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Education in music for children and young people with special needs1

EvaWilde1,AdamOckelford2,GrahamWelch1

1UCLInstituteofEducation,UniversityCollegeLondon,UK2UniversityofRoehampton,London,UK

Abstract

Thereisagrowingbodyofscientificevidencetosuggestthatmusicmakingcangenerate

long-termbenefitstosocial,psychologicalandphysicalaspectsofanindividual’swellbeing.

Althoughthemechanismsareyetnotfullyunderstood,musicisneurologicallymodularand

cansignificantlyimprovephysicalandmentalhealth,promotecognitiveskills,fostersocial

inclusionandenhanceanindividual’sself-regulation.Consequently,foreveryone,but

particularlyforchildrenwithdisabilitiesandspecialneeds,suchfindingsarelikelytobeof

greatvalue.Hence,drawingoncurrentresearchfindings,itissuggestedthattheglobal

musicresearchcommunity,policymakersandotherauthoritiesneedtoacknowledgegaps

inourunderstandinganddesignatemoreresourcesregardingfutureresearch.Moreover,

theyshouldstrivefortoenableafullyinclusiveandhighqualitymusiceducationfor

everyone.Thepurposeofthisarticleistoillustratecurrentfindingsinmusiceducationin

relationtothewiderfieldofchildrenandyoungpeoplewithlearningdisabilitiesandspecial

needs.ThetextalsodescribestheSoundsofIntentproject,whichaimstomapthemusical

profilesofdifferently-abledchildrenandyoungpeopleandtogaugetheirmusical

developmentovertime.SoundsofIntentisthefirstempirically-basedresearchprojectinthe

worldtofocusindetailonthemusicaldevelopmentofchildrenandyoungpeoplewith

learningdifficultiesandmakesthefirstattempttosetouthowthismayoccur.Inaddition,

thispaperintendstoexplainsomeofthetheoreticalthinkingunderlyingtheproject’s

development.Sinceitspubliclaunchin2012,theSoundsofIntentwebsitehashadover

1ThisarticleistobepublishedinDutchinlate-May2016asWilde,E.,Ockelford,A.,&Welch,G.(2016).Muziekonderwijsvoorkinderenmetspecialeonderwijsbehoeften.Cultuur+Educatie,16(45),56-77.

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4,000,000uniquehits,withover500,000downloadsofresources,frompeoplealloverthe

worldandrecentlywasadaptedtoacreateamainstreamversion,SoundsofIntentinthe

EarlyYears,resultinginafullyinclusiveenterpriseforallchildrenaged0-5.

Musicalityinchildrenandyoungpeoplewithspecialneeds

Engaginginmusicisamulti-facetedactivity(Welch&McPherson,2012;Ockelford,2012).

Performing,improvisingandcomposingmusicorjustlisteningorrecallingatuneinone’s

head,isamatterthatbothrequiresarangeofinterrelatedskills,suchascognitiveabilities,

creativity,physicalskillsandsocialandemotionalintelligence.Inthiscontext,memory,

auditoryprocessing,imagination,physicalgenerationofsounds,communicationandself-

regulationarejustsomeofthekeycompetenceswithinawidespectrumofintrinsically

requiredcapabilities(Pantev,2009;Ockelfordop.cit).Conversely,whilstmanyandvarious

skillsarerequired,engaginginmusiccanalsoenhancetheseskillsintermsofgenerating

physicalbenefits,fosteringanindividual’smusicaldevelopment,andpromotingcognitive,

physical,socialandemotionalwellbeing(Welch&Ockelford,2015).Hence,“musicality”is

seennotasingleskill,butratheranumbrellatermforaprofileofcapacities,whose

developmentandactualizationwillvaryinshapeaccordingtoanindividual’sdisposition,

physicalandmentalabilities,motivationandvariousotherenvironmentalandpersonal

circumstancesandfactors(McPhersonandLehmann,2012).

Inthisrespect,eventhoughtheirshapeanddimensionwillvaryamongstindividuals,

itcanbestatedthateveryoneismusicalbydesignandacertaindegreeofmusicalityis

universal,irrespectiveofanindividual’sdispositionandcircumstances(Welch&McPherson,

2012).Furthermore,theSoundsofIntentresearchevidence(reportedinmoredetailbelow),

suggeststhatthisisalsotrueforthosewithprofounddisabilitiesandthemostcomplex

needs(Ockelford,2015;Ockelford,2000).Theytoo,possessmusicality,areabletoengage

withmusicwhilstsome,evenmore,demonstratejustaswidearangeofmusicalabilitiesas

neurotypicalpeople(OckelfordandWelch,2012).Thesefindingsareapplicabletochildren

andyoungpeoplewithpsychologicaldisordersandmentalhealthproblems,whomaymake

slowerprogressandhavealowerlevelofattainmentincomparisontotheirpeers.Children

withdisordersrelatingtomentalhealthfallwithinthedefinitionofspecialeducational

needs.Regardlessofthediversityofcausesanddifferentseverities,theirtypical

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impairmentsmayrelatetoreadingandwritingdifficulties,concentrationproblems,physical

needsand/ortheinabilitytosocialiseandmakefriends.Mentalhealthissues,togetherwith

‘other-than-normal’behaviour,arealsoamuchresearchedsubject,andarebeingmoreand

moreaddressedinthecontextofchildhealth.Itisreportedthat‘uptooneinfivechildren

experiencementalhealthproblems’(Bor,Dean,Najman&Hayatbakhsh,2014,p.606)and

diagnosesofsomeparticulardisordershaveincreasedovertime(Bastra&Frances,2012).

Psychopathology,asatopic,hasenteredschools’discourseandmentaldisordershave

becomea‘parlanceofchildhood’(Harwood&Allan,2014).

Sinceresultantconsequencesofthedifficultiescanbesevereandimpactnegatively

onchildren’semotional,physicalandsocialdevelopment,thesetopicsarenottobe

underestimated.Generally,specialeducationmayberegardedinpartasaservice,which

mayhaveintegratedlinksintomainstreameducationalsettings(DepartmentforEducation

[DfE],2014).Suchprovisionisintendedtorespondtoindividualneedsusingawiderangeof

strategiesandmethods.Inmainstreamschools,theadditionaleducationalserviceoften

embracesdifferentapproachestolearningandteachingandaimstoincludechildrenwith

specialneedsintheclassroomstructure(DepartmentforEducationandSkills[DfES],2001).

Teachingmethodsaremodifiedtobebeneficialforallpupils,includingthosewithspecial

needs(DfE,2014,pp.30-31)and/orspecialassistantsconsulted(DfETheSpecialEducational

NeedsandDisabilityRegulations,2014,pp.23-24).Butwheresuchaninclusiveapproachis

notpossible,nordesirable,childrencanattendspecialschoolsandbeprovidedalsowith

specialistexternalsupport(DfE,2014,op.cit.;EuropeanAgencyforSpecialNeedsand

InclusiveEducation(n.d).

Inthiscontext,itisimportanttonotethatthereisresearchevidencethatmusiccan

bebeneficialfortheseindividuals.Forinstance,resultsofanEC-fundedstudyintothe

UsabilityofMusicfortheSocialInclusionofChildren(UMSIC)illustrateshowengagementin

musicinaschoolsetting,includingpupilswithspecialeducationalneedscanbebeneficial

forall(Heikkinenetal.,2015).Thisstudyaimedto‘improveinclusionandreduceisolationin

groupsofchildren’and‘tosupportchildren’sprocessesofsocialinclusionthroughtheuseof

newmusictechnology’(Fredrikson,2009,p.1).Inparticular,theresearchfociwereonpupils

withmoderatelearningdifficultiesandattentiondeficiencies,andpupilswithanimmigrant

backgroundusingadifferentnativelanguagefromthatoftheirhostcountry.Theproject

technicaltoolwastheso-calledJamMo(jammingmobile),whichwasdesignedforyoung

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childrentocomposeandsharemusic.Findingsfromthisstudydemonstratethat,overall,

participants‘feltmoresociallyincludedsubsequenttotheJamMosessionscomparedto

priortothem’(Purvesetal.,2011p.56).Moreover,averysignificantobservationwasthat

therewasgoodcollaborationbetweenpupilswithspecialeducationalneedsandlearning

difficultiesandattentionproblemswiththeirpeers(Purvesetal.,op.cit.).Relatedevidence

fromotherstudiesofmusicinspecialeducationillustratetheexistenceofmusical

intelligence,notwithstandingindividualdisability.Forinstance,childrenwhosedelayed

globaldevelopmentresultsinadisabilitytocommunicateverbally,demonstratethatthey

cancommunicatemusicallybyengaginginmusicalimprovisationwithothers(cfOckelford,

2011a;Ockelford&Matawa,2010).

Importantly,thechallengeforpeoplesuchaspolicy-makers,educationmanagersand

practitionersinvolvedinmusiceducationforchildrenandyoungpeople,includingthose

withspecialneeds,isnotabout‘whether’toprovideappropriatemusiceducationbutrather

‘how’.Inthisregard,insightfuleducatorsplayancriticalroleindismantlingattitudinaland

environmentalbarriersthatpreventindividualsfromengaginginmusicinauniversaland

fullyinclusivefashion,suchthat‘studentswithdisabilitiesattendregularmusicclassrooms

intheirschools,andarenotisolatedfromtheirpeerswithoutdisabilities(..)andparticipate

withtheminregularmusicclassesandotherage-appropriateschoolmusicactivities’

(Jellison,2012,p.66).

Inthisrespect,itshouldbeemphasisedthatmusiceducationisdistinctfrommusic

therapy.Unfortunately,thereisstillacommonassumptionthatthekeyapproachto

providingaccesstomusicfordifferently-abledchildrenismusictherapy(Ockelford,2012;

Ockelford2000).Thissolelytherapeuticapproach,however,remainsunquestionedand

entailsanimpedimentforafullyinclusiveapproachofengaginginmusic.Moreover,music

therapyintermsofusingmusicalelementsandsoundasameanstoimprovepsychological,

physical,mentalandsocio-emotionalwell-being,excludestheformalisededucationalgoalof

developingandimprovingmusically.Generally,musiceducationisregardedasrelatedtothe

teachingandlearningofmusicalskills,musicalknowledgeandanunderstandingofthe

natureofmusic.Simplyput,theprimefocusiseducation‘in’music(Ockelford,2000).

However,drawingontheaforementionedfindings,formalmusiceducationforpupilsand

studentswithspecialneedshasamorecomplexnature.Itinvolvesanotherstrand:

education‘through’music,whoseaimistopromotewiderlearninganddevelopmentalong

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withcognitive,social,emotionalandcommunicationskillsandothercompetences(ibid).

Hence,ideallyneithershouldmusictherapybeasubstituteformusiceducation,normusic

educationbeareplacementformusictherapy.Thesetwoapproachescanandshouldbe

complementary,withbothdrivenby’distinctmusicalandextramusicalaims’(Bruhn,2000;

Robertson,2000;Ockelford,2000,2008;Markou,2010).Thus,forchildren,butparticularly

forthosewithspecialneeds,‘engaginginappropriatemusicalactivitymeansthatthe

benefitsofeducationinmusicareintertwinedwithaneducationthroughmusic’(Welch&

Ockelford,2015,p.2)andshouldbeunconditionallyavailable.Inaddition,theirmusical

developmentcanandshouldnotonlybefosteredwithinatherapyroombutratherbeyond.

Nochildshouldberefusedsucheducation,inclusiveofmusictherapyandmusiceducation,

norhinderedintappingtheirfullpotentialintermsofsocial,academicandpersonal

achievements,togetherwiththehighestmusicianshipattainable(Gfeller,1999).

Theneglectedareaofresearchinmusiceducationforchildrenwithlearningdifficulties

andspecialneeds

Althoughthebenefitsofmusiceducationforindividualsarewidelyacknowledgedtoday,

childrenandyoungpeoplewithspecialneedsarestillunderrepresentedinresearchinthe

fieldofmusiceducationandpsychology(Jellison,2000)and,asitwasmorethanadecade

ago,musicstill‘isnotwidelyusedinthefieldoflearningdisabilities’(Savarimuthuetal,

2002,p.160).Unfortunately,policymakers,governmentsandlocalpoliticiansshowalackof

understandingofthegreatvalueofsystematicmusicengagementforchildren,especiallyfor

thosewithspecialneeds.Onereasonfortheseriousshortcomingsinthisregardmightbe

thefactthat,bydefinition,‘special’childrenareinaminorityandhenceamarginalized

group.Consequently,theydonotgetasmuchattentionfromeducationastheyshould.

Thus,inordertoadvancemusiceducationforthosewithspecialneeds,bothinpolicyand

practicalterms,high-qualityresearch-basedevidencecontinuestobeneeded.Theglobal

musiceducationresearchcommunityshouldacknowledgedeficienciesinthisareaandpoint

outseriousshortcomingsinordertoclaimanddesignatemoreresourcestothisfieldof

neglectedresearchandsoaddresstheneedsandconcernsofchildrenwithspecialneeds.In

thisregard,threereasonscanbestatedastowhythesechildren’sneedsneedtositatthe

heartofmusiceducation.

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Firstly,thereisanethicalimperativeunderlyingthecommitmenttoequalityof

opportunity.Thereisneedtoenableallyoungpeopletoaccesshighqualitymusicmaking.

Provisionshouldbeimprovedforeveryone,includingthosewhoshareparticular

characteristics,needsandabilities.Therefore,issuesthathinderorpromotesuchyoung

people’sprogressneedtobesystematicallyapproachedandtackled.

Secondly,weshouldseektounderstandhowindividualsfunctioninexceptional

circumstancesandwithspecialneeds,includingthesewithsevereorprofounddisabilities,

sowecanbetterunderstandhowweallfunction,feel,thinkandbehave.Ifweapproachthis

open-mindedly,powerfulinsightscanshedlightontowhatmusicalityisandwhatitmeans

tobemusical(Lubbock,2008;Ockelford,2011b).Subsequently,seeingmusicalityinthelight

ofitswideneurologicalmodularitycouldencourageadeeperunderstandingandresolution

ofthenature/nurturedebateinmusiceducation(Ockelford,2011c).Examplesofprofilesof

individualswithcongenitaldisabilitiesengagingwithmusicinrichmusicalenvironments

illustratethatpeaksanenvironmentaleffectareoperatingwithinageneticpredisposition

andcanresultinpeaksofmusic-perceptualandcognitiveperformance.Forinstance,

approximately40%ofchildrenwithlittleornosightgoontodevelopabsolutepitchinthe

firsttwotothreeyearsoflife,amongthemaround5%withautism(Ockelford,Pring,Welch,

&Treffert,2006;Ockelford&Matawa,2010).Inanotherexample,arecentstudyconducted

inaLondonprimaryschoolfocusedonthebeneficialeffectsofsingingonhearing-impaired

children’shearingabilitiesandvoiceuseinthefirstyearsofschooling(Welchetal,2015).

Findingssupportanassumptionthatindividualswithdisabilities,includinghearing,can

developmusically.Inthisstudy,theparticularfocuswasonbuildingarepertoireofsimple

songsalongwithmusicalactivities,vocalexplorationsvisualimageryforsound.The

assessmentoftheprogrammeconsistedofpre-andpost-interventionmeasuresofpitch

discrimination,speechperceptioninnoiseandsingingcompetency.Overall,findingsshow

thatthespeciallydesignedmusicprogramme(singingandvocalexplorationsessions),

conductedregularlyacrosstwoschoolterms,generatedimprovementsinthesechildren’s

singingaccuracyandvocalrangeaswellastheirnormalhearingpeers.Inaddition,the

sessionssignificantlyenhancedgeneralpitchperception(Welchetal,op.cit.).

Lastly,byresearching,anddesigningdevelopmentallyrelevantmusicalprogrammes,

activitiesandpracticesforchildrenwithspecialneeds,wemightdevelopuniversal

approachesthatwouldbelikelybeneficialnotjustforspecialgroupswhosharecertain

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characteristics,butalsoforeveryone,includingablebodiedpeople(Jellison,2012).

Furthermore,afullyinclusivefashioningofmusiceducationcouldposeapromisingmeans

ofsocialinclusion,especiallytothosewhoareaminorityandatriskofmarginalization.

TheestablishmentoftheSoundsofIntentproject

Almosttwodecadesago,thefieldofmusiceducationforchildrenwithlearningdifficulties

andspecialneedswasnotrepresentedinresearch.Usingthisknowledge,apositionpaper

wasproducedtoillustratethecurrentissuesatthattimeregardingUKprovisioninthisarea.

Theaimwastopostulateanewframeworkforteachersandtherapistsandtoindicate

potentialareasforinvestigation(Ockelford,2000).Subsequently,variousinitiatives

followed,includingdoctoralstudies(Cheng,2009;Markou,2010).Atthesametime,a

survey—theProvisionofMusicinSpecialEducation—laterknownasthePROMISEreport,

investigatedthenatureofmusicprovisionfor2,758pupilsofferedin52specialschoolsin

Englandforchildrenwithlearningdifficulties(Welchetal.,2001;Ockelfordetal.,2002).

Findingsfromthesurveysupportedthegeneralassumptionthattheremightbepotential

benefitsfrommusiconwiderlearningandwell-beingforchildrenwithseverelearning

difficulties(SLD)orprofoundandmultiplelearningdifficulties(PMLD).Moreover,thesurvey

showedthatthisfieldpersewasanareaofdevelopment(Welchetal.,2001).Additionally,

inspiteofthewidelyrecognisedpositiveimpactsofmusiconthosechildren,therewasa

lackofguidanceastohowapproach,designandprovidemusiceducationforsuchchildren.

Subsequently,theseearlyinitiativesledtotheevolutionoftheSoundsofIntent(SoI)

project—acollaborativeresearchinitiativebytheUCLInstituteofEducation(knownthenas

theInstituteofEducation,UniversityofLondon),RoehamptonUniversity,andtheRoyal

NationalInstituteoftheBlind,withcolleaguesfromthespecialeducationschoolsystem

whohadattendedtheLondonlaunchofthePROMISEreport.SoI’spurposewastomapthe

musicaldevelopmentofchildrenandyoungpeoplewiththecomplexneeds(Ockelfordetal.,

2005;Welchetal.,2009;Chengetal.,2009;Vogiatzoglouetal.,2011;OckelfordandZapata

Restrepo,2012),andtoinvestigatehowbesttonurturesuchdevelopment.Participating

specialschoolteachersandcoremembersoftheresearchteamwerecollected,compared

andcollatedindividualcasestudydataofchildrenandyoungpeople(seebelow).Datawere

synthesisedintoaseriesofmusicaldevelopment‘maps’thatwereevaluatedandtrialled,

seekingthebestpossiblevisualrepresentationofthedata.Theintention(subsequently

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realised)wastocreateaninteractive,web-basedversionoftheresultingdevelopmental

framework.Thiswouldenablepractitionersandparentstoassessandratetheirchildren’s

musicalattainmentandchangesovertimeandinresponsetoparticularinterventions.

Furthermore,theframeworkwouldallowuserstorecordqualitativeobservationsinthe

shapeofverbal,videooraudiodata.Inshort,usingtheSoundsofIntentframework,the

musicalprofilesofchildrenwithcomplexneedsandtheirmusicalexperiences,

achievements,aswellasthenatureanddegreeoftheirdevelopmentcouldbebuiltup,

assessedandmapped(seewww.soundsofintent.org).

SettingupSoundsofIntent

TheSoundsofIntentresearchteamadopteda“bottomup”approachforthisprojectand

rightfromthestartingpointcollaboratedwithagroupofpractitioners,includingmusic

therapists,teachersandothers.Theintentionwastodevelopaccurateandshared

definitionsofthevariousanddifferentnaturesandmanifestationsthattheyhadobserved

amongsttheirstudentswithSLDandPMLD.Additionally,detailedanalysesofcasestudy

videorecordingswereundertakeninordertogathertypical,exceptionalorparticularly

interestingmusicalbehaviouramongtheirpupilsandstudents,embracingaverywiderange

ofneedsandabilities.Theiractions,reactionsandinteractionswere,forexample,notedas

follows:

Abigailsitsmotionlessinherchair.Herteacherapproachesandplaysacymbalwithasoftbeater,gentlyatfirst,andthenmoreloudly,infrontofherandthenneartoeachear.Abigaildoesnotappeartoreact.

Rosinaislyinginthe“LittleRoom”,vocalisinginanalmostconstantdrone.Occasionallyasuddenmovementofherrightarmknocksherhandagainstabell.Eachtime,shesmilesandhervocalisingbrieflyturnsintoalaugh.

Taybahbrushesherlefthandagainstthestringsofguitarthatsomeoneisholdingneartoher.Thereisapauseandthensheraisesherhandandbrushesthestringsagain,andthenforathirdtime.

Wendygiggleswhenpeoplerepeatpatternsofsyllablestohersuchas“mamamamama”,“dadadadada”,or“bababababa”.Carolcopiessimplepatternsofvocalisation–imitatingtheupsanddownsofherspeechandlanguagetherapist’svoice.

Emilymakesupsongswithshortphrasesthatsoundconnected–andwhenherteacherlistenedcarefullytoarecordingthatshehadmadeofEmily’ssinging,shenoticedthatonephraseoftenstartedmoreorlesswheretheotheroneleftoff.

Faisalhasseverelearningdifficultiesandhemiplegia.Heplaysthekeyboardwithhislefthandonly,learningmaterialbyear.Hehasrecentlyjoinedtheschool’sband,andhasfoundaroleforhimself

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playingthebassparts.Nowhenotonlypicksuponwhatthelefthandoftheotherkeyboardplayerisdoing,buthehasstartedtoimprovisearoundtheharmoniestoo.

Examplessuchastheseillustratedthatitwouldbealmostimpossibletoconceptualisethese

children’smusicalprofilesanddevelopmentintermsofasingledimension.Subsequently,

followingthoroughdiscussionswithintheSoundsofIntentresearchgroup,threedomains

evolvedthatwerebelievedtosummarizeandrepresentthedifferentformsofmusical

engagement.Furthermore,thedomainsneededtoposemeaningfulandusefuldescriptors

forpractitionersandotherinvolvedpeople.Consequently,thefollowingdomainswere

established:(a)“reactive”intermsoflisteningandrespondingtosoundandmusic;(b)

“proactive”withregardtocreatingmusiconeself;and(c)“interactive”representing

engagementwithsoundandmusicinthecontextofagroup(Ockelford,2008;Welchetal,

2009).Furthermore,itbecameevidentthattheobservedmusicalbehavioursvariedintheir

developmentalrangeandlevelsrangingfromwhatseemedtobeazeropointorthevery

beginningsofmusicality,toveryhighlevelsofmusicalengagement.Subsequently,thegroup

cametotheconclusionthatmusic-cognitivedevelopmentinchildrenwithspecialneedsand

developmentcouldbeconceptualizedandgraphicallyillustratedintermsofvariouslevels.

Table1:ThesixlevelsunderpinningtheSoundsofIntentframework(acronym‘CIRCLE’)

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MappingoftheSoundsofIntentframework

Withfurtheranalyses,eachofthreedomains(reactive,proactive,interactive)were

underpinnedbyandfurthersubdividedintosixlevels,whichdescribedthedevelopmentof

corecognitiveabilities.Thesewerelabelledas:(1)ConfusionandChaos;(2)Awarenessand

intentionality;(3)Relationships,Repetition,Regularity;(4)SoundsformingClusters;(5)

DeeperstructuralLinks;(6)MatureArtisticExpression(seeTable1)(OckelfordandWelch,

2012).Furthermore,thesesixlevelsextendedacrossthethreedomainsofmusicalabilities

andweredividedintooverall18segments,representedincircularform(Figure1).This

meantthateachlevelwasdividedintothreetypesofmusicalengagement;onebelongingto

andindicatingthereactivedomain“R”,anotherfortheproactive“P”,andathirdforthe

interactive“I”domain.Thesesegmentswereregardedasmostappropriatetorepresent

children’sdevelopmentinthedata,i.e.,beginninginthecentreoftheframeworkand

developingtowardstheoutside;rangingfromafocusonselftoincreasinglywider

communitiesofothers.

Moreover,aftermoreextendedpilotingandsubsequentevaluations,modifications

anddiscussions,theresearchgroupdecidedtobreakdowneachsegmentfurther.Inthis

respect,eachofthese18descriptorswasdividedintofurtherfourelementstoreflectmore

illustrativedetail(seeTable2).Inabroadersense,theelementsdescribetheengagement

withsoundandmusicinrelationtoothersensoryinput,andtheremaindertotechnical

matterspertainingtoperformance.

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Table2:ExampleSoIframeworkElements(A,B,C,D)fortheinitialthreesegmentsineach

domain(R,P,I)

Hence,therelationwithinleveldescriptorsandelementsandbetweenthethree

domainsiscomplex.Furthermore,leveldescriptorsareinahierarchicstructure,whereby

achievementofhigherlevelsdependsontheaccomplishmentofallprecedingwithina

domain.Betweendomains,thecontingencyappearstorunfluentlyfromreactiveto

proactiveandthentointeractive.Moreover,thearrangementofthecontingenciesthatlinks

all72elementsiscomplexinitsnatureandintricate,too.Despiteanoccasionalinevitable

connectionbetweenelementsatdifferentlevelswithinandbetweendomains,connectionis

notuniversalforthewholeframework—inthesensethatbeingobservedatonelevelinone

Level R.1 R.2 R.3

Descriptor encounters sounds

is exposed to a richvariety of sounds

is exposed to a widerange of music

is exposed to musicin different contexts

is exposed to soundsthat are linked to other

sensory input

responds to soundsthat are linked to

other sensory inputresponds to sounds usedto symbolize other things

responds to soundsincreasingly independently

of contextresponds to patterns of

regular change

responds differently tosound qualities that differ

(eg loud/ quiet), and/orchange (eg getting louder)

responds to a regular beat

shows awareness (of avariety) of sounds

responds to therepetition of sounds

shows an emerging

awareness of sound

REACTIVE DOMAIN

responds to simple

patterns in sound

Element A

Element B

Element C

Element D

Level P.1 P.2 P.3

Descriptor makes sounds

unknowingly

sounds made by lifeprocesses are enhanced

and/or involuntarymovements are used

to make sounds

sounds are made orcontrolled through

co-active movements

activities to promotesound production occurin a range of contexts

activities to promotesound production are

multisensory in natureproduces sounds as partof multisensory activity

uses sound to symbolizeother things

produces soundsintentionally in a range

of contextsintentionally makes

patterns through change

expresses feelingsthrough sound

intentionally makes aregular beat

makes soundsintentionally, through an

increasing variety ofmeans and with greater

range and control

intentionally makessimple patterns through

repetition

makes or controls

sounds intentionally

PROACTIVE DOMAIN

makes simple patterns

in sound intentionally

Element A

Element B

Element C

Element D

Level I.1 I.2 I.3

Descriptor relates unwittingly

through sound

co-workers stimulateinteraction by prompting

with sounds andresponding to any

sounds that are made

co-workers model inter-action through sound

activity to promoteinteraction throughsound occurs in arange of contexts

some interactionis multisensory in

nature

interaction through soundengages other senses too recognizes own patterns

in sound being imitated

interactions occurincreasingly independently

of contextimitates simple patterns

in sound made by another

sounds are made to stim-ulate a response in sound

shows awareness of ownsounds being imitated

sounds made by anotherstimulate a response

in sound

imitates the soundsmade by another

interacts with others

using sound

INTERACTIVE DOMAIN

interacts imitating

others’ sounds or

through recognizing

self being imitated

Element A

Element B

Element C

Element D

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domaindoesnotnecessarilyimplyanequivalentlevelinanother.Consequently,this

confirmedtheresearchteam’sviewthatmusicaldevelopmentwasmulti-layeredandmulti-

strandedinitsnatureand,therefore,suchintricaciesarecharacteristicandinevitable.Soit

appearedverylikelythatanindividualhadamulti-facetedmusical-developmentalprofile

ratherthanjustbeingataparticularsinglepointofmusicaldevelopment—ahypothesis

subsequentlyconfirmedinmoredetailedempiricalstudies(seebelow).

Asaresultoftheinitialexploratorymappingactivities,thequestionaroseastohow

theSoIframeworkcouldworkasapracticalassessmenttoolforpractitionersandenable

themtorecordthepupils’achievements,changesovertimeandevaluateimpactsresulting

frommusicalinterventions.

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Figure 1: Representation of the Sounds of Intent framework

EmpiricalexplorationsofthesoundsofIntentframework

ThefirstextendedempiricalexplorationoftheframeworkwasundertakenbyEvangeline

Cheng,adoctoralstudentattheUCLInstituteofEducation,London.Shetestedandapplied

theframeworkusinganumberoflongitudinalcasestudies(Chengetal.,2009;Cheng,2010).

Reactive Proactive

Interactive

enco

unter

s

through soundrelates

unwittingly

soun

ds

makes sounds

unknowingly

interacts by imitating others’

sounds or recognizing self being imita

ted recognizing coherent connections between groups of s

ound

s

intentionally makes patterns in sound

through repetition or regularity

reco

gniz

es a

nd re

acts t

o

sim

ple

patte

rns i

n sound

and

the

rela

tions

hips

betw

een th

em

engages in musical dialogues, creating and

resp

onds

to g

roup

s of m

usica

l sounds

creates or re-creates short groups of musical

sounds and links them coherently

performs or improvises music of growing length and complex

ity

with others, using increasingly developed ensemble skills

makes music expressively with another or others, with a

widening repertoire in a range of different styles and genres

performs or improvises music of grow

ing length and

complexity, increasingly ‘in time’ and ‘in tune’

atte

nds

to p

iece

s, r

ecog

nizi

ng p

rom

inen

t s

tructu

ral features and

resp

ondi

ng to

cha

ract

erist

ics w

ith le

arnt c

onnotations

show

s em

er

ging

seeks to communicate through music through expressive perf orm

ance or

by creating pieces that are intended to convey particular effectsenga

ges

with

pie

ces

as n

arra

tives

in so

und

which u

nfold over time

to c

reat

e m

eani

ng; d

iffer

entia

tes b

etwee

n perf

ormances

causes, creates or controls

sounds intentionallyawar

enes

s of s

ound

or others using sound

interacts with another

R.1I.1

I.2

I.3

I.4

I.5

I.6

P.1R.2 P.2

R.3 P.3R.4

R.5R.6

P.4P.5

P.6

14

Sheobservedseveralyoungpeoplewithseverelearningdifficultiesengagedinmusic

sessionsinaspecialschoolandassessedthemaccordinglytotheSoIFramework,recording

thefrequencywithwhichgivenlevelsofengagementwereobserved,sessionbysession.

Threeparticularcasesformedthefocusforthedoctoralthesis,withobservationsbeing

drawnregularlybetweeneighttothirteenmonths,i.e.,onecasefortwoschoolterms,and

twoothersforawholecalendaryear.Ineachcasestudy,therewasevidenceofmusical

progressovertime,withmoreadvancedbehavioursemerginglongitudinally(seeFigure

2[a,b,c],Cheng,2010).Thepatternofobservedresponsesgenerallyindicatedashifttowards

theouterlevelsoftheframework.Nevertheless,itwasalsoevidentfromthesethreecases

thatmusicalprogresswasnotstraightforward.Foreachyoungperson,awiderangeof

musicalbehaviourswereevidencedacrossdomainsandtheirsegmentsintheopeningterm

andalsosubsequently.

Domain

R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 I6

Term1 0 1 6 22 47 25 0 4 11 34 32 20 0 0 23 10 52 15 0Term2 0 0 0 16 29 56 0 14 1 14 23 47 0 0 14 1 64 21 0

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

observed

musiclbeh

aviours(%)

CasestudyJ

15

Figure2[a,b,c]:SummaryoftheSoundsofIntentprofilesofeachthethreecasesfortwo

schoolterms(CaseJ)andthreeterms(CasesHandK)(Cheng,2010)

Domain

R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 I6

Term1 0 0 7 44 28 21 0 0 7 54 27 12 0 0 8 58 31 4 0Term2 0 0 1 32 35 31 0 0 0 55 28 17 0 0 0 26 57 17 0Term3 0 0 0 6 39 55 0 0 0 12 46 42 0 0 0 12 61 28 0

010203040506070

observed

musicalbeh

aviours(%)

CasestudyH

Domain

R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 I6

Term1 0 7 14 27 41 11 0 10 24 28 30 8 0 16 36 10 33 4 0Term2 0 3 12 43 29 13 0 32 13 23 25 7 0 13 43 8 30 6 0Term3 0 0 7 12 53 28 0 8 8 15 50 20 0 0 21 0 68 12 0

01020304050607080

observed

musicalbeh

aviours(%)

CaseK

16

ItwasevidentfromtheCheng(2009)dataanalysesthatmoresubtleintra-personal

changescouldbemappediftheelementsthemselvesweresub-dividedintodifferent

degreesofengagement.Hence,totestthisprinciple,theresearchteamconductedfurther

exploratoryempiricalwork.

ThesecondempiricalexplorationoftheSoIprojectfocusedon20youngpeoplewith

PMLDfromtheLindenLodgeSchoolinsouth-westLondon.Thepupils’agesrangedfrom11

years11months,to17yearsandsevenmonthsandcamefromawidevarietyofethnicand

culturalbackgrounds.Allpupilsillustratedprofoundlevelsofglobaldevelopmentaldelay:

nonewasverbalandthegreatmajoritywerewheelchairusers;manywerevisuallyimpaired.

TheexplorationwasconductedinthecontextofweeklymusicsessionsleadbyAdam

OckelfordintheSpringandSummertermsofthatyear—atotalof24sessionsof45minutes

each.Theformatoftheselessonswaskeptthesamethroughoutthewholetimeperiod.The

worktookplaceinthepupils’classroomsandeachstudenthadaone-to-oneteaching

assistant;everyonesatinacircle.Thematerialswhichwereusedforthisstudyweretaken

fromAllJoinIn!(Ockelford,1996).Thisisasetof24speciallydesignedsongsthatoffera

frameworkformusicmakingwithyoungpeoplewhoarevisuallyimpairedandhavelearning

difficulties.Inthisparticularinstance,thesongscouldbeaccompaniedbyatouch-sensitive

keyboardthatwasprovidedintheroom.

Additionally,themusicteacherattheparticularschool,LamornaJewell-Gore,

participatedinallsessionsandsupportedthestaff.Onsixoccasionsshetookovertheroleof

anobserverwhoobservedeachoftheparticipantsandmappedthebehavioursofmusical

reactivity,proactivityandinteractivityontotheSoIframework.Shegaugedwhichelement

matchedthedescriptionbestandgradedthemas“low”,“medium”or“high”,accordingto

whetherorhowthebehaviourofferedafit.Moreover,sheassignedaranktoeachofthe

descriptionsonanordinalscale,accordingtoitspositionwithintheSoIframework,whereby

activityatLevel1(low)wascategorisedas“1”,Level1(medium)wasclassedas“2”,Level1

(high)wasallocated“3”,andsoforthinordertofacilitateanalysisofthedata.Asa

supplement,videorecordingsweremadeforlaterreference.Hercommentsofferedthese

examples:

“J”“showedslightreactiontoloudnoisesbutnoreactiontolocalisedinstrumentsplaying.Didnot[…]changereactiontochangeintempo/dynamics”–assessedasR.1.A(low).

17

“G”“laughedeachtimethetambourinewashit,andrespondedtosuddenchordchanges”–assessedasR.2.A(medium).

“A”“vocalisedthroughoutsongsandchangednoteswithkeychange”–assessedasI.3.A(low).

“B”“laughedataparticularmotifplayedonthepiano”–assessedasR.4.A(low).

“L”“reactedtopeopleplayingmatchingsounds,eyeslookingfromonetotheother”–assessedasR.3.A(low).

“D”“listenedtosoundsmadebytheotherchildren,sometimesjustlooking,sometimessmiling,sometimeslaughing”–assessedasR.2.B(high).

“Q”“laughedalotwhenhisownmade-upmusicalsoundswereimitated(the‘wahwah’song)”–assessedasI.3.B(high).

Overthecourseofthesessions,therewasanattendantincreaseinclassifications

fromLevel1toLevel3.Thistrendcanbegaugedcomparingmeansofthereportedranks,

sessionbysession,whichindicateaproxyindicationofthechildren’schangingperceived

levelofmusicalengagement,equivalenttooneSoundsofIntentlevelin18months.

Nevertheless,variousextensiveexperienceswithsuchchildrenrepresentedinthe

exploratoryresearchsuggestedthatthislevelofdevelopmentoverthisparticulartimeframe

wouldbeveryunusual.Thisledtheresearcherstoassumethattheremaybeexceptional

factorsatworkinthestudy.Thesecouldbe(a)theroutineandfamiliaritywiththe

materials,whichmayhavebeenthereasonforthepupilstoengagemorefullyovertime;(b)

theknowledgeofthepupilsdeepened,whichmayhaveresultedinamoreeffective

scaffoldingofinteractionsasthetimewenton;(c)Jewell-Gore’sobservationbecamemore

perceptiveandthepracticewiththeframeworkbecamemoreadvancedoverthetwoterms;

and(d)Jewell-Gore’swishforprogressmayhavesubconsciouslyinfluencedher

categorization.

Finally,aparticularmethodofcross-checkingtheresults(takingadvantageofthe

variationinageoftheparticipants)suggestedthatprogressmayoccuratamuchslower

paceandratethanJewell-Gore’sobservationindicated.Certainly,conclusionsheremustbe

tentativegiventheanalysisassumesthatthevariationbyagereflectslongitudinalchange

ratherthandifferencesbetweentheyoungpeoples’abilities.Overall,muchmoredata

wouldbeneededtoquantifyandsegregatethedifferentfactorsanddeterminehowthey

interrelate.Here,itisimportanttonotethatthiscouldbepossiblydonebyusingtheSounds

ofIntentapproachandamoreextensivedataset.

18

Asaresult,observationalschedulesmayneedtobeevenmoredetailedandrefined

thanthesystemusedbyJewell-Goreinorderforpractitionerstochartthedetailofmusical

progressmeaningfullyovertime.Furthermore,Cheng’sresearchindicatesthatnotonly

levelsofengagement,butalsotherelativefrequencywithwhichthevariousbehaviours

appearmustbeconsidered.Thus,amoreadvancedsystemofdatacollectionwas

developed,inwhichboththeseparametersarerepresented(seewww.soundsofintent.org).

CurrentstatusoftheSoundsofIntentproject

Initialempiricaldatageneratedfromtworesearchprojectsbothshowmusicalprogression

onthepartofthechildrenandyoungpeopleconcernedandsupportedthedesign,content

andstructureoftheSoundsofIntentmusicdevelopmentframework.Althoughfuture

researchwillsuggestrefinementstothemodel,ithasbeenimportantthat,forthefirsttime,

practitionersandcarershaveanempiricallygroundedtooltouseasabasisformusical

assessmentandplanningintheirworkwithpupilsandyoungpeoplewithspecialneedsthat

isbothgroundedinecologicallyvalidobservationandistheoreticallycoherent.Sinceits

publiclaunchin2012wheretheSoIframeworkwasmadefullyavailabletopractitioners,the

websitehashadover4,750,000uniquehits(toAugust2015),withover650,000downloads

ofvariousresourcesbypeoplefromallovertheworld.Thereareover600registeredusers

and250+practitionersactivelyandregularlyusingthetool.Datahavebeencollectedon

nearly3,000childrenandyoungpeople,representing180+specialschoolsorschoolswith

specialistunits/provision.Over7,000sessionshavebeenrecorded.Inaddition,the

internationalinterestintheframeworkhasledtoversionsbeingused(inEnglishor

translation)intheUSA,Haiti(Creole),Spain(SpanishandCatalan),Portugal(Portuguese),

Colombia(Spanish),Taiwan(Chinese),Japan(Japanese),theNetherlands(Dutch)and

Pakistan(Urdu).

Mostrecently,anadditionalearlyyearsversionofSoundsofIntent—afullyinclusive

enterpriseforallchildrenaged0-5—hasalsobeenlaunched(seeeysoi.org).

19

Summary

Thereisagrowingbodyofresearchliteraturetosuggestthateducationinmusicand

throughmusiccangeneratelong-termbenefitsinsocial,psychologicalandphysicalaspects

ofanindividual’swellbeing,includingthosewithspecialneedsandabilities.Thefindings,

fromtheneurosciencesaswellassocialsciencesofpsychologyandeducation,offer

evidencethatobservablemusicalityismodular,inthesensethatdifferentmusical

behavioursarerelated,yetcanalsoberelativelydiscrete.Theevidencealsosuggeststhat

everyoneismusicaltoacertaindegreeandpossesstheabilitytoengageanddevelopin

musicinvariouswaysandaccordinglytotheirpersonalinterestsandabilities.Forthose

workinginthefieldofspecialaswellasmainstreameducation,thesefindingsshouldbe

usedbothtopromotemoreeffectivesupportinengagingwithmusicasanactivityinitsown

right,aswellasmotivatingthemtousemusicasascaffoldtostructureotherlearningand

development.Inthisrespect,theSoundsofIntentframeworkwasestablishedinorderto

enablepractitioners,teachersandcarerstoobserve,mapandgaugetheirstudents’and

children’smusicalprofiles.Furthermore,theycancharttheirlevelsofreactive,interactive

andproactiveengagementanddevelopmentovertimeandnotechangesinmusical

behaviourinrelationtoparticularmusicalinterventions.Nevertheless,theglobalmusic

educationresearchcommunityneedstousesuchdata(andmore)tospearheadchanging

attitudestodisabilityinmusiceducationandpromoteafullyinclusiveengagementin

music—foreveryone,notjustforsome.

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