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JOHND;4;':EY Pi lhGLATISX: TiiILOSOPXY

S EDUCATION

ALL PHILOSOL-'HY I S EIIILOSOYHY O F %DUCATIOIJ

Bache lo r of A r t s , Simon Braser U n i v e r s i t y

a t Burnaby r i t i s h Columbia 1967

for the

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Frederi ck J Bro wn Yh BSenior Supervisor

E

Thomas J Biallinson T1h D-- Sxamining Commi tee

I

li Patricia Hindley M SI I Y . r ~ x a m i n i n ~ ommit ee

/ /

I

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PARTTAL COPYRIGIIT L I C E N S E

h e re b y g r a n t t o Simon F r a s e r U n i v e r s i t y t h e r i g h t t o l en d

my t h e s i s o r d i s s e r t a t i o n t h e t i t l e o f w hich i s shown b el o w ) t o u s e r s

o f t h e S imon F r a s e r U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y , a nd t o make p a r t i a l o r s i n g l e

c o p i e s o n l y f o r s uc h u s e r s o r i n r e sp o ns e t o a r e q u e s t fro m t h e l i b r a r y

o f an y o t h e r u n i v e r s i t y , o r o t h e r e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n , on i t s own

b e h a l f o r f o r o ne of i t s u s e r s . f u r t h e r a g r ee t h a t p er m is s i on f o r

m u l t i p l e c o p y i n g of t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y pu rp os es may b e g r a n t e d

b y me o r t h e Dean o f G r a d u a te S t t l d i e s . t i s u n d e rs t o o d t h a t c o p y in g

o r p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l n o t b e a l l ow ed

w i t h o u t my w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n .

T i t l e of T h e s i s / ~ i s s e r t a t i o n

A u t h o r

s i g n a t u r e

name

d a t e )

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t has o f t e n been obse rved t h a t t h e d e m ol i ti o n of f a l l a -

c i e s i s t h e n ec e ss ar y s t a r t i n g p o i n t of c o n s t ru c t i v e e f f o r t .

iiowhere i s t h e t r u t h of t n i s o b s e r v a t io n more e v i d e n t t h a n i n

comprehensive exa min ati on of Deweyan pragmatism. Indeed , t o

y knowledge, no ph i losophy has su ff e r ed such app are n t mis read-

i n g and c o n f l i c t i n g a n a l ya i a as hias pragmatism. h i s t h e s i s

found i t s g e n e s i s i n t h e n eed t o r e s t a t e a nd d ef en d t h e axiomsof Seweyan t ho u g ht , t o d e m ol i s h t h e f a l l a c i e s t h a t have turned

pragmatism from the hope for a n a t u r a l t e l e o l o g y, b a s e d o n a n

u n d e rs t a n d in g a nd a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e methods of s c i e n c e , i n t o

a phi loso ph ic cu r i os i t y. Gddly, p ragmati sm i s u s u a l l y s e e n a s

a p h i l o s o p h y c o n j o i n t w i t h t i m e r i c a n c a p i t a l i s m o r a s a r e j e c t -

i o n of C h r i s t i a n t ho u gh t . i t i s a g r e a t mi s fo r tu n e t h a t t h e

ep i s t emolog ica l and pedagogical contributions of Dewey have

b ee n a l lo w ed t o s l i d e i n t o c o n f u s i on , m i du n de r s ta n di n g a nd

o b l i v i o n . u em ey s p h i l os o ph y o f f e r s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of a me-

thod o f educa t ing that could change the d i rec t ion of pedagogy

from t h e w or r ie d i: ri nl ;i ng of h a nd s t o a d i r e c t i o n b o t h i n t e l -

l i g e n t a n d s o c i a l . 1 ~ ea ningful .

Pragilat ism must be see n as a comprehens ive and f u l l y de -

veloped phi losophy and a s a s imple ed uc at io na l methodology.

The f i r s t s e c t i o n o f t h i s t h e s i s , t h e r e f o r e , w i l l be aimed a t

ou t l in in g i n some dep th the major ax ioms of p ragmat ic ep i s to -

mology, ontology and ax io log y. s h a l l d e a l w i t h t h e c o n c e p t

of f reedom, s o c i a l and inc i iv iau al ; t lie p e r t i n e n t ide as on know-

l e d g e , t r u t h a nd v a l u e , a nd t he o n t o l o g i c a l a ss um pt io ns t h a t

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umb rella the Deweyan morld-view. S p e c i a l emphasis w l l be

p l ac e d on th e n o t i o n of r e a l i t y s o a s t o e x p l ic a t e th e s o c i a l

character of man 's world ,he s e c o n d s e c t i o n w l l se rve a s a means t o make c le a r e r

t h e f a l l a c i e s o common c r i t i c i s m lev e le d a ga in s t p ragmat ism.

I n s h o r t , t o p u l l t o g e t h e r t h e l o o s e en ds r em a in in g fro m t h e

prev ious d i s cus s ion . Three ques t io ns w i l l be more ful ly ex-

amined: th e i s s u e of freedom a s a c o n s t a n t l y e v o l v i n g a n d

changing s t a t e t he r e j e c t i o n of t r a d i t i o n a l e t e r n a l t r u t h ,

and the use of inq u i ry a s a method o f s o l u t i o n i n q u e s t i o n s

of value.

The t h i r d s e c t i o n w i l l t a k e u p t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e r e j e c t -

ion o r misunders tand ing o Dewey's th eo r i es i n educa t ion .

S in ce s u c h r e j e c t i o n h s een t o some e x t e n t a& hominem,

s h a l l be o b l i g e d t o e x o n e r a t e k r o f e s s o r Uewey fro m h i s r o l e a s

a n e d u c a t i o n a l o gre . O v e r a l l , t h e s o c i a l r o l e of e d uc a t i o n

w i l l b e s t r e s s e d , h o p e f u l l y t o shoiv t h a t contemporary ed uc ato rs

a re confused abou t a ims ra the r than methods. Xy co nc lu di ng

remarks w i l l revo lve a round the i s sue o f educa t ion o r d r a s t i c

s o c ia l change, and the pragmat ic hope f o r th e former,

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IU .AI L a r IN G COmIljltPi

S T i U C T S

On the Xature of 2reedom 9

&owledge, dynamism, choic e and a c t i o nLaw and custom: the co ns t i tu t i on o f things' 'Ontology and th e Uew osmology

On In qu ir y , Tr ut h and Knowledge 2 6

The knowing-doing dualityThe c o n tr o ll ed pro ce ss of knowingTru th and knowledge defined

o t e s t o p a r t t w o . . 3 4

On Value and the Cri t ic ism o f 2 e l i e f s 36

The reason-be l ie f dua l i ty

The genesis of valueThe iden t i ty o f good

U o t e s t o p a r t t h r e e . e 4 1

The c a p a c i t y t o ac h ie v e s a t i s f a c t i o nIns t rumen ta l un i v e r s a l s

The gnawing tooth of time

otes t o S e c t i on Two 48

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The charges against Uew ey ls pedagogya e w e y t s hopes for educationThe reasons for rejection of pragmatic pedagogy

duca ion and social change

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When th e i d e n t i t y o f the moral p roce ss with t h e p r o c e s s e sof s p e c i f i c g ro wt h i s r e a l i z e d , t h e m or e. .. ed uc at io n of c h i l d -hood w i l l be seen t o be the mos t economical and e f f i c i e n t meansof s o c i a l a dv an ce a n d r e o rg a n i z a t i o n , a nd i t w l l a l s o be e v i -d e n t t h a t t he t e s t of a l l t he i n s t i t u t i o n s of a d u l t l i f e i st h e i r e f f e c t i n f u r t h e r i n g c o nt i nu e d e d u c a ti o n . Government,b u s i n e s s , a r t , r e l i g i o n , l l s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s have a meaning,a purpose. T h a t purpose i s t o s e t f r e e a nd t o d ev el op t h e c a-p a c i t i e s of himan i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h o ut r e s p e c t t o r a c e , s e x ,c l a s s o r economic s t a t u s . And t h i s i s a l l one w i t h s a y i n g t h a tt h e t e s t of t h e i r v d u e i s t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e y e d u c a t ee ve ry i n d i v i d u a l t o t he f u l l s t a t u r e of h i s poss ibi l i ty. Demo-

c r a c y has many meanings, but i f i t h s a moral meaning, i t i sfound i n r e s o l v i n g t h a t t h e supreme t e s t o f a l l p o l i t i c a l i n -s t i t u t i o n s a nd i n d u s t r i a l a rr an ge me nt s s h a l l be t h e c o n t r i b u t i o nthey make t o th e a l l -a ro un d growth t o ever y member of so ci e t y.

John Dewey, i i e con s t r uc t ion i n Ph i losophy, 1920.

The p r i n c i p l e s of Demeyan pragmatism must be s ee n f i r s t

a nd f o r e m os t a s a n i n d i c t m e n t o f t r a d i t i o n a l e d u c a t i o n a l p r a c -

t i c e s . y r e j e c t i n g o r mi sa pp ly in g t h e e d u c a t i o n a l p hi l os o ph y

of pra gm atism , t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r a be t t e r, more mean ingfu l

a n d r i c h e r e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m h a v e a l l b u t d i s a p p e a r e d , a n d

l i t t l e r em ai ns s ave an outmoded and l a r g e l y i n c o ~ p e e n t i n s t i -

t u t i o n , a f a c t n ot ed by t h e r e c e n t H a l l Hoyal Commission on

Educa t ion fo r the I - rov ince of Onta r i o . L inked t o t h i s f a i l u r e

i s t h e o u t r i g h t r e j e c t i o n of t h e e d u c a t i o n a l s y s te m by many of

o ur most g i f t e d c h i l d r e n . The c u r r e n t r e b e l l i o n , from s i m pl e

d ro pp in g o u t t o t he a t t e m p t s t o t a ke o v er t h e s c h o o l s , i s n o t

so much a p ro cl a ma t io n of s e l f - e x p r e s s i o n and s e l f - d i r e c t i o n a s

i t i s beh avi or stemriiing f rom tne m is di re c t i on and o f t en non-

d i r e c t i o n , of p r e s e n t day e d u c a t or s .

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Educat ion, a s Dewey so o f t en observ ed, i s t h e l e a s t un de r-

s t oo d te rm i n a l l of human a f f a i r s . I n i t s f u l l e s t p os s ib l e

s e n s e e d u c a t i o n i s a t o t a l p r o c e s s , t h e d ev el op me nt of a l i f e -s t y l e b as e d o n a l l e x p e r ie n c e , w he th er t a u g h t i n a formal man-

ne r o r l e a r ne d wi th in the soc io -psycho-genic env i ronment ; on ly

i n t h e m ost l i m i t i n g may ca n e d u c a t i o n b e c o n f i n e d t o a c l a s s -

r o o m o r l e c t u r e h a l l . A s Radlmkamal Luke rje e c onte nds i n h i s

s tu dy The Dimenaons o f s uma n Evolu t ion :

E I a n i s b i o l o g i c a l h e r i t a g e i s over la in and obscured byh i s s o c i a l h e r i t a g e of v a l u e s and symbols i n h i s e v o l u t i o -na ry development. The value-and-symbol system n o t on lyd e t e r m in e s t he s t r u c t u r e and f u n c t i o n s o f s o c i e t y a nd d i -r e c t s i t s e v o l u t i o n , b u t i s i t s e l f s ub je c te d t o an e vo l ut i o-n a r y process...This...socio genic mechanism i s s t r u c t u r e da nd s y s te m a t i z e d i n t o , and i d e n t i f i e d n i t h t n e c om mu ni tv tsm oral- o r de r and v a l u e ~ h i e r a r c h y, which i s p a r t l y i n t e r i o r -i s e d and i nd e e d i n h e r i t e d a s t h e c o n sc i e nc e o f t h e i n d i v i d -7u a l , and p a r t l y l e a r n t , t a ug h t a nd t r a n s m i t t e d a s the ex-t e r n a l s o c i a l he r i t a ge e l

t i s n o t t o o f a r f e t c he d t o s u g g e st that many of our

c h i l d r e n a r e a c t i n g o u t t he d il em la t h a t i s i m p l i c i t i n Luker-

j e e t s s t a t e m e nt . There i s l i t t l e doubt t h a t t h e i n t e r i o r i s e d

i s o f t e n a t odds w i t h t h e l e a r n t ; f o r exam ple , t h e Judeo-

Chris t i a n i n h e r i t a n c e o f ou r s o c i e t y l o u d l y p r oc l a im s t h o u

s h a l t n o t k i l l b u t v r y evening on C B C News there i s a n

o bv io us and b r u t a l r e j e c t i o n of t h a t coma~ancIment. The r a p i d

g ro wt h o f f r e e - s c h o o l s , of u n i v e r s i t i e s di v or c e d from t r a d i t i o n -

a l s t r u c t u r e s and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s , a nd t h e a l l consuming d e s i r e

t o b u i l d whole s o c i e t i e s f i t t i n g t he n ee ds of a l l i t s c i t i z e n s

g i v e ample e vi de nc e t h a t ou r c h i l d r e n c a n no t a c c e p t t h e r a t i o n -

a l of a world i n f l am e s , b u t n e i t h e r c a n th e y r e j e c t a c e n t u r i e s -o l d t r a d i t i o n . C on se qu en tl y, s i n c e m an's b i o l o g i c a l h e r i t a g e

i s ov e r l a i n and obscured by h i s s o c i a l h e r i t a g e o f v a lu e s i t

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becomes of paramount impo rta nce t o have a method w i t h which

t o c o n s t a n t l y r e- ex am in e, a nd i f n e c e s s a r y, r e c o n s t r u c t s u c h

va lues . nd t h a t , s im pl y, must be t h e r a i s o n d l e t r e f o r o ur

G e n e r a ll y, t h e i n e q u i t i e s of f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n , a nd i t s

s t u l t i f y i n g e f f e c t s on t h e young were s e e n by Uewey a s l o n g

a go a s t h e 1 8 90 's . H i s concern was l a t e r summarized i n Human

Nature and Conduct where he writes:

The i n e r t , s t u p i d q u a l i t y of c u r r e n t cus tom s p e r v e r t sl e a r n i ng i n t o a w i l l i n g n e s s t o f o l l o w where o t h e r s p o i n tt h e way, i n t o c o nf o rm i ty, c o n s t r i c t i o n , s u r r e n d e r ofsc ep t i c i sm and exper iment . Jhen we th in k o f the d o c i l i t yof t h e young we f i r s t t h i n k of t h e s t o c k s o f i n f o r m a t i o na d u l t s wish t o impose and the ways of a c t i n g they want t oreproduce . Then we th i nk o f the in s o l e n t coe rc i ons , thei n s i n u a t i n g b r i b e r i e s , a nd t h e p ed ag og ic s o l e m n i t i e s b ywhich the f r es hn es s of youth can be faded and i t s v i v i dc u r i o s i t i e s d u l l e d . E d uc a t io n becomes t he a r t o f t a k i n gadvantage of th e he lp le ss ne ss of t he young; the forming ofhabi ts becomes a guaran tee f o r t he main tenance o f hedgesof custom.2

Clearly, Dewey was aware th a t one of th e fundamental problems

c o n f r o n t i n g s o c i e t y was t h e s t u p i d a nd w a s t e f u l way i n w hi ch

ch i l dr en were be in g moulded t o guarant ee . . . the maintenance

of hedges of c u ~ t o m , ~ i s many books make i t a b u n d a n t l y c l e a r

t h a t t h i s a p p l i e s s 7.17ell t o the l a r g e r p i c t u r e of s o c i a l growth

a n d d i r e c t i o n : f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n i s b u t a p a r t of t h e a t t e m p t

t o m a i n t a i n w h a t i s though t t o be o l d , and th e r e f o r e good.

This t h e s i s f o u n d i t s ge ne si s i n the above conce rns . The

t a s k h av e a e t m ys el f may b e s e e n a s a n a t t e m p t t o examine t h e

i d e a s c o nt a in e d i n d e ne y l s p h i l o s o p h i c a l work i n o r de r t h a t

m i gh t l o o k more c r i t i c a l l y , anci hope more c o n s t r u c t i v e l y , a t

t h e s t a t e of p r e s e n t d ay e d uc a t io n . s opgosed t o t h e u s u a l

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co me nt ar y which i s o l a t e s Demeyts pedagogy f rom i t s p r o p e r

c o n t e x t I i n t e n d t o l o o k a t t h e methods o f a n o v e r a l l p h i l o -

sophy. I cannot make t h i s p o i n t t oo s t r o n g l y The u n f o r t u n a t e

t r u t h i s t h a t many edu ca to rs when lo oki ng i n t o Deweyan pedago-

gy do no t se e p ragmati sm a s a f u l l y d ev el op ed p h i l os o p h y b u t

r a t h e r a s a s imple ed uc at io na l methodology

There fo re the f i r s t s e c t i o n o f t h i s paper s h a l l be used

t o syn th es iz e the major axioms of pragmat ic t hought on the, I rZ

k n a t u r e of free dom r e f l e c t i v e t ho ug ht a s a m e t h o d o f c r i t i c a l. in qu ir y and the the ory of val ue Al though ontology forms the

base u p o n v ~ h i c h a n y p h i l o s o p h y i s b u i l t a h a l l n o t a t t e m p ta

t o d e a l w i t h i t s e p a r a t e l y b u t r a t h e r make the p rag i i a t i c con-

c e p t i on o f r e a l i t y e x p l i c i t a n d c om pr ehe ns ibl e i n c o nn e ct i on

w i t h b o t h e p i s t o n o l o g y a n d a x i o l o g y. I t s h ou l d b e c l e a r t h a t

I i n t e n d t o c o n f i n e my e x p l o r a t i o n s p r i m a r i l y t o Dewey w i t h

t h e pr a gm a ti c o r i n s t r u m e n t a l p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o s i t i o n p r o v i d i n g

the c e n t r a l a rgument of t h i s paper I w i l l however draw

upon s c h o l a r s s u c h a s C h a r l es S P e i r c e . ; i l l i am James and

George H. ad, who ne re ins t r um en ta l i n th e development of

pragmatism.

Fo l lowing the f i r s t s e c t i o n I a h a l l a t t e m p t t o a n s w e r

common cr i t i c i s m s l ev el e d a g a i n s t pragmatism. To an ex te n t

sec t ion two ll s e r v e a s a swmmry of s e c t i o n o ne b u t o n l y

t h e more p e r p l e x in g p o i n t s e a r l i e r o u t l i n e d w i l l be emphasized.

3s t o c r i t i c i s m a typ ica l co rn ten t i s found i n ? ?il l ia m YfBytels

book The Cr aa ni za ti on Kan iIe w r i t e s :

. . . t o t h i s day many of t he most thorough-going pr ag ma t i s t si n b u s i n e s s ~ ~ o u l d e c o i l a t b e in g grouped w i t h th e i n t e l -l e c u a l s But the two move~nents were i n t i m a t e l y r e l a t e d .

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ward a world t h a t w l l mani fes t a f u l l n e s s , v a r i e t y and f r e e -

don o f possess ion [ w i t h ] enjoyment of meanings and goods un-5

known i n the con t iguous as so c i a t io ns of the pa s t .

I n t r o d u c t i o n

*%dhakaml Kukerjee,T h e

Dimensions of Human E v o l u t i o n(Bombay: Eacmillan, l964), p, vii

2 John Dewey, Human Nature and Conduct (Uew York: Uodern

L i b r a r y, 1 9 5 7 ) , pp 60-1,

i a .Jhyte, The O r g a n i z a t i ~ n Lan Sew York: Double-

day, 19561 pp. 22-3.

4 John Dewey The Public and i t s P r o b l e m s ( ~ e n v e r : Alan

Swallow, 19543 p 216,

5 Dewey, P u b l ic , p a 217

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d CTIOiT O

Freedom, Hef lec t i v e Thow ht and th e Theory of Value

One o f th e c e n t r a l t e n e t s of John Ueaey 's ph i losopny i s

the pragmatic not i on of f reedom. Xore tha n any ot he r s i n g le

concept i t i s t h e t o u c hs t o n e of p r a g m t i s m . I n t h e c o nc l u-din g pages of Breedom i n the Godern '70rld, he e xp re ss es th e

c o nv i ct i on t h a t ,

. . h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f f r e e d o m i s deep ly g rounded i n ourv e r y b e i n g s , P t i s one with our i n d i v i d u a l i t y, o ur b e i n guniquely what we a r e and n ot i m i t a t o r s and p a r a s i t e s o fo th e re . However, l i k e a l l o t he r p o s s i b i l i t i e s , t h i s pos-s i b i l i t y has t o be a c t u al i ze d ; a nd , l i k e a l l o t he r s , i tc a n o nl y b e a c t u a l i z e d t hr ou gh i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h o b j e c t -iv e con d i t i ons , The ques t i on o f p o l i t i c a l and economicfreedom i s no t a n addendum or a f t e r th ou gh t , much l e s s ad e v i a t i o n o r ex c r e s c e nc e , i n t h e pr ob le m o f p e r s o n a l f r e e -dom, ;'or t h e c o n d i t i o n s that f o r m p o l i t i c a l a n d e c o n o m i cl i b e r t y a r e r e q ui re d i n or de r t o r e a l i z e t he p o t e n t i a l i t yof f r eedom each of us c a r r i e s w i t h h i m i n h i s v e r y s t r u c t -u r e , Cons tan t and uni fo rm re l a t i o n s i n change and a know-ledge of them i n ' l aw s , ' a r e no t a hindra nce t o f reedom,b u t a n e ce s s ar y f a c t o r i n coming t o be e f f e c t i v e l y t h a twhich we have the capac i ty to grow i n t o , So c i a l co nd i t ion si n t e r a c t with t h e pr e f er e nc e s of a n i n d i v i d u a l ( t h a t rh i s

i n d i v i d u a l i t y ) i n a va y f av o ra b le t o a c t u a l i z i n g f r e e -dom only when they d ev elo p- i n t e l l i g e n c e , n o t a b s t r a c t know-l e d g e a nd a b s t r a c t t ho u gh t , b u t power o f v i s i o n and r e f l e c -t i o n , For t he s e t ak e e f f e c t i n making p r e f e r en c e , d e s i r e ,a nd p ur po se more f l e x i b l e , a l e r t and r e s o l u t e . Freedomhas too lo ng been thought of a s an inde te rmina te powero p er a ti n g i n a c l o s e d and ended world. I n i t s r e a l i t y ,freedom i s a r e s o l u t e v i l l o pe ra t i ng i n a world i n somer e s pe c t s i n d e t e r ~ i n a t e , ecause i t i s open and moving to-ward a nevi f u t u r e l

I t would appear tha t f o r t y y e a r s a f t e r t ne above was w r i t

t e n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of freedom h s s t i l l t o be a c t u a l i z e d , Free -

dom remains an ab s t r a c t , a r i g h t , a p r i v i l e g e , a bromide

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r e se r ve d f o r p o l i t i c a l r h e t o r i c , a v a i l a b l e o nl y i n America o r

t h e U S S .H. depending on one s a l l e g i a n c e . I n d e ed , t h e agon-

i z i n g confus i on over the nature of f reedom i s r e f l e c t e d i n a t -

t i t u d e s as v a r i o u s a s t h e c r y f o r s t u d e n t power t o t h e wo rld -

v ide dec l in e of the church, Tha t g r ea t numbers of Ca th o l i c

p r i e s t s would q u e s t i o n a p ap al o r d e r on b i r t h c o n t r o l i s c l e a r -

l y a n i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e a n ci e n regim e no l o n g e r f i r m l y h o l ds

t h e r e i n s o f a u t h o r i t y. That men, e ve n t h e m os t r e l i g i o u s of

men, r e j e c t th e ol d way i s evidence enough of the profound need

f o r new i n d i v i d u a l a nd s o c i a l f re ed om s. I n t u r n , o ur s c h o o l s

and u n i v e r s i t i e s a r e d i s r u p t e d by s t u d e n t r a d i c a l s who p r a c t i c e

what i s r ou gh ly d e sc r ib e d a s c o n f ro n t a ti o n p o l i t i c s aimed a t

making our i n s t i t u t i o n s f r ee , b u t a s y e t l i t t l e has b e e n

achieved beyond the propagat ion of s lo ga ns and the quicken ing

of tempers. I n terms of long-range co ns t r uc t i ve change thes o c i a l d i s r u p t i o n s of t o da y m a t t er l i t t l e ; who o r what i s under

c h a l l e n g e m a t t e r e v e n l e s s ; w h a t d o e s m a t t e r i s t h e i m p o s s i b i l -

i t y of r e s o l u t i o n s o l on g a s t h e p r i e s t o r t h e s t u d e n t co n t i n-

ue to s eek o ut a n a b s t r a c t .

' ; i h i ch r a i ses the ques t ion , i s i t p o s s i b l e that a n i n t e l -

l i g e n t t h e o ry a nd p hi lo so ph y of s o c i a l s c i e n c e , i n t i m a t e l y r e -

l a t e d t o e d u c a t i o n a l p r a c t i c e , x ou ld make n e e d l e s s any s u c h

c o n f r o n t a t i o n s ? T h a t i s c o ul d c o n f r o n t a t i o n s be a v oi d ed i f

from t he s t a r t of a c h i l d ' s s ch oo li ng t he a b i l i t y t o a s c e r t a i n

the n a tu r e of freedom and a c t upon i t was developed as a n i m

p o r t a n t p a r t of t he l e a r n i n g p r o c es s ? Xithin the body of t h i s

p ap er t h e g e n e r a l i s s u e s of t h i s q u es t io n w i l l be examined.

I do n o t i n t e n d t o a rg ue t n e c o u n t l e s s r a m i f i c a t i o n s o f f re ed om ,

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r e f l e c t i v e t ho u g ht a nd v a l u e . The f i r s t s e c t i o n , made up o f

t h r e e p a r t s , w l l p r ov i de tile c o n t e x t u a l g u i d e l i n e s s o a s t o

make po ss ib le an un de rs ta nd in g of pragmatism, and i n t u r n , t o

make c l e a r the major reas ons f o r t h e m i s a p p l i c a t i o n a n d m i s

unders t and ing o pragmatic pedagogy.

On th e Ua tu re of 3reedom

There a r e two c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o t h e p r ag ma ti c

co nc ep t of freedom. 2or one, freedom i s always dependent upon

knowledge. I n uman Ii at ur e and Conduct Dewey e x p l a i n s t h a t

t h e road t o f reedom m y be found i n the knowledge of f a c t s

which ena ble s u s t o employ them i n conn ect ion w i t h d e s i r e s

and a ims . phy s ic i an o r eng ine e r i s f r e e i n i s thought and

i s a c t i o n i n t he degree i n which he knorts what iie de al s wi th .

P o s s i b l y we f i n d he re tne key t o any fr eedom. iind second,

freedom i s dynamic: i?reedom f o r an in d i v i d u a l means growt h,

ready change when modif icz t ion i s r eq u i re d . Bu t the opera -

t ion of bowledge and dynamism i s baseh on the pragmatic con-

ce pt io n of r e a l i t y , Faomledge and knowin,: a r e ce nt er ed w i t h -

i n t he e x i s t e n t i a l m a tr i x of s o c i e t y , a s i s t h e examination of

r e a l t h i n@ i n everyday l i f e o r s c i e n ce , n o t a b s t r a c t know

l e d g e o r a b s t r a c t thoug ht. Dynamism i s based on a view of

t he w or ld a s a c o n s t a n t l y c i m n ~ i n gnd

b o u n d l e s s p a t t e r n ,Pragmatism h o l d s no a b so l ut e s o r e t e r n a l s i n any t r a d i t i o n a l

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w o r l d e x i s t e n t i a l l y i s a f i r s t s t e p i n u n d er st a nd in g t h e

n a t u r e of f re edom . But o n ly a f i r s t s t e p , f o r w i t h i n t h e con-

t e x t of knowledge and dynamism th e re a r e o th e r components r e -

l a t i n g t o t h e a c t u a l i z a t i o n of f re edo m; components i n c l u d i n g/ .

" e f f i c ie n c y i n a c t i o n , a b i l i t y t o c a r r y o ut p l an s , t he a bsence

o f c ra mpi ng a nd t h w a r t i n g o b s t a c l e s . . . I t a l s o i n c l u d e s c a p ac -

i t y t o v a r y p l a n s , t o c hange t ile c o u r se of a c t i o n , t o e x pe r -

i e nc e n o v e l t i e s . ~ i n d g ai n. . i t s i g n i f i e s th e power of d e s i r e

.

a nd c ho i ce t o be f a c t o r s i n ev en ts ."Vi t h in t he above quo t a t i on t he re a r e two ov er a l l assump-

t i o n s , t h a t t h e power t o a c t and t h e a b i l i t y t o c hoose a r e

c e n t r a l t o a r e a l i z a t i o n of freedom. I n d e a l i n g w i t h t h e r o l e

of choice, Dewey i s c a r e f u l t o p o i n t o u t t h a t e a r l y i n t he

h i s t o r y o f though t th e no t i on of cho ic e became invo lved w i t h

th e id ea s of r e s po n s i b i l i ty and b lame . Th i s invo lvement c loud-

e d t h e i s s u e s , he c l a im e d , s i n c e blame an d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y were

us ed t o s u pp o rt c e r t a i n s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s which were i r r e l e v -

a n t t o a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s of c h o i c e. In Free-

dom i n the Eodern 7or ld Dewey e w a i n e s the ques t ion of i den-\ ' .

t i f y i n g c h o i c e ni h d e - s i r a b l e s o c i a l ends ;. n d e x p l a i n s t h e--

r e s u l t s .

The t h e o r e t i c a l f or m ul a ti o n f o r t he j u s t i f i c a t i o n ofchoi ce a s the he a r t of f reedom becar ile. ,. imvolved a t ane a r l y t i ~ e i t h o t h e r i n t e r e s t s ; and the y. determinedthe form taken by a w i de l y p r e v a l e n t p h i l os o ph y of f r e e -dom.. .philosophy of the na tu re of choi ce a s freedom de-veloped a s an a po l og ia f o r a n e s s e n t i a l l y l e g a l i n t e r e s t :l i a b i l i t y t o pun ishment . The outcome was t h e d o c t r i n eknown a s f ree corn of ~ i l l . . . S o e s t a b l i s h e d d i d t h i s way ofviewing choice become, tha t i t i s s t i l l comonly supposedt h a t c h o i c e . a nd t h e a r b i t r a r y f r ee do m of w i l l are one andthe same th ingo7

Thus me in t rodu ce the f a v or i t e a rgument of f re shmen and

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p r o f e s s o r s o f L o gi c : t h e i s s u e o f f r e e - w i l l n v e r s u s d et er m-

ini sm . Dewey co nte nds tha t t he t r a d i t i o n a l argu me nt i s

not hi ng more tha n an ab s t r a c t word game and i s t h e r e f o r e o f

no r e a l v a l u e i n terms of the s o l ut i o n of human problems i n

t h i s ca se th e achie vemen t of freedom. The import ance of t h e

argument i s i n i t s end r e s u l t . The im pl i ca t i ons of ho ld ing

e i t h e r f r e e - w i l l o r de t er m in is m t o b e of m aj or i mp or ta nc e i n

ma tt e rs of human conduct f o r c e s man in t o a paradox, On the one

handh i s

d e s t i n yi s

c o n t r o l l e d by some unknown power, whichr e n d e r s h i m impotent , and on the o ther, i f he mus t c l a im res -

p o n s i b i l i t y f o r h i s a c t i o n s , he c an o n ly b e f r e e t o t h e

e x te n t t h a t s o c i e t y w i l l a l l o w, a l s o r e n d e r i n g him i m p ot e nt .

Dewey makes th e argument c onc re te by s h i f t i n g the emphasis of

, i nqu ir y from an te ce de nt s t o onsequ_eqcga*

The d o c t r i n e of ' f r e e - w i l l ' i s a d e s p e r a t e a t t e m p t t oescape f rom the consequences o f the do c t r i ne o f f i xe d andimmutable Being. i t h d i s s i p a t i o n o f t r a t dogma, then ee d f o r s u c h a m ea sur e of d e s p e r a t i o n v a n i sh e s . P r e f e r -e n t i a l a c t i v i t i e s c h a ra c t er i ze e ve ry i nd i vi d ua l a s i n d i -v i d u a l o r unique. I n t he ms el ve s t h es e a r e d i f f e r e n t i a li n a d e f a c t 0 s e n s e , They become t r u e c h o i c e s u nd er t h ed i r e c t i o n of i n a i g h t . Znowledge in s te ad of re ve a l i ng aw or ld i n w hi ch p r e f e r e n c e i s a n i l l u s i o n a nd d oe s n o tcount or make a d i f f e r e n c e , p u t s i n our p o s s e s si o n t hei n s t r u m e n t a l i t y by means of which pr ef e re nc e may be a ni n t e l l i g e n t o r i n t e n t i o n a l f a c t o r i n co ns t r uc t i ng a f u t u r eby wary and pre par ed act is on. Faowledge of s p e c i a l con-d i t i o n s and r e l a t i o n s i s i n s t r w e n t a l t o t he a c t i o n whichi s i n t u r n a n i n s t r u m e n t o f p ro Ou ct io n of s i t u a t i o n s ha v-i n g q u a l i t i e s of adde d s i g n i f i c a n c e a nd o r de r . To bec z p a b l e of s uc h a c t i o n i s t o be f r e e 8

T h i s , of c o u r s e , openo t he way f o r t h e c r i t i c s o f p r a g -

m t i s m t o c h arg e t h a t Dewey d e n i e s f r e e - a i l l , a nd c o n s e q u e n t l y

i s t i e d t o a de te rm in i s t phi losopi iy. On the co n t ra ry , r a t h e r

tha n r e j e c t i n g f r e e - r i l l , w h t he does deny i s t h e e f f i c a c y

of f r e e - w i l l t o p ro v id e a ny m e an in gf ul c a u s a l e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r

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human conduct . He does not deny th e p o s s i b i l i t y of t he ex i s-

t ence o f f r ee -wi l l ; he ust d e n i e s i t s u t i l i t y i n e xp la in in g

conseque nces. The at te mp t t o s e e k o u t f i r m f i n a l a nd u s ab l e

d e f i n i t i o n s of a b s t r a c t s th a t remain a b s t r a c t , l i k e f r e e - w i l l

o r de te rmin ism, so a s t o answer que s t i on s of human d i f f i c u l -

t i e s c au se d by s u c h a b s t r a c t s , h a r d l y seems a worth-while task.

I t i s s imply a n exer c i se i n ask ing ta e v ronz ques t iona . The

d i s c u s s i o n o n f r e e - w i l l i s typ ica l o f the consequences brough t

a b o u t b y t h e s e p a r a t i o n of m o r a l s from human nature. The dan-

ge rous s i g n i f i c a nce of t he c l a s s i ca l a rgumen t ove r f r ee -w i l l

i s t h a t i t r e i n f o r c e s t h i s s e p a r a t i o n o f mo ra l a c t i v i t y fro m1 0

n a t u r e a n d p u b l i c l i f e .

Dewey co ul d be s ee n as a d e t e r m i n i s t , b u t t h e t e r m i s

u sed r e l u c t a n t l y, f o r want of b e t t e r o n e . 5 i s determinism

then, must be seen only i n a q u a l i f i e d s e ns e . i t a th e r t h a nc r e d i t i n g u ns een f o r c e s , s u p e r i o r o r d e r s o e x i s t e n c e o r t r a n -

scen dent a l laws of the un iverse , he se es the d es t i ny of man

-

c o n t r o l l e d by s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s . C u t s i n c e he a l s o s e e s s oc -

i a l c on di t i on s s u n c er t a in and c h a n ~ i n g , h e r e c a n be no

assumptions about what f u t u r e s o c i e t y k:ay b r i n g , o r th e r o l e

man w l l p l a y i n i t I n essence, Dewey's determinism i a s imply

an awareness of the power and pr iv i l eg e of s o c i a l au th or i t y.

Dewey f r e q u e n t l y u s es th e p h r as e p r e f e r e n t i a l s e l e c t i o n

i n c o nn e ct i on - n it h c h o i c e ; i t roeam s i r r ~ ~ j l y h a t the v a i e d

exper iences of humans provide then1 w it h $re fe re nc es from which

t o s e l e c t , Choice.. . th en p r e s e n t s i t s e l f a s one p r ef e re n ce

among and out of p r e f e r ences ; no t i n t he s ense o f one p r e f e r -

ence a l r eady made and s t r o n g e r t h a n o t h e r s , b u t a s t h e f orm-

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a t i o n of a

Th i s i s a n

t i n c i v e l y

new p r e f e r e n c e o u t of a c o n f l i c t of p r e f e r e n c e s . "

i m p o r t a n t p o i n t , n o t b e c a u s e i t i n d i c a t e s the d i s -

h u m a n a b i l i t y t o measure, judge and a c t upon t he

good o r b ad of e x i s t e n t i a l c i r c ~ u n s t a n c e s , b u t b e c a u s e i t b r i n g s

up t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e g e n e s i s of p r e f e r e n c e . ":Ye d o n ' t use

t h e p r e s e n t t o c o n t r o l t ne f u t u r e . ; Te use t h e f o r e s i g h t of

t h e f u t u r e t o r e f i n e and expand p r e s e n t a c t i v i t i e s . I n t h i s1 2

u se of d e s i r e , d e l i b e r a t i o n and c h o i c e , freedom i s a c t u a l i z e d .

P r e fe r e nc e t h e n, vhen se e n w i t h i n t h e c o n t i n u ~ u ~ f p a s t , p r e -s e n t and f u t u r e , i s t h e u n w r it t e n h i s t o r y o f a n i n d i v i d u a l .

The a b i l i t y t o choose f i n d s i t s g e ne s i s i n t h i s h i s t o r y ,

The m an if es ta t i on of pre fe re nc es becomes a ' f u n c t i o n 'of a n e n t i r e h i s t o r y . T o u n d e r s t a n d th a c t i o n o f af e l l o w clan we have t o know som et hi ng of tile c o u rs e ofh i s l i f e . man i s s u s c e p t i b le , ' s e n s i t i v e , t o v a s tv a r i e t y o f c o n d i t i o n s an d u n de rgo e s v a r i e d a nd opposede x p e r i e n c e s

- -a s l o w e r anzmals do no t . Consequent ly

man i n t he measure o f t h e s c o p e a n d v a r i e t y o f h i s p a s te xp er ie nc es c a r r i e s i n h i s p r es er lt c e p ac i ty f o r s e l e c t i v er e s p o n s e a l a r z e s e t of v ar ie d p o s s i b i l i t i e s . That l i f eh i s t o r y of w hich h i s p r e s e n t p r e f e r e n ce i s a f u n c t i o n i scom plex. Xence t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of c o n t i n u i n g d i v e r s i f i -c a t i o n of b e ha v io r ; i n e h o r t , t he d i s t i n c t i v e e d u c a b i l i t yof menolg

T h u s t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s p la ce d s q u a re l y i n r e l a t i o n t o

h i s e nv ir on me nt , I n o r d er t o a c t e f f e c t i v e l y, be i t c l i m b i n g

a m o u n t a i n o r i s o l a t i n g a n ea b i o - c h e m i ca l s t r a i n , h e m us t

u t i l i z e a s much of h i s e x p e r i en c e a s he c an . ize r e l a t i v e

suc ces s , a s xe have no ted e a r l i e r , depends upon the degree o f

c o r r e c t i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l p o s s e s s e s , a nd h i s

a b i l i t y t o e v al u at e such i n f o r m t i o n . s a s i m p l e i l l u s t r a -

t i o n , a n i n d iv i d u a l may be f r e e t o w alk, b u t i f s uc h a n a c t

h e l d s c on se qu en ce h i s f a l l i n g off a c l i f f a n d b e i n g c r u s h e d

t o d e a t h , t h e i d e a of f re ed om t h r o u g h p r e f e r e n c e i s s imply

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unte nabl e, Unless, of co ur se , the id ea of freedom i s s o ab-

s t r a c t and f i n a l t h a t i t a p p l i e s t o t h e d ead a s w e l l a s t o t h e

l i v i n g ,

he Rousseauian idea t h a t f reedom preva i l ed before laws

and customs circumscribed i t i s a l s o s e v e r e l y c r i t i c i s e d by

Dewey, The con sequ ence s of su ch a n o ti o n would ap pe ar t o be

t h a t i f pr es en t laws were l i f t e d , f reedom would be assured.

But f reedom i a no t obta ined by mere a b o l i t i o n of law and in -

s t i t u t i o n s , b u t by t he p ro g re s si v e s a t u r a t i o n of a l l law s and

i n s t i t u t i o n s w i t h g r e a t e r and gr e a te r aclmowledgment of the1 4

nece ssary laws governing the co n st i t u t i o n of th i ng s , The

c o n s t i t u t i o n of t h in g s i1 r e f e r s i n t h i s c a s e t o t h e s o c i a l

in te r con nec t i on of pa r t s , t o shared exper ience th roughout

s o ci et y , the common concerns of a l l c i t i z e n s , The b a si c human

need t o be prot ect ed and resp ect ed, a need stemming i n p a r tfrom t h e s h a r ed e x pe ri en c e o f v i ol e n ce of a l l s o r t s , b r i n g s

laws and i n s t i t u t i o n s i n t o b e i ng , and o nl y t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t

t h i s need i s met w l l l a m s remain vi ab le . The p l i g h t of the

American n eg ro a p t l y i l l u s t r a t e s t h e r e as o n why l e g i s l a t o r s

must acknowledge the co n st i t u ti o n of th ings . t i s impera-

t i v e t o t h e s u r v iv a l o f America that i t s c i t i z e n s c on f ro n t t he

f a c t t h a t a l a rg e segment of t h e i r s o c i e t y h as been d e a l t o u t

of t he s o c i a l s t r u c t u re . But t o l i f t o r change the laws o r

i n s t i u t i o n s wi thout changing the sys ern cannot br in y about

freedom f o r those ou tsi de th e system. There must be an under-

s t a n d i n g on th e p a r t of t h e d e s i g n e r s o f laws an d i n s t i t u t i o n s

t h a t u n t i l a way i s found t o be r e sp on siv e t o a l l c i t i z e n s ,

t h e b l a c k pe op le of ~ m e r i c a i l l qui te unders tandab ly, burn

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down t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s an d v i o l a t e t h e l aw s .

a w l o s e s i t s meaning when i t becomes an a b s t r a c t , t

was o r ig in a l l y an imminen tly p r a c t i c a l means of s o c i a l con-

t r o l and p ro tec t ion . Zven Je ff e r s on ' s phrase Laws above men

was fundamenta l ly p rac t i ca l , bu t when i t came t o mean volumes

of Precedence and T o r t s r a t h e r t h a n p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n a t s o c i a l

anarchy fol low ing the Revolution, the necesesqy laws govern-

i n g t he c o n s t i t u t i o n of t h i ng s f e l l i n t o th e j u d i c i a l waste-

b a s k e t .In essence, Dewey argues t h a t freedom i s d i r e c t l y r e l a te d

t o custom and t r a d i t i o n , th a t law reache s out of custom. Thus,

i f r ep re ss io n i s a common heritage, i t w l l remain par t of

t h e p r e s e n t s o c i a l f a b r i c . concrete example o f t h i s a s s e r -

t i o n i s seen i n the development o f modern nations, t i s hard-

l y p r o ba b le t h a t freedom c ou ld be a s s u r e d f o r t h o s e s a t u r a t e d

by a s t r o n g s o c i a l t r a d i t i o n , and e ve n l e s s p ro b ab le where t h e

s t r e n g t h of t r a d i t i o n i s r e i n f o r c e d b y r e l i g i o u s o r p o l i t i c a l

r e s t r i c t i v e n e s s . t i s no acc iden t tha t the Sov ie t Union i s

la ck in g i n f reedoms a s we i n th e we stern world know them, The

h is to r ica l shou lders upon rah ich modern Auss ia res t s da tes f rom

the a u to c ra t i c Byzan t ine Zmpire, th rough the rep re ss i ve Czar-

i s t t im e s , and en ds w i th t he d i c t a t o r s h i p of t h e p r o l e t a r i a t e f t

To superimpose a p o l i t i c a l ph ilosophy upon a n a t i o n o r s t a t e

t h a t i s s o c i a l l y and p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y u n p re p ar ed f o r i t would

be d i f f i c u l t indeed. The Anglo-Saxon world of te n f o r g e ts

that what freedoms we posse ss a r e based upon n ine h~ md red

y e a r s o f s o c i a l d i r e c t i o n t h a t h e l d s a c r e d t h e i d e a of human

r i g h t s .

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In h i s st u dy Freedom i n t h e Xodern V or ld , Dewey summarized

h i s p o s i t i on on the pomer t o ac t . L ike cho ice , tne power to

a c t i s c a s t w i t h in t he s o c i a l and e x i s t e n t i a l m a t r i x of l a w

and custom.

The n o t i o n t h a t men a r e e q u a l l y f r e e t o a c t i f o n l yt h e same l e g a l ar ra ng em en ts a p p l y e q u a l l y t o a l l i r -r e s p e c t i v e of d i f f e r e n c e s i n e d u c a t i o n , i n command o fc a p i t a l , and t h e c o n t r o l o f t h e s o c i a l e nv ir on me nt w hi chi s f u r ni s h ed by t he i n s t i t u t i o n o f p r o p e rt y i s a purea b s u r d i t y, as f a c t s have d em on st ra te d. d i n ce a c t u a l , t h a ti s e f f e c t i v e , r i g h t s and demands a r e p ro d u c ts o f i n t e r -a c t i o n s , and a r e n o t found i n t h e o r i g i n a l and i s o l a t e d

cons t i u t i o n of human n at u re , whether moral o r paycholo-g i c a l , mere e l i m i n a t i o n of o b s t r u c t i o n s i s not enough.The l a t t e r m ere ly l i b e r a t e s f o r ce and a b i l i t y a s t h a th ap pe ns t o b e d i s t r i b u t e d b y p a s t a c c i d e n t s o f h i s t o r y.

h i s ' f r e e t a c t i o n o pe ra te s d i s a s t r o u s l y a s f a r as t h emany a r e concerned. The on ly po ss ib le conc lu s ion , bo thi n t e l l e c t u a l l y and p r a c t i c a l l y , i s t h a t t h e a t t a i n m e n to f f re ed om c on c ei v ed a s power t o a c t i n a c c o r d w i t h cho iced ep en ds upon p o s i t i v e a nd c o n s t r u c t i v e c h a ng es i n s o c i a lar rangementse l5

C l e a r l y, t o b r i n g ab o ut t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of freed om , b o t h ch o ic e

and a c t i o n must be combined. And a l th ou gh the b e s t combinat ion

of t he two depends upon con st ru ct iv e s o c i a l change, th e empha-

s i s m us t b e p la c e d on i n d i v i d u l a c h o i c e an d a c t i o n , s o t h a t

s u c h c h an g es c a n be a c t u a l i z e d . I n o t h e r w or ds , i t r e q u i r e s

i n d i v i d u a l u n d er s ta n d in g o f t h e n a t u r e of f re ed om t o b r i n g

a b o u t s o c i a l f r e e d o m s .The c e n t r a l pr ob le m i n u n d e r s t a n di n g t h e n a t u r e of f r e e -

dom i s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i ~ etween c ho ic e and a c t i o n : There i s

a n i n t r i n s i c c o nn e ct io n b e tn e en c h o ic e a s fre edo m and power of

a c t i o n asFreedom . c h o ic e w hic h i n t e l l i g e n t l y m a n i f e s t s i n d i -

v i d u a l i t y e n l a r g e s t h e ranGe o f a c t i o n , a nd t h i s enlargement

i n t u r n c o n fe r s upon o u r d e s i r e s g r e a t e r i n s i g h t a nd f o r e -1 6s i g h t , and makes choi ce rc:ore i n t e l l i g e n t . To choose and a c t

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w i t h i n t e l l i g e n t t e m p o r a l a u t h o r i t y, h o a e v e r , r e q u i r e s i n t e r -

a c t i o n with obj ec t i ve cond i t ions , and s in ce Dewey's d e f in i -

t i o n o f w h t c o n s t i t u t e s o b j e c ti v e c o n d i ti o n s t1 i s t o be found

w i t h i n t h e pr ag m at ic c on ce pt of r e a l i t y , t h e o n t o l o g i c a l quea-

t i o n must be examined. Jewey 's a s s e r t i o n s on the na tu re of

o b j e c t i v e c o n d i t i o n s a l s o i n v o lv e s t h e i n t e r - r e l a t e d cosmolo-

g i c a l q u es t i o n, i n o rd er th en , t o av o id e x c es s iv e q u a l i f i c a t i o n s ,

I w i l l r e f e r t o t h e o v e r a l l c on ce rn a s c o s mo -o n to lo g ic al .

T h i s c l a s s i c a l p re -o cc u pa ti on of t h e p h i l o s o p h e r s , t h esp ec u l a t i on on the re l a t io ns h i p between the na tu r e of the un i -

verse and manta place i n i t i s ga i n in g new in t e r e s t today.

For many y ea rs th e qu es tio n seemed t o be ig nor ed o r thought

w o r t h l e s s o i n v e s t i g a t i o n , b u t w i t h t h e wide a d va n ce s i n s c i -

e nc e, p a r t i c u l a r l y b i o l o g i c a l s c i e n c e , t h e q u e s ti o n h as a g a i n

gain ed cur ren cy. The problem only began t o have genuine force

when Darwin p u t man back i n t o n at ur e a s a part of i t s c o n t i n -7

uwn. L k n l o s t h i s superior and independent role when he could

no l o n g e r c l a i m a s p e c i a l s t a t u s removed fro m n a t u r e . Obvious-

l y t h e q u e s t i o n s e e k i n g a n answ er i s whether n a t u r a l laws, now

a p p l i c a b l e t o man, a r e the r e s u l t o f de termined o r i g i n beyond

m a n ' s c o n t r o l , o r whether such laws d e p e n d u p o n a n e s s e n t i a l l y

unplanned universe where man 's in te l l igence imposes order?

The f i r s t p a r t of the qu est i on hin ges on the Darwinian con-

te n t io n t h a t man i s an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f n a t u r e . Dewey would

r e j e c t t h e n o t io n that n a t u r a l l a w i s de te rmined by fo rces be-

yond our control . To accep t such a t h e o r y i s , i n e f f e c t , t o

a c c e p t a n o t i o n t h a t p l a c e s man i n a p a ra d ox . Xe i s f o r c e d t o

l i v e a d u a l r o l e , s i n c e th e f or c e i n c o n t r o l i s a p i r i t u o ut si de

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of na tu re . 'IT3hen the h ie ra rc h ic a l a sc en t of na tu re t o mind

an d t o i d e a l f or ms was d i s t u r b e d b y t h e c o n v i c t i o n t h a t t h e

s u b j e c t - m a t t e r of n a t u r a l s c ie n c e i s e x c l u s i v e l y p h y s i c a l a n d

m e c h a n i s ti c , t h e r e a r o s e t h e d u a l i s t i c o p p o s i ti o n o f m a t t e r

and s p i r i t , of na tu re and ul t i m at e ends and goods. . and].

Since man was on th e one hm d a p a r t of n at u re and on the oth -

e r hand a meuber of the realm of s p i r i t , a l l problems came t o8

a f o cu s i n h i s d ou bl e na t ur e . Any f ixed cosmological no-

t i o n d e n i e s t h e e x i s t e n t i a l n a t u r e of human d i s c o v er y. I nh i s book The Quest f o r C er ta in ty Dewey ex pl ai ns the need t o

t r a n sc e n d t h e f i x e d and l i m i t i n g c o n c e p t s of n a t u r e .

The cond i t io ns and p rocesses of n a tu re g ene ra te uncer-t a i n t y and i t s r i s k s a s t r u l y a s n a t ur e a f fo r d s s e c u r i t yand means of insurai ice ag a in s t p e r i l s . Xature i s charac-t e r i z e d b y a c o n s t a n t m i x tu r e of the precar ious and thes t a b l e . h i s mixture gives poignancy t o e x i s t e n c e . Ife x i s t e n c e w e r e e i t h e r c o m p l e t e l y n e c e s s a r y o r comple te lycon t ing en t , the re would be ne i t he r comedy nor t r agedy i nl i f e , no r need of t h e v i l l t o l i v e . The s i g n i f i c a n c e ofm or al s and p o l i t i c s , of t h e a r t s b o t h t e c h n i c a l and f i n e ,o f r e l i g i o n and of s c i e n ce i t s e l f a s i n q u i r y and d i s c o v e ry,a l l have t h e i r s o u rc e and meaning i n t h e u n io n i n N at ur eof t h e s e t t l e d and th e u n s e t t l e d , t h e s t a b l e and t h e haza r d o u s . n p a r t f r o m t h i s u n io n , t h e r e a r e no s uc h t h i n g sa s 'en d s ' e i t h e r a s c o n s ~ a t i o n s r a s t hose e nds-in -view me c a l l p ur po se s. ' ihere i s only a b l o c k u n i v e r s e ,e i t h e r someth ing ended and adm i t t in g of no change , o r e l s ea pre de st i ne d march of events . There i s no s u c h t h i n g a s

f u l f i l l m e n t where t h e r ei s

no r i s k of f a i l u r e , and no d e -f e a t where t h e r e i s no promise of p os s i bl e achievementalg

I t i s a p p a r e n t v i t h i n t h e above q u o t a t i o n t h a t t h e i d e a

of man imposing order i s eq ua l ly t roub lesome. Such a no t ion

f i n d s i t s beg inn ing i n the a t t em pt to e xp l a in men and the a f -

f a i r s o f men in t erms of sc ienc e . A S the argument goes, i w

c a n e x p l a i n a l l of n a t u r e by r e d u c t i o n t o p h y s i c a l l aw s, we c an

s u r e l y u n d e r s t a n d man, s i n c e he too must conform t o the sane

laws. This cur iou s ques t fo r a new k ind of c e r t a i n t y was i n i -

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t i a t e d b y an a c c e l e r a t i n g su cc e ss i on of d i s c o v e r i e s i n s c i e n c e ,

w hi ch i n t u r n p r ov i de d t h e means t o q u e s t i o n t h e a l r e a d y f r a g -

m e nt in g o l d o r d e r s of Ohurch and S t a t e , B u t u n l i k e t h e e a r l i -

e r modela of ma n's p l a c e i n t h e u n i v e r s e , s a y, t h e H e a r t h of

Zeus o r t he Grea t Cha in of Being , the ne a cosmology l e f t o u t

s o c i a l d i r e c t i o n , Z t h i c a l n o ti o ns , i n c l u d i n g t h e n a t u r e of

freedom, were neu t ra l i zed by t he m i s a p p l i c a t i o n o r m i su nd er-

s t a nd i ng of n a t u r a l l a m , I n h i s book Ins igh t and Out look ,

A r t hu r i c o e s t le r c on te nd s t h a t I t b h en e w

cosmology7 may bed e s c r i b e d a s a s h i f t from 'guidance from above t o 'guida nce

from below.'' ' He goe s on t o sa y:

I n p r e s c i e n t i f i c t i m e s t h e w or ld was e x p l a i n e d , a nd m an'sa c t i o n s were guided from 'above, thr ough th e agency ofa nt hr op om or ph ic c l e i t i e ~ . Yhe gods ae rz upward p ro jec t -i o n s of t h e human ima,e, e x t r a po l a t i o ns of humanity on anascend ing sc a l e , ; Ju t the sqec t s rcu ia r succe ss of th e newmethods of n a t u r a l sc ienc e b rough t a d e c i s i v e c ha ng e, f o rmolecu les and a to ras ne re ex t rapo la t ions on a downwards c a l e , Des t i ny f rom 'above h d b e e n b o t h a n e x p l a n a t i o nof th e world and a g ui de t o c o nd u c t ; d e s t i n y fro[: 'below,d e te r m in e d b y e l e c r o n s and q u a n t a , was a n e x p l a n a t i o nbut no longer a guide .20

Yhe ~ c t f Grea t ion and a o s t i nn the same s tudy, as w e l l a s .,-

t h e Uchini r K o e s t l e r p o i n t s o u t t h a t s c i e n c e ' s e t h i c a l n e u

t r a l i y, coup led m h i t s prover? tae t l lodolo&y, pro vi de s t h e

b e s t means th us f r dev i sed t o e ~ t u b l i s h n a t u r a l s y s t e a of

s o c i a l a nd e t h i c a l d i r e c t i o n , - - o e s t l e r was h o p e f u l , a s ;vas

3ewey, t h a t t il e s p l i t be t v e e n r e a s o n a n d b e l i e f F~iliJ ea l andX a t u r a l Law w l l resume i t s o r i g i n a l meaning a s b o t h a g u i d e

2 1t o understand in^ and a g u id e t o c o n d uc t ,

L ik e X o e s t l e r , d ea e y s e e s t e m po r al a u t h o r i t y b o r n o u t of

of th e metho& of s c ie nc e , and th ey sh ar ed the hope tha t tile

f a c t s o f sc i enc e nou ld p rov ide t il e means with w h i c h s o c i e t y

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could reach toward f reedom, not w i t h s c i e nc e a s a panacea ut

as a t o o l t o e s t a b l i s h new a nd more e n d u ri n g s o c i a l v a l u e s .

I n t e r a c t i o n w i t h o b j e c t i v e c o n d i t i o n s c a n n o t b e a c h i e v e d w i t h

i n a u n i v e r s e beyond m an's c o n t r o l , n o r i n u n i v e r s e w he re

g ui da nc e fr om be low p r e c l u d e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of a n a t u r a l

t e l e o l o g y. I n s h o r t , t h e o b j e c t i v e c o n d i t i o n s d e te r m in e d b y

s c i e n t i f i c an d common-sense o b s e r v a t i o n c an a l s o a a t t o d e t e r -

mine t h e t r u t h o r f a l s i t y of s o c i a l v al ue s t r u c t u r e s .

Some t h i r t y y e a r s b e f o r e K o e s t l e r w ro te t h e a bove s t a t e -ment , Dewey summed up h i s po s i t i o n on the val ue of s c i e n t i f i c

me th od ol og y a s an ins t rument to develop human unders tanding.

I t i s not p re tended t h a t a moral th eo ry based uponr e a l i t i e s o f human n a t u r e a nd a s t u d y of t h e s p e c i f i cc o n n e ct i o n s of t ho se r e a l i t i e s w i t h t h o s e of p h y s i c a lsc i enc e would do away wi th moral s t r ug g l e and de f ea t .I t would no t make a moral l i f e as s imple a m a t t e r aswending one 's way a lo ng we l l l i g h t e d boulevard . A l l

a c t i o n i s a n i n n s i o n of t he f u t u r e , o f the unknown.C o n f li c t a nd u n ce r ta i nt y a r e u l t i m a te t r a i t s . Butmorals based on concern w i t h f a c t s a n d d e r i v i n g g u i d a n c efrom them would a t l e a s t l o c a t e t h e p o i n t s of e f f e c t i v eendeavor and would focus available resources upon them.I t would ~ u t n end t o t h e i m po ss ib le a t t e m u t t o l i v e i ntwo unrelated worlds. I t would d e s t r o y f i x e d d i s t i n o t i o nbetween th e human and the ph ys ic al , a s we l l as t h a t be-tween t h e m or al and t h e i n d u s t r i a l a nd t h e p o l i t i c a l .moral s ba se d on stu dy of human na tu re i n s t e a d of upond i s r e g a r d f o r i t would f i n d the f a c t s of man cont inuousw i t h t h os e of t he r e s t o f n a t u r e a nd a o ul d t h e re b y a l l ye t h i c s w i t h p h ys i cs a n d b i o l o g y. I t would f ind then a t u r e a n d a c t i v i t i e s o f o n e p e r s o n c o t e r m i n o u s witht h o s e of o t h e r human b e i n g s , a nd t h e r e f o r e l i n k e t h i c s 22w i t h t h e s t u d y o f h i s t o r y , sociol o*y, law and economics .

( i t a l i c s adde d)

The i k p o s s i b i l i t y of l i v i n g i n b o t h a n i d e a l a nd r e a l wo rl d

i s t h e g r e a t e s t s i n g l e b a r r i e r t o t h e z c hi ev em e nt of free dom .

The se pa ra t i on of reason and b e l i e f ru kes c h o i c e a n d a c t i o n

a b s t r a c t i o n s , i d e a s u n re l a te d t o the f a c t s o f human na t u re .

And th e i ~ p l i c a t i o n s r e pr of oun d, f o r i f he -:~orld i s a l r e a d y

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done and done f o r , i f i t s c h a r a c t e r i s e n t i r e l y ac hi ev ed s o

that i t s b e h a v i o r i s l i k e tha t of a nan l o s t i n a r o u t i n e ,

then th e on ly f reedom fo r which a man can hope i s one of ef-

f i c i e n c y i n o v e r t a c t i o n. But if cha.nge i s g e n u i n e , i f a c -

c o u n t s a r e s t i l l i n pro ces s of making, and i f o b j e c t i v e u n c e r -

t a i n t y i s the s t i ~ u l u s o r e f l e c t i o n , t h e n v a r i a t i o n i n a c t i o n ,3

n o v e l t y and exper ience , have a t rue meaning.

o conclude t h i s e x n l o r a t i o n i n t o t h e p r ag m a ti c n a t u r e of

freedom, an i s s u e t h a t w l l be ag ai n touched upon i n oonjunc-t i o n wi th the Tneory of Inqu iry and of Value , w l l o u t l i n e

y own ev al ua ti on s of th e Deweyan ph il os op hi c al overview. e

o r i g i n a l l y c la imed , f reedon: i s t r le touchstone of pragmatism,

b u t h av e t a k e n p a i n s t o shox thzit t h notion of freedom i s

i n t i m a t e l y r e l a t e d t o the ov er a l l ph i losophy of p ragmati sm,

So t o s u m up , pra gm atism o f f e r s a n o p t i m i s t i c o u t l o o k

t em pe re d b y a n h o n e s t r e c o g n i t i o n o f t n e c h a r a c t e r of p r e s e n t

knowledge and exper i ence , do no t ho ld t h a t ac ien ce w l l

s o l v e a l l problem s b u t no r do t h e p r a g m a t i s t s . The c e n t r a l

fea ture of pragmat ism i s t h a t i t d o es n o t o f f e r u n i v e r s a l and

e t e r n a l s o l u t i o n s t o a l l of human a f f a i r s , b ut t h i s d e t r a c t s

not one w h i t from i t s u s e fu l ne s s i n de a l i n g w i t h the wor ld ,

e i t h e r p h y s i c a l l y o r m e t a p h y s i c a l l y, Y r a g m a t i s n r e p r e s e n t s

a l o n g a w a it e d weaning from a c h i l d i s h q u e s t f o r c e r t a i n t y

and f i n a l i t y ; t h e r e j e c t i o n of t he d u a l i t y of r e a l and i d e a l

i s a e t e p t h a t go es f a r toward o pe ni ng up l a rg e r v i s t a s f o r

I the influence of man. I n e f f e c t , t h e r e s u l t of h o l di n g t he

pragmatic view i s f a i t h t h a t d i s po s e s one t o maximize what

i s inherently human. l l n i s p a r t of n s t u r e and s a l s o a r e5

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c o n s i s t e n t r e l a t i o n s . To t he e x t e n t t h a t man becomes aware

o t h e s e r e l a t i o n s t hr ou gh i n q u i r y, a nd i n t u r n d i r e c t s them

t o h i s ovm d e s i r e s i n s i d e of e x p e r i en c e , he f u l f i l l s h i ms el f

i n h i s world. W l l i a m James once remarked t h t l i f e i s o

l i t t l e a c c o u n t i f man i s l i m i t e d b y what he cannot k n o w Sub

m i s s i o n t o a l i f e - s t y l e d i r e c t e d from f o r c e s o u t s i d e of e x-

p e r i e n c e , i s , p l a i n a nd s i m p le , s u b t l e k i n d of s l a v e r y.

& e t h e r o r n o t m an 's r o l e i n th e u n i v e rs e i s f i n i t e and mi ni a-

c u l e may b e an sw ered i n t h e f u t u r e , b u t u n t i l t h e ans wer i sknown i t would seem pragmatic t o p la y t h a t r o l e w i t h s t r e n g t h ,

courage and t h e a bu nd an t i n t e l l i g e n c e now a v a i l a b l e t o man

Se c t io n One: p a r t one

1 John Dewey, On Ex pgr ien ce S a t u r e , and P'reedom, ed. Ric har d

J B er ns t e i n ( ~ e w ork: Bob bs-K er r i l l , 1960 pp. 286-87.

2 John Dewey, Human ilature and Cond uct (ilew York: E od er n

L i b r a r y, 1 9 5 7 ) , p. 2 7 8

3 John Dewey, R e co n st ru c ti o n i n Y h i l o s o ~ h ~ 3oston: Beacon

P r e s s , 1 9 6 5 ) , p. 207.

.

4 Uewey, n ix p e r i e n c e , chap. d l i

5 John Dewey, The Xeed o r a i iecovery of rh i lo so ph y,

c r e a t i v e -I n t e l l i ~ e n c e--- (ilei-~ York: Eenry Xo lt 1917 pp .

5 5 6 .

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Section One: p a r t one

XC'i'AS- ( c o n t ,

6 Dewey, Human Xature , pp. 278-79.

7 Dewey, On i jxper ience, p 263.

John Dewey, The Q ,u e st f o r C e r t a i n t y ( ~ e w ork: C a p ri c or n

Booksy 19601, p 250

9 S Dewey ex pl ain s i n Quest f o r C er t a i nty :

7 e a r e f r e e i n t h e de g r e e i n which we a c t knowing whatwe a r e a b ou t . The i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of fre edom w i th f r e e -dom of ~ v i l l o ca te s cont ingency i n the wrong pla ce. Con-tingency of w i l l would mean t h a t u n c e r t a i n t y was uncer-t a i n l y d e a l t w it h; i t would be a r e s o r t t o c h a n c e f o r ad e c i s i o n . The business of s v i l l i s t o b e r e s o lu t e t h a ti s t o res o l ve , under the gu idance of thought, the inde -te rmina teness of un ce r ta in s i tu a t io n s . Choice waversand i s brought t o a hea d a r b i t r a r i l y o n ly when c i r cw ns t a n -ce s compel a c t i o n and ye t we have no in t e l l i g e n t c lew st o how t o ac t . p. 250

10 9eweyY Human Lia ture, pp. 8-9.

Uetvey, On Ex pe ri en ce , p 266.

1 5 Lewey, On Lm gr ie nc e, pp. 271-72

17 John Dezqey, The influence of Uarwinism on l'hilosophy I

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S e c t i o n One: p a r t o ne

ilOrJXS cont .C l a s s i c A merica n Y h i l o s o - ~ h e r a , e d , b h x H. Fiech ~ e w ork:

Appelton-Century-Crof 8, 19 51 1 pp 336-44.

1 8 Dewey, w e s t , p. 53.

1 9 Dewey, ~ u e s t , p. 243-44

20 k r t h u r K o e s t l e r Insight and C:utlook Z e w York: hkacmillan,1949 1, p. 231.

2 1 K o e s t l e r , I n s i g h t , p 234,

22 Yewey, Human l a t u r e , pp. 12 3.

23 Dewey, -n I h t u r e , p. 284.

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n Inqu i ry . Tru th and lhowledae

-I

Dewey's Theory of I n q u i r y l e a d s u s b a c k t o t h e e a r l i e r

d i s c u ss i o n on th e c l a s s i c a l d u a l i t y o r e a l a nd i d e a l . s w4

h av e s e e n , man a t t e m p t s t o l i v e i n two u n r e l a t e d w o r ld s i n a

number of mays. One of th e more im po rt an t m a n i f e s t a t i o ns of

t h i s d u a l i t y c a n be o b s er v ed i n t h e s e p a r a t i o n of knowinga from doin g. fieason i s s e e n as a n a c t of mind d i v o r c e d

-.

from the vu lg ar and conscon world of th e p r a c t i c a l . The i d e a

that knowing i s a p a s s i v e an d h i g h e r a c t , one of ma n's l o f % i e r

endeavors , has become i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l d e f i n -i t i o n o f r eason . The p r es en t day concep t o f sc i enc e i s r e -

+

f l e c t i o n o f t h i s d e f i n i t i o n . B u t i t h a s a l o ng h i s t o r y, b eg in -

n i n g w i t h the Greeks who were the f i r s t t o s e p a r a t e t h e o r y

from pr ac t i c e . To them th e s tud y of s c i e n t i f i c phenomenon w s-

b o t h a cosmological puzzle and a s o r t of h i g h l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d

game en joyed by the l e i s u r e c la s s . To the Greek ph i l osop her s

t h e p r a c t i c a l r t s a nd c r a f t s were t ho ug ht t o b e o u t s i d e o r\

benea t h t h e i r concern. Yhe ir wor ld v s more s u i t e d t o a p r e -i

- -occupat ion w i t h e t h i c s , music and mather ilat ics . Lince the

g r e a t i nf lu en ce of the Greeks has been acknowledged and chron-

i c l e d by t h e h i s t o r i a n s of p h il o so p hy a nd s c i e n c e , i t mould

seem redundan t t o d e t a i l th e accep tance o f the Greek wor ld -

view from a n c i e n t t o ~ ~ e d i a e v d nd modern t imes . Pr of es so r

: ;bi t ehead s famous rermrlc t h t I t he s a f e s t g e n e r a l c h a r a c te r -

i z a t i o n of t h e Zurope an p h i l o s o p h i c a l t r a d i t i o n i s t h t t

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c o n s i s t s i n a a e r i e s of f o ot n ot e s t o P l a t o , i s a s v a l i d t od ay

a s i t was on the day i t was w r i t t e n , K o e s t le r c la im s i t s h o u l d

be amended to r e ad sc ienc e , up t o the Rena i s sance , co ns i s t e d

i n a s e r i e s of f o o t n ot e s t o A r i s t o t l e . S u f f i c e i t t o s a y t h a t

modern epistomology s t i l l su ffe r s f rom the Greek concep t ion o f

s c i e n c e .--

There a r e t h r e e c e n t r a l d i f f i c u l t i e s t h a t stem from th e; i ., . .

-- knowing-doing d u a l i t y , For one, knowledge became th e means

of s e e k i n g o u t a nd c o n f ir m i n g t h e e x i s t e n c e of a n u l t i m a t eB ei ng . I n de e d, t h e o r i g i n a l o n t o l o g i c a l a rg um en t w s d e v e l -

oped a s a method t o p rove t he ex i s t e nc e of a Erime Uover, and

soon became th e Ch r i s t ia n argucaent f o r t he ex is te nc e of God,

The secon d, t he pr oc es s of knowing, became th e mere g a th e r -

in g of in fo rma t io n wi thou t purpose . And t h i r d , the concep t ion-I

of mind was b o r n , n o t an a c t i v e , c ha n gi ng and e v e r c h a l l e n g -

, i n g m ind, b u t a pass iv e r e c i p i e n t o f p re v io us knowledge.L?

Dewey cl a im e d t h a t a l l t h r e e c o u l d b e d e s c r i b e d a s t h e ~ p e c t a -

tor theory of knowledge.

\ I n co n t ra s t , 3emeyt s ap i s tomology se es knowing do ing ,

The pr oc es s of knowing cr e a t e s more problems f o r knowing. n sL

a n i l l u s t r a t i o n , s uppose problem i n l i t e r a t u r e was t o b e e x-

amined, say the ch a r ac te r o f the 2 0 0 1 i n King Lear. + :ith t h e

f i r s t re ad in g th e s tu d en t i s n o r m a ll y co n fu s e d, h e d o e s n ' t

know the Poo l bu t some i f ip res s ions have l e f t t h e i r mark.

J i t h second read ing those f i r s t i m p r e ss i o n s , i n c on j u n c ti o n

w i t secondary impress ions , may leave i m l e s s c o n f u s e d b u t

with more p roblems fo r knowing, s i nc e th e Foo l ' s c ha ra c t e r

becomes r icher v i i t h f a m i i a r i t y an d a s s o c i a t i o n , s ay, w i t t h e

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P oo l i n TwelFth X i g h t , o r s i t t i n g a t t h e n e x t desk. &en i f

t h e l a s t w ord on t h e F o o l k s b ee n s a i d , o t h e r a s p e c t s of

t h e p l a y w l l become s u b j e c t m a t t e r f o r e x a m i n a ti o n , They

t o o w l l become proble ms f o r knowing. The q u e s t i s on-going,

n e v e r e n di ng a n d n e v er f i n a l . Iiowever, t h e r e a d i n g i t s e l f

r emains wor th les s if i t remains pass ive . f t h e r e a d i n g i s

u n a p p l i e d t h e s t u d e n t i s mere ly ga the r ing in fo rma t i on, and thus

i s c o n c d d i n g t o t he s p e c t a t o r t h e o ry o f knowledge. f a p p l i e d ,

i n l e t us say, the development of a deeper unders t and ing o fhuman beh avi or, and i n t ur n ac te d upon, h i s knowledge of s e l f

a n d s o c i e t y w l l b ro ad en . Only t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t a c t i o n i s

u nd er ta ke n v i l l h i s a b i l i t y t o a c t u a l i z e i n d i v i d u a l f reedoms

be widened.

Yhere i s a c o n s t an t r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f problems through

t il e in t e r a c t io n o f the knower and h i s s u b j e c t m a tt er . r e -

c o n s t r u c t i o n that can t ake p lace on any l e v e l of cog n i t ion :

e m o t i o n a l l y, a s i n l i s t e n i n g t o a symphony or viewing a f i l m

i n work, a s a m e c h a n i c a t t e m p t s t o r e p a i r a f a u l t y f u e l pump

o r i n t e l l e c t u a l l y , a s a mt he ma t i c i an works on a problem i n

c a l c u l u s .

k r a g n a t i c i n q u i r y i s t he co n t ro l l ed p rocea s of knowin&.

t i s e x i s t e n t i a l l y b a s e d on tile e x p e r i m e n t a l and p r a c t i c a l

i n s t r u m e n t a l i t i e s of s c ie nc e ~ n c . ommon endeavor , The gen-

e r a l d e f i n i t i o n o f i n q u i r y i s provided by dewey i n Log ic: The

Theory of Inaui ry.

I n q u i r y i s t h e d i r e c t e d o r c o n t r o l l e d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n

of an i nd e te rm i na te s i t u a t i o n i n t o a d e t e m i n a t e l y unif i e d o n e . he t r a n s i t i o n i s ach ieved b y rrleans of oper-a t i o n s o f two k i n d s wh ic n a r e i n f u n c t i o n a l c or re srj oi l-dence w i t h e a c h o t h e r. One k i n d o f o k e r a t i o n d e a l s w i t h

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Char les Pe i rc e , Dewey's i n t e l l e c t u a l mentor, wrote ex ten-

s iv e ly on the wor th of in qu i ry a s a method of p r oof , The

i r r i t a t i o n of d oubt i s the on ly immedia te mot ive fo r the s t rug-

g l e t o a t t a i n b e l i e f , e goes on t o say :

t i s c e r t a i n t l y b e s t f o r u s t h a t o ur b e l i e f s s ho uld bes uc h a s may t r u l y gu id e our a c t i o n s s o a s t o s a t i s f y o urd e s i r e s ; and t h i s r e f l e c t i o n w l l make us re j e c t everyb e l i e f which does no t seem to have been s o formed a s t oi n s u r e t h i s r e s u l t , B u t i t w l l on l y do s o b y c r e a t i n ga doubt i n the p lace of that b e l i e f . X i t h the doubt ,t h e r e f o r e , t h e s t r u g g l e b e g i n s , and w i th th e c e s s a t i o nof doubt i t ends , Hence, the so le ob je c t o f i n q u i r y i s

th e se t t le m en t of opinio n. .de may f a n c y t h a tt h i s i s

n o tenough f o r u s , and t h a t we s eek , n o t m e r el y a n o p in io n ,b u t a t r u e o p in io n , But p u t t h i s f an c y t o t h e t e s t , andi t p roves g r ou n d l e s s ; f o r a s soon a s a f i r m b e l i e f i sre ach ed we a r e e n t i r e l y s a t i s f i e d , whether t he b e l i e f bet r ue o r f a l s e , And i t i s c l e a r tha t not hin g out of th espher e of our knowledge can be our o bj e ct , f o r not hin gwhich does not affect the mind can be the mot ive formental ac t i on , The m o s t th a t can be main ta ined i s , t h a twe seek f o r a b e l i e f t h a t we s h a l l t h in k t o be t rue .But we t hi nk each one of our b e l i e f s t o be t ru e , and,indeed, i t i s n e r e t a u to l o gy t o s a y s o o 5

In t he same e s say Ee i r ce e xam ine s t r a d i t i o n a l ph i l o so -

ph ic a l methods used t o s e t t l e op in ion , making i t c l e a r that

in qu i ry based on the p r a c t i c a l methodology of sc ie nce , i s by

f a r t h e b e s t s ys te m. I n o r d e r t o j u s t i f y t h i s c l ai m , however,

he makes h i s as su mp ti on s ab o ut r e a l i t y e x p l i c i t , and o u t l i n e s

the methodology of sc ie nc e, IIe a s s e r t s t h a t p r a c t i c a l l y aAd

e x p e r im e n t a ll y s c i e n ce must d e a l w i t h r e a l t h i n g s , t h e v e r i f i -

a b l e , o b j e c t i v e f a c t s of c o m m o n O ~ , h a t t h e p r o c e s s

i s i n no way s u r e of f i n a l r e s u l t s , o n ly of 2 o s s i b l e r e s u l t s .

I n s c i enc e , a s i n comnon s ense , we s e ek f o r a b e l i e f t h a t w e

s h a l l t h i n k t o be t r u e .

i s answer t o t he o ld ph i l o s o p h i c a l c on ce i t on t h e e x i s -

tence o r non-ex is tence of re a l th in gs , sums up the essence

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of pragmatic ontology. He a s k s us t o c o n s i d e r what e f f e c t s

of a p r a c t i c a l n a t u r e we want t h e o b j e c t s of o u r c o n ce p ti o n

t o h av e, i n t h i s c a s e r e a l s , and t he n p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e

c o n ce p ti o n of t h ea e e f f e c t s i s th e mhole of th e conce ption o

t h e o b j e c t . A l l e l s e i s s p e c t u l a t i v e a nd o u t s i d e p r o o f , b o t h

a n t e c ed e n t t o r e f l e c t i v e i n q u i r y and i n de p e nd e n t of i t

Ye ir c e, by c la i m in g a n e x i s t e n t i a l o n to lo g y a s a base

f o r h i s concept o f r e a l s , i s a b l e t o s u b s t a n t i a t e i n q u i r y

a a t he b e s t avenue t o t r u t h b u t t r u t h of a f u n c t i o n a l na-t u r e , which a s we s h a l l s e e , m e a n s t h e v e r i f i a b l e a n d n o t h i n g

e l s e . A s h e w r i t e s :

I t may be asked how : know th er e a r e any i ieals. . .Ther e p l y i s t h i s . . I f i n v e s t i g a t i o n c an n ot be r eg a rd e d a sp ro vin g t h a t t h e r e a r e d e a l t h i n g s, i t a t l e a s t doesn o t l e a d t o a co n t ra r y conc lus ion ; b u t the method andconception on which i t i s based remain ev er i n harmony.S o d o u b t s of t h e m etho d, t h e r e f o r e , n e c e s s a r i l y a r i s efrom i t s p r ac t ic e .. .T h e f e e l i n g w hich g i v e s r i s e t o anymethod o f f i x i n g b e l i e f i s a d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n a t two r e -p ug na nt p r o p o s i t i o n s . B ut h e r e a l r e a d y i s a vague con-c e s s i o n t h a t t h e r e i s some hing , which a propzsit ionshould rep res en t . Uobody, the re fo re , can r e a l l y doubtt h a t t h e r e a r e n o t H e a ls , f o r , i f he d i d , d oub t a o u ldn o t be a s o u r c e o f d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n . The h y p o t h e s i s ,t h e r e f o r e , i s one which eve ry mind adm its. So t h a t th es o c i a l impulse does no t cause men t o doubt i t o 8

Ye i r c e l s c o n t e n t i o n s do n o t p r e t e n d t o be t h e ke ys t o

f i n a l i t y o r c e r t a i n t y . The c o n t r a r y c o il cl us io n t h a t he n o t e s

i m p l i e s t h a t t h e end of i n v e s t i g a t i o n c an n ot be regarded s

i r r e f u t a b l y p r o vi n g t h e c a se one way o r t h e o t h e r ; i f p r o o f N

must equa l abs o lu te I t then the method i s inadaquate. Jhen

t h i s i s recognized i t becomes clear tha t the Theory of Inquiry,

a l t h o u g h a v o i d i n g c o n t r a d i c t i o n , i s s i m p l y n o t s a t i s f a c t o r yf o r th os e s e ek i ng c e r t a i n t y. P e i r c e d oes n o t m ke any c la ims

f o r c e r t a i n t y , b u t he d o es v er y d e f i n i t e l y make the c la im of

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u t i l i t y f o r i n qu i ry i n th e f i x a t i o n of b e l i e f . c la im p e r fe c t -

l y c o n s i s t e n t w i t h a p hi lo so ph y t h a t o n t o l o g i c a l l y f i x e s on a

re co gn it i on of the temporal and changing n at ur e of man's world.Tru th and knowledge a re s i m i l a r ly f r e e from abso lu te

d e f i n i t i o n . R e l a t i v e t r u t h and r e l a t i v e knowledge h o ld t h e

hope of a changing, growing and more t im ely system of s o c i a l

d i r e c t i o n . In Recons tru ct ion i n l ? h i l o s o ~ h ~ ewey sks t h a t we

re ject the Greek concept of absolute knowledge and replace i t

w i t h e x i s t e n t i a l and p r a c t i c a l meaning; e r a s e t h e A r i s t o t e l i a n

f o o t n o t e , s o t o spea k. An a c t tha t would llow us t o t u r n

p hi lo so ph y i n t o a c r i t i c a l and a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a n t i n human

a f f a i r s .

m e n t h e p r a c t i c e of knowledge ceased t o b e d i a l e c t i c a land became ex pe ri me nt al , knowing became pre- occ upie d w it hc ha ng es and t h e t e s t of h o w l e d g e became t h e a b i l i t y t ob r i n g a b o u t c e r t a i n c ha ng es. Ih ow in g, f o r th e e x p e r i -mental sc ie nce s , means a c e r t a i n k ind 02 i n t e l l i g e n t l yconducted doing; i t c e a s e s t o be contemplative and be-comes i n a t r u e s e n s e p r a c t i c a l . i iow t h i s i m p l i e s t h a tphi losophy, unless i t i s t o undergo complete br ea kw i t h t h e a u t h o r i z e d s p i r i t of s c i e n c e , must a l s o a l t e ri t s na ture . I t m u s t a e s m e a p r a c t i c a l n a t u r e . . 9

And i n h i s major study on epistemology Ax~e-r ie nce nd Hature ,

he de f i ne s the t erm t r u t h . ' 'Tru th i s a c o l l e c t i o n of t r u t h s ;

and t h e se c o n s t i t u e n t t r u t h s a r e i n k ee pin g w i th t h e b e s t

a v a i l a b l e methods of i n q u i r y an d t e s t i n g a s t o m a t t e r s - o f - f a c t ;10

methods, which a r e , when c o ll e c te d under a s in g le name, sci en ce .

There i s i n f a c t , l i t t l e d i f f e re n c e between t r u t h and

knowledge excep t i n the t emporal se nse : one g ive s b i r t h to tne

1 o t h e r. Knowledge i s a c o n s t a n t l y e v o l vi n g p r o c es s t h a t i s i n\

e f f e c t , on t h e way t o becoming t r u t h I n s h o r t , knowledge i s

i n t e l l i g e n t d o in c , where t r u t h i s t he r e s u l t of i n t e l l i g e n t-

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f\ doi ng , Knowledge th en , once th e ob-iec t of sc ie n ce , i s u s e d i n

a more d i r e c t and un iv er sa l sens e , t o ach ieve the consummation

of i n t e n t i o n . Only t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t i t a c c o m ~ l i s h e s h i s

consummation can i t b e s a i d t o d e m on st ra te t r u t h .

To sum up, the means of accomplishment a r e r e l a t i v e l y

s imple and imminen t ly p rac t i ca l . I t begins wi th a problem

f o r knowing, which cause s p er p le x i t y , doubt and confu sion, an

i n d e t e r m i n a t e s i t u a t i o n . The s ec on d s t e p c o n s i s t s o ex-

a mi ni ng t h e im med iate p o s s i b i l i t i e s , of i s o l a t i n g t h e p ro blem .The t h i r d , a c a r e f u l s t u d y of a l l f a c t o r s s u rr ou nd in g t h e

problem, a c o m p i l a ti o n of f a c t s , o t r u t h s p e r t i n e n t t o i t i n

o r d e r t o b r i n g a b o u t d e e p e r u n d e r s ta n d i n g , F o u r t h , t h e d e v e l -

opment and widening of a t e n a t i v e h y p o t h e s i s f o r p r e o i s i o n and

c o n s i s t e n c y, t o a ll om f o r s p e c u l a t i v e e xa mi na ti on i n a b r o ad e r

c o n t e x t , F i f t h , a d e c l a r a t i o n of a c t i o n s p e c i f i c a l l y aimed

a t e x i s t i n g , e x i s t e n t i a l a f f a i r s , and, t o t e s t th e h yp oth es i s,

t he a c t i o n i t s e l f , The f o u r t h and f i f t h s t e p s re p re se n t t he

exper imenta l and ins t rum ent a l d i r e c t i o n of the inqu i ry . To

s t o p b e f o r e t h e s e s t e p s a r e t ak en i s t o g u a ra n te e a t r i a l and

e r r o r i n q u i r y w i t h s l i g h t ch an ce of s u c c e s s . These f i v e s t e p s

c o ul d b e c a l l e d t h e t h e o r y of i n q u i r y , o r a p r o p e r l y d i r e c -

t g d r e f l e c t i v e e x pe ri en c e. Gut as I have shown, every one of

the s t e p s i n v o l v e d i s i n some way in t e r - r e l a t e d wi th the p rag-

m a ti c n o t i o n s of kn ow led ge, e x p e r i e n c e , t h e n a t u r e of r e a l i t y

and t r u t h and f a l s i t y , Only th rough a comprehens ive under-

s tan d in g of these t e rms can in qu i ry be co ns i s te n t ly ;vorkab le .

Those who doubt t h e v a l i d i t y of i n q u i r y a s a u n i v e r s a l l y

a p p l i c a b l e means t o s e t t l e o p in io n , b a se t h e i r d o ub t l e s s on

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th e above o u t li n ed s y s t e ~ m on mhat they se e t o be a l i m i t

a t i o n of scope , The argument goes, a s a me thodology i nq ui ry

could be q u i t e s u c c e s s f u l , s o l on g a s t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r

remains wi th in sci en ce , But when Dewey speak s of t r u t h a s

processes of change s o d i r e c t e d t h a t t h e y a c h i e v e a n i n t e n de d

c o n s ~ m m a t i o n , ~ e de a l s ou t mo ra l i ty, Dewey an t i c i p a t ed such

re ac t i o n ; To gen e ra l i z e t he r e cog n i t i on t h a t [ t r u th ] means

the v e r i f i e d and means not hin g e l s e place a upon men th e respon-

s i b i l i t y f o r s ur re n de r i ng p o l i t i c a l and moral dams andsub j ec t i ng t o t he t e s t of conse quences t h e i r most c h e r i a h ed

1 2p r e j u d i c e s .

The crux o most human p e r p l e x i t i e s i n eve ryday a f f a i r s

i s the angry ju xt ap os i t io n of value s . Dewey, in s t ea d of ne-

g l e c t i n g v a l u e s , p o i n t ed t h e way f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g new v a l u e s

i n the f ac e of change. H i s i n s i s te n c e t h a t m n s t o p th e

f u t i l e a t te m p t t o l i v e i n two u nr e l a te d w or ld s, f o rc e d t h e

i s su e o f va lue s ou t of t he da r k of me t ap h ys ica l s p e c tu l a t i o n

and i n t o t he ha rd l i g h t of day.

S e c t i o n One p a r t two

Arthur Ko es t le r, The dle ep va l& rs: A History of Nan's

Ch aw ing Vi sio n of t he Universe (Hew York: Gr os se t and

Dunlap, 19 63 ) , p a 53.

John Dewey and nrthur F B en t ley , Xhowini;r, and the Known

( ~ o s t o n : Beacon P r e s s , 1 9 4 9 ) , c h p , 5.

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Se c t io n One: p a r t two

11OrTZ5 ( c o n t

3 J oh n Dewey, L o ~ i c : he T ne or y o f I n a u i r y ( ~ e w ork: H o l t ,

H i n e h a r t a n d Vi n s t o n , 1 9 6 0 ) , pp . 1 04 -0 5.

4 John Dewey, 3 xp e ri en ce and ITature Xew York: Dover Pub-

l i c a t i o n s , 1 9 5 8 ) , p. 86.

C h a rl e s Ye i r c e , The F i x a t i o n of B e l i e f , P h i l o s o ~ h i &m i t i n e s of k e i r c e , ed . S u st us E u ch le r (liew York: Dover

P u b l i c a t i o n s , 1 9 5 5 ) , pp. 10-11.

6 P e i r c e , P h i l o s ~ ~ i c a l : r i t ings , pp . 15-17 .

7 Joh n Dewey, The Q u e s t f o r C e r t a i n a (New York: C a p r i c o r n

Books, 1 9 6 0 ) ~ . 69.

k e i r c e , k h i l o s o a h i c a l ; ' ir i t in g s , pp. 18-19,

9 J oh n Dewey, i i e c o