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EFFECTIVE STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING FLUENCY AND COMPREHENSION SKILLS TO INTERMEDIATE
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL STUDENTS WITH READING DISABILITIES
By Michelle Bell
EDSP9012 Master of Special Education Coursework Project School of Education Flinders University October 23, 2006
Topic Coordinator: Bernice Burnip Specialist Supervisor: Pam Bartholomaeus
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank Pam Bartholomaeus for her guidance and support during this project. The discussions and feedback are appreciated and helped shape the project in a unique way. Additionally, I would like to thank Bernice Burnip for her direction in the early planning stages of this course. On a personal note, I would like to thank two people who made the completion of my masters possible. My husband, Brandon, supplied a great deal of encouragement and took over numerous family responsibilities which provided me the opportunity to further my education. My mom, Alice, supported me along the way and spent countless hours babysitting so I could complete my courses. Finally, I would like to thank my son, Ethan, for ensuring that I kept my priorities straight throughout this process; although he is not yet talking, he often stood at the bottom of the stairs and reminded me that it was time for a study break!
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter Page TITLE PAGE i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii TABLE OF CONTENTS iii 1 INTRODUCTION
Aim of the Study 1 The Problem Underlying the Study 2
Research Methods 5 Significance of the Study 5 Key Terms and Definitions 5 Limitations and Delimitations 7
2 LITERATURE REVIEW Characteristics of Reading Disabilities 10 Strengths of Individuals with RD 12 Understanding Language: The Relationship between 13
Speaking and Reading Becoming a Reader 15 The Phonologic Deficit Model of Reading Disabilities 17 The Double‐Deficit Hypothesis of Reading Disabilities 18 Reading Challenges for Individuals with RD 19 A Closer Look at Fluency and Comprehension 21 Rationale for Teaching Fluency and Comprehension 23
Strategies to Students with RD
3 ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION, AND DISCUSSION The Importance of Developing Fluency 25 Strategies for Teaching Fluency 27
General Principles of Fluency Instruction 27 Decoding Skills 30 Guided Repeated Oral Reading 32 Variations of Oral Reading 34 Repeated Reading 36 Variations of Repeated Reading 39
Comprehension: A Critical Component of Reading 40 Strategies for Teaching Comprehension 44
General Principles of Comprehension Instruction 44 Pre‐Reading Comprehension Strategies 47
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During Reading Comprehension Strategies 49 After Reading Comprehension Strategies 52 Most Effective Methods for Students with Reading 54
Disabilities Employing Research‐Based Strategy Instruction in B.C. 56
4 SUMMARY 58 REFERENCES 62
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CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
Aim of the Study
Documented cases of reading disabilities (RD) date back to the late
nineteenth century (Anderson & Meier‐Hedde, 2001). Given its long history
much has been learned in this area, yet reading problems continue to plague
a significant number of school‐aged children and adults (Shaywitz, 2003).
Researchers have made many advances in the area of reading disabilities,
most recently in the field of neuroscience. Recent research in brain function
has provided the education field with new information as to the source of
reading difficulty; it is now possible to identify students with reading
disabilities early on and to provide effective prevention, early intervention,
and remediation strategies to help these individuals learn to read (Shaywitz,
2003). The purpose of this project is to examine current research on likely
causes of reading disabilities and elements of reading which present the
greatest challenge to students with RD. These topics will be covered briefly
to serve as the foundation for an emphasis on the final issue which is to
delineate the most effective strategies for teaching fluency and
comprehension skills to intermediate‐aged students with reading disabilities.
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The Problem Underlying the Study
Reading disability can be defined as a developmental disorder
whereby children have difficulties acquiring reading skills despite normal
intellectual levels (Eisenmajor, Ross, & Pratt, 2005). Children with reading
disabilities are motivated, intelligent, and have access to quality education
yet they still have problems learning to read (Shaywitz, 2003). It is estimated
that approximately one in five children has difficulties learning to read
(Kantrowitz, Underwood & Wingert, 2000; Shaywitz, 2003; Westwood, 2003).
Difficulties may include problems with basic word‐recognition skills,
fluency, and reading comprehension (Lerner, 2003).
A child’s reading ability in the early grades seems to be a strong
predictor of later achievement. The National Institute for Child Health and
Human Development found that seventy‐four percent of children identified
with reading disabilities in grade three continue to have considerable reading
challenges in grade nine (1999, cited in Archer, Gleason & Vachon, 2003;
Lerner, 2003). Because reading is a necessary skill for all academic subjects,
poor reading negatively impacts a child’s ability to learn in most subject
areas (Lerner 2003; Westwood 2003). It is understandable that reading is
necessary for academic success.
Reading problems have short‐ and long‐term consequences. In the
short‐term, students are unable to understand text they are asked to read in
school and may become frustrated and give up (Archer et al., 2003). Students
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with reading disabilities often are not diagnosed early enough by schools
and may be viewed as lazy or unmotivated by their teachers; this can lead to
the development of social, emotional, or behavioural problems (Westwood,
2003). In the long term, students with reading disabilities are more likely to
drop out of school at the earliest opportunity, are less able to gain
employment as adults that supports themselves and their families, are more
likely to suffer from social/emotional challenges as adults, and are less able to
pursue studies such as post‐high school education programs at technical
schools, colleges, and universities (Archer et al., 2003; Lerner, 2003;
Westwood, 2003). Students with reading disabilities are at a great
disadvantage if they are not given appropriate instruction to overcome
deficits in reading.
Much attention has been directed toward early intervention programs
since the passage of two American initiatives, the No Child Left Behind Act
(NCLB) in 2001 and the re‐authorisation of the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Improvement Act (IDEA) in 2004 (Foorman & Nixon, 2006). With
the recent focus on early intervention to prevent reading failure, there is a
concern that older, struggling readers will be left out based on the
assumption that there would not be a need for later instructional support
programs if all students get off to a successful start in the early grades
(Allington, 2006). However, experience and research proves that some
students will require continued support throughout their schooling to
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achieve success in reading (Allington, 2006). Efforts to improve reading
deficits of students above grade three have traditionally been somewhat
ineffective; Howell and Nolet assert that “poor readers receive less
instruction, and poorer quality instruction, than competent readers…Such
problems always seem compounded in the upper grades” (2000, p. 277). It is
essential to reach this group of learners to better prepare them for adult life
in the community.
A number of studies on adolescents and adults confirm that it is never
too late to overcome a reading problem although early identification and
intervention are most effective (Archer et al., 2003; Berninger, 2000; Fink,
2006). With effective educational methods it is possible for individuals with
reading disabilities not only to learn to read, but to learn to read well (Fink,
2006; Noble & McCandliss, 2005). Scarborough found, “Successful reading
comprehension is often accomplished by students with severe word
recognition and decoding deficiencies” (2005, cited in Sawyer, 2006).
Therefore, it should be the goal of educators to ensure all students become
skillful readers, including those with reading disabilities. This project will
attempt to address the issue of improving reading skills of intermediate
students with reading disabilities by answering the following questions:
1. What does the literature suggest as the cause of reading difficulties for children with average intelligence, motivation and education? 2. What are the key elements of reading that present the greatest challenge to students with reading disabilities?
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3. What instructional strategies and activities have been found to be most effective for improving fluency rates and comprehension in intermediate students with reading disabilities?
Research Methods
This study will review literature focusing specifically on reading
disabilities, learning disabilities, and dyslexia. An analysis and discussion of
this literature will outline crucial issues in addressing the needs of students
with reading disabilities. Sources for the literature review will include books,
electronic journals and other electronic sources published between 1991 and
2006 with significant older works also receiving some consideration.
Significance of the Study
While recent research has led to a better understanding of reading
disabilities and how they can be remediated, this information is not being
widely applied in schools (Shaywitz, 2003). Many students with reading
difficulties receive help for limited periods of time with methods that do not
employ proven instructional strategies (Shaywitz, 2003). Furthermore, early
intervention has received so much attention recently that the needs of older
struggling readers have been overshadowed (Allington, 2006).
Key Terms and Definitions
Dyslexia or reading disability is viewed and defined in a variety of
ways in the law, medicine, science, and education (Anderson & Meier‐
Hedde, 2001; Stanberry, 2003). Many well‐known scientists and neurologists
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who conduct brain research use the term dyslexia (APA, 2000; Stanberry,
2003), as does United States education law which often refers to dyslexia as
one example of a specific learning disability (Stanberry, 2003). However,
most educators refer to a specific learning disability which is more practical
for developing Individual Education Plans (Stanberry, 2003). For the purpose
of this project, the term reading disabilities will be used unless quoting authors
directly who may use the terms reading disorder, dyslexia, or learning
disabilities. Some experts assert that dyslexia is qualitatively and etiologically
different from other forms of reading failure, whereas others consider it to be
merely a different point on the same reading difficulty continuum
(Westwood, 2003). Regardless of how reading disabilities and dyslexia are
viewed, it is irrelevant for the aim of this study; teaching methods which are
effective for children with general problems learning to read will also benefit
those with reading disabilities or dyslexia (Kantrowitz et al., 2000;
Westwood, 2003).
The International Dyslexia Association’s (IDA) definition of dyslexia will be used for this study:
Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is neurological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction. Secondary consequences may include problems in reading comprehension and reduced reading
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experience that can impede growth of vocabulary and background knowledge (2002).
Limitations and Delimitations
This study will focus exclusively on teaching reading fluency and
comprehension strategies as part of a complete reading program. Although
decoding is an essential requisite skill of fluency, and vocabulary instruction
is an important aspect of teaching reading comprehension, these topics will
be mentioned only briefly because of the word limitation for this project.
Likewise, phonics instruction and phonemic awareness activities will not be
discussed though they are essential elements that should be included in all
comprehensive reading programs.
This study intends to examine specific instructional strategies to teach
fluency and comprehension skills to students with reading disabilities in a
pull‐out, small‐group setting taught by a learning assistance teacher. In this
scenario, these students would also receive balanced literacy instruction in
their general education classrooms. Westwood noted, “…readers with
learning difficulties … tend to need highly systematic, direct instruction that
matches their developmental level” (2003, p. 103). For this reason, the study
will emphasise direct instruction strategies. In addition, some components of
whole language will be included based on Krashen’s definition: “whole
language … involves instilling a love of literature, problem‐solving and
critical thinking, collaboration, authenticity, personalized learning, and much
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more” (2002, p. 32). Students with reading disabilities need explicit strategy
instruction but should also be given the opportunity for meaningful literacy
experiences.
All strategies described in the subsequent chapters are best suited for
small‐group settings, but some are also appropriate for use with an entire
class. This project does not address the issues of full inclusion or resources
available at the school level. Nor does it speak to the matter of assessment
and diagnosis of reading disabilities, though it is important to assess before,
during and after instruction to determine a student’s present level of
functioning and to ensure that adequate progress is being made (Howell &
Nolet, 2000).
The overall focus of this project is on intermediate‐aged elementary
students between nine and twelve years of age. However, information will
be included from studies with participants between ages eight and fifteen
where deemed appropriate. Similarly, many of the strategies discussed
would be appropriate for use with students between eight and fifteen years
of age.
Finally, this project is limited to the amount of research and type of
research examining causes of reading disabilities and fluency and
comprehension strategies. Brain imaging studies are relatively new and
though many advances have been made, scientists still have much to learn
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about reading disabilities. Finally, research involving direct contact with
subjects is limited by ethical issues.
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CHAPTER TWO
Literature Review
Characteristics of Reading Disabilities
The crucial concept of a reading disability is that it represents an
unexpected difficulty learning to read despite sufficient motivation, adequate
intelligence, and education (Shaywitz, 2003); it becomes apparent when there
is a clear discrepancy between a person’s ability and his academic
achievement (Westwood, 2003). Reading disabilities are not a temporary
delay in reading development; rather, they are a biologically based, chronic
condition that will likely persist into adulthood (APA, 2000; Lerner, 2003;
Shaywitz, 2003). People all over the world are affected by reading disabilities,
regardless of language, geography, ethnic background, or level of
intelligence (Shaywitz, 2003). Reading disabilities are unexpected and know
no boundaries.
Reading disability is a language problem that reveals itself in various
ways at different stages of development. Initially, a child may have difficulty
learning to name and write letters and with associating letters with the
correct sounds of speech (Berninger, 2000; Shaywitz et al., 1999). As the child
matures, he is likely to have problems sounding out new or unfamiliar words
(Berninger, 2000; Shaywitz et al., 1999). Eventually, the child may learn to
read words accurately, but will lack fluency and will exhibit a very slow
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reading rate (Berninger, 2000; Shaywitz et al., 1999). If a reading disability is
not overcome, it may negatively impact the student’s reading progress into
adolescence and adulthood.
The prevalence of reading disabilities among children is difficult to
ascertain because schools and research studies use numerous definitions and
diagnostic criteria (APA, 2000). Estimates of reading disabilities vary
between four and twenty percent of the population (Jorgensen, 2002;
Shaywitz, 2003). Jorgensen (2002) reports that reading disabilities affect
between four and eight percent of the school population, or an average of
one or two students per class of twenty‐five; even with this conservative
estimate, it is clear that reading disabilities affect a sizeable number of
students. Based on the U.S. Department of Education’s figures, Shaywitz
(2003) estimates that 3.5 percent of students in the United States receive
services for reading disabilities. However, in the Connecticut Longitudinal
Study, Shaywitz and colleagues (1999) found that less than one‐third of
students reading below age, ability, or grade level were receiving extra help;
these figures suggest that there may be a large number of undiagnosed
problems. It is possible that reading disabilities are much more prevalent
than the more conservative estimates indicate.
There is a myth that reading disabilities affect boys more frequently
than girls. In fact, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders‐IV‐
TR (DSM‐IV‐TR) states that between sixty and eighty percent of individuals
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diagnosed with reading disabilities are male (APA, 2000). It is likely that
boys are referred and diagnosed more often because they tend to exhibit
noisier, disruptive behaviours whereas girls are likely to suffer in silence
(APA, 2000; Shaywitz, 2003). In actual fact, when strict criteria are used in
place of traditional school‐based referral procedures, reading disabilities are
just as prevalent in girls as in boys (APA, 2000; Jorgensen, 2002; Shaywitz,
2003). Therefore, countless girls go undiagnosed with reading disabilities.
Scientists have established that reading disabilities likely have a
genetic basis (APA, 2000; Kantrowitz et al., 2000; Raskind, 2001; Shaywitz,
2003). The DSM‐IV‐TR states, “Reading disorder aggregates familially and is
more prevalent among first‐degree biological relatives of individuals with
Learning Disorders” (APA, 2000, p. 52). In fact, this trend has been observed
and documented since the late 1890’s (Anderson & Meier‐Hedde, 2001;
Raskind, 2001). Shaywitz (2003) notes that a family history of reading
problems is one of the most significant predictive factors of reading
disabilities. This may be a crucial aspect in identifying children with reading
disabilities early on.
Strengths of Individuals with RD
Individuals with RD frequently exhibit many strengths which makes
coping with their disabilities easier. They are often highly intelligent and
may possess critical thinking, reasoning, problem solving, and concept
formation abilities (Shaywitz, 2003). Additionally, people with reading
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disabilities commonly possess strong oral language skills, sound general
knowledge, and a considerable vocabulary, all of which help them
compensate for their disabilities (Ransby & Swanson, 2003; Shaywitz, 2003).
These children tend to perform better at comprehension measures like word
recognition tasks embedded in text than on decoding isolated words because
they are proficient at using context cues to infer meaning (Shaywitz, 2003;
Wilson & Lesaux, 2001); comprehension scores may be higher than expected
based on fluency rates (Fink, 2006). Strong mathematics or spatial skills are
additional strengths individuals with reading disabilities may possess
(Shaywitz, 2003). A diagnosis of reading disability does not imply a lack of
intelligence or ability and leaves many other domains intact.
Understanding Language: The Relationship between Speaking and Reading Although speaking and reading rely on the same unit of language, the
phoneme, there are tremendous differences between them (Shaywitz, 2003).
Learning to read is a difficult process that requires years of instruction to
acquire (Noble & McCandliss, 2005). In contrast, spoken language is innate
and is obtained effortlessly; a child simply needs to be surrounded by oral
language and he will naturally learn to speak (Shaywitz, 2003). Shaywitz
states, “Language does not have to be taught…highly refined neural circuitry
within our brains allows us to speak and to listen without conscious thought
or effort” (2003, p.45, 50). Shaywitz (2003) goes on to explain that some
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linguists suggest speech emerged as the dominant mode of communication
for humans fifty thousand years ago and through evolution, the ability to
speak is now part of our genetic makeup through a language module wired
into the human brain. Conversely, there is no reading module in the human
brain, and humans must use their biological module for language to learn to
read (Shaywitz, 2003).
Both reading and speaking depend upon the phoneme. A phoneme
can be defined as “the smallest unit of sounds in speech” (Noble &
McCandliss, 2005, p. 371). There are forty‐four phonemes in English which
can be combined to create a vast number of words (Shaywitz, 2003). When
speaking, the brain is able to process more than one phoneme at a time, or a
bubble of sound; for example, when saying the word tap, the brain must first
retrieve each phoneme and then overlap one over the other to say tap as one
unit of sound (Shaywitz, 2003). Likewise, the listener hears only one unit of
sound. In actual fact, there are three sounds within that unit: the phonemes t,
aaa, and p. Once past the ear, the language system is able to recognise the
three phonemes as units of language and processes them appropriately; this
is called the phonologic module (Shaywitz, 2003). Shaywitz describes the
phonologic module as the brain’s language factory and defines it as “the
functional part of the brain where the sounds of language are put together to
form words and where words are broken down into their elemental sounds”
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(2003, p. 40). Oral language is made up of phonemes which are processed by
the phonologic module in the brain.
Becoming a Reader
The process of learning to read is made more difficult by the apparent
seamless nature of language. Before a child can learn to read he must attain
orthographic awareness, or an understanding that spoken words are
segmental and that letters of the alphabet represent spoken sounds (Duncan
& Johnson, 1999; Nathan et al., 2004; Shaywitz, 2003; Snowling & Hayiou‐
Thomas, 2006). Because written language is a human invention, letters
themselves do not have their own meaning; they are merely a way of
recording language (Shaywitz, 2003; Snowling & Hayiou‐Thomas, 2006).
When reading, a child must look at printed words and then convert these
words into sounds, knowing that letters are related to sounds and that each
printed word has the same number and same sequence of sounds as the
spoken word (Shaywitz, 2003; Snowling & Hayiou‐Thomas, 2006).
Understanding that printed letters represent spoken sounds is called the
alphabetic principle (Shaywitz, 2003). In essence, readers must break the
alphabetic code.
Phonemic awareness is a crucial element in the difficult process of
learning to read. It can be defined as “the ability to notice, identify, and
manipulate the individual sounds ‐ phonemes ‐ into spoken words” which
includes segmenting and blending words (Shaywitz, 2003, p. 51). A child is
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unable to read without first developing phonemic awareness (Nathan et al.,
2004; Sawyer, 2006; Shaywitz, 2003; Snowling & Hayiou‐Thomas, 2006).
Typically, children develop an awareness that words come apart and can be
manipulated between ages four and six (Shaywitz, 2003). Some children
develop phonemic awareness quickly and effortlessly, while for those with
reading disabilities, it is much more difficult (Shaywitz, 2003; Snowling &
Hayiou‐Thomas, 2006). Studies have shown that phonemic awareness, not
intelligence, is the best predictor of learning to read (Sawyer, 2006; Shaywitz,
2003; Snowling & Hayiou‐Thomas, 2006). Phonemic awareness is a requisite
skill to becoming a proficient reader.
There are three important aspects of reading: decoding, fluency, and
comprehension. A reader must apply decoding skills in order to identify new
or unfamiliar words. This is an impossible feat if the student lacks the ability
to blend sounds together to form a word, one aspect of phonemic awareness.
Once a reader has identified printed words, he must then comprehend, or
make meaning from them. Finally, fluency is the bridge between decoding
and comprehension because smooth, automatic reading allows the reader to
focus his full attention on the meaning of text (Chard, Vaughn, & Tyler, 2002;
Lerner, 2003; Rasinski, 2003; Westwood, 2003). Decoding and comprehension
are the two sub‐skills of reading, with fluency being the essential link
between the two.
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The Phonologic Deficit Model of Reading Disabilities
The cause of reading disabilities has been researched for well over 100
years with many theories receiving consideration during that time. Most
recently, researchers agree that there is abundant evidence indicating reading
disabilities are caused by a deficit in phonological processing (Ransby &
Swanson, 2003; Shaywitz, 2003; Shaywitz et. al., 1999; Westwood, 2003;
Wilson & Lesaux, 2001). This means that people with reading disabilities find
it difficult to develop phonemic awareness, or the ability to hear and
manipulate the internal sound structure of words (Ransby & Swanson, 2003;
Shaywitz, 2003; Shaywitz et. al., 1999; Westwood, 2003; Wilson & Lesaux,
2001). For example, most children easily understand that the word tap is
made up of three sounds: t, aaa, and p, but children with reading disabilities
hear tap as only one sound. As a result, they are unable to sound words out,
which is an important step in early reading development. Reading
disabilities are caused by impairment in a specific component of the
language system and are not the result of an overall weakness in intelligence
or thinking skills.
This phonologic weakness is at the lowest level of the language
system and higher‐level intellectual abilities remain unaffected. Higher‐order
abilities include reasoning, vocabulary, syntax, and discourse (understanding
connected text), all of which are required for comprehension (Shaywitz,
2003). Unfortunately, this weakness in the lower‐level language function
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causes an inability to decode text which then blocks access to the higher‐
order processes needed to obtain meaning (Ransby & Swanson, 2003;
Shaywitz, 2003). Although a reading disabled student’s higher‐level
cognitive abilities remain intact, he may be unable to access these skills
because of his inability to identify unknown words.
The Double‐Deficit Hypothesis of Reading Disabilities
While the phonologic deficit model is the most widely accepted
theory, it is worth mentioning the double deficit hypothesis as the most
prominent competing theory of the cause of reading disabilities. Wolf and
Bowers (1999, 2000) proposed that reading disabilities may consist of two
possible core deficits: a deficit in phonological processing or a deficit in
naming speed. This was based on the evidence that some individuals with
reading disabilities showed adequate decoding skills but poor
comprehension (Vukovic & Siegel, 2006). Wolf (1999) studied the predictive
nature of phonological processing and naming speed and found that
naming‐speed skills predicted word identification (real words) whereas
phonological skills predicted word attack (nonsense words).
Wolf (1999) proposed that there are three deficit groups under the
umbrella of reading disabilities: those with phonologic deficits, those with
rate deficits, and those with both phonologic and rate deficits (double‐
deficit). The phonologic deficit group was more impaired than the rate deficit
group; however the double‐deficit group was the most impaired (Wolf,
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1999). Wolf (1999) found that the single‐deficit groups had modest
comprehension deficits, while the double‐deficit group had severe
comprehension deficits. Vukovic and Siegel conducted a comprehensive
analysis of the evidence for the double‐deficit hypothesis and concluded:
… evidence in support of the double‐deficit hypothesis of developmental dyslexia remains limited … there is lack of evidence to support the hypothesis that deficits in naming speed skills are independently related to reading impairment … most studies support naming speed as a phonological variable (2006, p. 35).
Though naming speed appears to have a connection to reading ability, the
extent of this connection is yet to be determined; the double‐deficit
hypothesis has received mixed results when tested (Vukovic & Siegel, 2006).
Reading Challenges for Individuals with RD
Individuals with reading disabilities tend to demonstrate similar
characteristics, though there is a wide variance within this group. Children
with reading disabilities cannot easily analyse words they hear into separate
phonemes or syllables, or connect letters to appropriate sounds within words
(Bower, 1992; Lerner, 2003; Marshall, Snowling & Bailey, 2001; Shaywitz,
2003; Westwood, 2003). As a result, a common fundamental problem for
these students is an inability to decode words and read phrases or sentences
with speed and automaticity (Chard et al., 2002). Difficulties with
phonological processing are chronic and some deficits persist into adulthood
(Fink, 2006; Ransby & Swanson, 2003; Shaywitz, 2003; Shaywitz et al., 1999;
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Wilson & Lesaux, 2001). Students with reading disabilities have inefficient
word recognition skills which often lead to other reading difficulties.
Individuals with RD may demonstrate difficulties in the areas of
fluency and comprehension (Archer et al., 2003; Chard et al., 2002; Portnuff
Venable, 2003; Ransby & Swanson, 2003; Shaywitz, 2003; Westwood, 2003).
Students with reading disabilities struggle to identify new or unfamiliar
words so reading is slow and arduous. These students have difficulty
remembering what words look like so it takes them much longer than
average students to build a memory bank of visual images of words and
letter strings, a necessary process to gaining automaticity when reading
(Portnuff Venable, 2003; Shaywitz, 2003). Reading may also contain
numerous distortions, substitutions, or omissions (APA, 2000). So much
concentration is devoted to decoding words that little energy is left to attend
to self‐monitoring and comprehension (Bower, 1992; Portnuff Venable, 2003;
Shaywitz, 2003; Westwood, 2003). Deficits in phonological processes impair
students’ ability to decode effectively, which in turn leads to fluency and
comprehension problems.
Researchers have identified a myriad of other issues that children with
reading disabilities must contend with. The phonological impairment
responsible for reading disabilities may also lead to very poor spelling, weak
rote memory or the ability to memorise random facts without understanding
the underlying concept, difficulty retrieving and/or articulating words when
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speaking, or misnaming objects (Portnuff Venable, 2003; Shaywitz, 2003;
Westwood, 2003). Additionally, students with reading disabilities often have
problems switching from one pronunciation to another when confronted
with an ambiguous sound or syllable in a word (such as record which is
pronounced differently if it is a noun or a verb), and may have trouble
remembering the names of main characters in narrative text (Portnuff
Venable, 2003).
For students with RD, reading is hard work and is usually avoided
whenever possible (Shaywitz, 2003; Westwood, 2003). This lack of practise
may result in immature grammatical awareness, weak general background
knowledge, and lack of familiarity with various conventions of text (Archer
et al., 2003; Portnuff Venable, 2003). Most students with reading disabilities
dread being asked to read aloud (Shaywitz, 2003). Students with reading
disabilities face many challenges.
A Closer Look at Fluency and Comprehension
Fluency and comprehension are strongly linked, and both are
necessary to becoming a skillful reader. It was stated in the previous section
that slow, laboured reading leaves little energy to gain meaning from text.
This idea can be traced back to LaBerge and Samuels’ (1974) theory of
automaticity. They proposed that learning to read entails increasing
automaticity in processing letter‐sound correspondences in word units,
processing these units into recognizable words, and connecting the words
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while reading a passage. When the reader improves at processing units,
words, and connected text, this leaves more cognitive abilities available to
obtain meaning from the text. This theory, also called the information
processing theory by some authors, is supported by both empirical and
clinical evidence (Allington, 2006; Archer et al., 2003; Chard et al., 2002;
Meyer & Felton, 1999; NRP, 2000; Pikulski & Chard, 2005; Westwood, 2003;
Wilson & Lesaux, 2001). It seems logical that as readers become more fluent,
they will likely have increased attention available to make inferences,
respond critically, and obtain meaning from text (Allington, 2006; Archer et
al., 2003; Nathan & Stanovich, 1991; Pikulski & Chard, 2005). Although fluent
reading is one of several essential factors necessary for comprehension,
fluency alone is not enough to ensure high levels of reading (Chard et al.,
2002; NRP, 2000; Pikulski & Chard, 2005).
The relationship between fluency and comprehension is multifaceted.
Fluency was at one time thought to be a prerequisite skill to reading
comprehension, but this is an overly simplistic view of the relationship
between these two aspects of reading. Stecker, Roser and Martinez (1998)
reviewed fluency research and concluded, “The issue of whether fluency is
an outgrowth [of] or a contributor to comprehension is unresolved…Fluency
has been shown to have a ‘reciprocal relationship’ with comprehension, with
each fostering the other” (cited in Pikulski & Chard, 2005, p. 510). Fluency is
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not only necessary for comprehension, but it also characteristically reflects
comprehension (Pikulski & Chard, 2005). Rasinski articulated:
Speedy reading is an indication that students have freed their cognitive resources away from decoding. But they also have to use that cognitive capacity to make sense of the text. Thus, comprehension is an integral part of fluency, and is exhibited through appropriately phrased, expressive, and meaningful reading (2003, p. 17).
Thus, fluency development promotes comprehension and comprehension
results in fluent reading demonstrated by good phrasing and expression.
Rationale for Teaching Fluency and Comprehension Strategies to Students with RD Despite intelligence and motivation, individuals with reading
disabilities struggle to learn to read. After more than 100 years of research,
scientists have now identified precisely where and how reading disabilities
manifest in the brain (Shaywitz, 2003). This relatively recent discovery has
led to a better understanding of what constitutes effective remediation
strategies for older students with reading disabilities. As researchers
continue to discover more about reading disabilities, thousands of afflicted
individuals have a newfound hope.
Researchers have established that individuals with reading
disabilities are unable to easily decode new or unfamiliar words. This leads
to slow, painstaking reading that lacks in fluency. Comprehension is then
sacrificed because the reader must devote his full attention to decoding and
has little energy left to obtain meaning from the text, the whole purpose of
24
reading. Because of the mutual relationships between decoding and fluency,
and between fluency and comprehension, these skills should be included in
daily instruction for struggling readers (Chard et al., 2002; Pullen et al.,
2005). The ultimate goal for students with reading disabilities is not just for
quick reading, but for improved comprehension of material and the
knowledge that reading can be an enjoyable experience.
25
CHAPTER THREE
Analysis, Interpretation, and Discussion
The Importance of Developing Fluency
Fluency is a skill necessary for readers to progress from decoding to
comprehending reading material. Fluent reading requires accurate decoding,
correct phrasing, appropriate intonation, and self‐correction of misread
words (Allington, 2006; NRP, 2000). Researchers have associated fluency
with successful reading since the early 1960s (Chard et al., 2002); however,
fluency is often a neglected element of reading programs (Chard et al., 2002;
Lerner, 2003; NRP, 2000). Even more surprising is that although research has
identified effective strategies for improving fluency, these methods are not
widely known and used by teachers (Chard et al., 2002; Shaywitz, 2003).
Fluency strategies should be incorporated in all reading programs as it is an
important component of reading.
Developing fluency requires spending a great deal of time practising
reading and depends upon automatic information processing (Allington,
2006; Snowling & Hayiou‐Thomas, 2006). As students progress as readers,
they develop word banks in their brains which allow them to recognise a
growing number of words with minimal effort (Allington, 2006; Shaywitz,
2003; Snowling & Hayiou‐Thomas, 2006). Acquiring automaticity is
dependent upon the reader accurately identifying a word and comparing it
26
with a stored neural model in the brain; if the model is not an exact match,
the average reader corrects it and will obtain a match after a few more
readings (Shaywitz, 2003). It takes four or more correct readings of a word
before it is added to a reader’s word bank and becomes automatic; the
reader can then merely glance at the word and it is quickly and effortlessly
identified (Shaywitz, 2003; Snowling & Hayiou‐Thomas, 2006). As the
number of words in the word bank increases, so does fluency (Shaywitz,
2003). Developing fluency occurs gradually after much exposure to printed
material.
The process of developing fluency does not happen in the same way
for individuals with reading disabilities. Students with reading disabilities at
all grade levels are extremely susceptible to having problems with fluency
(Meyer & Felton, 1999; Rasinski, 2003; Shaywitz, 2003). These students read
slowly so they are exposed to less text than faster readers in the same
amount of time (Allington, 2006; Archer et al., 2003; Shaywitz, 2003).
Additionally, children with reading disabilities tend to find reading difficult
and unpleasant so they choose activities than other than reading in their
spare time (Archer et al., 2003; Shaywitz, 2003). Insufficient reading practise
results in inaccurate or incomplete neural models of words which are never
corrected; these students do not develop the accurate representations of
words that are required for fast, automatic reading (Archer et al., 2003;
Lerner, 2003; Pikulski & Chard, 2005; Portnuff Venable, 2003; Shaywitz,
27
2003). It is difficult for students with reading disabilities to obtain fluency,
but studies show it can be achieved (Archer et al., 2003; Berninger, 2000;
Shaywitz, 2003). It is the responsibility of all educators to ensure that
effective fluency strategies are included in the instruction of students with
reading disabilities.
Strategies for Teaching Fluency
General Principles of Fluency Instruction
Fluency training is an essential element of reading that should be part
of reading programs for individuals with reading disabilities. The two most
essential features of fluency have been identified as accuracy and speed
(LaBerge & Samuels, 1974; Samuels, 1997); a student must first read a word
accurately before he reads it fluently (Shaywitz, 2003). Interventions that
have multiple components focusing on increasing accuracy and rate of
reading are most beneficial to students with reading disabilities (Chard et al.,
2002). Because fluency is built on accuracy, students should practise with
text at their independent reading level, or material that is read with ninety‐
five percent accuracy (Allington, 2006; Shaywitz, 2003). Having students
progress through increasingly difficult text based on their performance
seems to improve their overall fluency (Chard et al., 2002; Weinstein &
Cooke, 1992). Oral reading rates, which count the number of correct words
read per minute as a general measure of fluency, should be measured often
and the results graphed (Allington, 2006; Gibb & Wilder, 2002; Shaywitz,
28
2003); this provides the student with visible evidence of improvement and
serves as a powerful motivator to continue practising (Shaywitz, 2003).
The purpose of fluency instruction is to train the reader’s neural
pathways in the brain and to help build accurate neural word models
necessary for fast, accurate reading (Shaywitz, 2003). Older students with
reading disabilities should be given specific targeted practise reading
irregular words, or words that do not follow regular rules of pronunciation
and cannot be sounded out (Shaywitz, 2003); Shaywitz (2003) asserts that
irregular words need to be learned and over‐learned through repeated
practise as part of fluency exercises. To build fluency, students require ample
reading practise (Lerner, 2003; NRP, 2000).
Reading material used for instruction should appeal to readers. Fink
(2006) advocates the interest‐based model of reading whereby students are
provided with many opportunities to read about their personal interests in
hopes they develop an intrinsic desire to read. The theory is that students are
more likely to become engaged and read more often if they are reading
about a topic that appeals to them (Fink, 2006; Gibb and Wilder, 2002).
Fluency rates can be improved by having students engage in pre‐
reading strategies before reading a selection. Reithaug (1998) outlines the
following previewing strategies to help students build prior knowledge and
increase fluency:
• show pictures to encourage the sharing of related experiences;
29
• predict what the book will be about based on pictures and/or title;
• relate the unknown to the known by drawing on their personal experiences: remembering a similar story, a place they visited, or something that happened to them;
• use semantic mapping prior to reading in order to access, expand upon, and organise prior knowledge;
• identify and explain essential vocabulary before students read the selection;
• use unusual vocabulary contained in the reading selection during initial discussion of the selection;
• preview key concepts, especially if the concept is not part of the students’ experiential background; and
• use questions (generated by the students) to develop background knowledge.
Reithaug (1998) explains that previewing strategies help students gain
familiarity and confidence prior to reading. Pre‐teaching important terms
and concepts decreases the probability of errors, thereby setting students up
for success.
Strategies used for teaching fluency can be divided into four
categories: decoding skills, guided oral reading, repeated reading, and
independent silent reading. Silent reading will not be discussed because it is
an unsuitable method for pull‐out, small group situations, and there is some
debate as to its effectiveness in improving fluency rates for students with
reading disabilities (Chard et al., 2002; NRP, 2000; Pikulski & Chard, 2005;
Shaywitz, 2003). Fink (2006) cautions that the importance of silent reading
should not be overlooked because it is essential for developing fluency and
self‐esteem; more research is needed to determine just how effective this
strategy is (NRP, 2000). The remaining strategies to be discussed have been
30
proven effective by numerous methodological studies. Guided oral reading
and repeated reading methods are not exclusive of one another; they have
many overlapping principles. The key difference is that guided oral reading
procedures always include the use of corrective feedback for students,
whereas repeated reading procedures do not necessarily incorporate this
aspect.
Decoding Skills
Word identification, or decoding, is the foundational process of
reading and is a requisite skill to achieving fluency (NRP, 2000). Archer and
colleagues (2003) assert that many older students with reading disabilities
have significantly lower reading comprehension than listening
comprehension, probably due to inaccurate and slow word recognition.
Therefore, students with reading disabilities need practise with all word
recognition strategies including phonics, sight words, context clues, and
structural analysis to gain fluency and improve comprehension (Archer et
al., 2003; Fawcett & Nicolson, 1994; Lerner, 2003; Portnuff Venable, 2003;
Pullen et al., 2005; Shaywitz, 2003). Because not all readers develop the same
way, a variety of strategies and a balanced teaching approach should be
employed with struggling readers (Fink, 2006).
Decoding instruction for older readers should include a flexible
strategy to analyse longer, multi‐syllabic words rather than teaching
complicated syllabication rules to divide words (Archer et al., 2003; Pikulski
31
& Chard, 2005; Shaywitz, 2003). It is important to teach multi‐syllabic word
reading because a great deal of information is embedded in complex words
(Allington, 2006; Archer et al., 2003; Portnuff Venable, 2003); students with
decoding difficulties are more likely to mispronounce affixes, skip syllables,
and ignore letter information in these kinds of words (Archer et al., 2003;
Portnuff Venable, 2003; Shaywitz, 2003). A flexible decoding strategy helps
many students who experience what is called the fourth grade slump, or a
drop in reading performance; the fourth grade slump is likely caused by a
sudden large increase of irregular words and a change of focus at this level
from reading predominantly narrative text to expository text (Allington,
2006; Shaywitz, 2003).
There are several decoding strategies available, but this author has
had success with the strategy proposed by Archer, Gleason and Vachon
(2000) in REWARDS, an acronym for Reading Excellence: Word Attack and Rate
Development Strategies. This program outlines a strategy so students can
identify natural breaks in words and analyse each smaller part (Archer et al.,
2000; Shaywitz, 2003). The authors identify two necessary pre‐skills for
reading multi‐syllabic words: the ability to accurately pronounce phonemes
for vowel graphemes (such as au, ou, ea), and the ability to pronounce
prefixes and suffixes (Archer et al., 2003). These pre‐skills are taught using
careful instruction, adequate examples for practise, and the selection of
words which highlight useful sounds and affixes that can be generalised to
32
other words (Archer et al., 2003). Once these pre‐skills have been mastered,
students are taught the decoding strategy.
The decoding strategy consists of four steps. First, students circle all
prefixes and suffixes in a word. Second, they underline the vowels or vowel
graphemes in the remaining portion of the word. Third, they loop the word
into chunks ensuring there is a vowel or vowel grapheme in each chunk.
Finally, students say the word. Throughout the program, students are taught
to first try the most common vowel sound; if that does not make a real word,
students then say the second, less common vowel sound. This rule also
applies to vowel graphemes with two sounds such as oo and ow. Students
may have to fine‐tune the word after saying it the first time by changing the
syllable that is emphasised. In this author’s experience, this word
identification strategy has been very effective in teaching decoding skills to
intermediate students with reading disabilities which has led to improved
fluency rates and comprehension.
Guided Repeated Oral Reading
Guided repeated oral reading, usually carried out in small groups, is
the best documented approach for improving fluency and overall reading
achievement of students with RD (Allington, 2006; Archer et al., 2003; Chard
et al., 2002; NRP, 2000; Rashotte & Torgensen, 1985; Shaywitz, 2003;
Westwood, 2003). Shaywitz declares, “There are very few activities for a
dyslexic reader that provide as much improvement for the amount of time
33
spent as does guided repeated oral reading” (2003, p. 273). It is crucial for
teachers to provide students with corrective feedback as they are reading to
ensure errors are not being practised (Chard et al., 2002; Gibb & Wilder,
2002; NRP, 2000; Shaywitz, 2003; Smith, 1979). Corrective feedback also
allows a child to adjust his pronunciation of a specific word and correct the
stored neural model of that word so it increasingly reflects the correct
pronunciation and spelling of a word (Shaywitz, 2003). Feedback should be
given in a way that is encouraging and constructive so as not to damage the
child’s self‐esteem or confidence (Shaywitz, 2003).
The concept of guided oral reading is very simple. As individual
students read aloud orally, the teacher corrects errors when
mispronunciations occur and asks questions to guide students to a better
understanding of the text (Archer et al., 2003). This is an effective way of
improving fluency rates, mainly by decreasing the number of reading errors
(Chard et al., 2002). Chard and colleagues completed a comprehensive
review of fluency intervention studies for students with reading disabilities
and concluded, “Rereading text many times and to many different people
and providing progressively more difficult text with feedback and correction
for missed words may be the components essential to improving fluency”
(2002, p. 396). It is clear that guided repeated oral reading is an effective
method for teaching fluency to students with reading disabilities.
34
Ideally, students with reading disabilities should be taught to self‐
monitor and self‐correct when reading, an idea that may seem incompatible
with guided oral reading. Allington (2006) notes that struggling readers are
often interrupted before having the opportunity to self‐correct. Instead of
correcting students’ errors immediately, the teacher should wait until the end
of the sentence and ask the student to go back and reread it; another
alternative is to wait until the end of the sentence and ask, “Does that sound
right?” (Allington, 2006). Any person listening to struggling readers read
orally should limit the number of interruptive responses so readers do not
begin to read tentatively and come to expect outside interruptions (Allington,
2006). Pre‐reading techniques such as vocabulary instruction, pronunciation
of difficult words, and activating prior knowledge may also help reduce the
number of errors that occur during oral reading (Fink, 2006; Howell & Nolet,
2000; Lerner, 2003; NRP, 2000; Reithaug, 1998). It is important to promote
success by engaging students in pre‐reading strategies and by giving
students the opportunity to self‐correct before being interrupted.
Variations of Oral Reading
There are several other ways of engaging small groups of students in
repeated oral reading including choral or echo reading, neurological impress
method, readers’ theatre, singing songs, and reading poetry. Choral or echo
reading is usually led by the teacher who first reads the text aloud as
students follow along (Allington, 2006); the teacher models reading with
35
expression, chunking words together into phrases, and stopping at periods
(Allington, 2006; Archer et al., 2003; Lerner, 2003; Shaywitz, 2003). All
students in the group then read aloud together, practising fluent reading,
with the teacher reading slightly louder than the students (Allington, 2006).
The teacher may select certain segments of a story, word lists, sentences, or
paragraphs for choral reading activities to highlight specific skills (Allington,
2006; Archer et al., 2003). Choral reading increases the amount of text
students read, allows all students to practise reading fluency together, and
supports lower‐performing students with decoding difficulties (Archer et al,
2003). Other advantages include providing students with a fluent model to
emulate, introducing new words, and giving readers a sense of the story
before they read it individually (Allington, 2006). Heckelman established
that choral reading with a teacher has proven to be an effective strategy for
increasing fluency (1969, cited in Archer et al., 2003). It is a suitable method
for older students who lack reading fluency.
The neurological impress method is a read‐along strategy similar to
choral reading, except it involves the teacher and only one student. With this
method, the teacher and student read together at a natural reading rate with
the teacher reading slightly louder than the student when necessary (Lerner,
2003; Westwood, 2003). The teacher and student share a book and one or the
other may use an index finger to follow along as they read (Lerner, 2003;
Westwood, 2003). This strategy is best suited for students with some word‐
36
recognition skills, but who lack fluency and expression (Westwood, 2003).
Each session should be brief, lasting from five to ten minutes, but should
occur regularly for many months (Westwood, 2003). The student may be
required to reread a sentence or paragraph many times before being able to
read it accurately and fluently (Westwood, 2003).
Readers’ theatre, reading poetry, and singing songs are other
enjoyable ways for students to improve reading fluency and are appropriate
to use with students at all ages and ability levels. They require repeated
practise with the intention of performing for an audience. These strategies
are typically used in general education classrooms rather than in pull‐out,
small group settings.
Repeated Reading
Repeated reading of text is an effective method for developing
fluency for students with reading disabilities (Allington, 2006; Chard et al.,
2002; Mercer et al., 2000; NRP, 2000; Saenz & Fuchs, 2002; Shaywitz, 2003;
Westwood, 2003). Fink articulated, “Repeated reading is based on the notion
that practice makes perfect” (2006, p. 27). Allington reviewed many studies
assessing the effectiveness of repeated reading and confirmed:
The evidence available provides reliable and replicated scientific evidence of the positive impact of repeated readings on a variety of reading tasks and outcome measures. These studies also indicate that engaging children in repeated readings of text is particularly effective in fostering more fluent reading in children struggling to develop proficient reading strategies (2001, p. 73, cited in Westwood, 2003, p. 146).
37
Repeated reading increases fluency, accuracy, expression, and
comprehension, and builds confidence in struggling readers (Allington,
2006; Chard et al., 2002; Pikulski & Chard, 2005; Saenz & Fuchs, 2002;
Westwood, 2003). Shaywitz (2003) found that poor readers benefit even
more from repeated reading practise than average readers. Repeated reading
is a useful strategy to use with slow, halting readers who accurately identify
most words but have not yet developed fluency (Lerner, 2003), a description
which characterises many students with reading disabilities (Shaywitz,
2003).
Repeated reading of text can be accomplished in many different ways,
but some general guidelines apply. Chard and colleagues (2002) found that
the benefits increased the more times text was reread. Older students should
practise reading aloud short passages that are no more than 200 words, but
long enough that they cannot be easily memorised (Shaywitz, 2003). The text
should be at a difficulty level which allows students to identify most words
accurately rather than with texts students read slowly and with little fluency
(Allington, 2006; Lerner, 2003). Finally, entire passages or single words can
be used for fluency training (Shaywitz, 2003).
Repeated reading can be done with or without a model, but research
has indicated that providing a model is more beneficial. Smith (1979)
presented evidence that when the teacher modeled the initial pages of a
38
story with students following along in their own texts, the students read the
remainder of the story with increased accuracy and fewer misread words.
Perhaps this is because unfamiliar words such as character and location
names were pronounced for students or because modeled reading gave
students a good sense of the story line early on. Rose and Beattie (1986) also
found that repeated reading with a model appears to be more effective than
rereading without a model, especially for students lacking in fluency.
Repeated reading of a passage can be done in two ways: a
predetermined number of times or to meet a set standard of fluency. In the
first scenario, the student should read a passage orally at least three to four
times, but not necessarily in the same session (Lerner, 2003; Saenz & Fuchs,
2002; Shaywitz, 2003). Oral reading rates are then measured and graphed so
students see results (Saenz & Fuchs, 2002; Shaywitz, 2003). In the second
instance, the student rereads a passage until reaching a predetermined rate
of fluency, preferably a standard chosen based on the student’s reading level
rather than his grade level (Allington, 2006; Kuhn & Stahl, 2003; Saenz &
Fuchs, 2002; Therrien, 2003). Kuhn and Stahl (2003) and Therrien (2003)
found that requiring students to reread a passage to meet a predetermined
standard was more effective than having students read a passage a certain
number of times. Repeated reading is an effective way to enhance reading
fluency, though some techniques are more effective than others.
39
Variations of Repeated Reading
Reading with a peer tutor, partner reading, and using technology are
additional strategies to engage students in repeated reading activities,
though these are strategies typically used in general education classrooms,
not in pull‐out settings. Mixed results have been found, but cross‐age
tutoring with an older tutor and younger tutee is generally more effective
than two students in the same grade engaging in cooperative partner
reading (Chard et al., 2002); Chard and colleagues found, “Repeated reading
with a partner as a means to improving fluency had yielded somewhat
equivocal results, although there are few studies documenting its
effectiveness alone” (2002, p. 396). Peer tutoring is worth mentioning
because older students with reading disabilities make great tutors for
younger students. It gives older students the opportunity to practise reading
easy texts without losing face over reading baby books since it is sometimes
difficult to find suitable reading materials for these older students
(Allington, 2006; Shaywitz, 2003); as an added benefit, tutors may gain a
sense of satisfaction from helping someone else read. Using technology to
help students with reading disabilities simply entails using a computer or
audiotape as a model of fluent reading in place of the teacher (Chard et al.,
2002). This method is more effective than having no model, but less effective
than a teacher modelling in person (Rose & Beattie, 1986). It is important for
40
students to read passages repeatedly to improve fluency rates and this can
be done in a variety of ways.
Comprehension: A Critical Component of Reading
Comprehension is an essential aspect of reading. Lerner articulated,
“The purpose of reading is comprehension – that is, to have the ability to
gather meaning from the printed page” (2003, p. 415). Comprehension
requires the reader to have intentional and thoughtful interaction with the
text (Fielding & Pearson, 1994; NRP, 2000). The National Reading Panel
found that “comprehension is critically important to the development of
children’s reading skills and therefore the ability to obtain an education.
Indeed, reading comprehension [is] … essential not only to academic
learning in all subject areas but to lifelong learning as well” (2000, p. 8).
Without comprehension, reading is a meaningless activity.
Readers must have many variables working together to comprehend
printed text. It was once thought that comprehension was the natural result
of effective decoding combined with oral language ability, but it is now
recognised as a complex process involving inferential and evaluative
thinking rather than merely a reproduction of the author’s words (Fielding
& Pearson, 1994). Ransby and Swanson (2003) identified several key
processes necessary for successful reading comprehension: word
recognition, listening comprehension, lexical information, working memory,
vocabulary knowledge, and general knowledge. The authors assert that none
41
of these processes is more important than the others in predicting reading
comprehension (Ransby & Swanson, 2003). This suggests that the best
approach to improving reading comprehension is to utilize a broad range of
textual practises in a balanced literacy approach.
For many students with reading disabilities, comprehending printed
material is difficult. Lerner states, “Most students with learning disabilities
eventually learn the basics of word recognition, but many continue to have
great difficulty with tasks that require comprehension of complex passages”
(2003, p. 415). A potential source of difficulty for a student with a reading
disability is the reader’s limited knowledge of text content and the inability
to relate to the material (Lerner, 2003; Westwood, 2003). Comprehension is
heavily dependent upon the reader’s knowledge about the world, and his
understanding of language and print (Fielding & Pearson, 1994). Students
with reading disabilities often lack experience with text and require more
background knowledge to improve reading comprehension.
Individuals with reading disabilities tend to lack confidence when
reading. They read reluctantly, hesitate to ask questions, and focus only on
what they think the teacher wants them to remember (Lerner, 2003;
Shaywitz, 2003). Furthermore, these students do not know how to interact
effectively with printed material or combine new information with what
they already know, both of which negatively impact comprehension (Lerner,
2003; Portnuff Venable, 2003; Pullen et al., 2005). Students with RD do not
42
effectively monitor their own comprehension. Unlike skilled readers, many
students with reading disabilities do not go back and reread a passage if
they are unsure of the meaning; instead, they continue reading and lose even
more meaning (Allington, 2006; Lerner, 2003). To make matters worse,
students with reading disabilities are often unaware that there is even a
problem with their comprehension (Lerner, 2003). Reading comprehension is
dependent upon readers’ prior experience with text and the ability to relate
to the material, both of which may be lacking for students with reading
disabilities.
Many students do not receive adequate instruction in reading
comprehension strategies. In numerous schools, activities used by educators
intending to improve comprehension do not teach comprehension but
instead assess comprehension; these include written end‐of‐chapter
questions, worksheets, crossword puzzles, hidden word searches, and
vocabulary definition tasks (Allington, 2006). All of these activities
emphasise copying, remembering, and reciting the author’s words rather
than having students make important connections to prior knowledge
(Allington, 2006). The situation may not be much better for some special
education students; Howell and Nolet contend:
…a peculiar model of “individualized” instruction has evolved in many remedial/special classrooms … students collect a folder, shoe box, ice cream bucket, or notebook that is filled with worksheets. They then work on these sheets independently while the teacher circulates through the room giving feedback
43
and/or reinforcement for the completion of the sheets. There is almost no explanation of the purpose of the worksheets, and the emphasis is on task completion – not learning (2000, p. 278).
Students with reading disabilities spend even less time on comprehension
tasks than do average students (Allington, 2006). Allington (2006) believes
that very little comprehension instruction occurs after grades four and five,
and that the instruction that does occur does not actively engage students
about what they read.
Comprehension instruction should encourage students to make
connections between text and their knowledge of the world. The National
Reading Panel asserts, “The data suggest that text comprehension is
enhanced when readers actively relate the ideas represented in print to their
own knowledge and experiences and construct mental representations in
memory” (2000, p. 10). Shaywitz (2003) notes that rote memory does not
work well for individuals with reading disabilities so they must fully
understand a topic to achieve comprehension; this is facilitated by focusing
on the main concepts of text and by providing real‐life examples and
experiences. It is clear that comprehension instruction should include
opportunities to engage students in meaningful discussion about text.
Since comprehension is the ultimate goal of reading, it should be a
major focus of reading intervention programs for students with RD.
Research has proven that effective teaching of specific text‐processing
strategies results in improved reading comprehension performance for
44
students (Allington, 2006; NRP, 2000; Westwood, 2003). Mercer and
colleagues (1996) contend that explicit instruction is especially important to
promote efficient reading growth for students who experience initial failure
in reading or who lack sufficient background knowledge and skill. The
National Reading Panel reported, “When students use [comprehension
strategies] appropriately, they assist in recall, question answering, question
generation, and summarization of texts…these techniques can improve
results in standardized comprehension tests” (2000, p. 11). Students with
reading disabilities also need to engage in more frequent and longer
discussions about printed text (Allington, 2006); Allington stated,
“Curriculum focused on promoting more thoughtful lessons produced not
only better comprehension achievement but also equal or better skills
achievement than the curriculum that emphasized mastery of isolated skills“
(2006, p. 118). Essentially, explicit instruction in the application of
comprehensions strategies combined with literacy discussions to improve
inferential and evaluative thinking provide a balanced approach to
improving comprehension.
Strategies for Teaching Comprehension
General Principles of Comprehension Instruction
Reading comprehension is a complex process that should be taught
before, during, and after reading (Allington, 2006; Fink, 2006; Lerner, 2003).
It was stated previously that students should participate in pre‐reading
45
strategies to improve fluency rates; this also holds true for improving
comprehension. Students must be taught to use what they already know to
understand what they read (Reithaug, 1998). Effective reading requires
students to activate prior knowledge, generate questions, make predictions,
verify or disprove these predictions, and make connections (Allington, 2006).
The reader must infer connections between textual elements and have the
prior knowledge to make inferences about the unexplained aspects of text
(Freebody, 1992). Direct, structured teaching of a combination of
comprehension strategies is most effective for all readers, and especially
important for individuals with reading disabilities (Allington, 2006; Fielding
& Pearson, 1994; Lerner, 2003; NRP, 2000); the end goal is for students to
learn, practise, and then use the strategies independently (Fink, 2006).
Some general guidelines apply to teaching comprehension strategies.
As with fluency training, reading material used for comprehension
instruction should be interesting to the students and ideally, students should
have some choice of text selection (Fielding & Pearson, 1994; Fink, 2006).
Additionally, passages should be at an instructional reading level, meaning
students can read most words and understand most ideas independently,
but need some help (Fink, 2006; Fielding & Pearson, 1994). Throughout the
reading process, the teacher should point out difficult words and ideas to
students to improve understanding (Lerner, 2003). A balanced approach to
comprehension instruction is essential; students need to spend ample time
46
actually reading text so they can apply the skills being taught (Fielding &
Pearson, 1994).
Comprehension strategies should be taught using three steps:
modelling, guided practise, and independent practise. In the first step, the
teacher models or demonstrates how to apply each strategy successfully
using a variety of different reading materials which promotes generalisation
of skills (Allington, 2006; Fielding & Pearson, 1994; Fink, 2006; NRP, 2000;
Westwood, 2003); modelling should teach students what the strategy is, how
it is carried out, when it should be used, and why it should be used (Fielding
& Pearson, 1994; Westwood, 2003). Essentially, the teacher thinks aloud to
demonstrate the learning strategies that effective readers use (Allington,
2006). Next, the teacher and students practise the strategy together with
students receiving much feedback and guidance (Fielding & Pearson, 1994;
NRP, 2000; Westwood, 2003). Gradually, the responsibility of performing the
strategy is transferred from the teacher to the students (Fielding & Pearson,
1994; Fink, 2006; NRP, 2000). Finally, students practise the strategy
independently (Fielding & Pearson, 1994; NRP, 2000; Westwood, 2003);
students must be reminded to use the strategy and be given time to practise
it while reading everyday texts, rather than using only specifically created
materials or worksheet passages (Fielding & Pearson, 1994). Modelling
successful strategies is an effective way to improve reading comprehension
skills of students (NRP, 2000; Westwood, 2003).
47
Teachers should encourage cooperative learning and promote
student‐centred dialogue about shared reading material to increase
comprehension (Fielding & Pearson, 1994; NRP, 2000; Westwood, 2003).
Cooperative learning takes place when students learn reading strategies
together and is an effective means of teaching comprehension strategies
(NRP, 2000); the goal is for each group member to learn the strategy
successfully so students are expected and are taught to explain things to one
another rather than simply providing answers (Fielding & Pearson, 1994).
Dialogue between the teacher and students is important because it
encourages students to share their thoughts about the process of learning to
read and allows students to learn successful strategies used by others
(Fielding & Pearson, 1994); student dialogue also enables the teacher to
evaluate students’ existing comprehension strategies (Westwood, 2003). In
addition, engaging in conversations about text helps students make text‐to‐
self, text‐to‐text, and text‐to‐world connections which is an important
element of reading (Allington, 2006). It is effective to use a collaborative
approach to teaching comprehension strategies.
Pre‐Reading Comprehension Strategies
Comprehension instruction should begin prior to reading passages.
Pre‐reading questions and discussions are designed to prepare students for
reading new text by motivating students, creating interest in the reading
selection, activating and building background knowledge, and relating prior
48
knowledge to the text (Allington, 2006; Fink, 2006; Howell & Nolet, 2000;
Lerner, 2003; Shaywitz, 2003; Westwood, 2003). Pre‐reading activities may
include looking at the title, sub‐headings, illustrations, and key vocabulary
terms and then making predictions based on this information (Lerner, 2003;
Westwood, 2003). It is effective to have students create their own questions
before reading which provides a purpose for reading (Howell & Nolet,
2000); also, if students are required to answer comprehension questions after
reading the selection, it is helpful to give students the questions prior to
reading so students know where to focus their attention (Howell & Nolet,
2000; Westwood, 2003).
Teaching vocabulary is a crucial component of comprehension
instruction. Introducing any vocabulary terms likely to be unfamiliar before
reading will help with the decoding process and will increase
comprehension (Fink, 2006; Howell & Nolet, 2000; Lerner, 2003; NRP, 2000).
Vocabulary knowledge is vital to reading comprehension because the larger
the reader’s vocabulary, the easier it is to understand text (NRP, 2000;
Shaywitz, 2003). The National Reading Panel (2000) recommends that
vocabulary be taught directly and indirectly using a variety of methods, and
to use repetition and multiple exposures to new vocabulary terms.
The K‐W‐L technique is a useful pre‐reading strategy for all students
reading expository texts and is recommended by Lerner (2003) for use with
49
students who have reading disabilities. Students create three equal columns
on a piece of paper and fill in the columns accordingly:
K – What I Know: Students state all knowledge they have on a particular subject. W – What I Want To Find Out: Students write what they want or expect to find out from the passage. L – What I Learned: After reading the passage, students write what they have learned from the reading.
For students with writing difficulties, this activity could be done orally.
K‐W‐L is an advance organiser which helps students with reading
disabilities relate new material to prior knowledge by activating students’
background knowledge, promoting self‐questioning, and giving students a
purpose for reading (Lerner, 2003).
During Reading Comprehension Strategies
Students with reading disabilities must be taught to interact with text
material to become active readers (Howell & Nolet, 2000; Lerner, 2003).
Active reading includes the following skills:
• Monitor meaning – for lost meaning, do something to correct it; • Pay selective attention to text – make use of prior knowledge to
sort and store new information from text; • Adjust for task difficulty – for difficult text slow reading rate,
reread confusing passages, highlight, make notes, or refer to reference materials;
• Connect text to prior knowledge – combine existing knowledge with the key messages in the text;
• Clarify – attempt to clarify lack of understanding (Allington, 2006; Howell & Nolet, 2000; Lerner, 2003; Westwood, 2003).
Generally, students with reading disabilities are passive readers and must be
taught to use strategies that effective readers use (Allington, 2006); effective
50
readers approach passages with a purpose, often asking questions and then
attempting to answer them (Howell & Nolet, 2000). Readers must actively
combine their existing knowledge with the new information in the printed
text to be effective (Lerner, 2003).
Self‐monitoring is a crucial skill to becoming a successful reader
because it makes students aware of their understanding of the material.
Readers must track their understanding of text by continually asking, “Do I
understand what I am reading?” If students do not understand, they should
apply problem‐solving strategies to correct it such as those listed above
(Howell & Nolet, 2000; Lerner, 2003). The teacher can apply the table tapping
technique, or tapping the table after a meaning violation error, to develop
self‐monitoring skills in students (Howell & Nolet, 2000). Table tapping can
be done immediately, at the end of the sentence, or at the end of the
paragraph, though it is important to give the student the opportunity to self‐
correct before tapping. It is effective to gradually fade this monitoring
assistance because it compels the student to increase his own monitoring
(Howell & Nolet, 2000). Self‐monitoring is essential to reading
comprehension.
Students with reading difficulties should be taught to generate
questions about various aspects of the text when reading, a skill that builds
on self‐monitoring (Allington, 2006; Howell & Nolet, 2000; NRP, 2000).
Successful readers continually ask questions as they read as a means of
51
making meaning from text (Allington, 2006; Howell & Nolet, 2000). Bergman
(1992, cited in Allington, 2006) identifies key questions that striving readers
should ask themselves as they interact with text:
To Get the Gist of what I’m Reading: What is the story about? What is the problem? What is the solution? What do I need to know more about? To Predict‐Verify‐Decide: What is going to happen next? Is my prediction still a good one? Do I need to change my prediction? What makes me think so? To Visualise‐Verify‐Decide: What does this (person, place, thing) look like? Is the picture in my head still good? Do I need to change the picture? What makes me think so? To Summarise: What has happened so far? Who did what? To Think Aloud: What am I thinking right now? Why? To Solve Problems when I Don’t Understand: Shall I stop and review? Reread and look back? Ignore and read on? Why?
These questions could be posted on a chart in the learning assistance room
and classroom so both teachers can refer to it often. Students with reading
disabilities must be taught how to ask themselves questions as they read to
identify specific areas of text that require elaboration or clarification (Howell
52
& Nolet, 2000). Generating questions is a skill that effective readers use
naturally but must be taught explicitly to students with reading disabilities.
To promote active reading, there are several learning strategies
students can be taught, two of which will be discussed. Lerner (2003)
outlines the RAP strategy which teaches students to put passages into their
own words, focusing on one paragraph at a time:
Read paragraph Ask yourself what the main idea is and identify two supporting details Put text into your own words
Westwood (2003) explains another learning strategy, the PQRS strategy:
Preview – Scan the paragraph or chapter and notice headings, subheadings, diagrams, and illustrations. Ask yourself, “What do I already know about this subject?” Question – Generate some questions in your mind: What do I expect to learn from this passage? Will I need to read the text very carefully or can I skip this part? Read – Read the passage carefully for information. Reread it if necessary. Do I understand what I am reading? What does this word mean? Are my questions answered? What else did I learn? Summarise – Identify the main ideas and state briefly in your own words the central points in the text.
This author has used the RAP strategy with intermediate students with
reading disabilities and has found it to be very helpful in creating more
active readers. After much practise and gradual fading of support, students
successfully applied this strategy to content area textbooks.
After Reading Comprehension Strategies
Comprehension instruction should continue to take place after
students have read a passage. An important skill students must learn is to
53
summarise key ideas (Allington, 2006; Lerner, 2003; NRP, 2000).
Summarising requires students to select main ideas from the passage and
ignore the less important details (Allington, 2006; Lerner, 2003; NRP, 2000).
Teachers should model this skill throughout the reading process, eventually
fading support until students can summarise independently.
Graphic and semantic organisers help students organise main ideas
and relate new information to existing knowledge (Howell & Nolet, 2000;
Lerner, 2003; NRP, 2000). Word webs build vocabulary, make information
easier to understand and learn, and deepen students’ understanding of
important concepts in the passage (Lerner, 2003). Story maps arrange a story
visually and highlight specific relationships of selected story elements
(Howell & Nolet, 2000); a map of a narrative story might include key
elements such as setting, beginning, reaction, attempt, outcome, and ending.
Research demonstrates that graphic and semantic organisers help students
with reading disabilities improve their comprehension by making deeper
connections between prior knowledge and the reading material (Lerner,
2003).
Story structure lessons can be used to teach students to summarise
main ideas (Allington, 2006; NRP, 2000); students learn to use the structure
of the story to help develop accurate summaries of text (Allington, 2006). For
narrative text, students focus on the setting, main characters, problem,
attempts at problem resolution, and resolution (Allington, 2006; Lerner,
54
2003). For expository text, students use titles, sub‐headings, and illustrations
to identify key information and summarise the passage (Howell & Nolet,
2000). Although story structure elements would be taught prior to reading
the text selection, summarising occurs as an after‐reading activity.
A frequent method of teaching comprehension is to ask students
questions after reading selected text. It is important that students receive
immediate feedback for their responses; otherwise, asking questions assesses
rather than teaches comprehension (NRP, 2000). Questions should include
literal comprehension as well as higher level critical and inferential
comprehension (Gibb & Wilder, 2002; Westwood, 2003). For students with
reading disabilities in a small‐group setting, this activity is best done as an
informal, discussion period because it encourages students to have a
meaningful dialogue and forges deeper connections to existing knowledge
(Allington, 2006; Westwood, 2003).
Most Effective Methods for Students with Reading Disabilities
There are many strategies used by educators to improve students’
fluency and reading comprehension. The strategies discussed above include
only those which have been proven effective by numerous methodological
research studies. They represent good teaching practises for all students,
though direct teaching of these methods is especially important for students
with reading disabilities. To reiterate, repeated oral reading is the best
documented approach to improving fluency for all students at a range of
55
grade levels, regardless of whether they are proficient readers or
experiencing difficulties (Chard et al., 2002; NRP, 2000; Rashotte &
Torgensen, 1985). Shaywitz (2003) asserted that guided repeated oral reading
is the best activity for students with reading disabilities because it shows the
most improvement for the amount of time spent on it; furthermore, studies
show that poor readers gain even more from repeated reading practise than
do their more able reading peers (Allington, 2006; Chard et al., 2002;
Shaywitz, 2003).
There are less definitive answers regarding the most effective
comprehension strategies for students with reading disabilities. Research has
shown that students with reading disabilities need explicit, highly structured
instruction to learn reading comprehension skills rather than incidental,
literature‐based teaching (Lerner, 2003; Westwood, 2003). However, it is
unclear as to which specific strategies are most effective for this group of
learners. Researchers have established that students with reading disabilities
often have difficulties quickly retrieving words when speaking on a
particular topic; therefore, it is especially important for these students to
engage in pre‐reading strategies such as previewing important vocabulary
terms and using subject‐specific vocabulary in discussion before reading
(Shaywitz, 2003). This helps lubricate students’ retrieval processes which
enables students to more readily access what they want to say about a
56
particular subject. More research is needed to identify the most effective
comprehension strategies for intermediate students with reading disabilities.
Employing Research‐Based Strategy Instruction in British Columbia
In British Columbia, Canada, learning assistance services are outlined
by the BC Ministry of Education. Instructional services provided by learning
assistance teachers include “teaching students to develop learning strategies
for use in classroom settings or for independent learning; skill development
or remediation; and development of compensatory skills to minimise the
effect of a disabling condition on learning” (BC Ministry of Education, 2006).
Direct instruction provided by learning assistance teachers may take place in
the classroom, the learning assistance centre, or a combination of both. The
general guidelines set out by the Ministry of Education are applied in
various ways depending on the needs of the school and the way in which
different learning assistance teachers interpret their role.
A great deal of decision making is left to learning assistance teachers,
including the choice of reading programs used to teach students with special
needs. In British Columbia, there are no recommended reading programs;
instead, teachers rely on their own professional judgement to select
appropriate reading programs for their students. Research shows that
different programs vary in effectiveness, as does the quality of teaching
(Allington, 2006; NRP, 2000; Shaywitz, 2003). This author chose to conduct
research in the area of effective reading strategies in order to seek out
57
reading programs that utilise solid, research‐based teaching methods. It is
essential that teachers continue to educate themselves about the most
effective reading strategies to provide high‐quality instruction to their
students.
58
CHAPTER FOUR
Summary
Reading disabilities impact a large number of students, making
learning to read very difficult. As researchers continue to learn more about
the nature of reading disabilities, there is a growing expectation that these
individuals can become proficient readers. The goals of this study were to
determine the likely causes of reading disabilities, to identify the elements of
reading that posed the greatest difficulty to individuals with reading
disabilities, and to outline effective strategies for improving fluency and
comprehension in intermediate students with RD. The fluency and
comprehension strategies identified are intended to be only part of a reading
program which should include a balanced literacy approach to teaching
reading.
Most researchers agree that reading disabilities are caused by a deficit
in phonological processing. This phonologic deficit interferes with students’
ability to develop phonemic awareness, a requisite skill to becoming a
reader. Although this deficit is at the lowest level of the language system, it
often interferes with accessing intact higher‐level cognitive abilities.
Students with reading disabilities face many challenges when
learning to read. The most significant issues include difficulties decoding
new words, poor fluency, and weak comprehension. Reading tends to be
59
slow and painstaking for students with reading disabilities with much
concentration being devoted to the process of word identification, leaving
little energy to focus on comprehension. Reading can be a challenging task
for these individuals.
Several effective strategies were identified for improving reading
fluency. Decoding is the foundational process of reading, and its instruction
should include phonics, sight words, context clues, and a flexible strategy to
analyse the structure of multi‐syllabic words. Guided repeated oral reading
with corrective feedback has been identified as the most effective approach
for improving fluency and overall reading achievement for students with
reading disabilities. Guided oral reading improves fluency rates by
increasing speed and accuracy, the two key elements of fluency. Repeated
oral reading is a proven strategy for improving fluency rates for all students,
regardless of grade or proficiency level; the benefits of repeated reading
increase the more times text is read and when the passage is first modelled
by a skilled reader. Other effective fluency strategies include choral or echo
reading, the neurological impress method, and reading with a peer tutor.
Fluency instruction is essential for students with reading disabilities and
should be included in all reading programs.
In order to improve comprehension, students with reading disabilities
need to be taught strategies to become more active readers. Comprehension
instruction occurs before, during, and after reading. Prior to reading,
60
students should make predictions based on the title, sub‐headings,
illustrations, and key terms. Forming questions about the passage is another
useful activity as it gives students a purpose for reading. Pre‐teaching
difficult vocabulary and using relevant terms in discussion before reading a
passage is essential. During the reading process, students can increase self‐
monitoring by continually asking, “Do I understand what I am reading?”
Students should be taught to ask specific kinds of questions throughout the
reading process to make connections and elicit deeper meaning from text. It
is advantageous to have students identify the main idea of each paragraph
as they read. After reading a selection, summarising the most important
points is beneficial. Graphic and semantic organisers can be used toward this
end; they emphasise certain relationships in the text and help students relate
new ideas to prior knowledge. Finally, comprehension questions may be
asked after reading a passage and should include factual, critical, and
inferential comprehension; immediate feedback on responses should be
provided to the students. Teaching comprehension strategies is an involved
process that begins before and ends after reading a passage.
After reviewing the literature on reading disabilities, several areas
require further investigation. First, researchers have identified that, at the
very least, there is a reciprocal relationship between fluency and
comprehension; however, more research is necessary to determine if there is
also a causal relationship. Second, there are still some questions regarding
61
the best reading comprehension strategies for particular groups of learners
(e.g. specific age groups, reading levels, students with reading disabilities).
For this project, the author outlined the most proven strategies overall, but
there is not enough research in this area to identify exactly which strategies
are best suited for students aged nine to twelve with reading disabilities.
Finally, there was surprisingly little research found that focuses specifically
on decoding strategies for older students with reading difficulties. Archer
and colleagues (2003) noted that there seems to be a lack of focus in the
research field on the needs of older struggling readers. This is surprising
given the fact that word recognition is the foundational process of reading
and is necessary for comprehension. Though much progress has been made
in the area of reading disabilities and effective strategy instruction,
researchers continue to work towards finding answers to the infinite
questions that arise.
Researchers have come a long way in identifying precisely which part
of the brain is connected to reading disabilities. This information has led to
the identification of better teaching practises so that all students can learn to
read successfully. It is essential that educators implement proven methods in
their classrooms so that the needs of all students are met, particularly those
with reading disabilities.
62
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