Educational Administration EDU 547 Chapter VI Power and Politics in School

Educational AdministrationEDU 547Chapter VIPower and Politics in School Presented by: Kathleen MerchantInstructor: Dr. Lauren Larsen 1PowerClassical is the ability to get others to do what you want them to do Weber (1947, p. 152)the probability that one actor within a social relationship will be in a position to carry out his own will despite resistance Power for the purpose of this chapter-is a general and comprehensive term control that is starkly coercive as well as control that is based on nonthreatening persuasion and suggestion On the other hand authority has a narrower scope. Weber (1947, p. 324)as the probability that certain specific commands (or all commands) from a given source will be obeyed by a given group of persons Weber indicated that authority does not include every mode of exercising power of influence over other persons.

He also suggests that a certain level of voluntary compliance is associated with legitimate commands.

Organizations are created and controlled by legitimate authorities who set goals, design structures, hire, and manage employees, and monitor activities to ensure behavior is consistent with the goals and objectives of the organization.

The authorities control the legitimate power of the office or positions 2Sources of Authority: Legitimate Power Authority is distinguished from other kinds of influences or power in that the subordinates holds abeyance his own critical faculties for choosing between alternatives and uses the formal criterion of the receipt of a command or signal as his basis of choice There are two criteria of authority in schools that are imperative in the relationships of superior-subordinate Three primary characteristics of authority in schools:Willingness of subordinates to comply Suspension of the subordinates criteria for making a decision before a decision Power relationship legitimized by the norms of a group

Contrary to some beliefs that the exercise of authority in a schools typically involves coercion IT DOES NOT

Two criterias Voluntary compliance to legitimate commandsSuspension of ones own criteria for decision making and acceptance of the organizational command

Although there are two criterias Blau and Scott( 1962, 2003) argue that a third criterion must be added to make a distinction between authority and other forms of social control.

They maintain that a value orientation arises that defines the use of social control as legitimized, and this orientation arises only in a group context.

Authority exists when common set of beliefs (norms) in a school legitimizes the use of power as right and proper 3Sources of Authority-Sources of Authority Types of Authority-Weber (1947)Definition Charismatic authority Is premised on devotion to an exceptional individual who is leader by virtue of personal trust/exemplary qualities. Traditional authority Is anchored in an established belief in the sanctity of the status of those exercising authority in the past.Legal authority Is based on enacted laws that can be changed by formally correct proceduresExtension of the basic concepts of authorityRobert Peabody ( 1962)-distinguishes the bases of formal authority-legitimacy and position-from the bases of functional authority-competence and personal or human relations skills, whereas Blau and Scott (1962, 2003;Scott, 2003)-simply describe the authority relation as formal and informal which depends on the source of legitimacy for the power Formal authority Is vested in the organization and is legally established in positions, rules and regulations. Functional authority Has a variety of sources, including authority of competence and authority of the person Informal authority Is a source of legitimate control stemming from personal behavior and attributes of individuals Charismatic authority-tends to be nonrational, affective or emotional and rests heavily on the leaders personal qualities and characteristics. The authority of the charismatic leader results primarily from the leaders overwhelming personal appeal, and typically a common value orientation emerges

Traditional authority Obedience is owed to the traditional sanctioned position of authority and the persons who inherits the position inherits the authority (e.g. students may accept the authority of the position as their teachers because their parents and grandparents did so in the past).

Legal authority-Obedience not owed to a person/person per se but to the laws that specify to whom and to what extent people owe compliance. This type of authority is extends only within the scope of authority of the authority vested in the office by law.

Formal authority- In joining the organization, employees accept the authority relations because they agree, within certain limits, to accept the directives of their supervisors, the organization has the right to command the employees have the duty to obey-rests on the legally established agreement between the organization and the employees

Functional authority-Technical competence can provide the source for legitimate control and directives in a formal organization regardless of the specific position a person holds this fact often posses a problem for professionals

Informal authority- regardless of formal position, some organizational members develop norms of allegiance and support from their colleagues

4Authority and Administrative Behavior in Schools Authority is a basic element of life in schools because it provides legitimate control for the following individuals; administrators, teachers, and students

Once administrators, teachers and students join a school organization they accept the formal authority relation 1.A primary source of control is formal authority that is vested in the office/position and not in the particualr person who performs the official role

2. They agree within certain limits to follow directives that officials issue for the school.

3. In a nutshell members of schools enter in contractual agreements in which they sell their promises to obey commands

One flaw with formal authority is that is promotes minimal compliance with directives and discipline, and it does not encourage employees to exert effort to accept responsibility/initiative

Challenge that administrators/principals is to find methods to extend their influence over their professional staff beyond that constricted limits of formal authority 5Sources of PowerEven though authority implies legitimacy, not all power is legitimateIndividuals/groups can utilize power in many different ways

For example a department/group can have power which suggest that is has the ability to influence the behavior of other individuals or groups, in areas such as budgeting or personnel

Similarly a person can have power that is succesfull in getting other persons to compy with directive/suggestions 6Sources of Power

French and Raven (1968)-identified these five kinds of power-as a means of analyzing sources of power

Reward Power- is the administrators ability to influence subordinates by rewarding their desirable behaviors-the strength of this type of power lies in the attractiveness of the rewards and the extent of certainty that a person can control the reward. Note it is important that the rewards are linked to compliance and the attempts to influence the desired behavior is proper and ethical

Coercive Power- is an administrators ability to influence the behavior of subordinates by punishing them for undesirable behavior. The strength of this type of power depends heavily on the severity of the punishment and also on the likelihood that the punishment cant be avoided (punishments can be undesirable work assignments denial of salary increases stricter reinforcement if rules and regulation-Punishment does not go without its negative effects. (e.g punishing a teacher for leaving early can result in he/she being absent more often.Legitimate Power- is the administrator's ability to influence the behavior of subordinates simply because if formal position. They acknowledge that the administrator has a right to issue directives and they have the obligation to comply

Every administrator is empowered by the organization to make decisions within a specific area of responsibility. The area of responsibility defines the activities over which the administrator has legitimate power. The further removed a directive is from the administrators are of responsibility , the weaker his/her legitimate power

Referent Power-is an administrator's ability to influence behavior based on subordinates liking and identification with the administrator. The individual with this type of power is admired and respected and serves as a model to mimic. This type of power is not just limited to individuals but can be extended to groups. In fact any highly likeable individual who develops respect, trust and loyalty amongst colleagues can develop such type power

Expert Power-is the administrators ability to influence subordinates behavior on the premise of specialized knowledge and skills. They are influenced because they believe the information/expertise the administrator possess are relevant, helpful and certain things they may not possess themselves

As with referent power, expert power is a personal trait and does not depend on the occupancy of a formal position or power.

7Administrative Use of Power An enormous portion of any administrator's time is directed at power oriented behavior that is- behavior directed mainly at developing or using relationships in which other people are to some degree willing to defer to ones wishes (Kotter, 1978, p. 27).

Empowerment is the process by which administrators share power and assist others with the utilization of constructive ways to make decisions

Note*evidence is starting to emerge to demonstrate that teacher empowerment as it relates to curricular matter is connected to student performance

Administrators possess varying degrees and combinations of the types of power that have just been covered. Moreover, the manner in which an administrator utilizes one type of power can hinder/facilitate the effectiveness of other kinds of power

Reward power is more likely to produce positive feelings and also aid with the development of referent power. While on the other hand, coercive power reaps the opposite effect of reward power8Mintzbergs Perspective on PowerMintzberg suggested another way to analyze power in and around organizations. From his viewpoint power in any organization stems from control over a resource, a technical skill, or a body of knowledge.

However, in all cases to serve as a basis for power the knowledge and resource skill has to be critical to the functioning of the organization in question. (It must be in a short supply & must not be easily replaceable)

Another general basis for power originates from legal prerogatives-this gives certain individuals the sole right to impost choices-(e.g hiring and firing of administrators exclusively done by the school board) & (school administrators are often required by state law to evaluate the teaching competencies of neophyte teachers)

Lastly, power also presents itself to those who have access to power holders (e.g. the ability to have access to those who exert power)

School administrators must make an effort to understand these systems of influence and know how and when to tap into them to utilize

Most definitely the system of authority is the beginning point for school administrators because their positions are vested with formal power, however; the personal and bureaucratic control of the position is mostly not sufficient enough to get teachers motivated to extend extra effort/creative in their service to their schools and students

1. Relying totally on the system of authority run the risks of resistance, alienation and hostility from teachers. Overreliance on formal authority puts administrator in major danger

2. Organizational ideology (culture) can create a sense of mission among members-Principals are the key players in the creation of ideology and culture in their schools . The goal here to create a strong belief amongst teachers and students that there is something exceptional about their school-distinctive identity

One important consequence of a school with a strong ideology is the redistribution of power-which means power becomes evenly distributed amongst all educators

Even though authority and ideology systems fosters coordination and compliance they are barely enough, because when work is complicated experts/professionals are required and with these individuals comes a command of autonomy

To be extremely successful administrators must share power with professionals

** One important point with Mintzbergs systems is that administrators must be ready and willing to share power if they want to foster environments that are absent of dissatisfaction, hostility, and alienation.

9Effective Administrators 10A Comparison and Synthesis of Power Perspectives Legitimacy of Power Sources of PowerLegitimate Formal

InformalFormal Authority Informal Authority Illegitimate Coercive PowerPolitical Power 11Power, Rationality, and Rationalization Power often blurs the difference between rationality and rationalization

Rationality-is the application of evidence and reason to make decisions

Rationalization-is an attempt to make a decision seem rational after it has already been made

In short-we cannot get away from the fact that a great deal of organizational behavior is irrational and power frequently undermines rationality

**Refer to the questions in the text on page 235, which were raised by Flyvbjerg Power has a way of defining reality because people in power tend to spin the truth to suit their purposes

Power often defines reality because superiors specify what counts as knowledge Those individuals in power often times interpret and reinterpret evidence

Even though rationality is more legitimate and is acceptable ,behind the scenes hidden from public examination, power and rationalization dominate

A rationalized front is not necessarily dishonest because many persons/organizations tend to believe their own rationalizations. Self-delusion may be part of the will power. It is not a surprise that many administrators are true believers of their own rationalizations; they actually convince themselves of both the merit and rationality of their rationalizations

The greater the power the less need to establish the facts because strong leaders can utilize their power successfully to create the reality they prefer

12Organizational Power and Politics Organizational politics-is individual or group behavior that is informal, ostensibly, parichial,typically diverse, and above all, in the technical sense, illegitimate-sanctioned neither by authority,accepted ideology, nor certified expertise(Mintzberg, 1983a, p. 172)

Even though there are powerful individuals, the political ring of organizations are composed of coalitions of persons-groups who negotiate amongst themselves to make a determination on how to distribute powerThis type of politics is typically illegitimate, because personal agendas are replace for organizational ones. 13Organizational Power and Politics Coalitions External coalitions-significant outside influences of schools-includes a multitude of groups such as teacher associations, unions, media, PTAs etc.

The main goal of these outside-influence groups is to bring their own interest and external powers to bear on the activities of schools

The problem that these groups encounter is figuring out how to accomplish the outcome they desire especially since they are functioning outside the decision making structure of the schools

Mintzberg stated that the impact of external coalitions on the organization varies significantly-so he proposed a continuum of three external coalitions-dominated, divided and passive

External Coalitions

Dominated external coalition-is composed of one sole, powerful influence or a set of external influences acting in concert-in these cases the external coalition is so powerful that it dominates not only the internal forces but also the board of education (e.g. of this a community issue to revert back to basics. These coalitions dont remain unchallenged. When the external coalition is divided among independent and other competing external forces-the organization starts to be pushed in many different directions

Divided external coalition-exits when a few, mostly two/three different sets of influences emerge, so much that there is a tough balance between the conflicting grousp (e.g. can be between two external groups-conservative and progressive. Curriculum and instructional programs are often the battlegrounds. The power struggles often spill over into the internal coalitions

Passive external coalition-is reached when the amount of outside groups of external influences continues to the place where power of each is scattered and limited. The external environment at this point is relatively stable and calm. Administrators enjoy this type of environment

Internal coalitions internal groups of influences that bad together in common cause-internal coalitions. The external coalitions helps cultivate the internal coalitions

Personalized internal coalition- is one in which power is concentrated in the hierarchy of authority the person of the chief executive officer who rules the internal coalition-the superintendent have power over the critical decisions. Little political game playing happens here by those inside the organization

2. Bureaucratic internal coalition- power is concentrated in the formal systems of authority, however; here its focus is on bureaucratic control rules and regulations

3. Ideological internal coalition- at times controls organization the system of ideology is so prevelant it dominates (e.g. teachers not only accepting the goals and objectives of the school they share them also) Collegial working realtionships prevail and internal politics is rare because of the sound shared beliefs

4. Professional internal coalition- the system of expertise controls the organization-highly trained experts and professionals surrender a tremendous amount of power to their organization

5. Politicized internal coalition- power her rests on politics-antagonistic political games take over the organization and can Substitute or diminish legitimate power 14The Power GamePower is an elusive of negotiating advantages and then when willingly and skillfully exploiting those bargaining advantages

There is no guarantee that those persons who gain power will utilize it in a rational or justified manner, however; power and politics are not always demeaning and destructive Power matters it is a vital feature of what an organization does and it affects what each of its members do

Mintzberg mentioned that internal politics is typically secretive and illegitimate because it is designed primarily to benefit the individual or group-this is usually at the expense of the organization-as a result of this the most common outcome is divisiveness and conflict.

Successful politics necessitates that the members of the organization bargain, negotiate,jockey for position, and engage in a numerous political games, strategies and tactics geared towards influencing the goals and decisions of the organization

As mentioned in the text politics can coexist with other more legitimate forms of power, arrange themselves in opposition to the legitimate power or become substitutes for weak legitimate systems of control

15Power Game

1. Ingratiating is a tactic utilized to gain the goodwill of another through doing favors, being attentive and giving favors

2. Networking-is the process of forming realtionships with influential people-such persons may or may not be in important positions

3. Information management- is tactic individuals utilize to control or build their own status, even though having critical information is useful-there is a downside the techniques utilize to spread that information

4. Impression management-a tactic used by many at some time or the other to create a favorable image (e. dressing/behaving in a certain way

5. Coalition building-is the process of individuals banding together to attain a particular goal(e.g. opposing a proposed policy)

6. Scape-goating- is a tactic utilized by blaming and attacking others when things dont go well

7. Increasing indispensability is a tactic by which individuals or units make themselves necessary to the organization crafty individuals often develop specialized skills to make them a critical to the to the successful operation of the organization 16Power Games One way to describe in dept organizational politics is to conceive it as an arena of political games that persons within the organization play 17Conflict Management Since power and organizational politics certainly produce conflict-it is important to effectively manage conflict when it arises Conflict is neither bad or destructive, on the contrary conflict can produce positive organizational change

18Conflict Management Styles

Kenneth Thomas provided a useful topology for examining conflict management styles, he also identified two basic dimensions of behavior that may produce conflict:Attempting to satisfy ones concern(organizational demands in the case of administrators Attempting to satisfy others concerns(individuals needs of the members) Attempting to satisfying organizational demands can be viewed along the line of assertive-unassertive continuum to saisfy individual needs can be conceptualized from uncooperative to cooperative 19Conflict Management Styles 20Words for Thought A man who neglects what is actually done for what should be done learns the way to self-destruction. Machiavelli ( 1994)

We need to see and understand organizational life as it is so that we have some chance to move toward what we believe it should be; hence, power and politics cannot be neglected. 21