellowship.

§ Fellows of Becas Chile may postpone their return in case their spouse is finishing an academic program funded by a government fellowship and/or they have another fellowship funded by the government.

§ Mexico seems to have incorporated the notion of international research collaboration as a part of the mechanisms of retribution.

Mechanisms of retribution associated to international fellowships in Latin American countries (selected cases)

§ Considering the existing information, Chile apparently has a high rate of return of doctorate holders that studied abroad.

Factors influencing decision of going back

§ However, labor market for doctorate holders might change substantially in the short term, given the large number of doctorate holders funded by government fellowships in the last seven years (potential threat of brain drain – OECD & World Bank, 2010).

§ The existing information is still limited to evaluate the effectiveness of the policy (Knowledge gap and assess brain drain/brain gain or brain circulation.

§ International academic mobility occurs in contexts of power asymmetriesacross countries, among higher education institutions and individuals that comefrom different societal groups.

Final Remarks

§ Potential proposal of mechanisms of retribution associated to internationalfellowship should be evaluated considering who pays the costs and who gets thebenefits of the different options of retribution.

Educating the next generation of

doctorate holders elsewhere

Roxana Chiappa | rchiappa@uw.eduCenter for Innovation and Research in

Graduate Education (CIRGE)

Muchas Gracias