education for citizenship

Education for Citizenship in Scotland: A Paper for Discussion and Development 1

contentscontents

Preface ii

Summary 1

Introduction 2

Section 1 What is ‘citizenship’ and why is‘education for citizenship’ important? 3

Section 2 What should education for citizenshipseek to achieve? 7

Section 3 Effective education for citizenship inpractice 12

Section 4 Areas for development and exploration 28

Annex A 32

Annex B 34

Appendix 35

Education for Citizenship in Scotland: A Paper for Discussion and Development2

prefaceEducating young people in ways that prepare them for living effectively andresponsibly as members of local, national and global communities is vital to thewell-being of humanity, now and in the future. I am, therefore, delighted tointroduce this important paper from the Advisory Council of Learning andTeaching Scotland.

I welcome the broad view of education for citizenship expressed in the paper and Iagree that the overall goal of education for citizenship in Scotland should be todevelop children and young people’s capability for thoughtful and responsibleparticipation in political, economic, social and cultural life.

I am pleased to endorse the content of the paper as the basis for a nationalframework for education for citizenship from 3 to 18, and to commend it foradoption and use in ways appropriate to local needs and circumstances. Theperspectives and principles set out in this paper will, I believe, provide aframework for use by schools and early education establishments, localauthorities, HMIE and others to evaluate the extent and quality of provision foreducation for citizenship. As such, it links closely with the implementation of theNational Priorities as part of the School Improvement Framework and with otherkey national developments in education.

As well as providing a much needed framework to assist with ongoingdevelopments in the short to medium term, Education for Citizenship in Scotlandis being published at a time when it should be able to contribute significantly tothe National Debate on the longer term future of school education.

This paper will of course be of relevance to education professionals, but I believeit contains important messages for a much wider audience. Education forCitizenship in Scotland will be of interest also to parents and carers; thoseworking in a range of local and national government departments; the voluntaryand charitable sector; in community and learning development and not least foryoung people themselves.

Cathy JamiesonMinister for Education and Young People

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This paper sets out the position of the Advisory Council of Learning and Teaching Scotland oneducation for citizenship together with recommendations for actions that should be taken toensure that important principles are turned into effective practice. On behalf of the AdvisoryCouncil I wish to record our thanks to Professor Pamela Munn and the members of theNational Review Group established in October 1999 for undertaking this important work onthis key, overarching purpose of education at all stages from the earliest years to 18+. We alsowish to acknowledge with gratitude the valuable contributions made by many others duringextensive discussions and consultations conducted as part of the review.

Much that happens in all educational settings promotes active and responsible citizenship.However, this has not always been recognised and made explicit. Education for Citizenship inScotland attempts to establish a clear framework that can be used by all those involved inyoung people’s education to assist with discussion, evaluation and further development ofexisting policies and practices. The framework is relevant to, and supportive of, implementa-tion of all of the current National Priorities for education.

The central idea in the paper is that young people should be enabled to develop capability forthoughtful and responsible participation in political, economic, social and cultural life. This isdefined in terms of four aspects – knowledge and understanding, skills and competence,values and dispositions and creativity and enterprise. The paper also describes the types ofopportunities and conditions for learning that schools and early years centres, working withparents and their communities, need to provide to facilitate progressive development. As wellas focusing on implications for learning and teaching and for curriculum design, the paperemphasises two related core themes that need to be considered by schools, early yearscentres and local authorities.

Firstly, young people learn most about citizenship by being active citizens. Schools, shouldmodel the kind of society in which active citizenship is encouraged by providing all youngpeople with opportunities to take on responsibilities and exercise choice. This requires thedevelopment of an open, participatory ethos, and management and organisation that recog-nises the importance of involving young people and everyone else with a stake in the learningcommunity in the key decisions that affect them.

Secondly, the development of capability for citizenship should be fostered in ways that motivateyoung people to be active and responsible members of their communities – local, national andglobal. Education for citizenship entails building bridges and developing interconnectionsbetween school or early years centre and community, to give young people opportunities todevelop knowledge, understanding and care for the wider world.

All this is challenging and will not be overtaken immediately. Education for Citizenship inScotland sets out an important agenda for development and provides a focus for furtherexploration and discussion. We look forward to playing our part in supporting these processesof discussion and development that are essential to the future quality of Scottish education.

Professor Tom WilsonChairmanLearning and Teaching Scotland

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This paper for discussion and development explores and suggests answers to fourmain questions.

• What do we mean by ‘citizenship’?• Why is ‘education for citizenship’ important?• What should education for citizenship do for young people?• What does effective education for citizenship involve in practice – for the

curriculum, for schools and early education centres and for communities?

The Introduction provides a brief overview of the current and changing contextwithin which these questions are being considered.

Section 1 aims to answer the first two questions. It includes an outline of theessential characteristics of active and responsible citizenship and describesimplications of this for schools and early education establishments.

The third question is addressed in Section 2. Education for citizenship is taken tobe a key purpose of the curriculum. Its overall goal is summed up as developmentof capability for thoughtful and responsible participation in political, economic,social and cultural life. This capability for active citizenship is analysed in terms offour aspects, each associated with a set of learning outcomes: knowledge andunderstanding, skills and competences, values and dispositions, and creativityand enterprise.

Section 3 focuses on the fourth question. It describes the types of opportunitiesand conditions for learning to which all young people are entitled in order todevelop, in a progressive manner, the capability for active and responsiblecitizenship proposed in Section 2. It also examines the contexts within whichthese opportunities and conditions can be provided to enable progressivedevelopment through early, primary and secondary stages of formal education.

Finally, Section 4 indicates proposals for immediate action, and considers anumber of issues, related to the framework set out in the paper, which will requirefurther exploration.

Annexes A and B provide more detailed descriptions of areas of knowledge andgeneric skills relevant to development of capability for citizenship.

summarysummary


Schools and other educational establishments have a central part to play ineducating young people for life as active and responsible members of theircommunities. They share this role with families and others, and must work inpartnership with them to provide young people with learning opportunities thatcontribute to their development as citizens.

The advent of the Scottish Parliament has encouraged a fresh focus on theimportance of people living in Scotland being able to understand and participatein democratic processes. If greater national autonomy is to be matched by anenhanced sense of social and political responsibility in the population, youngpeople need opportunities to develop the knowledge, skills and attitudes that willallow them to take that responsibility. This is recognised in the national prioritiesfor education whose status is established in the Standards in Scotland’s Schools,etc. Act 2000. Schools are encouraged to ‘work with parents to teach pupilsrespect for self and one another and their interdependence with other membersof their neighbourhood and society and to teach them the duties and responsibili-ties of citizenship in a democratic society’. In this sense education for citizenshipshould empower young people to participate thoughtfully and responsibly incommunity and civic life.

There is growing concern, throughout the UK, to work towards a more inclusivesociety where inequities are addressed effectively and cultural and communitydiversity is celebrated. Ways and means are being sought to tackle disaffectionand disengagement from society and, more broadly, to address issues of socialinjustice and of personal identity. At the same time there is evidence of growingscepticism about traditional structures of representative democracy and theforms of political activity associated with them. By contrast, participation in single-issue pressure groups, and organisations concerned with, for example, consumerissues, human rights and sustainable development, has increased in recentyears.

Scotland and the rest of the UK exist in a rapidly changing wider world. A growingsense of the interconnectedness of peoples and places is affecting individualsand societies – economically, environmentally, culturally and politically. Thisprocess of ‘globalisation’ is being further promoted by the ongoing revolution ininformation and communications technology (ICT). Multinational corporationsexert increasing influence over national economies and cultures through theirinvestment decisions and their marketing of products and services. The EuropeanUnion continues to evolve, and to influence our political, legal and economicinstitutions. At the same time, inequalities between the economically rich andpoor seem to be increasing. International and global trends create social pres-sures as well as opening opportunities for individuals and society. They raise freshissues about the distribution of power and the extent to which individuals, localcommunities, territorial states and business corporations have influence over ahost of social, economic and environmental matters. The complexity of modernsociety and the magnitude of the changes taking place within it sometimesthreaten to overwhelm individuals. People doubt their ability to influence events,

introductionintroduction


but remain troubled by the manifestations of social stress they experience or seereported in the media.

It is important to take due account of this changing context when consideringafresh the purposes and goals of education – both formal and informal – inScotland. The main contention of this paper is that young people’s education inschool and early education settings has a key role to play in fostering a modern,democratic society, whose members have a clear sense of identity and belonging,feel empowered to participate effectively in their communities and recognise theirroles and responsibilities as global citizens.


1.1 Meanings of ‘citizenship’

The Advisory Council of Learning and Teaching Scotland subscribes to the viewthat everyone should be recognised as being a citizen, in a variety of senses, frombirth. Young people should be regarded as citizens of today rather than citizens inwaiting. Children are born with rights that are well described in the UN Conventionon the Rights of the Child. As young people grow into adulthood, new rights andresponsibilities are acquired.

Everyone belongs to various types of community, both communities of place, fromlocal to global, and communities of interest, rooted in a common concern orpurpose. Citizenship involves enjoying rights and exercising responsibilities inthese various types of community. This way of seeing citizenship encompassesthe specific idea of political participation by members of a democratic state. Italso includes the more general notion that citizenship embraces a range ofparticipatory activities, not all overtly political, that affect the welfare ofcommunities. Examples are, voluntary work, personal engagement in localconcerns such as neighbourhood watch schemes or parent–teacher associations,or general engagement in civic society.

Citizenship is about making informed choices and decisions, and about takingaction, individually and as part of collective processes. Being a citizen is,therefore, closely bound up with the multiple roles that individuals have in society– as producers or consumers of goods and services, as contributors to economicand cultural development – as well as with various facets of each individual’spersonal, social and working life. For example, the opportunity to exercisepersonal choice as a consumer of particular products or services is anincreasingly influential strand of citizenship in contemporary society.

The rights and responsibilities of citizens are reciprocal in many respects. If we allhave a right to be treated with respect, then it follows that we have a clearobligation to treat all others with respect. If we all have a right to a say on mattersthat affect our lives, then we have a responsibility to attend to the views of otherson matters that also affect them. However, it is also clear that perceptions ofrights and responsibilities by individuals in different social groups are sometimesin conflict. In contemporary society the perceived rights of rural dwellers and towndwellers, new and established members of the community, food producers andfood consumers, convicted law-breakers and their victims are amongst those that

section 1What is ‘citizenship’and why is ‘educationfor citizenship’important?


sometimes are in conflict. Education for citizenship must recognise the existenceof such conflicts, and must help young people develop strategies for dealingeffectively with controversy. These strategies include negotiation, compromise,awareness of the impact of conflict on the overall wellbeing of the community andthe environment, and development of well-informed respect for differencesbetween people. At the same time young people need to learn that althoughindividuals should always be treated with respect, some of the views some peoplemay hold, including those associated with racism and sectarianism, are a gravethreat to the wellbeing of individuals and communities and must be opposed.

Active and responsible citizenship is not just about individuals having a sense ofbelonging to, and functioning in, communities. It is also an aspect of corporate orinstitutional life. Just as a key facet of each individual’s citizenship should be acaring and responsible use of material and financial resources, businessorganisations also have a responsibility, as ‘corporate citizens’, to achieve theireconomic goals in ways that are consistent with sustainable development andwith the health and welfare of communities.

1.2 The value of ‘education for citizenship’

Education for citizenship is important because every society needs people tocontribute effectively, in a variety of ways, to the future health and wellbeing ofcommunities and the environment, locally, nationally and globally. Fostering activeand responsible citizens contributes to the process of developing a healthy andvibrant culture of democratic participation. Moreover, as the Report of theDiscipline Task Group, 2001, suggests, ‘people are more likely to understand thereasons for policies and procedures, and therefore genuinely subscribe to them,when they have been actively involved in determining them.’

Whilst all individuals share the rights and responsibilities of citizenship, regard-less of status, knowledge or skill, it is clear that citizenship may be exercised withdifferent degrees of effectiveness. A variety of personal and social circumstancescan impede a person’s capacity for active citizenship. For example, homelessyoung people may not secure the right to vote simply because they have noaddress. More generally, many young people living in poverty and experiencingother forms of disadvantage feel alienated. They see little point in participating ina system that seems remote from their concerns. It is in the interest both ofindividuals and of society as a whole that the rights and responsibilities ofcitizenship are well understood, that young people develop the capability neededto function effectively as citizens in modern society, and that structures areprovided to enable them to do so.

The opportunities for learning that are provided in schools and early educationsettings make important contributions to the process of educating for active andresponsible citizenship. At the same time, the contributions of formal educationneed to be seen alongside, and in interaction with, other influences. Theseinclude the influence of parents, carers and the media and opportunities for

Education for Citizenship in Scotland: A Paper for Discussion and Development1 0

community-based learning. Also, school and early education establishments needto take account of the diversity of the local communities in which young peoplelive.

Broadly speaking, the citizenship that formal education should seek to promoteand foster needs to be thoughtful and responsible – rooted in and expressive of, arespectful and caring disposition in relation to people, human society generally,the natural world and the environment. It should also be active, in the sense ofpeople being able to act and participate in various communities, wherever itseems to them desirable or appropriate to do so.

There are important implications for schools and early education centres of thisview of citizenship. Approaches to all aspects of education for citizenship in theclassroom, or the wider life of the school or community should be informed by theawareness that citizenship is best learnt through experience and interaction withothers. In short, learning about citizenship is best achieved by being an activecitizen.

Another implication is that young people and their parents or carers should beroutinely involved in school development planning and other areas of schooldecision making. Also, because citizenship is a lifelong process, young people’slearning experiences should encourage them to be disposed to be active andresponsible citizens both now and later in their lives.

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Education for Citizenship in Scotland: A Paper for Discussion and Development 1 1

2.1 Introduction

Education for citizenship is a key purpose of the early years and school curriculumand of community education programmes. It is about the development of thewhole person and is closely related to other key, overarching purposes of thecurriculum such as education for personal growth and education for work. Thissection proposes an overall goal for education for citizenship and elaborates thisinto a framework of learning outcomes that offers a basis for reviewing anddeveloping existing provision.

2.2 The overall goal

Education for citizenship should aim to develop capability for thoughtful andresponsible participation in political, economic, social and cultural life. Thiscapability is rooted in knowledge and understanding, in a range of generic skillsand competences, including ‘core skills’, and in a variety of personal qualities anddispositions. It finds expression through creative and enterprising approaches toissues and problems.

Being a capable citizen is not just about possessing knowledge and skills. It isabout being able and willing to use knowledge and skills to make decisions and,where appropriate, take action. Nor is effective citizenship just about having thecapacity and disposition to be active. It is about being able to take action andmake things happen for ends – and by means – that are infused with respect andcare for people and a sense of social and environmental responsibility. Equally, areasoned decision by an individual not to take action is a legitimate personalchoice.

Capability for citizenship encompasses social, economic and cultural ‘literacies’coupled with the capacity for participation in all aspects of society – economic,social and cultural. Finally, and importantly, capability for citizenship, as envis-aged here, also includes ideas about ‘political literacy’.

2.3 Outcomes

Capability for citizenship can be analysed in terms of four related aspects, each ofwhich relates to a set of broad categories of learning outcome. These aspects are:are ‘knowledge and understanding’; ‘skills and competences’; ‘values anddispositions’; and ‘creativity and enterprise’. Each of these types of outcome is

section 2What shouldeducation forcitizenship seek toachieve?


described and exemplified in the following paragraphs. Whilst many are distinctiveto education for citizenship, some are also associated with other key purposes –‘education for work’ and ‘education for personal growth’. By their very nature,core skills, for example, are important for personally rewarding living and produc-tive employment as well as for effective citizenship. Outcomes related to eachaspect of capability for citizenship are relevant to the whole process of lifelonglearning. The school is responsible for providing contexts for learning appropriateto the maturity and prior experience of young people, and for ensuring progres-sion through the various stages.

Knowledge and understanding

‘Knowledge and understanding’ means appreciating the need to base opinions,views and decisions on relevant knowledge and on a critical evaluation andbalanced interpretation of evidence. A knowledgeable citizen is aware of thecomplexity of the economic, ethical and social issues and dilemmas that confrontpeople. She or he also recognises that narrowly focused responses to an issuecan often create or exacerbate other problems. Citizens need to have someknowledge of political, social, economic and cultural ideas and phenomena.1 Theyalso need to know how to go about extending and deepening that knowledge. It isespecially important that they should come to understand how everyday eventshave a connection with larger happenings in the community and society.

Examples of learning outcomes related to knowledge and understanding forcitizenship

As a result of their learning experiences, young people should becomeprogressively more able to demonstrate understanding of:• contemporary local and global issues, paying regard to available evidence,

and to a range of ideas and interpretations of their significance• the rights and responsibilities underpinning democratic and other societies• opportunities for individuals and voluntary groups to bring about social and

environmental change, and the values on which such endeavours are based• people’s material and spiritual needs and wants and the implications of

these for issues such as environmental sustainability and social justice• the working of the economy, including mechanisms for the creation and uses

of wealth• the causes of conflict and possible approaches to resolving it, recognising

that controversy is normal in society and sometimes has beneficial effects• the barriers to full opportunity to exercise citizenship arising from socio-

economic circumstances, prejudice and discrimination• decision making processes in society and the roles of the media and

marketing in these processes• global interdependence, and the effects of globalisation on human societies.

1 See Annex A, which lists a range of knowledge domains/areas of learning with which citizens should havesome familiarity.


Skills and competencies

Education for citizenship involves developing a range of generic skills, including‘core skills’ that are widely recognised as also being essential for personallyrewarding living and for productive employment.2 ‘Competence’ is used here todenote a cluster of generic skills that need to be developed along with variouspersonal qualities such as self-esteem, confidence, initiative, determination andemotional maturity in order to be responsible and effective participants in acommunity. Being skilled and competent as a citizen means feeling empowered,knowing and valuing one’s potential for positive action and being generallyprepared to take a constructive and proactive approach to issues and problems.Whilst the skills described here may be acquired across a wide range of curricularareas, it is necessary that some explicit links are made with the nature andpurpose of education for citizenship.

Examples of learning outcomes related to skills and competencies forcitizenship

As a result of their learning experiences, young people should becomeprogressively more able to:• work independently and in collaboration with others to complete tasks

requiring individual or group effort as appropriate• locate, handle, use and communicate information and ideas, using ICT as

appropriate• question and respond constructively to the ideas and actions of others in

debate and/or in writing• contribute to discussions and debate in ways that are assertive and, at the

same time, attentive to and respectful of others’ contributions• make informed decisions in relation to political, community and

environmental issues• persevere, where appropriate, in the face of setbacks and practical

difficulties• negotiate, compromise, or assist others to understand and respect

difference, when conflict occurs, recognising the difference betweenconsensus and compliance.

Values and dispositions

A key part of education for citizenship is developing the ability to recognise andrespond thoughtfully to values and value judgements that are part and parcel ofpolitical, economic, social and cultural life. At the same time, early educationcentres and schools can help to foster in young people a number of personalqualities and dispositions rooted in values of respect and care for self, for othersand for the environment. They can also promote a sense of social responsibility.Being fair-minded in making decisions and being inclined to exercise responsibilityare essential qualities of a responsible citizen.


Examples of learning outcomes related to values and dispositions forcitizenship

As a result of their learning experiences, young people should becomeprogressively more disposed to:• develop informed and reasoned opinions about political, economic, social

and environmental issues• express, explain and critically evaluate views that are not their own• demonstrate a sense of responsibility for the welfare of their communities• understand and value cultural and community diversity and be respectful of

other people• understand how ethics and values influence people’s decisions and actions• understand and value social justice, recognising that what counts as social

justice is itself contentious• confront views and actions that are harmful to the wellbeing of individuals

and communities.

Creativity and enterprise

Being an effective citizen means being able to demonstrate the capacity forthinking and acting creatively in political, economic, social and cultural life.Creative and enterprising citizenship involves making thoughtful and imaginativedecisions and being enterprising in one’s approach to participation in society.

Examples of learning outcomes related to creativity and enterprise forcitizenship

As a result of their learning experiences, young people should becomeprogressively more able to:• identify and frame their own questions and problems and suggest possible

solutions• respond in imaginative ways to social, moral and political dilemmas and

challenges• apply knowledge and skills gained in one context to another in order to take

advantage of an opportunity, solve a problem or resolve an issue• imagine alternatives to current ways of doing things• manage change, dealing with risk and uncertainty in an enterprising manner• explore and reach an understanding of their own creative abilities and how to

make best use of these.

All four of these categories of learning outcome are key parts of the developmentof capability for citizenship. Having said that, it is essential that the four aspectsare fostered in ways that ensure development of the integrative ability that is atthe heart of effective and purposeful citizenship. For example, young people needto see, and learn to make use of connections between:• knowledge and skills associated with different areas of study


• what they learn in formal settings and their experiences in the wider world• acting locally and thinking globally.

Therefore, although many, if not all, of the above learning outcomes can belocated within existing subjects and programmes of study, there is a continuingchallenge for schools to create learning opportunities that make theseconnections in memorable and enjoyable ways.


3.1 An entitlement for all

All young people should have opportunities to develop and deploy their capabilityfor active and responsible citizenship in ways appropriate to their needs andmaturity. This entitlement is established as one of the national priorities foreducation. This section examines ways in which the entitlement to education forcitizenship can be realised effectively in schools and early education settings. Theapproach proposed does not involve the creation of a new subject labelled‘citizenship education’ – or the adaptation of any single existing area of thecurriculum for this purpose. Instead, Council takes the view that each youngperson’s entitlement to education for citizenship can be secured throughcombinations of learning experiences set in the daily life of the school, discreteareas of the curriculum, cross-curricular experiences and activities involving linkswith the local community. To be fully effective, these learning experiences need tobe located in communities where all recognise that they have something to learn,and that they have an entitlement to have their opinions heard.

3.2 An active participatory ethos

Education for citizenship is a key part of the responsibility of every teacher andearly education practitioner. It is part and parcel of every area of study and of allteaching and learning.

It is essential to effective education for citizenship that learning experiencesprovide opportunities for active engagement and that they are perceived by youngpeople as purposeful and personally relevant. The ethos and climate for learningin classrooms and beyond should be:• positive and challenging, reflecting and encouraging high expectations on the

part of both pupils and teachers• characterised by respect and care for individuals and their communities• stimulating and motivating, promoting thoughtful interaction and critical

debate• conducive to enterprising, constructive thinking.

The realisation of the goals of education for citizenship, as with other keypurposes of the curriculum, is profoundly affected by the ethos of educationalestablishments. Schools and early education settings need to function as activelearning communities in which participation by all members is encouraged andwhere there are effective links and partnerships with the wider communities inwhich they are located. Such learning communities can model, in very powerful

section 3Effective educationfor citizenship inpractice


ways, the qualities and dispositions associated with education for citizenship.Young people should see that all people in the school are treated with respectand their views sought and taken account of on relevant matters. The way anestablishment is organised and managed, the manner, attitudes and quality ofthe relationships evident among its members, and the ways in which it interactswith pupils, parents and the wider community can all provide important, tangibleindications of what inclusive, participative communities are like in practice. Byhelping young people to have some first-hand experience of what being an activeand responsible member of a community means, early education settings andschools can make important contributions to the development of capability forcitizenship in the world outside school.

3.3 The professional contribution of teachers and earlyeducation practitioners

All teachers and early education practitioners have a role to play in education forcitizenship. They may do this through:• the content of their teaching, and most significantly, the way in which it is

taught• the connections they are able to make between apparently disparate areas

of study and young people’s social and community experience• their relationships with young people and readiness to listen to and take

account of young people’s views.

Their skills and attitudes and the range of learning experiences they are able tocreate for young people are crucial to the establishment of an open, participatoryethos. In general terms the characteristics required are:• the ability to help young people to understand the connections between

academic work, their social experiences and events in the world outsideschool

• respect for young people’s ideas and views about their learning, and theirexperiences within and outwith the school, and an ability to build on these intheir own teaching

• willingness and ability to create learning experiences that extend youngpeople’s social experience, and to help them reflect on their learning

• tolerance of disagreement and the expression of minority views, and theability to help young people understand and resolve conflict

• skill in sharing responsibility and decision making with young people, andhelping them to understand the constraints within which decisions are made

• readiness to work in collaboration and partnership with colleagues within theschool community and beyond.


These skills and attitudes will manifest themselves in a rich range of learningexperiences for young people. Specific, key learning experiences that contribute toeducation for citizenship are:• exploration of social and moral issues and dilemmas through discussions

and case studies that require use of evidence and the construction ofdefensible arguments

• engagement with a variety of social, political, economic and environmentalproblems and issues in order to develop enterprising and feasible solutionsor effective responses

• negotiating, helping to organise and taking part in activities such as projectsto improve the school environment, consultation exercises and thedevelopment of effective pupil councils

• negotiating, helping to organise and taking part in community-basedactivities, including voluntary work in the local community

• participation meaningfully in decision making about rules, rewards andsanctions

• contributing actively to the development and operation of policies regardingissues such as bullying or racism

• reflecting and being consulted with real purpose on their experience offormal education and of participation in the school, or early education,community

• using ICT to question and consult with other people and groups, locally,nationally and internationally, about contemporary issues and seek differentkinds of evidence to inform their views about these issues.

Together these key learning experiences provide an essential part of a frameworkfor mapping and auditing provision for education for citizenship. Every youngperson should normally have opportunities for developing capability for citizenshipthrough these kinds of experiences. Ensuring such entitlement may bechallenging to various features of the life and experience of an educationalestablishment – not least the extent to which the establishment is itself ademocratic and participatory community.

3.4 Contexts for learning and development

To achieve these ends consideration should be given to developments in fourareas of school life.

• Participation by young people in the decisions and activities that are part ofthe culture and everyday life of the school community or early educationcentre.

• Studies within specific curricular areas or subjects throughout the stagesfrom early education to post-16.

• Cross-curricular experiences, such as enterprise activities, internationalawareness activities or drama productions.

• Involvement in link activities with the wider community, including environ-mental projects and community service.


Participation by young people in decision making

The right of young people to participate in decision making on matters affectingtheir daily lives is stated in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of theChild. One of the guiding principles of the Children (Scotland) Act 1995, is that‘each child who can form his or her views on matters affecting her or him has theright to express those views if he or she so wishes’. The Standards in Scotland’sSchools, etc. Act 2000, requires that each school’s development plan shallinclude an account of the ways and extent to which the headteacher of the schoolwill consult with pupils and involve them in decision making, when decisions aremade concerning the everyday running of the school. Pupil participation lies atthe heart of learning ‘citizenship through experience’, and has been developedenthusiastically by many local authorities and individual schools in Scotland.

Pupil participation should be developed within a framework that:• recognises the value of the views of all members of the school community,

including the adults who work in the school, and in relevant circumstancesthose who live around it

• extends beyond broad areas of school policy to the content and teaching oflessons, using processes such as profiling, Personal Learning Plans, andother procedures devised for school and departmental self-evaluation

• actively seeks and takes account of the views of all pupils• devolves the process of decision making on the responsible uses of

resources, for example those that have been allocated to pupil councils• allows for feedback and extended discussion when pupils’ views conflict with

those of the people responsible for the management of the school.

Studies within specific curricular areas or subjects

Much of young people’s education for citizenship can take place through learningand teaching within specific curricular areas or subjects throughout the stagesfrom early education to post-16. An overall challenge for curriculum designers andplanners is to ensure that each young person’s entitlement to education forcitizenship through ‘mainstream’ learning and teaching is provided by means of avaried, carefully planned and progressive programme of learning experiences.This includes planning for transitions between early education, primary andsecondary education.

A Curriculum Framework for Children 3 to 5 recommends practitioners toconsider:• the extent to which contexts for learning link with children’s experiences at

home and in the community• the range of opportunities provided to develop social awareness and

willingness to cooperate• the extent to which children feel included in activities and experiences• whether children are helped to be aware of differences and value them.


Throughout the 5–14 stages of schooling, young people’s studies of all thecurricular areas that are part of their entitlement provide opportunities fordeveloping and applying knowledge, skills and dispositions that underpin activeand responsible citizenship. For example:

• In the social subjects components of environmental studies, there areopportunities to develop important elements of social, political and economicunderstanding and to foster other aspects of capability for citizenship. Theattainment outcome ‘people in society’ in particular directly addresses manyof the knowledge and understanding learning outcomes. Along with its mostclosely related secondary subject, modern studies, it also providesopportunities to develop many of the skills and values associated witheducation for citizenship in relevant contexts

• In the context of environmental studies, pupils can consider the effects ofscientific developments and technological activity on people’s lives and theenvironment, as recommended in the Scottish Executive’s Science Strategyfor Scotland

• In the RME guidelines the attainment outcomes ‘other world religions’ and‘personal search’ encourage multicultural awareness and discussion ofrelationships and moral values

• Personal and Social Development and Health Education guidelinesencourage awareness in relevant areas, including personal and communitysafety, environmental effects on health, personal relationships and conflictresolution

• Expressive arts encourages young people to express feelings, ideas, thoughtsand solutions, and in some contexts to negotiate as a member of a groupand to communicate appropriately with different audiences

• In mathematics, problem solving and information handling activities canrelate to real life issues, for example where to place a crossing outside aschool, or what kinds of litter are left at different points in the school

• In languages, all four outcomes of listening, talking, reading and writing canbe exercised in contexts that are highly relevant to education for citizenship,with effects that are likely to enhance the effectiveness of each youngperson’s individual contribution, for example, learning to take part indiscussion of a school issue

• By using ICT, young people can communicate and collaborate with pupils inother schools, both locally and internationally.

Post-14 students exercise choices with respect to particular areas or modes oflearning. During the 14–16 years choice in the optional areas of the curriculum isusually structured around a number of key curricular areas. For instance, nearlyall pupils study a social subject and a science, and there are usually alsoelements of creative and aesthetic subjects and technological subjects in eachpupil’s curriculum. Social subjects courses – in particular, courses in modernstudies – make major contributions to the development of knowledge and skillsrelated to citizenship. However, modern studies is not studied by all young people


and other social subjects, whilst making significant contributions to education forcitizenship, may do so less directly. Moreover, other optional subjects such as artand design, home economics, science or social and vocational skills, also provide‘vehicles’ for development of understanding of areas of knowledge relevant tocitizenship (see Annex A).

The subjects typically taken by all students, at least until the end of S4 –mathematics, language and communication, personal and social education andreligious and moral education – provide opportunities for continued learningrelated to citizenship. As with the early stages, these opportunities are partlyrelated to the conceptual and factual content covered and partly to theapproaches to learning and teaching. In particular, PSE, RME and languagestudies, including, in the case of English and communication courses, someaspects of media studies, offer considerable scope for provision of key learningexperiences, such as those noted in paragraph 3.3. Moreover, even where a topicbeing studied may have no obvious relevance to education for citizenship,opportunities can be taken to contextualise the learning in ways that help tofoster some aspects of capability for citizenship.

Cross-curricular experiences

Whilst much can be achieved through traditional subjects, there are importantfeatures of education for citizenship that can only be achieved through cross-curricular approaches. Particular challenges include:• provision of whole school learning experiences that publicly affirm the

school’s commitment to the values of education for citizenship, for example,assemblies, community forums, equal opportunities events

• provision of learning experiences that enable young people to perceive, forgeand make use of the many connections across areas of study, through issue-focused studies or interdepartmental approaches in areas such as Europeanstudies, anti-racist education and global/development education.

This points to the need, particularly at secondary level, for schools to review andpossibly extend their range of cross-curricular contexts for learning. Such cross-curricular experiences complement subject-specific studies and provide essentialadditional opportunities for young people to engage with issues in increasinglymature and reflective ways.

Working with the wider community

In Scottish schools there are substantial traditions of enabling young people tobecome directly involved in community projects to explore and investigate socialand environmental issues. Such approaches are especially important for thedevelopment of active and responsible citizens.

Local communities are an important resource for learning in schools and offercontexts within which authentic environmental and social issues can be explored.


However, the community is not only a resource for study. Schools and earlyeducation centres are themselves valuable resources for the whole community, inwhich there is legitimate interest in decision-making about the school’sdevelopment.

There is also scope, particularly in the later stages of schooling, for collaborationbetween schools and community education agencies. Together with teachers,community educators from both the local government and the voluntary sectorscan bring much by way of expertise and experience to the design andmanagement of opportunities for young people to tackle real-life issues in theircommunities. The development of New Community Schools is giving freshimpetus to collaboration between teachers and other professionals, includingsocial workers and health professionals, in order to provide the best possibleopportunities for all young people to maximise their achievements.

3.5 Progression in education for citizenship

A key challenge for practitioners is to interpret the learning outcomes foreducation for citizenship in terms appropriate to the experience and maturity oflearners. Whilst there is no intention of specifying rigid age- and stage-relatedoutcomes for education for citizenship here, some helpful guidelines forprogression in relevant areas already exist in 5–14 and other subjectdocumentation. The examples of school practice that follow are intended to showsuccessful approaches at different stages of education. The schools and centresfeatured are at different stages of development in their work, but all have begunto translate some of the ideas associated with education for citizenship in waysappropriate to their learners and communities.3

Opportunities in the 3–5 curriculum

Early education makes a vital contribution to developing and broadening therange of children’s learning experiences beyond those highly influential experi-ences of learning in the home and community. Children are helped to developconfidence, self-esteem and social, intellectual and creative abilities. They grow intheir awareness of, and respect for, the environment and differences betweenpeople. ‘Scottish curriculum guidelines for children aged 3–5 are based on fourguiding principles: that the curriculum should be in the best interests of children,that it should recognise the central importance of relationships, that all childrenneed to be included, and that account should be taken of understandings of theway children learn’ (A Curriculum Framework for Children 3–5, Scottish CCC,1999). These principles have given rise to practice that is compatible with the

3 More detailed accounts of these and other case studies can be found on the Learning and TeachingScotland website www.LTScotland.com/citizenship


goals of education for citizenship. For example:

• children are encouraged to discuss and voice their opinion about a range ofissues, such as the nursery environment and rules of behaviour

• a variety of expressive arts is used to encourage children to express theirfeelings, ideas and theories about the world around them

• work that actively involves parents in disadvantaged communities in theeducation of their children.

Children’s viewsStirling Council’s policy commitment to listening to and valuingyoung people’s views is reflected at all stages of learning, includingearly education. For instance, at Park Drive Nursery 3–5-year-oldsare encouraged to identify areas of the nursery that they like anddislike, and also areas where they would like to have adult support.At Croftamie Nursery, small children are involved in planning andrecalling their nursery day, and in evaluating and changing theirnursery environment and outdoor area. In the words of the Head:The benefits have been many. In particular, it has given us a senseof belonging within the community, and a greater understanding ofeach other, children, parents, staff and community.

Learning to express yourselfSix Falkirk Council day nurseries are linked in a project that aims toencourage children’s development by involving them in expressivearts activities. The project has yielded evidence of very youngchildren’s ability to communicate effectively using expressive arts,with particular benefits noticeable amongst some children withspecial needs.

Involving ParentsGreengables Nursery School and Family Centre in the Craigmillararea of Edinburgh provides a stimulating, supportive learningenvironment for children and families. As children take part inactivities designed to develop confidence, self esteem and respectfor others, adults are offered a programme of recreational andvocational education, as well as access to a wide range of adviceand information on family-related subjects. Activities, such asCooking for Tots, Babies Play and modules in subjects like childdevelopment and classroom assistant training, dovetail withnursery activities and offer parents rich opportunities to learn moreabout how children learn and to become actively involved in theeducation of their children.

These learning experiences underpin children’s sense of belonging, and laya firm foundation for their growing understanding of rights and responsibili-ties and their ability to participate effectively in society.


Opportunities from 5 to 14

Schools build upon and extend children’s early education experiences in primaryschools and the early years of secondary schooling as young people followprogrammes of study based on 5–14 guidelines. As we have seen these offermany opportunities for developing the learning outcomes associated witheducation for citizenship. Primary schools have also made considerable progressin providing opportunities for young people to take part in decision making both atclassroom and at whole school level. Examples include:• imaginative developments in the teaching of ‘people in society’ and other 5–

14 outcomes related to education for citizenship• activities that help pupils to understand and take some responsibility for

their relations with the wider community• projects encouraging environmental responsibility• creating opportunities for the responsible exercise of personal choice• activities that encourage children to offer feedback on approaches to

learning and teaching.

Studies within specific curricular areasAt Kingswells Primary School in Aberdeen, a strong citizenshipthread runs through both environmental studies and personal andsocial education programmes of study from P1 to P7. Theprogrammes draw on a wide range of published, school andcommunity-based resources to give children a very richintroduction to contemporary issues and their own rights andresponsibilities as citizens. Resources which have provedparticularly valuable, and have been integrated within the school’sapproach to education for citizenship include TAG TheatreCompany’s Sense of Community project and Police Box, a resourcefor primary PSE developed by Grampian Police CommunityDevelopment Department.

Making small but real differencesPupils at Ferguslie Primary School in Renfrewshire can point tosome small but real improvements in school as a result of theirwork on the Pupil Council. Colour co-ordinated homework basketsand jotters (to avoid problems when jotters go in the wrongbasket), newly re-painted blackboards (to avoid sqeaks), and aschool shop now being set up and managed by pupils inassociation with a local bank (in response to pupils’ concernsabout missing pencils and other essential materials), are all theresult of helpful recommendations channelled through the PupilCouncil. The Council is organised conventionally with two electedrepresentatives per class, but great care has been taken toprotect Pupil Council time (weekly during the school day), toconsult widely with all pupils, and to allow for report back anddiscussion time in classes and at monthly assemblies.


Children’s views on teaching and learningPersonal Learning Plans were identified as a key priority whenThornliebank Primary School in East Renfrewshire became a newcommunity school. Amongst other objectives these encouragepupils to evaluate the curriculum and community learningopportunities, and to set personal targets for attainment,attendance and timekeeping. After a short pilot programme andone full year of operation there is evidence of increased pupilmotivation, of teachers feeling they know their pupils better, andof parents more able to support their children.

National support for education for citizenshipThe Scottish Parliament’s Young People’s Health Congressinvolved S2 representatives of approximately 40 schools fromall parts of Scotland. Pupils were invited to Parliament, andacted as MSPs for a day, debating a range of health-relatedresolutions in the parliamentary chamber and in committee.Other pupils acted as school journalists and sat in the pressgallery. Pupils were well-supported by parliamentary officials andexpert witnesses, but the high quality of debate was particulartestament to the preparatory work undertaken as part of theproject in schools. The event was organised by the ScottishParliament Education Service, with support from MSPs, officials,youth workers and teachers from Modern Studies, English andother departments.

Opportunities post-14

Education for citizenship assumes a new significance post-14 when young peopleface many of the issues associated with independent living in increasinglypractical forms. Many of the issues they face in respect of further study, finding ajob, leaving home, managing their money, understanding the law and relating topeople in authority demand wider knowledge and understanding of contemporaryissues and decision-making processes. Young adults need to be able to combinethat knowledge and understanding with a wide range of skills, competences andvalues in order to be able to negotiate the barriers to satisfying and responsibleparticipation in social, economic and cultural life.

Subject choice presents secondary schools with a number of challenges inrespect of education for citizenship. First, the diversity of individual timetables,whilst suited to the different aspirations that young people have on leavingschool, makes it difficult to account for development of the full range of learningoutcomes associated with education for citizenship. Second, there is the specificquestion of how to provide for continued acquisition of the broad range ofpolitical, economic, social and cultural knowledge and understanding that isessential to progressive development of capability for citizenship. Third, the


importance to young people of subject qualifications for entry to higher or furthereducation or the labour market tends to leave relatively little time for schoolactivities whose outcomes are not formally assessed.

The response to this situation is not to stipulate any single course of study of‘citizenship education’ as part of each student’s core programme. Such anapproach has a number of drawbacks. In practical terms, it would have the effectof restricting the scope for student choice and flexibility of provision and couldalso create practical difficulties for curriculum planning in the post-14 stages.Most importantly, to appear to locate ‘citizenship education’ in one particularpost-14 course of study would be inconsistent with the broad view of educationfor citizenship being advanced in this paper. Some schools have developedspecific courses in ‘citizenship’. Where courses in what schools wish to call‘citizenship’ can be satisfactorily resourced, they may make a useful contributionto a school’s overall approach to education for citizenship. If adopted, however,they must take their place alongside other opportunities for development ofcapability for citizenship, including strategies for student participation in decision-making, studies in other curricular areas, cross-curricular learning experiencesand link activities with the wider community.

A range of strategies could be considered to ensure full entitlement to educationfor citizenship post-14. Schools may find one or more of the following useful inproviding a focus for their own development.

• Examination, through curriculum audit, of how far various combinations ofcore’ and optional subjects can provide an adequate basis for developingknowledge and understanding related to citizenship. This approach mightindicate a need for curriculum inserts in order to enrich subjects where suchopportunities are perceived, or for the school to undertake cross-curricularactivities outwith the subject curriculum.

• Using the expertise of staff in areas such as modern studies, science,technology or ICT, and where possible expertise outwith the school, tocontribute to parts of courses typically taken by all students, for example aPSE course or dedicated core skills units.

• Encouraging take-up of appropriate units and courses in the NationalQualifications framework as part of students’ individual learningprogrammes; this might include units that emphasise links between coreskills and citizenship issues.

• Examining how far the themes and issues associated with education forcitizenship can be addressed through more appropriate and extensivecontextualisation of common areas of study such as mathematics andlanguage and communication.

• Closer examination of the way in which community involvement activities andlocal investigations can enhance not only young people’s skills and developtheir values and creativity, but also reinforce and develop their knowledgeand understanding of social and political processes.


It is expected that the strategies adopted will vary from school to school,depending, for example, on local circumstances, the preferences of students andthe particular resources of expertise that staff can offer. In the longer term,curriculum audits and other approaches may well lead to questions about thecontent and focus of post-14 courses generally, in the light of the overarchingimperatives of education for citizenship.

Curricular issues of continuity and progression are but one part of a secondaryschool’s approach to education for citizenship. Participation in decision making,cross-curricular activities and working with the local and wider community havecontinuing importance. Some imaginative approaches to education for citizenshipin secondary schools include:

• Northfield Academy’s Community Forum, and its use of the Higher Still PSEframework

• St Ninian’s High School’ s cross-curricular approach to PSE and pupilconsultation

• Alva Academy’s work on global citizenship• Drummond Community High School’s work in anti-racist education• Merkland’s School’s work to include young people with special educational

needs in the life of the local community• Our Lady’s High School, Motherwell and the Scottish Catholic International

Aid Fund (SCIAF)’s multi-disciplinary approach to a development educationtopic

• Woodfarm High School’s work with Save the Children in Scotland to developits pupil council.

Relating curriculum and communityNorthfield Academy in Aberdeen has an extensive ‘citizenship’ programmefor young people in S5. This includes an annual community forum, whenall S5 pupils meet to discuss issues in their local community, and feedback requests and recommendations to local politicians, including theLord Provost, the local MSP and councillor and representatives ofGrampian Police. Practical outcomes include setting up of a youth café,student involvement in police training, and correspondence links withyoung people in the city’s twin oil capitals. The Youth Forum iscomplemented now by a number of courses based on the Higher Stillframework for PSE, which allows a smaller number of pupils to studycommunity issues in greater depth.


Using subject expertise to develop PSESt Ninian’s High School in East Renfrewshire has a PSE programme that isaudited annually and is delivered through subject departments. As part ofthis approach the school encourages citizenship contributions fromindividual subjects, either through their mainstream syllabus or through‘inserts’. This approach is complemented by thrice yearly seminars forevery year group, when every pupil is encouraged to express his/her viewson a range of school issues identified by either staff or pupils. Issues haveincluded what makes a good teacher, or a good class. Gender differencesand anti-bullying have also been discussed, and pupils have evaluatedschool programmes of work related to study skills and drugs education.

Global citizenshipAlva Academy in Clackmannanshire made the decision some two yearsago to explore what citizenship meant to young people in the UK, Europeand beyond. In September 2000 an international conference was held inthe school involving staff and students from sixteen European countriesand South Africa, with the theme of ‘Global Citizenship in 2000 andbeyond’. This conference involved presentations and workshops on arange of topics from the responsibility and influence of the media tostudent representation and decision making. Other issues such as justice,peace and equal opportunities were also explored, paying particular heedto practices and stages of development in different countries and cultures.This event was seen as only a launching point for such debate and anetwork of contacts has been established as a platform for young peopleto develop their thinking and ideas: a follow-up is being planned forFinland in November 2002.


Improving participation in decision makingWoodfarm High School in East Renfrewshire has worked with Save theChildren in Scotland to strengthen its approach to consultation with youngpeople. Its pupil councils are now open to all interested pupils, witharound 120 pupils attending. Questionnaires and focus groups are usedto extend consultation even further, and the Council has successfullyargued for a number of whole schoolactivities, including a series of seminarsinvolving all S2 pupils in a consultation onbullying. The school’s approach includesstrategies to involve teachers more closely indecision making, a need identified throughSave the Children’s staff evaluation of thepupil councils.

Citizenship in a school for pupils withspecial educational needsMerkland School works to promote inclusion by providing opportunities formeaningful pupil participation in the wider community. As well as takingpart in a thriving Enterprise programme and a wide range of sporting andcultural activities, young people at Merkland run a weekly coffee shop formembers of the community, and both visit and host local groups, such asplaygroups and pensioners’ groups. In the words of the headteacher:… very often pupils in special schools are on the receiving end of kindnessand hospitality … it is extremely beneficial for them to have theopportunity to return hospitality and do something actively for thecommunity … This promotes feelings of mutuality and of being ‘the sameas everyone else’.

By the same token members of the community become aware that youngpeople with special educational needs also have competencies andpotential.


A whole school approach to anti-racist educationDrummond Community High School in Edinburgh has a longrecord of work in equal opportunities and anti-racist education.Staff at the school have developed the Drummond EqualityGame, a popular board game, played and discussed with all S1pupils with senior pupil support, that helps young peopleunderstand how the dice are loaded against certain sections ofthe community. Multicultural support groups are held for ethnicminority pupils in S1 to have some time together each weekwith a guidance teacher and youth worker to explain anddiscuss any problems arising in their new school. Senior pupilshave been involved in writing pupil versions of the school’sequal opportunities policy, and equality issues figure strongly instaff development and in school self-evaluation.

A cross-curricular approach to development educationOur Lady’s High School, Motherwell, North Lanarkshire, haveworked with SCIAF and the Kamwokya community in Uganda toheighten awareness of development issues in Africa. Acoordinated cross-curricular approach has so far involved workin RE, Geography, Modern Studies, Art, Music, PE,Home Economics, English, Maths, Biology, andChemistry departments, with others hoping to join inthe future. Departmental work has been reinforcedby a well prepared and successful whole schoolfocus activity, a performance by pupils of Africanmusic, dance, storytelling, cooking and developmenteducation simulations, together with displays ofdepartmental work, called Out of Africa. The eventwas organised by the school with support from theparent–teacher association and the school boardfor parents and others in the community.


A noteworthy feature of these examples is the way in which a number of contextsare addressed in the same activity, for example: community involvement andparticipation in decision making at Northfield Academy; knowledge andunderstanding of contemporary issues and pupil consultation at St Ninian’s HighSchool. At Drummond Community High School, work in equal opportunities linksnot only contexts but also pupils of all ages, with senior pupils contributing both todevelopment of the knowledge and understanding of S1 pupils, as well as toschool decision-making in the broadest sense.

Development and management of courses and activities like these is ademanding professional activity. It is likely that, particularly in secondary schools,there will be a need to define specific roles with regard to education forcitizenship within the senior management team, and for a coordinating memberof staff or department to be designated.


section 4Areas fordevelopment andexploration

4.1 Areas for Development

Education for citizenship is a national priority, many features of which areunderpinned by legislation such as the Human Rights Act 1998 and theStandards in Scotland’s Schools, etc. Act, 2000. The Advisory Council expectsthat this will be reflected in local authorities’ improvement plans and in schooldevelopment plans and recommends that use be made of the frameworkprovided by this paper in the review and development of these plans.

Specifically, it is recommended that the following areas for development be givenpriority. Development should focus on:

Schools and early education centres

• Reviewing existing provision and practice in terms of the framework developedin this paper, including provision of opportunities for young people to:– participate in decision making– participate actively in relevant learning experiences across the curriculum– learn to make connections between different areas of study through cross-

curricular experiences relevant to education for citizenship– understand and participate in the life of the communities to which they

belong.• Promoting education for citizenship within the development planning process.• Ensuring opportunities for meaningful and responsible involvement in

decision-making by young people and adults associated with theestablishment.

• Designating a member of staff to co-ordinate provision for development ofcapability for citizenship.

Local authorities

• Providing support for schools and early education centres in the review ofexisting provision and practice in education for citizenship.

• Providing for review and development of provision for education forcitizenship within the authority’s development planning process.

• Monitoring and evaluating education for citizenship.• Reviewing opportunities for young people and others to take part in local

authority decision making.• Reviewing current resources and promoting the development of relevant new

resources.


• Identifying, and making provision for responding to, professional develop-ment needs in relation to education for citizenship.

• Promoting education for citizenship in improvement plans.

National developments

In order to ensure the successful implementation of the framework set out in thispaper, it is important that actions are taken nationally to create a supportivecontext for ongoing discussion and development. These will include• a development programme to provide guidance and support on such matters

as teaching and learning, assessment and approaches to evaluation ofprovision of education for citizenship from 3 to 18, not least to ensure thatentitlement to education for citizenship is met post-14.

• strategies for identification of needs for pre-service education and continuingprofessional development related to development of capability for citizenship

• support for networking and information exchange, locally, nationally andinternationally, and for the promotion of partnership across sectors

• systematic national monitoring, evaluation and reporting on progress

4.2 Areas for Exploration

The Advisory Council recognises that the process of reviewing education forcitizenship has raised questions for which there are as yet no definitive answers.For example, seeing the development of capability for citizenship as a keypurpose of education has implications for the content and the organisation of thecurriculum and for the ways in which learning related to citizenship is recognisedand accredited.

Further research and discussion are especially necessary and desirable inrelation to such issues, all of which connect to established national priorities foreducation. The following paragraphs indicate some starting points for discussion.

Education for citizenship and improving attainment and achievement

There are good reasons to expect that effective education for citizenship willcontribute to improved attainment and achievement by, for instance, increasingthe individual’s confidence and self-esteem, helping young people makeconnections between knowledge and skills gained in different contexts, andextending their vision and motivation. However, the link between developingcapability for citizenship and attainment is not a mechanistic one, and there canbe no guarantee of immediate measurable improvements in attainment. Thismeans that developments in education for citizenship may be seen as a riskydistraction. Schools are publicly accountable for their pupils’ performance inexaminations, not for the other less easily assessable aspects of their work. Itwould be regrettable if this were to inhibit imaginative developments in educationfor citizenship.


There will be, over time, a need to explore and shed light on the relationshipbetween developing capability for citizenship and attainment. The relationshipbetween the range of information published about young people’s achievementsin schools, and the impact this has on public and professional perceptions ofeducational priorities also requires further examination. Meantime, it should beclear that education for citizenship, as described here, will do much to promoteachievement across a wider spectrum than that which is the focus of mostmeasures of attainment.

Attitudinal change associated with developing capability for citizenship, forexample, in relation to political or voluntary activity, is among the other key areasthat will require further exploration.

Assessing development of capability for citizenship

It would not be appropriate or practicable to formally assess the quality of a youngperson’s citizenship. Having said that, it will be important to give further carefuland more detailed consideration to ways in which young people’s learning relatedto education for citizenship, as described in this paper, can be assessed andaccredited. This will include a critical examination of aspects of current practice inassessment for summative purposes.

Assessing elements of the learning outcomes separately might have theunintended effect of creating a disjointed and instrumental approach to educationfor citizenship. Nonetheless, young people are entitled to recognition of theirlearning, and of their contribution to the life of the school and the community.Moreover, many of the learning outcomes listed in Section 2 are already assessedin other contexts. It will be important that learning and development in relation tothese learning outcomes are seen as contributing to each learner’s developmentof capability for citizenship.

Developments such as Personal Learning Plans and the Progress File could beadapted to include recognition of aspects of education for citizenship or tohighlight a citizenship dimension in accreditation already achieved.

Education for citizenship and inclusion

Some young people feel themselves to be excluded from aspects of school andcommunity life through their social, material or physical circumstances. Theseyoung people may not find it easy to take part in the school’s provision fordevelopment of capability for citizenship. Sometimes they may not react positivelyto efforts to include them. It is the school’s responsibility to develop strategies toensure that all young people benefit from their entitlement to education forcitizenship. Whilst much existing work in equal opportunities, anti-racisteducation, special educational needs and inclusive education in general isrelevant to and supportive of education for citizenship, there is considerable needfor further development.


Staff development

Involvement in education for citizenship has implications both for the professionalknowledge of teachers and early years practitioners and for their teaching skills.Even though it is not envisaged that approaches to education for citizenshipshould be strongly focused on areas of knowledge, teachers are likely to feel moreconfident with a basic knowledge and understanding of such areas as rights andresponsibilities, decision-making processes, the role of the media incontemporary society, environmental issues and financial education.Furthermore, opportunities for initial and in-service education are likely to be ofvalue, for example, on matters such as:

– how to involve young people in decision making– supporting young people undertaking community placements– developing international links– dealing with controversial issues in the classroom

Perhaps most important of all, if interdisciplinary work across school andcommunity sectors is to become meaningful, then teachers, early yearspractitioners and other professionals need to be able to participate in joint staffdevelopment in order to understand better the complementarity of each other’sprofessional skills.


Citizens in today’s world seem to require factual and conceptual knowledge froma wide range of domains in order to come to thoughtful, informed decisions aboutimportant matters for their lives now and in the future. Ideas and phenomenaassociated with areas of learning and development as varied as expressive arts,geography, history, mathematics, the media, philosophy, politics, natural andsocial sciences, religion and technology are all parts of the broad base of political,social and cultural understanding that is relevant to living thoughtfully as anactive, informed citizen.

Within this range of domains, there are some areas of knowledge andunderstanding that are especially relevant to the development and expression ofability to be active and responsible citizens. Informed citizens require knowledgeand understanding of:• themselves, human cultures and societies and the natural and made worlds

in which they live• the complex interdependencies between the various types of system –

physical, biological, and societal – that make up the world• the political, legal, administrative and cultural structures and processes of

democratic societies, locally, nationally and internationally• the legal and human rights and responsibilities of citizens, individually and

collectively, in a democratic society• barriers to full opportunity to exercise citizenship arising from socio-economic

circumstances, prejudice and discrimination• economic and financial aspects of individual and societal needs and wants

and how these relate to issues of environmental sustainability, culturaldevelopment and social equity

• the changing nature of the world of business, of working life and economicactivity

• the potential of developments in science and/or technology to change thephysical, social and cultural environment, for good or ill

• the role of the arts in individual and community life, for example indeveloping community cohesion and in providing vehicles for expressingpolitical critique

• the role of the media and marketing processes in shaping public opinion andinfluencing individual and collective decision making

• the nature of change and continuity and the effects individuals or groups ofindividuals, including voluntary groups, can have on the evolution of societies

• how Scottish society has evolved in the wider British, European and globalcontext

• the diversity of identities – religious, ethnic, cultural, regional, national –within Scotland, across the UK and worldwide, and the need for mutualrespect, tolerance and understanding

• the sources of disagreement and conflict between individuals andcommunities and the ways in which people can set about resolving suchconflicts.

annex Aannex A


This list implies that young people need to have opportunities for learning acrossa broad range of subjects and curricular areas. A key challenge for curriculumdesign and planning is how to select factual and conceptual content, and tochoose contexts for learning, that will help to provide an appropriate and valuablefoundation for developing capability for citizenship. At the same time theoutcomes of these selections and choices need to provide a basis for youngpeople’s education for personal growth and for productive and enterprisingworking lives.


Being an effective citizen means being able to use and develop in a variety ofcontexts:• core skills:

– communication skills (listening, speaking, reading, writing; visual andnon-verbal), for example being able to research, discuss and shareinformation about social, political and community issues; being able tocontribute to debates and discussions in ways that are both assertiveand respectful of others’ contributions

– the ability to work confidently with numerical information, for examplebeing able to examine statistics regarding various social and economicissues and to consider ways in which they are used and abused

– ICT skills, for example using ICT to analyse situations, events and issues,to communicate effectively, to find and handle information, and to makecontact with people and organisations across the world, and developingcritical use of the internet

– the ability to work well with others, for example by participating willingly,confidently and constructively in team efforts

– problem-solving skills, including the ability to identify and frame one’sown questions and problems rather than depending on others to definethem, for example identifying and describing a practical communityproblem

• other generic skills:– the capacity to work autonomously in pursuit of one’s own needs and

purposes and those of communities, for example in defending andpromoting the rights and welfare of others as well as exercising one’sown rights

– decision-making skills, for example making thoughtful and informeddecisions in the course of being involved in political and communityissues

– creative skills (related to problem-solving and other core skills) including:– the ability to respond in imaginative ways to social, moral and political

situations and challenges, for example developing a personal responseto a topical moral issue, or making a decision in response to a localpolitical development

– the ability to apply knowledge and skills gained in one context to another,in order to take advantage of an opportunity, solve a problem or resolvean issue

– the developing capacity to imagine alternative realities and futures thatcould benefit society and the environment

– the ability to consider and empathise with the experience andperspective of others.

Combined with relevant factual and conceptual knowledge and with positivedispositions and personal qualities, these generic skills provide the basis foractive citizenship that is also imbued with a sense of social and environmentalresponsibility.

annex Bannex B


Membership of the Review Group 1999–2001

Pamela Munn (Chair) Professor of Curriculum Research, University of Edinburgh

Shameem Ali Acting Depute Headteacher, East Calder Primary School,West Lothian

Rowena Arshad Director, Centre for Education for Racial Equality inScotland

Terry Ashton Adviser (Guidance and Careers), Aberdeen City Council

Keir Bloomer Chief Executive, Clackmannanshire Council

Alan Fraser Rector, Arbroath High School, Angus

Lynn Hendry Chief Executive, Young Enterprise Scotland

Stuart Lowson Depute Headteacher, Arkleston Primary School,Renfrewshire

Henry Maitles Senior Lecturer/Head of Modern Studies, University ofStrathclyde

Andrea MacBeath Teacher, Richmond Park School, Glasgow

Lachie MacCallum HM Inspector of Education, Scottish Executive

Charlie McConnell Chief Executive, Community Learning Scotland

Bart McGettrick formerly Dean of Education, University of Glasgow

Mary McLaughlin Headteacher, Notre Dame High School, Glasgow

Hilary Neilson Coordinator, International Development EducationAssociation of Scotland

Mike Sawyer Director of Social Work, Fife Council

Claire Stevens Director, Community Service Volunteers, Scotland

Pat Wharton Early Childhood Curriculum Officer, Stirling Council

Learning and Teaching Scotland Officers

Mike Baughan Chief Executive

Colin McAndrew Principal Curriculum Officer

Margaret McGhie Principal Curriculum Officer

Denis Stewart Assistant Chief Executive

Christine Twine Development Officer

Rosemary Arnott Secretary to the Review Group

appendixappendix

education for citizenship

Documents

citizenship important

effective education

education professionals

education forcitizenship

important paper

citizenship inpractice

early education establishments

overall goal of education