educational research: qualitative research methods edu 8603 educational research richard m. jacobs,...

Educational Research: Educational Research: Qualitative Research MethodsQualitative Research Methods

EDU 8603

Educational Research

Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, Ph.D.

Qualitative research...Qualitative research...

Commonly called “interpretive research”

…its methods rely heavily on “thick” verbal descriptions of a particular social context being studied

Is useful for describing or answering questions about particular, localized occurrences or contexts and the perspectives of a participant group toward events, beliefs, or practices

…a helpful process for exploring a complex research area about which little is known

Illuminates the “invisibility of everyday life”

…by making the familiar strange, more examined, and better understood

Qualitative methods...Qualitative methods...

historical researchethnographycase studyethologyethnomethodology

grounded theoryphenomenologysymbolic interactionaction research

historical researchhistorical research…studies available data to study,

understand, and interpret past events

ethnographyethnography…studies cultural patterns and perspectives

of participants in their natural settings

case studycase study…examines the characteristics of a

particular entity, phenomenon, or person

ethologyethology…compares the origins, characteristics,

and culture of different societies

ethnomethodologyethnomethodology…studies how people make sense of their everyday

activities in order to behave in socially accepted ways

grounded theorygrounded theory…investigates how inductively-derived theory about

phenomenon is grounded in the data of a particular setting

phenomenologyphenomenology…considers how the experience of particular

participants exhibits a unique perspective

symbolic interactionsymbolic interaction…investigates how people construct meaning and

shared perspectives by interacting with others

action researchaction research…teacher-initiated, school-based research used to improve

the practitioner’s practice by doing or changing something

Generally speaking, qualitative researchers….

…spend a great deal of time in the settings being studied (fieldworkfieldwork)

…rely on themselves as the main instrument of data collection (subjectivitysubjectivity; intersubjectivityintersubjectivity)

…analyze data using interpretative lenses

…employ expressive language and voicevoice in descriptions and explanations

…seek depth of perspective through ongoing analysis (i.e., “waves of data”)

…judged in terms of believability, trustworthiness, coherence, and the logic underlying researcher’s interpretations

The general characteristics of The general characteristics of qualitative research...qualitative research...

Data are descriptive Emphasizes a holistic approach

(processes and outcomes)

Data sources are real-world situations

Data analysis is inductive

Describes the meaning(s) of research finding(s) from the perspective of the research participants

Uses inductive reasoninginductive reasoning……involves developing generalizations

from a limited number of specific observations or experiences

…highly dependent on the number and representativeness of the specific observations used to make the generalization

• Issues in qualitative research...Issues in qualitative research...

b. contacting potential research participants

a. gaining entry

c. selecting participants

d. enhancing validity and reducing bias

e. leaving the field

a. gaining entry...a. gaining entry...

may require considerable negotiation and compromise with a gatekeeper

access is very much dependent upon the researcher’s personal characteristics and how others perceive the researcher

trust is earned, not given

b. contacting participants...b. contacting participants...

dealing with gatekeeper(s) gaining access

issues of building trust and ensuring confidentiality and anonymity

c. selecting participants...c. selecting participants...

requires identifying participants who can provide information about the particular topic and setting being studied

the goal is to get the deepest possible understanding of the setting being studied

is fraught with difficulties in identifying and selecting an appropriate number of participants who can provide useful information about the particular topic and setting being studied

utilizes purposive sampling

types of purposive sampling…

…maximum variation…homogeneous

…critical case…theory-based

…(dis)confirming case…snowball (chain)

…extreme (deviant) case

…typical case

…intensity

…politically important case…random purposeful

…stratified purposeful

…criterion

…opportunistic

…combination (mixed)…convenience

two general guidelines: the number of participants is sufficient when…

…the extent to which the selected participants represent the range of potential participants in the setting

…the point at which the data gathered begins to be redundant (“data saturationdata saturation”)

The threats to validity in qualitative The threats to validity in qualitative studies...studies...

observer biasobserver bias…

observer effectsobserver effects…

…invalid information resulting from the perspective the researcher brings to the study and imposes upon it

…the impact of the observer’s participation on the setting or the participants being studied

extend the time for observing the setting

include more participants to make the study more representative

focus upon building participant trust in order to access more detailed and honest data

d. strategies to enhance validity and d. strategies to enhance validity and to reduce bias...to reduce bias...

identify biases and preferences, seek them out by asking others

work with another researcher and compare field notes and impressions from independent observations

after observations are completed, offer participants an opportunity to validate accuracy of the verbatims

journalize one’s own reflections, concerns, and uncertainties during the study and refer to them when examining the data

carefully examine unusual or contradictory results for explanations (“outliersoutliers”)

utilize a variety of data sources to confirm one another to corroborate participant information (“triangulationtriangulation”)

e. leaving the field…e. leaving the field…

The question is when and how to exit…the bonds formed with study

participants complicate leaving the setting

…time constraints…when the amount of accessible

data is sufficient

The basic steps of qualitative The basic steps of qualitative research...research...

2. Intensive participation in a field setting

3. Collect detailed data from field activities

1. Write a tentative research proposal

4. Synthesize and interpret the meanings of the field data

5. Write the research report

1. The qualitative research proposal...1. The qualitative research proposal...

identifies setting or context of study specifies the kinds of data to be

collected

defines area of study

describes methods to be used provides the researcher’s rationale

for undertaking the study identifies the study’s potential

contribution(s)

2. Intensive participation in a field 2. Intensive participation in a field setting...setting...

approach to participation: overtovert or covertcovert

participation: as a participant (“participant observerparticipant observer”) or nonparticipant

requires experiencing the situation from the perspective of both an observer and a participant

3. Collecting and analyzing data...3. Collecting and analyzing data...

multiple data sources are normative

primary tools include observations and interviews but can also include personal and official documents, photographs, recordings, drawings, emails, and informal conversations

the researcher records descriptive as well as reflective notes about what one has seen, heard, experienced, and thought about a during an observation session

regarding field notesfield notes……put aside assumptions, experience context first

…see phenomena through participants’ perspective

…write up notes immediately following an observation

…detail is critical: include date, site, time, and topic on every set of field notes; leave wide margins for writing impressions; use only one side of a page of paper; draw diagram of site (if necessary)

…list key words first, then outline one’s observations

…keep the descriptive and reflective sections separate

…use memos to record hunches, questions, and insights after each observation

…number the lines or paragraphs for easy access

regarding interviewsinterviews……the purpose is to explore and to probe the interviewee’s responses

in order to gather in-depth data

…the interviewer inquires into the interviewees’ attitudes, interests, feelings, concerns, and values as these relate to the context being studied

…meaning is jointly constructed between the interviewer and the interviewee; meaning is not just a construction on the part of the interviewee

…be alert for openings in responses to probe more deeply, starting with mundane questions and gradually easing into more sensitive and more complex questions

…interview data collection techniques include taking notes during the interview, writing notes after the interview, or tape recording and transcribing the interview (the transcript is a “verbatimverbatim”)

Interview do’s and don’ts...Interview do’s and don’ts...

Do follow up on what is not clear and probe more deeply into what is revealed

Do listen more and talk less

Don’t use leading questions; do use open-ended questions (“probesprobes”)

Don’t interrupt; do wait

Do ask for concrete details Do keep interviewee(s) focused

Do tolerate silence and space between interviewee’s responses; do allow the interviewee time to think

Don’t be judgmental about or react to an interviewee’s opinions, views, or beliefs

Don’t engage in debate with an interviewee

Do record everything the interviewee says and note impressions of interviewee’s nonverbal behavior

4. Synthesis and interpretation of the 4. Synthesis and interpretation of the meanings of field data...meanings of field data...

a formidable task because data are thick and deep as well as voluminous and unorganized (“field notesfield notes”)

involves a systematic and iterative process of searching, categorizing, and integrating data (“managing managing datadata”)

understanding emerges as data are integrated

Analyzing field data…Analyzing field data…

data pieces

data categories

data patterns

• four-step iterative process of data four-step iterative process of data management...management...

a. reading and memoingmemoing to become familiar with data and to identify main themes

b. examining data to develop detailed descriptions of the setting, participants, and activities

c. classifying the data, including categorization, coding, and grouping into thematic units

d. interpreting and synthesizing the organized data into general conclusions or understandings

Involves working with field notes……deconstructing data into pieces…reconstructing the data pieces into categories

…identifying patterns for understanding, synthesis, and interpretation

• Criteria suitable for qualitative data Criteria suitable for qualitative data analysis...analysis...

a. credibility credibility or or plausibilityplausibility

b. transferabilitytransferability

c. including a methods sectionincluding a methods section

credibility credibility or or plausibilityplausibility…to demonstrate that the study was conducted in

such a manner as to ensure that the subject was accurately identified and described

transferabilitytransferability…to demonstrate that the results of the study are

generalizable to others in the original research context or to contexts beyond the original study

including a methods sectionincluding a methods section…to provide an in-depth description of the

processes and methods used in the study

• Strategies for analyzing qualitative Strategies for analyzing qualitative data...data...

a. constant comparison methodconstant comparison method

b. negative case and discrepant data negative case and discrepant data methodsmethods

c. analytic inductionanalytic induction

constant comparison methodconstant comparison method…compares new evidence to prior evidence to

identify similarities and differences between observations

negative case and discrepant data methodsnegative case and discrepant data methods

…the search for contradictory, variant, or disconfirming data within the body of data collected that provides an alternative perspective on an emerging category or pattern

analytic inductionanalytic induction…a process concerned with developing and testing

a theory in order to generalize a study’s findings

5. Writing the research report...5. Writing the research report...

provide a setting where the data were collected

identify characters who provide information

describe the social action in which the characters are engaged

offers an interpretation of what the social action means to the characters

offers an interpretation of what the social action means to the characters

follow all APA Publication Manual guidelines

Mini-Quiz…Mini-Quiz…

True and false…

…Qualitative research methods are rooted in the disciplines of sociology, anthropology, and history rather than in mathematics.

True

True and false…

…The central focus of qualitative research is to provide understanding of a social setting or activity from the perspective of the research participants

True

True and false…

…Empathic neutrality requires a researcher to include one’s personal experience and empathic insight as part of the relevant data

True

True and false…

…An interviewer constructs the meaning of the content of an interview

False

True and false…

…One of the first issues in qualitative research is to gain entry to a site

True

True and false…

…One indicator that an adequate number of participants has been selected is the extent to which the selected participants represent the range of potential participants in the setting

True

True and false…

…Purposive sampling strategies are especially useful in qualitative research

True

True and false…

…A qualitative researcher should be wary of potential participants who are extremely eager to be included in the study

True

True and false…

…A covert participant observer participates as well as collects data during an observation session

True

True and false…

…Each observation session has its unique focus and interactions but is guided by a protocol or list of issues that frame the observation

True

True and false…

…In qualitative research, data analysis begins as the researcher initiates data management

False

True and false…

…An interviewer will almost always meet face-to-face with an interviewee while some observers will not.

True

True and false…

…Transcripts are the field notes of an interview session

True

True and false…

…Data analysis and interpretation are based on induction as the qualitative researcher discovers patterns emerging from the data and makes sense of them

True

True and false…

…There are no predefined variables to focus qualitative analysis of the data

True

True and false…

…Credibility or plausibility demonstrates that the study was conducted in such a manner that the subject was accurately identified and described

True

True and false…

…The process of analyzing qualitative research data follows a sequential four-step process

False

True and false…

…The ability of the researcher to induce or construct meaning from the data greatly influences the duration and quality of the data analysis

True

True and false…

…Implicitly or explicitly, a researcher interprets data whenever the researcher uses a conceptual basis or understanding to cluster a variety of data pieces into a category

True

Fill in the blank…

…Studying real-world situations as they unfold naturally; nonmanipulative, unobtrusive, and noncontrolling; open to whatever emerges due to a lack of predetermined constraints on outcomes

naturalistic inquiry

Fill in the blank……Immersion in the details and specifics of the data to

discover important categories, dimensions, and interrelationships; begins by exploring genuinely open questions rather than testing theoretically derived hypotheses

inductive analysis

Fill in the blank……The entire phenomenon is understood as a complex

system more than the sum of its parts; the focus is upon complex interdependencies not meaningfully reduced to a few discrete variables and linear, cause-effect relationships

holistic perspective


…A detailed, thick description; inquiry in depth; direct quotations capturing people’s personal perspectives and experiences

qualitative data


…Attention to process; assumes change is constant and ongoing whether the focus is upon an individual or an entire culture

dynamic systems


…The first level of qualitative inquiry requires the researcher to be true to, respectful of, and to capture the essential details of the individual context being studied

unique case orientation


…To place findings in a social, historical, and temporal context; dubious about the possibility or meaningfulness of generalizations across time and space

context sensitivity


…The researcher’s passion is understanding the world in all its complexity, not proving something, not advocating, not advancing personal agendas, but understanding

empathic neutrality


…The researcher resides in the study context but disguises his or her identity from the other participants

covert participation


…The researcher’s openness to adapting one’s research as understanding deepens and/or situations change; the willingness to pursue new paths of discovery as they emerge

design flexibility


…The point at which the researcher begins to hear similar thoughts, perspectives, and responses from more or all of the participants

data saturation


…Providing information to a participant about the nature and purpose of the study

informed consent


…The process of qualitative data collection

fieldwork


…The observer’s record about what has been seen, heard, experienced, and thought about during an observation session

field notes


…Evolving data analysis involves a form of thinking on paper through which the researcher describes one’s mental explorations of ideas, themes, hunches, and reflections about the research topic

memo writing

Fill in the blank……An extensive, descriptive, and lucid report of the

researcher’s observations, partially influenced by what the researcher sees but mainly by the detail and language the researcher uses in constructing the report

thick description


…An purposeful interaction, usually between two people, focused upon one person attempting to access information from another person

interview


…The word-for-word transcript of an interview session

verbatim


…Unusual or contradictory results from an observation or interview

outlier


…The point at which the data gathered becomes redundant

data saturation


…Creating and organizing qualitative data collected during the study

data management


…The process of recording the researcher’s initial thoughts and early impressions of the data

memoing

Fill in the blank……The process where the qualitative researcher provides

an accurate depiction of the settings and events that took place in it which yields an understanding of the context in which the study took place

description

Fill in the blank……The process of breaking down the data into

smaller units, determining the import of the units, and organizing the units together again in an interpreted form

classifying

Fill in the blank……A qualitative method for classifying data where the

researcher begins with a preliminary hypothesis and continuously refines it until there are no examples of the revised hypothesis not being upheld

analytic induction

Fill in the blank……A form of cross-validation that seeks

regularities in the data by comparing different participants, settings, and methods to identify recurring results

triangulation

Analogies…

content : methodas

characteristics of a single person or phenomenon : _______________

case study

Analogies…

content : methodas

a group’s cultural patterns and perspectives : _______________

ethnography

Analogies…content : method

asthe link between a group’s everyday activities and

its social structure : _______________

ethnomethodology


asthe link between participants’ perspectives and

social science theory : _______________

grounded theory


asthe meanings and perspectives gained by

interactions : _______________

symbolic interactionism


asHow participants experience a variety of things :

_______________

phenomenology


asA change in student learning : _______________

action research

Analogies…

quantitative : qualitativeas

population : _______________

setting

Analogies…

quantitative : qualitativeas

generalizability : _______________

transferability

This module has focused on...This module has focused on...

…which describe or answer questions about particular, localized occurrences or contexts and the perspectives of a participant group toward events, beliefs, or practices

qualitative research methods

The next module will focus on...The next module will focus on...

...teacher-initiated, school-based research used to improve the practitioner’s practice by doing or changing something

action research

educational research: qualitative research methods edu 8603 educational research richard m. jacobs,...

Documents