educational reforms that foster ecological … resistance is the paradigm gap that now separates...

C. A. Bowers

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Teacher Education Quarterly, Fall 2010

Educational Reformsthat Foster

Ecological Intelligence1

By C. A. Bowers

Therearepowerfulforcesofresistancethatmustbeacknowledgedwhenintro-ducingeducationalreformsthatfosterecologicalintelligence.Theforemostsourceofresistanceistheparadigmgapthatnowseparatesgenerations.Thatis,thevastmajorityofuniversityprofessors,classroomteachers—andthusthegeneralpublicthathasbeeneducatedbythem—weresocializedtotake-for-grantedmanyoftheconceptualunderpinningthatsupportedtheideathatintelligenceistheattributethatisthebasisofindividualautonomy.Thisincluded,asmentionedearlier,allthemisconceptionsthatmarginalizedawarenessthatthelanguagingprocessescarryforwardthemisconceptionsandsilencesofearliereras—includingthemoralvalues

C. A. Bowers is a courtesy professor of environmental studies at the University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon. He is semi-retired but continues to write and speak to international audiences.

anddeepcultural assumptions rooted in theWest’santhropocentrictraditionsofthinking.Theywerealsosocialized to think in terms of events, dates, facts,places,characteristicsofthingsandpeople,whatcanbemeasured,andassignedamonetaryvalue—ratherthanintermsofrelationshipsandmutuallysupportiveordestructivepatterns.Thedominantmindsetreinforcedbytheeducationalprocessalsotakes-for-grantedthatchangeisaninherentlyprogressiveprocess.Indeed,thisassumption,whichscientistscombinedwiththeassumptionthattherationalprocesscancorrectthe

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limitationsofthenaturalworld,ledtotheintroductionintotheenvironmentofthethousandsofsyntheticchemicalsthatarenowbeingdiscoveredtobelife-alteringtoxicsubstances.Andlearningtothinkofthecharacteristicsofdistinctentitiessuchasindividuals,things,andeventsratherthanrelationshipsandinterdependenciesfurtherreinforcedthehabitofvaluingabstractthinkingoverawarenessofculturalandenvironmentalcontexts.Thistaken-for-grantedconceptualandmoralorientationhelpedtoperpetuatethemythofwesternculturesbeingmoreadvancedandthushavingamessianicresponsibilityforthedevelopmentoflessadvancedcultures. Thislegacyoflatetwentiethcenturythinkingcontinuestoframetoday’spoliticaldiscoursewherealargemajorityofthepublicareindeepdenialthattheecologicalcrisiswillrequirefundamentallifestylechanges.Scientistsandpoliticianswhotakethecrisisseriouslyassumethatitcanbesolvedbyintroducingmoreenergyefficientandlesscarbonproducingtechnologies.ThesmallnumberoffacultyinthesocialsciencesandtheevensmallernumberinthehumanitieswhoareintroducingtheirstudentstoenvironmentalissuesmostlyfocusonenvironmentalwriterssuchasHolmesRolstonIII,WarwickFox,ArneNaess,J.BairdCallicott,AldoLeopold,WendellBerry—andecofeministssuchasCharleneSpretnak,SusanGriffin,CarolynMerchant,ValPlumwood,andVandanaShiva.Thesewritersareimportantastheychallengefromdifferentperspectivesthedominantmythofahumanandpatriarchalcenteredworld.Readingthemcontributestoachangeofconsciousness,buttheydonotprovidestudentswiththeknowledgeandskillsnecessaryforlivinglifestylesthatarelessdependentuponconsumerism,oronanindividual-centeredformofconsciousness.Littleifanyattentionisgiventodiscussingwithstudentshowthenewdigitaltechnologies,valuedchieflyfortheirpersonalconvenience,speed,andsocialnetworking,perpetuatethesameculturalpatternsthatfurthermarginalizeawarenessoftheecologicalcrisis. Otherobstaclestointroducingeducationalreformsthatfostergreaterrelianceuponecologicalintelligenceincludethedeepeningculturewarswhereamixofreligiousfundamentalismandyearsofafragmentededucationalprocessthatleavesstudentsgraduatingwithonlyasurfaceknowledgeofthehistoryofideas,leadstothecurrentviolence-pronepoliticaldiscourse.Thisdiscourse,whichcontinu-allydegeneratesintomakingthefalsedistinctionbetweenfriendsandenemiesisdominatedbyanOrwellianmixofpoliticalslogans.Labelingasconservativethegroupsthatareunderminingourtraditionsofcivilrightsinthenameofpatriotism,aswellaspromotingtheeliminationofallgovernmentalregulationofafreemarketsystemthatisnowdevoidofanymoralconstraintsandsenseofsocialresponsibility,isevidenceoftheneedforaradicalrethinkingofwhichtraditionsofknowledgeareessentialtomakingthetransitiontoanecologicallysustainablefuture. Therecursiveintellectualtraditionssurviveprimarilybecauseofinstitutionalrigidityandtheunwillingnessoftenuredfacultytoacknowledgethatwhattheytaketobecuttingedgethinkingintheirdisciplinemaynotbeusefultostudentsintheyearsahead.The“greenwashing”ofcorporateagendasforputtingprofitson

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a“sustainable”basisfurtherunderminesawarenessthatweareonthecuspoflifechangingevents.Andiftheriseofpoliticalextremism,patriotism,andtheincreasingcrazewithprofessionalsportswerenotenoughforenvironmental/culturaleducationalreformerstoovercomeingettingtheirwarningstakenseriously,thereisnowthereac-tionarythinkingthatdominatesgovernmentalapproachestopromotingeducationalreforms.Thecurrentefforttopromotehigherlevelsofeducationalachievementforallstudentsisbasedonthesamereductionistthinkingwheretheemphasisisonthemeasurementoflearningoutcomes.Thisorientationreduceseducationtolearningisolatedfactsandevents—whichfurtherstrengthensthemythoftheautonomousindividualwhoisbeingpreparedtosucceedincollegeandintheworkplace. Unfortunately,theproblemofculturalrecursionisnotlimitedtothereactionaryeducationalreformpoliciesbeingpursuedintheUnitedStates.ThetenyeareffortonthepartofUNESCO,whichincludestheGuidelinesandRecommendationsReorientingTeacherEducationtoAddressSustainabilitythathashadworld-wideexposure,promotesindividualempowermentandtheindividualconstructionofknowledgeastheprimarymeansofachievingecologicallysustainabledevelopment(UNESCO,2005).Thesub-unitofUNESCOchargedwithpromotingwhatintheliteratureisreferredtoasESD(educationforsustainabledevelopment)hasestab-lishedthroughouttheworldregionalnetworksofgovernmentalorganizationsandcooperatingcollegesofeducation.ManyoftherecommendationsforESDreformssuggesttheimportanceoftakinglocalculturaltraditionsintoaccount,andprepar-ingteachersforaworldofcontinuingchange.However,theprocessof recursivethinkingisclearlyevidentinalloftherecommendations.WiththeexceptionofthereferencestoESD,alltherecommendationsreflectthesamelevelofgenerality,suchasrecommending“life-longlearning”thatcanbefoundinearliergovernmentdocumentsthataddresseducationalreforms.Missingfromtherecommendationsisanymention,evenatthemostgenerallevel,ofthefundamentalchangesthatmustbeintroducedintoteachereducationthatwillleadtothechangesinconsciousnessandlifestylethatmustbemade. The continual references to introducing reforms in teacher education thatpromoteESDmayappearaspraiseworthy,buttherealityisthatunlessthereisgreaterspecificityaboutthenatureofthereformsthatmustbeintroducedthemap/territoryproblemidentifiedbyBatesonensuresthattherewillbelittleinthewayofsubstantivechange—exceptforthegreeningoftherhetoric.Theprofessorsofeducationindifferentcountrieswillsimplyreproducethetheoryframeworkstheylearnedintheiryearsofgraduatestudy—thatis,theirunderstandingofESDwillreflectthesamesilencesthatwerepartoftheirgraduatestudiestentothirtyyearsagowhentherewaslittleawarenessoftheenvironmentalcrisis.ThetheoriesofJohnDewey,whowasaSocialDarwinianandethnocentricthinker,alongwiththecriticalpedagogytheoristswhopromotecriticalinquirywithoutrecognizingthatitisbasedonmanyofthesamedeepculturalassumptionssharedbythepromot-ersoftheindustrial/consumer-dependentlifestylecaneasilybe“greenwashed”


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byadoptingkeymetaphorssuchas“sustainability”and“ecopedagogy”(Bowers,2009).Buttheirconceptualmaps,tostaywithBateson’smetaphor,stilldonottakeaccountofthelinguisticdifferencesbetweencultures.Nordotheyfocusattentiononwhatcanbelearnedfromculturesthathavealreadydevelopedecologicalintel-ligence.Theyalsoignorethenatureoftheculturallydiverseculturalcommonsandtheforcesofenclosure,thelinguisticcolonizationofthepresentbythepast,andthelinguisticcolonizationofothercultures. Theemphasisduringthelastfiftyorsoyearsonindividualempowermentnowbeingpromotedworld-widebytheUNESCOprojectfailstoaddressthatcriticalinquirymustalsobeusedtoidentifywhatneedstobeconserved.UnlesseducationalreformsthatcontributetoESDarebasedonaradicalrethinkingofthetaken-forgrantedassumptionsofpreviousgenerations the rhetoricofESDwillcontinuetobeanobstacletomovingtoLevelIII thinking,andtotheabilitytoexerciseecologicalintelligence.AsaneducatorattendingaworkshopinSwitzerlandontheconceptualunderpinningsofecologicallyintelligencecomplained:“whatyouarepresentingtousabouteducationalreformsthataddressthelanguage,culturalcommons,andecologicalintelligenceissuescompletelyturnsmythinkingupsidedown.”SherecognizedthateducationalreformsthataddresstheseissuescouldnotbereconciledwiththeUNESCO’sagendaofpromotingtheindividualconstructionofknowledge. Theproblemisthattheseissuescannotbelearnedinsufficientdepthinashortlectureorevenatwoorthreedayworkshop.Therearetoomanylayersofassump-tionsandtaken-for-grantedpracticesbasedontheecologyofgoodintentionsandmisconceptionsinheritedfromearliergenerations.Thisproblemismagnifiedbythecurrenthabitofassumingcomplexideasandreformscanbeunderstoodbyread-ingasinglearticleor,atmost,abookthatpresentsaradicalchallengetocurrentorthodoxies.Boththeproblemofrecursivethinkingandtheshortattentionspanandwillingnesstosettleforasurfaceunderstandingofcomplexissuesneedtobetakenintoaccountwhensuggestingreformsthatpromotethewidespreadexerciseofecologicalintelligence.Thus,thechallengeistoidentifythekeyconceptsthatwillenableteachereducatorsanduniversityprofessorstorecognizewhentheyarereinforcingindividualorecologicalintelligence.Whenthekeyconceptsthatclarifythedifferencesbetweenindividualandecologicalintelligencearerecognized,itwillthenbeeasiertounderstandhowcurrentmisconceptionsandsilencesperpetuatedbythedominantlanguagingprocessesreinforcethemythofindividualintelligence. FritjofCapra’sdescriptionofsystems thinking isagoodstartingplace forassessing which pathway educational reforms are taking us down—pathwaysthat should be recognized by the elementary school teacher as well as by thegraduate leveluniversityprofessor.WhatCapradescribesas thecharacteristicsofsystemsthinkingiswhathasbeenreferredtohereastheexerciseofecologicalintelligence—thoughIwouldsuggestseveraladditionstohisexplanation.WhatBatesoncalledanelementaryideaorbitofinformation,thatis,the“difference

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whichmakesadifference,”alwaysispartofapatternoforganization,astructurethatembodiesthatsystem’spatternoforganization,andalifesustainingprocess.UnderstandingtheinteractionsofthesethreeelementsiswhatCaprareferstoassystemsthinking—whichIprefertorefertoasexercisingecologicalintelligence.Hisexplanationofthesethreecomponentsoflivingsystemsisasfollows:

Thepattern of organizationofanysystem,livingornonliving,istheconfigura-tionofrelationshipsamongthesystem’scomponentsthatdeterminethesystem’sessentialcharacteristics.Inotherwords,certainrelationshipsmustbepresentforsomethingtoberecognizedas—say—achair,abicycle,oratree. Thestructureofasystemisthephysicalembodimentofitspatternoforgani-zation….thedescriptionofthestructureinvolvesdescribingthesystem’sphysicalcomponents—theirshape,chemicalcomposition,andsoforth. Tofindoutwhetheraparticularsystem—acrystal,avirus,acell,or theplanetEarth—isalive,allweneedtodoistofindoutwhetheritspatternofor-ganizationisthatofanautopoieticnetwork….Autopoiesis(aconceptborrowedfromHumbertoMaturanaandFranciscoVarela)or“self-making,”isanetworkpatterninwhichthefunctionofeachcomponentistoparticipateintheproductionortransformationofothercomponentsinthenetwork.Inthiswaythenetworkcontinuallymakesitself.(Capra,1996,pp.160-163)

What Bateson refers to as the ecology of differences (information circulatingthroughthesystem),whichhealsoreferstoasanecologyofMind,alwaysinvolvesnetworksofrelationshipsandthepatternsthatconnect.Isolatingandabstractinganypartasthoughitwereacompleteunitorthingistoimposetheoldpatternofthinkingthatassumesthatonlyhumansarecapableofunderstandingthingsandrelationships. Ipreferthephraseecologicalintelligenceoverthephrase“systemsthinking,”asthemetaphor“systems”istooeasilyassociatedwiththemechanicalworldofinteractingparts.Capraavoidsmakingthisassociationbyexplainingitsrelevanceforunderstandingbiologicalphenomena.HealsoacknowledgestheimportanceofBateson’sideas.Nevertheless,mypreferenceforusingecologicalintelligenceisthatitalignsmoreeasilywithother coreideasofBateson’sthinkingthatdonotrelatedirectlytounderstandingbiologicalphenomena:namely,thatecologies—whetherculturalornatural—haveahistory,andthattheinabilitytorecognizedifferencesthatsustainlivingsystemsmayberootedintherolethatlanguageplaysincarry-ingforwardwhatwillberecognizedandignored,andhowitwillbeinterpreted(Bowers,2010).Anotherbasicdifferenceis that thephrase“systemsthinking,”unlikethephrase“ecologicalintelligence,”doesnotsuggesttheneedtoengageinLevelIIIthinkingwheretheculture’sdeeptaken-for-grantedassumptionsneedtobequestionedintermsofwhethertheycontributetolivingwithinthelimitsandpossibilitiesoftheEarth’secosystems. Ecologicalthinking(tostaywiththisphraseratherthansystemsthinking)alsohasothercharacteristics.Theseincludeanemphasisonunderstandingthehistory


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anddiversityofculturalinfluencesonevents.Thefocusmaybeontheemergenceofaparticularculturalapproachtocreativity,science,technology,dealingwithter-ritorialboundaries,howindividualityisexpressed,thewaytraditionsareunderstood,andsoforth.Justasthereisnoforceofnaturecalled“progress”inCapra’sunder-standingofsystemsthinking,thereisnoforceofnaturethatensuresthatchangeinherentlyleadstoprogress.Exercisingecologicalintelligencewouldfocusonthehistoryofculturalforcesthatledtothistaken-granted-patternofthinking.Thisiswhereeducatingstudentstoexerciseecologicalintelligencewouldemphasizetheimportanceofexaminingtherecursivepatternsofthinking—whichmightleadtoexaminingtheguidingmythopoeticnarratives—includingthemodernonesthatcontributetohidingtheculturalimpactoftechnologicalinnovations. Exercisingecologicalintelligencerequiresgivingconstantattentiontoeco-nomicandreligiousforces,aswellasthedifferentformsofpowerexercisedbyelitegroups—whichinturnwouldleadtoexaminingtheirstrategiesformaintainingtheirpowerandprivileges.Therolethatmetaphoricallanguageplaysinmaintain-ingrelationshipsofpowerwouldalsobethefocusofecologicalintelligence.Forexample,whataretheconnectionsbetweenthestudyofsuchhigh-statusformsofknowledgeastheideasofPlatoandotherWesternabstractthinkersandtheinabilityofstudentsoftheseelitethinkerstorecognizethatthereisanecologicalcrisis—andthatitsearliestsourcesofinfluencecanbetracedtosuchthinkersasJohnLocke,AdamSmith,ReneDescartes,andevenJohnDewey?Howhaslanguagehelpedtosustainpatternsofinequality?Thisquestionandmanyotherslikeit,suchaswhyourpoliticalleaderspersistinpursuingpoliciesthatareintendedtointroduceindividualism,democracy,andfreemarketsintoculturesbasedonentirelydifferentassumptions,wouldleadtoexaminingawidevarietyofconceptualantecedentsandeconomicforces. Overall, the dominant question,whichhas changed at different periods inWesternhistory,hasnowbecome:Dotherelationships,aswellasthepatternsofthinkingthatguidedailybehaviorsandnationalpolicies,impactthenaturalecolo-giesinwaysthatpromotelife—ordothey,giventhecurrentlevelofaddictiontoconsumerismandthenumberofsyntheticchemicalsintroducedintotheenviron-mentandourbodies,alterinfundamentalwaystheabilityofdifferentsystemstoreproducethemselvesandthustokeepalivethefoodwebsoflife? Thediscussionofmakingthetransitionfromindividualtoecologicalintelligenceamajorfocusofeducationalreformthatextendsfromtheearlygradesthroughgraduateschoolmayappearastootheoreticalandthusbeyondtheinterestofpublicschoolteachers.Thiswouldbeunfortunateaspublicschoolteachersexertapowerfulinfluenceontheprocessofculturalreproduction—particularlybypassingonmanyoftheculture’sbasicassumptionsthatareseldomexaminedinthelatergrades.Theseassumptionsincludeequatingchange(especiallytechnologicallybasedchanges)withprogress,thinkingoftraditionsassourcesofbackwardnessandlanguageasaconduitinasender/receiverprocessofcommunication,andtheimportanceof

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elevatingself-interestaboveallothervalues—whichisoftenexpressedaslearningtobeauthentic.Thealchemyoftheelementaryclassroom—indeed,ofmostgradesextendingthroughmiddleschool—includesagenuineconcernforthewell-beingofthestudents,anoverwhelmingnumberofexplanationsthatgetreducedtoisolatedfactsandevents,reifieddeepculturalassumptions,theteacher’sabdicationtothemagicofcomputer-mediatedlearningandthemindsetof thepeoplewhowritetheeducationalsoftwareprograms,andelementsoftheteacher’sideologicalandreligiousbeliefsthatframetheexplanationsthatbecomepartofthecurriculumstudentsencounter. Theexplanationsofdifferentaspectsofculturethatstudentsencounterforthefirst timeare likely tohavea lasting influenceon thestudent’s taken-forgrantedinterpretativeframework.Examplesofhowmanyadultsfailtoquestionexplana-tions that are learnedduring theirmost vulnerable and thus dependent phaseofdevelopmentcanbeseeninhowtheyreproducethesameexplanationsthatarepartofthesocializationofthenextgeneration.Textbookexamplesincludehowstudentsshouldunderstandthenatureofthebrain(nowoftenexplainedaslikeacomputer),whatconstitutesahumanresourcethatcanbeusedtoone’sownbenefit(familyandfriendsaccordingtoonetextbook),howtothinkabouttechnology(asaneutraltool),thesettlementoftheWestbypioneers(asthoughitwasnotalreadysettled),andsoforth.Asmanyclassroomteachersanduniversityprofessorsdonotquestiontheas-sumptionsthatunderlietheexplanationsthatarepartofthestudents’earliestperiodofsocializationtotheculture’sbasiccategoriesandassumptions,theyaretoooftentaken-for-grantedoverthestudents’lifetime.Thesilencesthatarepartofthisprocessofprimarysocialization,whicharepartoftheinitialinterpretativeframeworksofthedominantculture,arealsoinfluencedbythemis-educationteachersreceiveintheirprofessionalcoursesandfromfacultyinotherdisciplines.Likethealchemyofearliertimes,thisapproachtoeducationdoesnotleadtopeoplebeingabletoexerciseecologicalintelligence,whichtodaywouldbetheequivalentofgold.Insteaditisleadingtotheformofindividualismthatthinksinslogans,hasnoaccurateknowl-edgeoftheculture’shistoryorthehistoryofothercultures,andhaslittleinterestinconsideringwhichformsofself-limitationarenecessaryforconservingthenaturalsystemsthatfuturegenerationswillrelyupon.ThedominantethosissummedupintheNikeslogan,“JustDoIt.” Given the current “race to the top” approach to educational reform beingsponsoredbythefederalgovernment,andgiventhelatetwentiethcenturymindsetthatstilldominatesinmostcollegesofeducationandinthesocialsciencesandhumanities,itwouldbeeasytothinkthatthescaleofresistanceistoogreattowarranttheeffortofpromotingtheexerciseofecologicalintelligence.Theearlyfeminist,civilrights,andlaboractivistsalsofacedwhatseemedasoverwhelmingoppositiontotheneedtomakefundamentalchanges.IfBateson’simportantinsightisignored,whichisthathumansarenotindependentobserversandmanipulatorsofthebehaviorofnaturalsystems—butareparticipantsintheinformationnetworks


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that makeup thelargerecologicalsystem,itislikelythattheexplanationofsys-temsthinkingorevenofecologicalintelligencewillbecomejustonemoretheoryamongahostofothersthatcanbemoreeasilymarketed. Granted,makingtheexerciseofecologicalintelligencepartoftheindividual’sembodiedexperiencewillbedifficultinaculturewherethedominantassumptionsare centeredonviewing the individual as the sourceof rationality, democraticdecisionmaking,consumerspending,seekerofhappinessandpersonalsuccess,andacandidateforbeingraptured-upintoheavenofeternalbliss,andsoforth.Yet,thisisexactlythereformthatneedstobeundertaken.Exercisingecologicalintelligenceneedstobecomepartofthestudents’culturallymediatedembodiedexperiences—whichwillengageallthephysicalsensesalongwithmemory,andaheightenedaestheticawarenessandmoralresponsibility.Itcannotbeexperiencedasaprocedurethatisfollowedincertainsituations,suchaslearningtoexerciseecologicalintelligenceinabiologyclasswhilerevertingbacktotheoldpatternofexercisingindividualintelligenceinotherclassesandinsocietygenerally. Assuggestedearlier,wealreadyrelyuponecological intelligencewhenit isrecognizedthatundesirableconsequenceswillfollowifcloseattentionisnotgiventoallthemessages(differences)circulatingthroughthecontextoneispartof.JustasinBateson’sexampleofhowthepersonswinginganaxadjuststhenextstrokeinawaythattakesaccountofthedifferencecausedbythepreviousstroke,theexerciseofecological intelligence involvesbeing fullyawareof thedifferent informationnetworks—includingbeingawarethatcuttingthetreemaydisruptthehabitatthatisrelieduponbyothermembersofthelargerfoodweb.Learningthepatternsofinterdependenciesandtothinkingintermsofrelationshipsandcontinuitiesinbothculturalandnaturalecologiesisimportant,asitprovidesthenecessaryconceptualframeworkforrecognizingbothhowpastmisconceptionsandpracticeshaveputthecultureonthepathwayofecologicallydestructivepractices,aswellashowcurrentbehaviorsarelikelytoimpactthefuture.Thisformoflearningwillhaveprofoundlydifferentconsequencesthanwhenbehaviorsandvaluesarebasedonculturalassump-tionsaboutahuman-centeredworld,thatnaturalsystemscanbethoughtofintermsofmechanisticprocesses,thatscienceandtechnologywillfindwaystoovercomechangesinnaturalsystemsthatarelimitingeconomicgrowth,andsoforth.It’snotthattheexerciseofecologicalintelligencerequiresexcludingallpreviousformsoflearning.Rather,learningthehistoryofideas,socialtheories,forcesofdominationandsocial injustice, formsofaddictionand theirconnectionswith thedominanteconomicsystem,andsoforth,areessentialtorecognizingthemisconceptionsthathaveputusonsuchanecologicallyunsustainablepath.Thisbackgroundknowledgeisessentialtobeingabletorecognizewhichrelationshipsandpatternsneedtobeaffirmedandthussupportedaspartofaneco-justice-orienteddemocracy. Theimportantquestionisnotwhethertheexerciseofecologicalintelligenceismoreeffectivewhentheindividualhasbeenfreedofpriorconceptualinfluences—asPauloFreireandhisfollowerssuggestwhenclaimingthatsocializationrepresents

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abankingapproachtolearningandthuscanbereplacedbyrelyingentirelyuponcriticalreflection(Freire,1971,p.31).Thisviewofemancipatingthestudentfrompastinfluencesisechoedinthewidespreadclaimthatstudentsshouldconstructtheirownknowledge.Thecriticalquestionis:Doeswhatthestudentlearnsmakeitmoredifficulttoexerciseecologicalintelligenceindecidingsocialpolicies,inassessingtheimpactofnewtechnologies,inrecognizingwhenothercultureshavetakenamoreecologicallysustainableapproachtodevelopment?Severalexamplesmayhelpclarifyhowtochangethetraditionalapproachestolearningthatprevi-ouslymarginalizedawarenessoftheculturalrootsoftheecologicalcrisis.Inthefollowingexamples,thetraditionalcontentofthedisciplineisnotthrownout,butexaminedfromanecologicallyandculturallyinformedperspective. ThestudyofWesternphilosophersisgenerallyheldupasessentialtobeingwelleducated.Yetitisimportanttoconsiderwhetherthetwodominantapproachestolearningabouttheirideasleavestudentswithanumberofconceptualbarrierstobeingabletorecognizethattheyexistwithinalargerecologicalnetworkofin-formationexchangesandinterdependencies.OneapproachistoviewthewritingsofthemostprominentphilosophersasthesourceofthemostimportantideasthathavecontributedtoWesterncivilization.Thisisthe100GreatBooksapproachtolearning—whichenablestheeducatedpersontodropphrasesfromvariousphi-losophersthatwillinformothersatthecocktailpartythatonehasaliberaleduca-tionandthusamemberofaspecialsocialclass.Otherargumentsforthisformofeducationarethatitpromotestheabilitytothinkcritically—andthustobemoreeffectivebankers,professors,andproblemsolvers. Theotherapproach,whichcharacterizesmostdepartmentsofphilosophy,istoreadtheargumentsmadebyvariousphilosophers—rangingfromthepre-Socratics,Plato,ondowntoDewey—onthenatureofrealityandwhatconstitutesknowledge,onthebasisofmoraljudgment,onthemind/bodyseparation,andon the universal connections between free inquiry and social progress.Whatisdistinctive about this approach, andwhy it has contributed tomanyof theecologicalandpoliticalproblemswenowface,isthatithelpedtocreateaclassofelite thinkerswhowereconditioned to think inabstractionsand to imposetheirabstractions—thatis,thesupposedlyuniversaltruthsaboutpropertyrights,individualism,freemarkets,andwhatconstitutesknowledge,andsoforth—onotherculturesaswellastheirown.StudentsofWesternphilosophywereandstillarelargelyunawareoftheethnocentrismofthephilosopherstheystudy.OthersilencesofthemajorphilosophersexcludedanydiscussionoftheimportanceoftheculturalandenvironmentalcommonsandwhatShivacallsEarthDemocracy.Theeffectof this legacycanbeseen inhowthe fewphilosophycourses thatnowaddressenvironmentalissuesarelargelyorientedtointroducingstudentstothewritingsofenvironmentalistssuchasAldoLeopold,WendellBerry,andecofeminists.Unfortunately,thesewritersfailtoprovidetheknowledgeandskillsnecessaryforlivinglesstoxicandconsumerdependentlives.Butthislimited


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exposuredoesraiseconsciousness—eventothepointofbeingreceptivetoamoreexplicitawarenessofexercisingecologicalintelligence. TheearlierquestionabouttheformsofgeneralbackgroundknowledgethatprovideahistoricalframeworkforguidingtheexerciseofecologicalintelligencecouldbeansweredbytakinganentirelydifferentapproachtothestudyofWesternphilosophers,ortootherareasofstudysuchaspsychology,sociology,politicalscience,religion,business,education,andsoforth.Alternativeapproachesinvolveaprocessofreframing—thatis,approachingwhatisbeingstudiedwithadifferentsetofquestions. ReframinghowtostudytheideasofPlato,Aristotle,Hobbes,Locke,Smith,Rousseau,Bentham,Mill,Hegel,Marx,Spencer,Dewey,andothersinthepan-theonofinfluentialthinkerswouldinvolveexamininghowtheirabstracttheoriesfailedtotakeaccountoflocalculturalpracticesrelatingtotheculturalandenvi-ronmentalcommons,thedifferencesinculturalwaysofknowing.Questioningthesilencesandinfluenceofdeeplyheldculturalassumptions,particularlyhowtheyframedhowthenatureofscienceandtechnologywasunderstood,aswellashowtheprescriptiveaspectsofthephilosophers’theorieswouldimpactthepatternsofmutualsupportinlocalcommunitiesandnaturalsystems,wouldalsobepartofthisreframingprocess.Forexample,oneofthemostfundamentalecologicallyandcommunitydisruptiveforcescanbetracedtothethinkingofsuchphilosophersasLockeandSmithwhoseabstract(thatis,culturallyuninformed)theoriesabouttheuniversalnatureofprivatepropertyandfreemarketshelpedtoframehowanotheraspectofindividualautonomyistobeunderstood:namely,asbeingfreeofanymoralresponsibilityforexploitingtheenvironmentandotherpeople.Thisviewofindividualism,whichhasrecentlybeenextendedtocorporations,grantstherighttoestablishprivateownershipovernearlyeveryaspectofdailylifethatpreviouslywas shared and renewed largely outside of amoney economy.This process ofenclosurealsoextendstoincorporatingallaspectsofthenaturalcommons(air,water,forests,soil,plants,animals,genes,etc.)intothefreemarketsystemwhereprivateownershipandmonetizationcontributetothespreadofpovertyandtotherapidexploitationoftheenvironment. Nearlyeverydisciplineinuniversitiescouldbetransformedifitstraditionswereexaminedintermsofhowthediversityoftheworld’slocalculturalandnaturalcom-monswereunderminedbythereligious,ideological,economic,andothersourcesofabstractthinkingthatcanbetracedtoearlierphilosophers,politicaltheorists,andtheologians.Howwasthedistinctionestablishedindifferenthistoricalperiodsbetweenwhatconstitutedhighandlowstatusknowledge?Whattraditionsofself-sufficiencywere lostwhennewformsofknowledgeandelitesemergedandbecamewidelyaccepted?Towhatextentwascolonizationaresultofthedegradedenvironmentsofthecolonizingpowers—andwhatweretheforcesresponsibleforexploitingtheenvironment?Whatweretheforcesatdifferenttimesinwesternhistorythatledtounderminingthewiderangeofartisansandcraftsmen,andtransformedthecreative

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artsfrombeingpartofcommunitylifetobeingdividedintothecategoriesoflowandhighstatus—withcertainartsbeingaccordedhighstatusbytheupperclasses?Wasthecommodificationoftheartsessentialtoitsbeingaccordedhigh-status?Howhasthemetaphoricallanguageofdifferentculturalgroupsandindifferentperiodsofwesternhistoryunderminedthelocalpracticeofecologicalintelligencethathadbeenrefinedovergenerationsofplace-basedobservationandpractice? GivenwhatscientistsarereportingontherapidrateofchangesintheEarth’snaturalsystems,andgiventhecurrentpopulationpressuresthathaveexpandedfromjustoveronebillionattheturnofthelastcenturytoclosetosevenbilliontoday,wedon’thavethecenturiesittookthefeminists,civilrights,andlaboractiviststoachievetheirgoalsofsocialjustice—whichstillhavenotbeenfullyrealized.Atmost,wemayhaveagenerationortwotomakethetransitiontomoresustainablepatternsof living.Giventhispossibility, it isnecessaryforfacultygenerallytobeginaskingwhethertheirfieldsofinquiryandcourses,wouldbemoreusefultotheupcominggenerationsiftheywerereframedbyfocusingonthetraditionsofunsustainableandsustainableculturaldevelopments. Thereisaconsensusamongscientiststhatglobalwarmingisoccurringandthatitresultsfromhumanactivity.Andthereisagrowingunderstandingthatminorchangesintemperaturehavefundamentalconsequencesforhowbiologicalsystemsrespond.Whileourindustrialsystemofproductionandconsumption,alongwiththemedia,sustainsthefalsepictureofthecrisisasrunningshortofcertainformsofenergyandasrequiringreducingthecarbonemissions,scientistsarewarningthatthetimeframeformakingfundamentalchangesinculturalpracticesmaybeasshortastwoorthreegenerations.Thismeansthatwhenthestudentsnowintheearlygradesbecometeachers,professors,politicians,economists,andmediaexperts,theywillneedtobepreparedtocommunicateinavocabularythatisnotbasedontheanalogssettleduponbyearlierthinkerswholaidtheconceptualandmoralfoundationsfortheindustrial/consumer-orientedculturethat,withtheaidofscienceandtechnology,promisedendlessprogress.Theywillalsoneedanedu-cationthatwillenablethemtopromotepractices,technologies,andpoliciesthatcontributetorevitalizingtheculturalcommonsandprotectingtheenvironmentalcommons—bothofwhicharebeingunderminedbyeconomic,ideological,andreligiousforcesbasedontheabstractionsofearliereras.Iftheyoungergenerationnowsittinginclassrooms,participatingincomputer-mediatedsocialnetworking,andaddictedtovariousformsofself-indulgencerangingfromjunkfoodtobuyingthelatestpeergroupapprovedconsumeritem,isunabletogetthemessageacrosstothefollowinggenerationtherewillbelittlehopeforthefutureofhumanity.Ineffect,iftheeducationalprocessremainsasineffectiveasitistodayinpromotingecologicallysustainablecommunitiesandlifestyles,thescholarlyachievementsofpastandofcurrentuniversityfacultywillbeviewedasentirelyirrelevant—muchastheruinsofpreviouscivilizations.Thatis,ifthesearchforfood,shelterandsafetyevenallowstheenvironmentalrefugeestoconsiderthem.


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Practical Steps to Making

the Exercise of Ecological Intelligence

Part of Students’ Taken-for-Granted Experience Exercisingecologicalintelligenceoccursnaturallyinmanycontextswherewearefullypresentinthesenseofbeingawareoftheinformation(differences)beingcommunicatedbytheothernaturalandhumanparticipants,includingadaptingourresponsestowhatisbeingcommunicatedinresponsetoouractions.UnliketheCartesianstanceofbeinganoutsider,actingonanunintelligentworldorwheretheOther(inMartinBuber’ssense)isanobjectwemanipulate,exercisingeco-logicalintelligenceisacollaborativeprocess.TorecallhowBatesonputit,“Thetotalself-correctingunitwhichprocesses information,or,asIsay, ‘thinks’and‘acts’and‘decides’isasystemwhoseboundariesdonotatallcoincidewiththeboundarieseitherofthebodyorwhatispopularlycalledthe‘self’or‘conscious-ness’;anditisimportanttonoticethattherearemultipledifferencesbetweenthethinkingsystemandthe‘self’aspopularlyconceived”(1972,p.319).Ofcoursewecanneverentirelyeliminateculturalinfluences—inourinterpretations,ourshortandlong-termexpectations,andhowourself-conceptisinfluencedbyongoinginteractions.Assuggestedearlier,manyindigenousculturesprovideexplanatoryframeworks that recognize the exercise of ecological intelligence as a normalaspectofdailylife.Insomeinstances,thisisachievedbyasharedbeliefsystemthatdoesnotrepresentthenaturalenvironmentasasourceofdanger,aswildandthusinneedofcontrol.Rather,inmanyindigenouscultures,theinteractionsthatarepartofthecollaborativeexercisingofecologicalintelligenceareunderstoodasasourceofknowledgeessentialtosustainingthelifeofthecommunitywhilenotalsodestroyingthesourcesoflifeoftheEarthcommunity. The explanatory frameworks of the West, especially those influenced byWesternphilosophersandtheoristswhoestablishedthetraditionofviewingtheeverydayworldofexperienceasalwaysfallingshortoftheperfectionsstipulatedintheirabstracttheories,havebeencarriedforwardinthemetaphoricallylayeredlanguagingprocessesthatconstructedthe“reality”ofthenewmembersbornintothelanguagecommunity.Undertheguidanceoftheologiansandphilosophers,theideathatthepeasantwasunintelligentandcouldnotbeeducatedwaslargelytakenforgranted.Evenmoredifficulttoacceptwastheideathatmanydifferentformsandlevelsofintelligenceoperateinnaturalsystemsrangingfromthebehaviorofgenestotheinterdependenciesofplantsandanimals.Withtheearliestwesternculturalformulationsoftheideathattheindividualisthebasicsocialunit—ashavingasoulandadestinydependentuponlivingaccordingtocertainmoralnorms,ashavingthepotentialofinfluencingpoliticaloutcomes,asbeingfreeofalltraditionalformsofknowledgeandasexistingasanobjectiveandrationalobserverofanexternalmechanisticworldthatneededtobebroughtunderrationalcontrol,theWestmovedinadestructiveecologicaltrajectory.

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Ineffect,thetraditionofindividualswhoexperiencetheworldassomethingseparateandexploitable,andthusasunaccountableforwhattheyintroduceintotheenvironmentinthenameofscienceandmaterialprogress,islearned.Thisself-centeredindividualhasnogeneticbasisotherthanthecapacitytolearntothinkandcommunicateinhighlysymboliclanguages.AndasEdwardSapir,BenjaminLeeWhorf,PeterBerger,andThomasLuckmannhaveargued,thelanguagingprocessesofacultureintergenerationallyconstructwhatistakentobe“reality”withintheculture.Theexperienceofbeinganindependentobserverofanexternalworld,aswellasalloftheassumptionsabouthuman/naturerelationshipsandpossibilities,areculturalconstructions.Andjustasrecentreinterpretationsofwhat is“real”and“normal”haveoccurredintheareaofsocialjustice,youthcanbesocializedtoexperienceas“real”and“normal”adifferentrelationshipwiththeculturalandnaturalecologies.Thatis,theprocessofsocialization(education)canbealteredthroughexposuretodifferentnarratives(whicharenowbeginningtotakeplaceinchildren’sliterature),todifferentvocabularieswherethemetaphorsareframedbyanalogsthathighlightthepatternsandrelationshipsthatconnectratherthantheanalogsthatsuggestseparationandtheneedtocontrol. Itisquitepossible,indeedlikely,thatCapra’sexplanationofsystemsthinkingwillbeinterpretedbyothersasastrategyformoreeffectivelyexercisingcontrolovernaturalsystems.Thatis,theCartesianformofindividualismisnotincompatiblewithsystemsthinking—especiallyiftheindividualstilltakes-for-grantedthemainculturalassumptionsaboutthenatureofprogress,rationality,andahuman-centeredworld.Thispossibilitybringsintofocusthechallengethatconfrontspublicschoolteachersanduniversityprofessorswhoareengaged inexpanding the linguisticfoundationsofwhatwillbeexperiencedand interpretedas“reality.”Therearemanyeducationalcontextswhereacriticaldistinctionreinforceshowtheindividualwillunderstandher/hisrelationshipstoorwithinthelargersystem.ThedistinctionmaybebetweenwhenastudentisaskedtoprojectontotheOtherwhatshe/hehaspreviouslylearnedastheculturallysanctionedanswerorexplanation,andwhenthestudentisencouragedtogiveattentiontothepatternsthatconnect—andtotheautopoieticnetworkswithinwhichshe/heisaparticipant(includingtheconsequencesofthestudents’actionthatflowoutwardandaffectotherparticipantsinthesys-tem).Bothexplanationsare“reality”constructingexperiences,andtheclassroomteacheranduniversityprofessorplayapowerfulmediatingrole—especiallywhenthesamepatternsarereinforcedbyothers.Hopefully,thepatternswillleadtotheongoingrealizationthatallinteractionswithintheculturalandnaturalecologiesrequiregivingcloserattentiontotheinformationexchangesflowingthroughthesystems,andtowhethertheindividual’sactionsstrengthenorweakentheviabilityofthesystemsasawhole.Inshort,oneoftheprimaryeducationalobjectivesistoreplacethecurrenttaken-for-grantedattitudeofbeinganautonomousindividualwhohasaprivilegedperspectiveonanexternalworldthatcanbemanipulatedorignored,dependingupontheimmediateinterestsoftheindividual.


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Oneofthemostfundamentalmisconceptionsthatneedstobeovercomeisthattheindividual’sownsubjectiveunderstandingabouttheecologicalcrisisisallthatmatters.This misconception underlies the individual’s self-proclaimed right andresponsibilitytodecidewhetherglobalwarmingisoccurring,andifso,ifitisat-tributabletohumanbehaviororispartoftheearth’shistoricalcyclesofwarmingandcooling.Thispopulistmisconceptionnowcombineswithafriend/enemyapproachtopoliticaldiscoursethatmakesitexceedinglydifficulttoreachagreementonsuchissuesasthemultipledangersofhyper-consumerism,theexcessiverelianceuponsyntheticchemicals,andtheexploitationofaquifersandfishstocks—tocitejustafewofourmountingenvironmentaldifficulties.Nevertheless,thecurrentfailuretoagreethatthereisanecologicalcrisis,andthatithasimplicationsforwhatisbeingtaughtinourpublicschoolsanduniversities,doesnotmeanthecrisiswilldisappear. Educatorsatalllevelsneedtobegintointroducereformsthatstrengthencom-munityself-reliance—whichmostleftandright-wingpoliticalactivistswouldhavetroublearguingagainst.Oneaspectofcommunityself-relianceisthatitreducesdependenceuponconsumerismandtheaddictiontowantingthelatestprescriptiondrugsandmechanical technologies.This is likelytobeseenas“un-American”bythemarket liberalswhomisrepresentthemselvesasconservatives.Butmostcommunities are not monolithic in terms of guiding mythopoetic narratives,andanincreasingnumberofreligiousgroupsarebeginningtothinkabouttheirresponsibilitiesasstewardsofGod’searthlycreation.Peoplealreadyengagedinculturalcommonsactivitieswillalsobesupportiveofeducational reforms thatreducethecurrentunsustainablecycleofwork-consumerism-increasingdebtanddrugdependencythatmanyAmericansaretrappedin.Otheraspectsofthecur-riculumreformssuggestedherewillbesupportedbyadvocatesofsocialjustice,particularlyaftertheybegintorealizethatthemiddleclassinterpretationofsocialjusticebeingpromotedbymanyeducationalreformersdoesnottakeaccountofhowovershootingthesustainingcapacityofnaturalsystemswillhavethegreatestimpactonthepoorandmarginalized. Manyteachersexpectspecificlessonplansonhowecologicalintelligencecanbereinforcedindifferentcurriculumunitsandexperiences.Thatis,thedesiretoknow“howtodoit”istoooftenthecentralfocusofclassroomteacherswhofeeloverwhelmedbythemanypressurestheynowmustdealwith.However,localsocialcontexts,culturalbackgroundsofstudents,andlevelofexperienceandintellectualmaturityarekeyelementsindecidinghowtoframethestudent’sencounterwithenvironmentalandculturalissues.Presentingactualcurriculumunitscontradictstheprimarycharacteristicsofecologicalintelligence—andhowtofosterit.Ratherthanreinforcingthetendencytorelyuponpackagedlearningexperiences,thestressshould be placed upon the teacher’s awareness of the issues, misunderstandingsbeingperpetuatedinthecurriculum,andexamplesofecologicalthinkingthatcanbeintroducedindifferentlearningsettings.Listedbelowisasummaryofthemainissuesandconceptsthatcanbebroughtintothediscussionatalmostanylevelof

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theeducationalprocessandinalmosteveryareaofthecurriculum.Ifthesummaryofideasdoesnotrelatedirectlytohelpingstudentsunderstandthedifferencesbe-tweenindividualandecologicalintelligence,theyrelatetoreformissuesconnectedwithrevitalizingthelocalculturalcommonsandtorecognizingthedifferentformsofenclosure.Learningabout the localculturalcommons,andbecomingactivelyinvolvedinmentoringrelationshipsisperhapsthemostdirectandeffectivewayoflearningtoexerciseecologicalintelligence.Aknowledgeoftheideasandissueslistedbelowshouldbepartoftheprofessionalknowledgeofeveryclassroomteacheranduniversityprofessor—regardlessofspecializedareasofteaching.

Educational Reforms That Fosters Ecological Intelligence (A)Waysinwhichecologicalintelligenceisundermined: 1.Reinforcingtheideathatthestudentshouldseektobemoreautonomous—whichoccurswhenstudentsareencouragedtoconstructtheirownknowledgeandvalues. 2.Reinforcingthepatternofthinkingthatdescribesplants,animals,people,events,data,andsoforthasindependententities. 3.Reinforcingtheideathatchangeisinherentlyprogressiveinnature,andthatcriticalthinkingistheengineofchange. 4.Reinforcingtheideathattheindividualisanindependentthinker,observer,andsourceofactiononanexternalenvironment(theCartesianmind/bodyseparation). 5.Reinforcingtheideathattraditionsobstructprogress,thatcompetitionleadstothebestideasandplansofaction,andthatscienceandtechnologywillsolveallenvironmentalproblems 6.Reinforcingtheideathatwordsrefertorealthingsandevents,andcanbeuni-versallygeneralized—andthatthereissuchathingasobjectiveknowledgeanddata. 7.Reinforcingthecurrentover-relianceuponnounsthatmarginalizetheaware-nessthattheworldisoneofrelationshipsandinterdependencies.

(B)Waysinwhichtheexerciseofecologicalintelligenceisreinforced: 1.Encouragingstudentstorecognizethatlifesustainingprocessesalwaysinvolverelationships,includinghowideas,values,events,behaviors,policydecisionsandsoforthareembeddedinandinfluenceinteractingculturalandnaturalsystems.The“differencewhichmakesadifference”thatBatesonsaysrepresentsabasicunitofinformationisanotherwayofsayingthatrelationshipsareaninescapableaspectoflifeformingandsustainingprocesses.Thenatureoftherelationshipsmayalsobedrivenbywhathereferstoasanecologyoflifedestroyingideasandvalues. 2.Encouragingstudentstorecognizethatthelanguagetheytake-for-grantedispartofalinguisticecology—thatwordshaveahistoryandthefailuretorecognizethismayleadtorelyinguponearlierwaysofthinkingthatprovidedtheconcep-tualbasisfortheIndustrialRevolutionthathasnowenteredthedigitalphaseofglobalization.Thereisalsoaneedtoencouragestudentstoidentifyculturallyand


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ecologicallyinformedanalogsthatwillreframethemeaningofwordsandthustheirabilitytoconsciouslyrecognizetherelationshipsthatareecologicallysustainableaswellasthosethatarenot. 3.Encouragingstudentstorecognizehowabstractthinkingmarginalizestheneedtogiveattentiontotheimmediatecontext—andthepatternswithindifferentculturalandnaturalsystemsthatconnect. 4.Encouragingstudentstorecognizethatcriticalthinkinghasaroletoplayintheexerciseofecologicalintelligence,butthatitshouldtakeaccountbothofwhatneedstobeintergenerationallyrenewedandwhatneedstoberadicallychanged.Studentsshouldbeencouragedtoexaminehowahuman-centeredviewoftheroleofcriticalthinkingleadstocriticalthinkingbeingusedbycorporationstobringmoreaspectsofnaturalsystemsandtheculturalcommonsunderthecontrolofmarketforces. 5.Encouragingstudents toconsider thedifferencesbetweenoralandprintbasedformsofculturalstorageandcommunication—especiallyhowthesediffer-encestakeaccountoflocalculturalandnaturalsystems. 6.Encouragingstudentstoshiftfromthinkingofthemselvesasautonomousactorsandobserversofanexternalsocialandenvironmentalworldtobasingtheirself-identityonhowtheirrelationshipscontributetothewell-beingofothersinboththeculturalandnaturalecologiestheyareembeddedin. 7.Encouragingstudentstoassesshowtheirpersonalstateofconsciousness,includingtheneedtocontrol,feelingsofgreed,anger,fear,andtheneedtobelong,marginalizeboththeirawarenessoftheecologyofrelationshipsandpatternsaswellaswhethertheirresponsearedestructive—whichwhenreflecteduponmayincreasetheirpersonalanxieties.

The Linguistic Colonization of the Present by the Past—and of Other Cultures

Studentsneedtobeintroducedtotwoaspectsofhowthemetaphoricalnatureofmostofourwordscarry forward themisconceptionsand silencesof earlierthinkerswhowereunawareofenvironmentallimits.First,studentsneedtolearnhowmanyoftheirpatternsofthinkingarebasedonaviewoflanguagethattoomanyfacultytakeforgranted—namely,aconduitviewoflanguagethatisbasedonasender/receivermodelofcommunication.Thisleadstotheideathatwordsrefertorealthings,thatwordshaveuniversalmeanings,andthatlanguageisthemeansforcommunicatingobjectivefactsandinformation.Second,studentsneedtobeabletorecognizethefollowingiftheyaretobecomemorecriticallyawareofhowtheymayberelyinguponthesamepatternsofthinkingthatarenowovershootingenvironmentallimits: 1.Thatmostwordsaremetaphors. 2.Howthechoiceofanalogsbyearlierthinkersandtheinfluenceofeventscontinuestoframethecurrentmeaningofwords—suchasfreedom,individualism,progress,tradition,markets,andsoon.

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3.Thatwords(metaphors)haveahistoryandthusmaycarryforwardmis-conceptionsandsilencesofearlierthinkerswhowereinfluencedbytheculturalassumptionsoftheirera. 4.That interpretative frameworks that organized social life over hundredsofyears, influencebehaviorsandvalues,andmarginalizeawarenessofaspectsofexperience,arebasedonrootmetaphors.Rootmetaphorssuchaspatriarchy,human-centeredness,individualism,mechanism,progress,etc.,illuminatecertainwaysofunderstandingwhilehidingotherpossibilities. 5.Thatitispossible,indeednecessaryinlightoftheecologicalcrisis,toreframethemeaningofmuchofthemodernizingvocabularybyidentifyinganalogsthatareculturallyandecologicallyinformed—wordssuchasprogress,individualism,intelligence,community,technology,poverty,wealth,etc.. 6.That theanalogsbasedon theculture’sunderstandingof theattributesandthusthemeaningofwordssuchaswoman,weed,wilderness,uncivilized,resource, and so forth carry forward howmoral behavior is governed by theculturalunderstandingoftheattributesoftheother—person,plant,andphysicalenvironment. 7.Thattheconduitviewoflanguage,alongwiththeideathatwordsstandforrealthingsandthushaveauniversalmeaning,aretheacademicversionoftheTrojanHorsethatispartofthecolonizingprocessofothercultures.Thisprocessoflinguis-ticcolonization,alongwiththeeconomicandtechnologicalforcesofcolonization,underminetheintergenerationalknowledgedevelopedovergenerationsofhowtolivemorecommunity-centeredandlessenvironmentallydestructivelives.

Educational Reforms That Contribute to Revitalizingthe Local Cultural Commons

and to an Understanding of the Modern Forms of Enclosure Manyofthemetaphorswerelyupontoday,andwhosemeaningswereframedbyanalogschoseninthedistantpastandbycurrentevocativeexperiences(suchasexperiencewithdifferent technologiesorworldshapingevents),continue tomarginalizeanawarenessoftheecologicalimportanceofthelocalculturalcom-mons—aswellasthediversityoftheworld’sculturalcommons.Thefollowingrepresentsahighlysimplifiedoverviewofkeyconceptsandissues: 1.Theculturalcommonsarelargelytheintergenerationalknowledge,skills,andmentoringrelationshipsthatexistineverycommunity—andthatarelessde-pendentuponconsumerismandamoneyeconomy. 2.Theculturalcommonsvaryfromcommunitytocommunityaccordingtothetraditionsofethnicgroupsandbioregions. 3.Theyincludetheknowledge,practices,andintergenerationalprocessesofsharingandrenewalintheareasoffood,healing,ceremonies,narratives,languages,creativearts,craftknowledgeandskill,games,volunteeringandcommunityactiv-ism,civillibertiesandsocialjusticemovements,andsoforth.


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4.Thenetworksofrelationshipsandmentoringineachoftheseareashasasmallercarbonandtoxicfootprint—astheyinvolvefacetofacerelationshipsandadifferentscaleofeconomicexchange. 5.Inaneraofdownsizing,automation,andoutsourcing,theculturalcommonsprovidewaysinwhichpeoplecandiscovertheirtalents,interests,andexperienceofcommunitywhilebecominglessdependentuponamoneyeconomy. 6. Not all expressions of the cultural commons meet current standards ofsocialjusticeandecologicallyresponsiblecitizenship-thustheculturalcommonsgenerallyshouldnotberomanticized.

Thepedagogicalandcurricularimplicationsincludethefollowing: 1.Introducingtheculturalcommonsmustincludedescriptionsofthevariouslocalactivities,howtheyareculturallydiverse,andhowtheyarebeingenclosed—whichcanleadtoin-depthanalysisofmodernforcesthataremarketorientedanddrivenbymisconceptionsandsilencesintheeducationalprocess. 2.Thestudents’introductionshouldalsobeexperienced-based—wheretheyareencouragedtodoauto-ethnographiesoftheirownculturalcommonsexperiences,aswellasengageinsurveysofthelargelynon-monetizedactivitiesandrelationshipsinthecommunity.Participatinginthesegroupswillleadtomentoringrelationshipsthatwillcontributetostudentsacquiringmanyofthecompetenciesessentialtoanecologicallysustainablefuture. 3.Theapproachshouldbebasedonaphenomenologicaldescriptionofem-bodiedexperiencesratherthanrelianceonprintbaseddescriptions.Itisalsomoreamatter of identifyingmentors, the complexity and interdependency of socialnetworks,aswellasmakingexplicitthestudent’sexperienceofcommunitywheninvolvedindifferentculturalcommonsactivities. 4.Helpingstudentsbecomeexplicitlyawareofthedifferencesintheirembodiedexperiences(includingdiscoveringinterests,developingtalents,participatingincommunitysupportiverelationships)astheymovebetweenengagementinsomeareaoftheculturalcommonsandinamonetizedandindustrializedworksettingisessential to theirdevelopingthelanguagenecessaryforclarifyingthediffer-encesandforexercisingcommunicativecompetenceinresistingfurtherformsofenclosureoftheculturalandenvironmentalcommons. 5.Teachersneedtounderstandtheirmediatingroleinhelpingstudentsbecomeexplicitlyawareofthedifferencebetweenexperienceintheculturalcommonsandinmonetizedrelationships.This involvesbeingawareofwhatquestions toaskbecauseofthetaken-for-grantednatureofexperience.Italsoavoidsprescribingwhatthestudentsshouldthink.Insteadtheteacher’smediatingroleistoencouragetheexaminationoftherelationshipsandecologicalimpacts—whichmayleadstudentstorecognizingaspectsof thescientific/industrialculture thataremakingpositivecontributionstohumankindandtolivingmoreecologicallysustainablelives. 6.Creatingcloseallianceswithdifferentgroupsengagedinsustainingdifferent

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aspectsoftheculturalcommonswillhelptoprovidementoringrelationshipsthatwillcontributetothestudents’competencies—whichteachersneedtoprioritizeas to whether they are community and environmentally enhancing or whethertheycontributetothebasicskillsandvaluesnecessaryforbeingengagedinthemoney/work-orientedeconomy. 7.Teachersneedtoacquireabalancedwayofthinkingabouthowtoensurethatthestudents’understandingofthetensionsbetweentheculturalcommonsandthemarketandothersourcesofenclosuredonotbecomeideologicallydriven.Studentsneedtodeveloptheabilitytothinkcriticallyabouthowtechnologiesandotheras-pectsoftheindustrial/monetizedculturalinfluencetheculturalcommons,andhowtheculturalcommonscanbepromotedasalternativestotheecologicallydestructiveimpactsofthesemarketliberalglobalizingforces.Thatis,theyneedtolearnthattheystandatanimportantecologicaljuncturewhereknowingwhattoconserveisasimportantasknowingwhatneedstobereformedorabandonedentirely.

Understanding the Cultural Transforming Characteristicsof Computer Mediated Learning and Communicating

Computermediatedthinkingandcommunicationreinforcetheconduitview(thesender/receiver)viewoflanguage.Thus,computermediatedthinkingmakesitdifficulttorecognizethatwordsaremetaphors,andthattheyhaveahistoryrootedinspecificculturalwaysof thinking thatcanbe traced to thepast.Thecurrentideabeingpromotedinsomecountriesisthatstudentsshouldusecomputersastheprimaryresourceforconstructingtheirownknowledge.Thisapproachtoedu-cationalreformignoresthattheculture/metaphor/thoughtconnectionsarehiddenbytheconduitviewoflanguage(thesender/receiverpatternofcommunication)thatcomputersreinforce. 1.Theeducationalusesofcomputers, aswell as inother settings, involvetheencounteroftheuser(e.g.,thestudent)withtheinterpretativeframeworkandvaluesystemofthepeoplewhowritetheprogram.Itisnotanencounterwithanobjectiverepresentationofsomeaspectof“reality.” 2.Onlyexplicitformsofknowledgecanbedigitized—andthesewillreflecttheinterpretiveframeworkoftheobserver.Thatis,theaspectsofculturalexperiencethat aretakenforgranted,aswellastacitunderstandingsandthelivedcontextofhumanwithhuman,andhumanrelationshipswiththenaturalenvironment,cannotbedigitized.Evenvideosofexperienceareunabletorepresentpersonalmemory,takenforgrantedpatternsofthinking,andotherinternalstatesofconsciousness.InatwistintheCartesianmind/bodyseparation,thevisualandaudiodimensionsofexperiencethatcanbedigitizedarelimitedtotheaspectofembodiedexperi-encethatareaccessibletotheoutsideobserver,whichwillbeinfluencedinturnbytheassumptionsthattheobserverbringstotherelationship.Whattheoutsideobservercannotdigitizearetheinternalstatesofconsciousness—includingtheOther’sexperienceofself-identity.


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3.Computermediatedlearningandcommunicationcarriesforwardthegainsandlossesassociatedwiththetraditionofprint-basedstorageandcommunication.Likeotherusesofprint,computersreinforceabstractthinkingandcommunicationwhicheasilyleadstoassumingthatprint-basedrepresentationsofrealitycanbegeneralizedacrosscultures. 4.Educationalsoftwareprogramsarebasedonthetaken-for-grantedpatternsofthinkingofthepeoplewhocreatethem—andoftenreinforcetheassumptionsthatfurtherimpedetheprocessofrelationalthinkingthatisanaspectofecologicalintelligence. 5.Therearemanywaysinwhichcomputerscanbeusedtomapgreenspaces,representenergyandtoxicflowsintheenvironment,andconnectmembersofthecommunitywhoareengagedinsustainingthelocalculturalcommons. 6.Teachereducationprogramsneedtointroducefutureteacherstotheculturalmediating characteristics of computers.This would include the issues alreadymentioned.Thisshouldleadinturntointroducingstudentstothequestionstheyshouldaskabouttheculturalassumptionsbeingreinforcedinsoftwareprograms,aswellastoconsideringhowtheincreasedrelianceuponcomputersleadstogreaterdependenceuponthemoneyeconomy,increasesdemandonsourcesofenergy,andincreasesexposuretothetoxicchemicalswhencomputersarediscarded.

Learning to Exercise Ecological Intelligence Ifclassroomteachersanduniversityprofessorshavenotlearnedtothinkintermsoftheinterconnectedworldofculturalandnaturalsystems,itwillbeexceedinglydifficultforthemtoreinforcethiswayofthinkingamongstudents.Thetendencywillbetoreinforcetheoldpatternsthatmaketheindividualthecenterofpolitical,moralandlifestyledecisions.Itisforthisreasonthateducatorsatalllevelsneedtobecomebetterinformedaboutthechangesoccurringinthechemistryoftheworld’soceans,theamountofsyntheticchemicalsthatarealteringthereproductivecapac-ityofbothhumansandothermembersof thebiotic community, the changes inweatherpatternsthataremeltingglaciersandreleasingmoregreenhousegasesintotheatmosphere,theexpansionofdesertsandthelossoftopsoil—andthenumberofpeoplethatarebecomingenvironmentalrefugeesasaresultoftheseandotherenvironmentalchanges.Ifclassroomteachersanduniversityprofessorsdonotkeeptheseenvironmentalchangesforemostinmind,thetendencywillbetoreinforcethepatternsofthinkingandvaluesthathavebeenmajorcontributorstothemodern,westernapproachtoprogressthatisecologicallyunsustainable.Thatthisapproachtoprogressisnowbeingglobalizedinaworldofnearlysevenbillionpeoplemeansthatthecrisiswilldeepenatanacceleratingrate—andasthecrisisdeepensthepoliticsofnationalandindividualself-interestwillleadtoincreasedconflictsthatwill,inturn,furthermarginalizeconstructiveapproachestoaddressinghowtomitigatebothhumansufferingandthe furtherdestructionofnaturalsystems.

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Thisscenariodoesnothavetooccurastherearemanycultures,especiallyintheThirdWorld,thatareworkingtorecovertheirtraditionsofcommunityself-suf-ficiencyandenvironmentalstewardship.Therearealsomanycultureswherethedominantreligious/culturalpracticesdonotequateprogressandwell-beingwiththeaccumulationofmaterialwealthandtheexploitationofotherpeopleandtheenvironment.AndinmanycommunitiesintheWesttherearepeoplewhoselivesarefocusedonparticipatingindifferentcommunity-buildingculturalcommonsactivities.Thus,assuggestedearlier,thereisnoneedforintellectualstocreateanabstractmodelofhowpeopleshouldlearntolivewithinsociallyjustandecologi-callysustainablecommunities.However,themanyexamplesofpeoplepracticingecologicalintelligenceareadistinctminorityand,perhapsmoreimportantly,theydonotoccupypositionsofpowerwithincorporations,inthedominantpoliticalestablishments,andinthemilitary. Thechallengeforeducatorsistohelpensurethatthenextgenerationwillbeeducatedinwaysthatmakesthemreceptivetolearningfromotherculturesaswellasthecommunity/culturalcommons—centeredgroupsintheirownculture.Thisisessentialifthecycleofmentoringofonegenerationbythenextistocontinue.Howtoencouragefacultytotaketheseissuesseriously,andtoavoidhidingbehindthetraditionofacademicfreedomthatjustifiesignoringtheecologicalcrisisonthegroundsthattheirchosenscholarlyfieldofinquirytakespriorityoverallelse,isaproblemthatisnotamenabletoatechnologicalfix—justasthemomentsofawakeningthatleadstoatransformedstateofconsciousnesscannotbeforced. Whilekeepingtheaboveproblemsinmind, it is important toreturntothequestionofhowclassroomteachersanduniversityprofessorscanusethislistofissuesandideassummarizedabovetoreinforcethestudents’abilitytothinkandactinecologicallyresponsibleways.Giventhefourareasinwhichallteachers/profes-sorsmakecriticallyimportantdecisions—intheareasoflinguisticcolonization,cultural/environmental commons lifestyle issues, differences between oral andtechnologicallymediatedcommunicationandthinking,andtheexerciseofindividualorecologicalintelligence—thereislittleinthewayofexistingcoursesthatprovidetext-booktypeanswerstothequestionsthatmightcomeupinclassroomdiscus-sions—orinpower-pointpresentations.IfasBateson,Capra,Maturana,andVarelapointout,ecologicalthinkinginvolvesobservingandadaptingone’sresponsestothedifferenceswhichmakeadifference—thatisthepatternsthatconnectwithinandbetweendifferent systems (includingcultural andbiological systems) thenwhentheteacher/professorasksaquestionabouthowtheanalogssettleduponinthedistantpastinfluencecurrentthinkingaswellaswhatisbeingignored,answerswillemergefromanexaminationofthemyriadculturalpatternsofthepast,anexaminationoftheearlierculturalassumptions,theculturalapproachestonaturalsystems,andsoforth.Thelearningprocesswillrequireexaminingrelationships,patterns,andimpactsthatconnectthepasttothepresent.Anditwillalsobringintofocusmoralvaluesanddemocraticdecisionmakingthatreinforcedifferent


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patternsandrelationships.Thequestionaboutthehistoryofwordscanberaisedinaverypreliminarywayintheearlygrades,andexploredinmuchgreaterdepthatthegraduatelevel.Atbothlevelsakeyideaisbeingintroducedthat,hopefully,willstaywiththestudentintoadulthood:namely,thatwordshaveahistoryandcarryforwardwaysofthinkingthatmaybeecologicallyproblematic. Totakeanotherexample,askingstudentaboutthedifferencesbetweentheirexperienceinsomeactivityoftheculturalcommonsandinaconsumerrelation-shipleadstoanexaminationofthepatternsthatconnect—perhapsbetweentheguidingeconomicideologyandthebehaviorsandvaluesthatthestudentsshouldpursueifshe/heistohaveapositiveself-image.Thepatternsthatconnectmightleadtoexploringthedifferencebetweenlearningaskillanddiscoveringatalentthatleadstoamentoringrelationshipwithothers,andbeingaconsumerthathasatoxicfootprint.Deepculturalassumptions,questionsaboutprotectingtheculturalandenvironmentalcommonsfrombeingprivatizedandmonetizedbythemarketsystem(suchasthecorporateownershipofhumangenes,etc.),andauto-ethnogra-phiesthatmapwhatremainsofthelocalculturalandenvironmentalcommons,allreinforcetheexerciseofecologicalintelligence.Itispossibletomakethesamecaseforalltheotherissuesandideaslistedunderthefourcategoriesofteacher/profes-sordecisionmaking.Whetherthefocusisonquestionsrelatingtohowcomputersreinforceabstractthinkingandthusindividualintelligence(whichisitselfisanimportantquestiontoexplore),oronconsideringtheappropriateandinappropri-ateusesofcommunicationtechnologiesastheyrelatetosustainableculturalandnaturalsystems,thefieldofinquiryisaswide-openasthecomplexityofculturalandnaturalecologies.Intheseandotherexamplesthatcaneasilybecitedfromtheabovelist,theoutcomeisnotalistoffacts,objectivedata,orobjectiveknowledgethatistobememorizedandreproducedonatestrequiredbythebureaucrats’“racetothetop”governmentalpolicy. Educational reformsneed tomakeagenuinebreakfromthe industrialap-proachtopubliceducationandfromtheacademicimperialismthatisattherootofeconomicandtechnologicalglobalization.Adaptingpedagogicalandcurriculardecisionstowhatisrequiredbypackagedcurriculumunitsandmeasurabletestscoresmayappearasfreeingtheteacherfromthetaskofreframingtheboundariesandfocusofacurriculumthatwillengagetheinterestofstudents,butitbecomesrepetitiveandpersonallyunfulfillingaftera fewyears—justasworkingon theassemblylinethatencodestheintelligenceandassumptionsoftheexpertswhodesignedthesystembecomesrepetitive.Theindustrialapproachtopubliceduca-tionand,toalesserextent,auniversityeducationdoesnotpreparestudentsfordemocraticdecisionmakingasparticipantsintheculturalandnaturalecologicalsystems,orforclarifyingtheecologicallysustainablevaluesthatrepresentalterna-tivestotheindividually-centeredindustrialculturethatisthesourceofincreasingpovertyandenvironmentaldestruction.TheideasofBatesonprovidetheconceptualframeworkforjudgingwhethertheeducationalprocessisreinforcinganecology

C. A. Bowers

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ofunsustainableideasandvalues.Hopefully,otherswillbegintotakeseriouslyhowhisideashelpclarifytheculturalrootsoftheecologicalcrisis,howtheWest’srecursiveconceptualtraditionshavecontributedtotheculturalcolonizationthatisatthecenterofincreasinglyglobal-wideconflicts,andhowtorevitalizelocaleconomies,localdecisionmaking,andapproachestoeducation.

Note1ThisarticleappearsasChapter7inthebookPerspectives on the Ideas of Gregory

Bateson, Ecological Intelligence, and Educational ReformsbyC.A.Bowers.

ReferencesBateson,G.(1972).Steps to an ecology of mind.NewYork:BallantineBooksBowers,C.A.(2009).Educationalreformsthatfosterecologicalintelligence.Green Theory

& Praxis: The Journal of Ecopedagogy.5(1),26-50.Bowers,C.A.(2010).TheinsightsofGregoryBatesonontheconnectionsbetweenlanguageand

theecologicalcrisis.Language and Ecology, 3(2),1-27.www.ecoling.net/journal.htmlCapra.F.(1996).The web of life: A new scientific understanding of living systems.New

York:AnchorBooks.Freire,P.(1971).Pedagogy of the oppressed.NewYork:Herder&Herder.UNESCO. (2005). United Nations decade of education for sustainable development

(2005-2014):Guidelinesandrecommendationsforreorientingteachereducationtoaddress sustainability.Paris:UNESCO [Education forSustainableDevelopment inActionTechnical Paper N° 2].Accessed March 1, 2010, at http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001433/143370E.pdf

educational reforms that foster ecological … resistance is the paradigm gap that now separates...

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