eindhoven university of technology master heating and ... · and used to size air source heat pump...
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Eindhoven University of Technology
MASTER
Heating and cooling with air source heat pump and air handling unit system for mobiletemporary Tiny House clusters
Lazauskas, M.
Award date:2016
Link to publication
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Hea
ating a
and A
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Jan
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Marius Laz
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Tiny Ho
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th April 20
med Hassa
Physics an
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Mobile
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i Xu
ump
1
Heating and Cooling with Air Source Heat Pump and Air
Handling Unit system for Mobile Temporary Tiny House
Clusters
Marius Lazauskas ID: 0756472
Supervised by: J.L.M.Hensen,M.H.HassanMohamed,L.Xu,A.PapadopoulosUnitBuildingPhysicsandServicesEindhovenUniversityofTechnology
Eindhoven,theNetherlands
The possibility of implementing central heating and cooling system for Heijmans ONE mobile
temporary Tiny House cluster was analyzed. Heijmans ONE was treated as a case study to examine
central heating and cooling system feasibility for Tiny Houses. Thermal comfort and life‐cycle cost
were chosen as the performance indicators. TRNSYS was used to model 10 unit Heijmans ONE
cluster in Existing Case (Electric Under Floor Heating) and Investigated Case (Central Air Source Heat
Pump partially powered by a Photovoltaic system and an Air Handling Unit for heating and cooling
within the units). The Existing Case simulation results were validated by previous research outcomes
and used to size Air Source Heat Pump for Investigated Case. Indoor temperatures showed that
Investigated Case provides better comfort as the Existing Case has no cooling capability. Indoor
summer temperatures were on average 0.3°C and during peaks up to 3°C lower for Investigated
Case. Underheating hours were also no longer present in Investigated Case. Regarding life‐cycle
costs, central heating and cooling pays off after 9 years. All the equipment for central heating and
cooling is stationed in a shipping container. This allows the system to be used for the lifespan of
Heijmans ONE (30 years).
Nomenclature
H1 Heijmans ONE TH Tiny House DC Direct Current DHW Domestic Hot Water CHP Combined Heat and Power mCHP micro Combined Heat and Power HP Heat Pump ASHP Air Source Heat Pump HVAC Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning GSHP Ground Source Heat Pump PV Photovoltaic nZEB nearly Zero Energy Buildings ZEB Zero‐Energy Building PEB Positive‐Energy Building IR Infra‐Red
2
FIR Far Infra‐Red PVT Photovoltaic Thermal hybrid solar collectors AHU Air Handling Unit RES Renewable Energy Source STE Solar Thermal Energy UFH Under Floor Heating STES Seasonal Thermal Energy Storage ICE Internal Combustion Engine TES Thermal Energy Storage CBPS Computational Building Performance Simulation COP Coefficient Of Performance MRT Mean Radiant Temperature DHC District Heating and Cooling DH District Heating PMV Predicted Mean Vote PPD Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied
1. Introduction
Energy sharing among new Positive‐Energy Buildings and old energy inefficient buildings can form
part of the solution for net zero energy consumption goals of the built environment [1]. PEBs
generate more RES energy annually than they consume. Surplus RES is exported to the grid
(Electrical) or the DHC system (Thermal). They differ from ZEBs by having negative net energy
consumption over a typical year [2, p. 3067]. Energy inefficient buildings generate less RES energy
annually than they consume. Energy deficit is met by burning fossil fuels, importing energy from the
grid (Electrical) or DHC system (Thermal). ZEBs are energy‐efficient building where, on a source
energy basis, the actual annual delivered energy is less than or equal to the on‐site renewable
exported energy [3, p. 4]. The buildings with poor energy performance will form a major part of real
estate in the future as they are the houses, offices, shopping centers of today. Energy consumption
in these buildings will be eased by renovations, more energy efficient appliances, occupancy sensors
and other, but in some cases fundamental limitations will be reached and negative energy balance of
these buildings will remain. Local energy sharing in a form of district heating and/or cooling can form
part of the solution. Nowadays district heating is centralized with dedicated plants, usually CHP
units, providing hot water to consumers in nearby vicinity [4, p. 185, Fig. 31]. As with the case of
smart grids, in electricity distribution, future can bring decentralized hot and/or cold water
production, when energy positive buildings become widely adopted. This surplus thermal energy can
then be used to cover the deficit created by old energy negative buildings. Furthermore energy
performance of a building also greatly depends on occupant behavior and the same dwellings can
have very different energy consumption profiles. DHC can allow distribution of energy from more
efficient units to less deficient ones and as a result reach better cumulative energy performance
both in sustainability and financial terms. Heijmans ONE can provide a testbed for evaluating various
types of DHC systems for Tiny Houses.
Long‐term goal of such THs as H1 is to provide temporary housing solutions at an affordable price
[5], [6]. The core of this initiative is formed by using high quality of life housing and temporally
placed in derelict sites [7]. These locations are picked within cities with large demand for
accommodation, which there is plenty of in the Netherlands. Moreover the chosen sites are
strategic
transpor
means t
allocate
ought to
efficient
develop
are goin
and com
feasibilit
2. Pro
There ar
[9] and A
for spac
with occ
ASHP ca
reserve
used as
demand
[10].
There ar
for H1 c
cally located
rtation hubs
that costs fo
d for design
o be relocate
t the house i
er. Consequ
ng to be stan
mfort. H1 ca
ty in THs.
oblem defi
re a couple
ASHP DHC sy
ce heating an
cupant beha
apacity selec
and avoid ov
a single larg
d does not ap
re a couple o
lusters:
d (To make
, etc. The fa
or its interm
ning and ma
ed at least 6
is going to b
ently Heijma
ding in clust
ase study is
inition
of TH cluste
ystem can in
nd condition
avior – lifest
ction complic
vercapacity.
ge ASHP can
ppear at the
F
of considerat
THs more
ct that idling
mittent utiliz
nufacturing
times. Plane
e, the smalle
ans is looking
ers of 3 to 1
going to pro
rs, which ar
ncrease their
ing can vary
tyle habits a
cated as it h
For this reas
have lower c
same time,
Fig. 1 Existing C
tions that ha
attractive t
g land is use
zation are sm
of the build
ed fixed rent
er the utility
g for ways o
10, where DH
ovide an ins
e being plan
r energy per
y greatly for t
and indoor c
has to meet
son Coincide
capacity tha
so the maxi
ase – Local elec
ave to be tak
to potential
d temporari
mall. As a r
ding, which
ting price of
y costs and g
f improve en
HC systems c
sight into ce
nned to be b
rformance an
the same typ
comfort pref
heating and
ence Factors
n the combi
imum capac
ctric UFH system
ken into acco
tenants): n
ly until its re
esult larger
through its
H1 means t
greater pote
nergy perfor
can provide b
ntral space
built around
nd comfort.
pe dwellings
ferences [4,
d cooling dem
and Load Dis
nation of sep
ity of single
m
ount when s
next to city
edevelopme
investments
lifespan of
that the mor
ntial paybac
mance of H1
better life‐cy
conditioning
the Netherl
Energy cons
s. This has a
p. 139]. Th
mands, have
stribution Cu
parate syste
ASHP can be
selecting DH
3
centers,
nt starts,
s can be
30 years
re energy
ck for the
1s, which
ycle costs
g system
ands [8],
sumption
lot to do
is makes
e enough
urves are
ms – the
e smaller
C system
4
1. DHC
(Len
cool
of 3
2. Req
GSH
3. ASH
heat
4. DHC
heat
Life‐
syst
5. DHW
2.1 Sc
Europea
as Passiv
more an
of ZEBs a
are the
technolo
this to h
econom
heating
building
C equipment
ngth – 5.87
ling, distribu
to 10 Heijm
uirement fo
HP;
P meets the
ting has bee
C systems re
t loses in th
‐cycle costs a
em (Fig. 1) li
W is not go
Fi
cientific rel
an Parliamen
ve Houses by
n exception t
and PEBs, w
ones that ca
ogical as we
happen. DHC
ic terms. Th
alternatives
g retrofitting
has to be a
m; Width –
tion and PV
ans ONE uni
or DHC equip
e requiremen
n shown to h
quire greate
e network a
analysis will
fe‐cycle cost
ing to be in
ig. 2. Investigat
evance
nt 2012/27/E
y 2020 [1]. E
than the nor
hich take act
an be retrof
ll as financia
C can be part
his research
s. Such info
or new cons
s easy to tra
– 2.33 m; He
inverter equ
ts;
pment to be
nts for mobi
have long pa
er initial fina
and greater r
reveal if the
ts.
nvestigated
ted Case – Cent
EU energy ef
Even though
rm. Besides
tive building
itted into ex
l hurdles ha
t of the solut
will compar
ormation pro
struction pro
ansport and
eight – 2.65
uipment (Fig.
e mobile ab
ility. On the
ay‐off period
ancial investm
requirement
e extra inves
in this rese
tral ASHP and A
fficiency dire
Passive Hou
Passive Hou
g system desi
xisting buildi
ve to be ove
tion and var
re ASHP DH
ovides value
ojects.
setup as H1
5 m [11]) is
. 2). This is g
olishes insta
other hand
(>9 years) [1
ment for the
ts for mainte
tment is wo
earch, only s
AHU Heating an
ective sets go
uses were fir
uses there ar
ign approach
ng stock to
ercome in th
ious options
C system fo
e for select
houses. 20 f
going to ho
oing to satisf
allation poss
investment
12, p. 39];
e distribution
enance – thi
rth it, when
space heatin
d Cooling syste
oals for new
st built in th
re competing
h. Active ene
make it mor
e coming ye
have to be
r Tiny Hous
ing active b
ft shipping c
ouse all the
fy DHC requ
sibilities of S
costs for lo
n network, t
is all increas
compared w
ng and cond
em
w buildings to
e 1990s they
g design fram
ergy efficient
re sustainab
ears in order
evaluated in
se clusters w
building syst
container
heating,
irements
STES and
cal ASHP
there are
ses costs.
with local
ditioning.
o be built
y are still
meworks
t systems
le. Many
r to allow
n techno‐
with local
tems for
3. Re
The mai
1. How
2. Is R
ener
3. How
3.1 P
Previous
DH syst
systems
the sam
installat
AHU sys
Addition
for H1 p
glazing
energy d
for heat
make H1
4. Me
Simplifie
detail m
for the
measure
3 occup
demand
search que
n questions
w does air co
adiative Loc
rgy (Electrici
w does UFH l
revious Res
s research w
ems were c
provided be
me derelict s
ion local he
stem for spac
nal research
prototype w
installed an
demand to 5
ting was met
1 a nZEB bui
ethodology
ed H1 mode
model done in
simplified m
ement data.
pant behavio
ds, loads and
estions
which are go
nditioning af
cal UFH mor
ty) consump
ife‐cycle cos
search
was conducte
compared –
etter energy
site for no l
ating system
ce heating an
was carried
was respectiv
d external s
550 kWh for
t by 8*1.65 m
lding.
y
el is going to
n previous re
model. The d
Fig. 3. Metho
or scenarios
d comfort lev
oing to be an
ffect comfor
re efficient t
ption terms?
ts compare t
ed on selectio
6 in total (
efficiency a
longer than
m was prefer
nd electric b
out on maki
vely 1464 kW
shading add
heating and
m2 PV panel
o be created
esearch [13,
detail mode
odological chart
will be imp
vels extracte
nswered via t
rt levels in H1
than Convec
to Central AS
on of most s
3 local and
nd financial
5 years. Th
rred. Electric
oiler for DHW
ing H1 nZEB
Wh and 471
ded – these
247 kWh fo
s installed o
d in TRNSYS
p. 34]. TRNS
l was create
t explaining dat
plemented (
ed. The extra
this research
1?
ctive Centra
SHP AHU life
uitable heat
3 district).
benefits. H1
his means th
c radiators w
W.
[13]. Simula
1 kWh. Infilt
measures l
r cooling. Pa
on the roof. H
and validate
SYS Type660
ed using TRN
ta sources used
4.3 Scenario
acted values
h are:
l ASHP AHU
e‐cycle costs?
ing system f
In the long
1 clusters oug
hat for easy
were selecte
ated heating
tration rate
owered the
rt of the prim
However thi
ed (4.2.3 Mo
and Type75
NSYS Type56
d in the report
os) and med
will be used
U Heating in
?
for H1 [12]. L
term (>9 y
ght to be sta
y transporta
ed over cent
and cooling
was lowere
e proposed
mary energy
is was not en
odel validati
59 is going to
6 and it com
dian values
d to compare
5
primary
Local and
ears) DH
anding in
tion and
ral ASHP
demand
ed, triple
H1 nZEB
demand
nough to
ion) by a
o be used
mes with
of HVAC
e existing
6
H1 UFH case (4.4 Existing Case) comfort levels and life‐cycle costs with the proposed ASHP AHU DHC
case (4.5 Investigated Case).
4.1 Performance indicators
Two performance indicators are used to evaluate the performance of existing case (4.4 Existing
Case) and DHC case (4.5 Investigated Case) H1 clusters: Comfort levels and Life‐cycle costs.
4.1.1 Comfort levels
For comfort level indication occupied overheating and underheating hours are going to be used.
Overheating hours occur when indoor temperature exceeds 28°C [14, p. 4]. Underheating hours
occur when indoor temperature drops below 18°C.
4.1.2 Life‐cycle costs
Life‐cycle costs are a sum of initial investment, operational and maintenance costs. Initial investment
costs will be calculated by referring to equipment supplier pricing databases. Operational costs will
be calculated from annual space conditioning energy demand. Literature will be used to find
reference DHC system maintenance costs.
4.2 Modeling
To allow greater flexibility it was decided to simplify H1 TRNSYS model. The new model uses TRNSYS
Type660 single thermal zone instead of TRNSYS Type56 3 zone model used in previous research [13].
H1 overhang shading was incorporated into the model by adapting SHGC value (Fig. 20). The new
Type660 model was validated by using measurements and detail model simulation results (4.2.3
Model validation).
Type660 was used for Existing Case as it has integrated heating and cooling capabilities (Fig. 31). UFH
converts >95% electricity into usable heat, so inbuilt heating and cooling capabilities of Type660
were enough to simulate the indoor climate.
Type759 was used for Investigated Case – it has no heating and cooling capabilities (Fig. 35). Heating
and cooling systems as well as the controls were configured separately. The heating and cooling was
provided by AHU’s heating and cooling coils, thermostats were used for the controls.
4.2.1 TRNSYS simulations
Single H1 unit was simulated with 3 different scenarios in Existing Case and demand, load,
overheating and underheating hour values were recorded (Fig. 6). This information was used to
select ASHP and AHU power for DHC case (4.5 Investigated Case). The building envelope receives no
changes in‐between the existing case and proposed DHC case.
4.2.2
10 unit H
with the
62400.tm
General
4.2.3
Heating
recorded
measure
simulati
simulate
Fig. 5. H1
4.3 Sc
Scenario
Comfort
validatio
approac
cooling e
H1 cluster la
Fig. 4
H1 cluster is
e detail mo
m2” weathe
properties o
Model valid
power of U
d from 27t
ements were
ons for the
ed for that gi
1 heating dema
cenarios
os will allow
t and financi
on is setup t
ch validation
equipment,
ayout
4. H1 cluster lay
s arranged ac
odel ([13, p
er file. File da
of H1 are pre
dation
UFH was calh of April
e taken. As
peak winter
iven period:
Measu
Detail
Simplif
and from 27th o
w compariso
ial indicators
o match sim
n. Scenario
so there is n
yout. Front view
ccording to t
. 34]) the H
ata indicates
esent in Fig. 1
culated to b
2015 until
a result the
r season. Fo
start time –
Source
ured
model (Type
fied model (T
of April 2015 un
ns to be ma
s will provid
mulation prop
is going to
o cooling set
w and Top view
the Fig. 4 sit
H1 10 unit
s that weath
18 and Fig. 2
be 2.5 kW (4
15th of Sep
ere are no
or validation
2856 h; stop
e56)
Type660)
ntil 15th of Sep14]
ade betwee
e the requir
perties of pr
be almost t
tpoint.
w. Spaces betwe
e plan. One
clusters to
her station lo
20 of this rep
4.4.1 Electri
ptember 20
measureme
purposes th
p time – 626
Heating de[kWh], [kW
156.48 (3.4
110.07 (2.4
138.82 (3.0
tember 2015 –
n local cent
red assessme
revious resea
he same as
een the units –
unit represe
uses “NL‐A
ocation is at
ports append
c UFH). Mea
015 [13, p.
nts to valida
he simplified
4 h; time ste
emand; Wh/m2]
48)
45)
08)
measurements
tral space co
ent informat
arch to prov
Scenario , E
0.7 m
ents a single
Amsterdam‐S
t 52°18'0"N 4
dix.
asurement d
11]. No a
ate heating
d H1 model
ep – 1 h.
s and simulatio
onditioning
tion. Scenari
vide simplifie
Existing Case
7
Zone. As
Schiphol‐
4°46'2"E.
data was
dditional
demand
was also
ons [13, p.
systems.
io Model
ed model
e has no
8
4.3.1 Occupant behavior
Occupancy behavior accounts for about 30% of the variance in overall heating consumption and 50%
in cooling consumption. In addition, overall energy savings of 10%–20% due to simple behavioral
adjustments are a reasonable expectation [15]. As a result 3 occupant behavior profiles were
created, which would allow getting average values for H1 clusters. For heating setpoint the lowest
temperature was chosen to be 18°C [16, p. 4]. For cooling setpoint the highest temperature was
chosen to be 28°C, which would require the occupant to be energy conscious and use a local fan [14,
p. 4]. Nonetheless 28°C and higher temperatures were recorded during summer time in H1
(Appendix B: Indoor temperature measurements). More detail occupant behavior information for
each case is present in the Appendix.
4.3.2 Scenario Model validation
Scenario for simplified H1 TRNSYS model validation was matched with scenario from previous
research [13, p. 31]. More details in Appendix A‐1: Model validation TRNSYS model properties.
4.3.3 Scenario Existing Case
Space heating will be done by an UFH system, no cooling (Fig. 1, Fig. 7, Fig. 9). This scenario will allow
assessing the effects of cooling on comfort levels as Investigated Case is going to incorporate air
conditioning. More details in Appendix A‐2: Existing Case TRNSYS model properties.
4.3.4 Scenario Investigated Case
Central ASHP will be used to satisfy heating and cooling demands. Hot or chilled water will be
distributed among H1 dwellings via flexible insulated pipes (Fig. 2, Fig. 12). AHU will be used for
space conditioning. 20” shipping container will accommodate the ASHP as well as a central DC to AC
inverter for electricity generated by PV panels located on H1 roofs (Fig. 14). More details in Appendix
A‐3: Investigated Case TRNSYS model properties.
4.4 Existing Case
Simulations were done for a complete year: start time – 0 hour; stop time – 8760 hour; time step – 1
hour. Scenario Existing Case was used for calculating overheating, underheating and heating
demands. Peak loads are going to be used for selecting appropriate power ASHP and AHU for
Investigated Case. In total 3 simulations were done: 1 unit with Scenario No. 1; 1 unit with Scenario
No. 2; 1 unit with Scenario No. 3. An average was calculated from 3 results. Peak Cooling Demand
was found by setting the available cooling power to 280 kW. H1 in the Existing Case does not have
cooling capability, but the Peak Cooling Demand is going to be used to select correct capacity ASHP
and AHU combination for Investigated Case. Peak Heating Demand was found by setting the
available heating power to 280 kW. The Peak Heating Demand is going to be used to select correct
capacity ASHP and AHU combination for Investigated Case. Building envelope properties used are
present in Appendix A: Properties and boundary conditions.
Overhea
occupied
Overhea
measure
summer
weather
weather
Appeara
(Mechan
the heat
Relative
effects a
ScenariNo.
1
2
3
Average
Fig.
ating hours
d; Undereat
ating hours w
ements. Ove
r temperatu
r file. As a re
r file summ
ance of Und
nical ventilat
ting demand
humidity is
are neglected
io OverheaOccupie[h]
0
0
0
e 0.0
6. Existing Case
are hours,
ting hours –
were also ob
erheating in
res were hi
sult Overhea
mer tempera
derheating
tion without
d.
Fig. 7. Existin
s omitted as
d. TRSNYS m
ating ed;
UndeOccu
0
13
225
79.33
e results for de
when the in
indoor tem
bserved in H
measureme
igher than t
ating hours i
atures are lo
hours (Fig.
heat recove
ng Case space c
only sensib
model overvie
erheating pied; [h]
PCL[
1
7
2
3 3
mand, load, ov
ndoor temp
mperature dr
1 measurem
ent data ca
the tempera
n simulation
ower than
6) indicate
ery) the 2.5 k
conditioning en
ble heating a
ew is present
Peak Cooling Load; [kW]
HeDe[kW[kW
1.08 53(11
7.27 73(16
2.15 11(25
3.5 80(17
verheating and
perature rise
rops below 1
ment data – A
n be explai
atures prese
ns might not
the ones o
s that at in
kW UFH syst
ergy consumpt
and cooling
t in Fig. 31.
eating emand; Wh/yr], Wh/m2yr]
98 19.96)
11 62.47)
569 57.09)
092 79.84)
underheating h
es above 28°
18°C and th
Appendix B:
ned by the
ent in the s
occur as stan
bserved in
ncreased ve
em is not ca
ion flowchart
is used in th
Peak Heating Load; [kW]
2.94
13.07
20.5
12.17
hours
°C and the
e space is o
Indoor tem
fact that m
standardized
ndardized si
the measu
entilation flo
apable of cop
his model an
9
space is
occupied.
perature
measured
TRNSYS
mulation
rements.
ow rates
ping with
nd latent
10
4.4.1
The grou
in the o
cabinets
20*100=
4.5 In
TRNSYS
compris
controls
Large he
believe t
intermit
smart gr
Electric UFH
und floor of
ccupied zon
s, hence it i
= 2.5 kW (90
nvestigated
Type759 mo
es of a sing
s (Fig. 35). As
eat pumps ge
that they wi
ttent power
rids. [19, p. 2
Scenario No.
1
2
3
F
H
H1 is 29.64 m
es is 100 W
s estimated
00 kJ/h).
Fig.
d Case
odel was use
gle Type759
s with Existin
enerally do n
ill be more c
generation,
230]
Amount oH1 Units
3
3
4
Fig. 8. Existing C
m2. It is not s
/m² [17]. Pa
that 25 m2
9. UFH will pro
d to create a
9 zone and
ng Case the s
not have a la
common in t
, heat pump
of SingleHeating Demand[kWh/yr
5398
7311
11569
Case H1 cluster
specified wh
art of the gro2 has UFH. T
ovide space hea
a H1 node of
AHU compo
same occupa
arge share o
the future. N
ps supplying
Unit
d; r]
ToDe[kW
heating deman
hat size area
ound floor is
The estimate
ting in Existing
f Investigate
onents for z
nt scenarios
f the DH sup
Not least in c
DH can co
otal Heating emand; Wh/yr]
84403
nd
has UFH. Th
s covered in
ed heating p
Case
d Case DHC s
zone conditi
have been u
pply. Howeve
combination
ntribute to
he maximum
furniture an
power of H
system. The
ioning with
used (4.3 Sce
er, there is r
with large s
the develop
capacity
nd utility
1 UFH is
H1 node
external
enarios).
reason to
shares of
pment of
Heat pu
District s
useful h
Such sys
ScenNo.
1
2
3
Average
tempera
tempera
Average
tempera
tempera
ScenarioNo.
1
2
3
Average
Fig.
ump‐based c
scale heat pu
heating effec
stems offer t
nario AmouH1 U
3
3
4
e Peak Heatin
ature 70°C a
ature 7°C and
F
e Peak Heatin
ature 70°C a
ature 7°C and
o OverheaOccupied[h]
0
0
0
e 0.0
10. Investigate
ooling is als
ump system
ct and a use
the potential
unt of nits
SiCoD[k
16
56
26
Fig. 11. Inv
ng Load for H
and return t
d return tem
Fig. 12. Investig
ng Load for H
and return t
d return tem
ting d;
UndeOccup
0
0
0
0.0
d Case results f
o becoming
s that use ce
ful cooling e
l for very fav
ingle Unooling emand; kWh/yr]
6
6.9
62
vestigated Case
H1 is 12.17 k
temperature
mperature 12
gated Case spac
H1 is 12.17 k
temperature
mperature 12
rheating pied; [h]
CD[k[k
1
5
2
1
for demand, ov
g more popu
entral station
effect simult
vorable overa
nit Total CDeman[kWh/y
126
e H1 cluster hea
kW, Average
e not lower
2°C [15, p. 11
ce conditioning
kW, Average
e not lower
2°C [21, p. 11
Cooling Demand; kWh/yr], kWh/m2yr]
16 (0.36)
56.9 (1.26)
262 (5.82)
111.6 (2.48)
verheating and
ular globally,
n heat pump
taneously w
all system CO
Cooling d; yr]
SinHeDe[kW
66.7
344
47
75
ating and coolin
e Peak Coolin
than 35°C [
1.4].
energy consum
e Peak Coolin
than 35°C [
1.4].
HeatingDemand[kWh/y[kWh/m
3447 (7
4782 (1
7521 (1
5250 (1
underheating h
due to its i
p(s) have bee
ith the same
OP [19, p. 18
ngle Unitating mand; Wh/yr]
47
82
21
ng demand
ng Load – 3.5
14] [13, p. 2
mption flowcha
ng Load – 3.5
20] [19, p. 2
g d; yr], m2yr]
76.6)
106.27)
167.13)
116.6)
hours
inherent effi
en able to ge
e heat pump
84].
t Total HeDemand;[kWh/yr]
5477
5 kW. Heatin
234]. Coolin
rt
5 kW. Heatin
234]. Coolin
11
iciencies.
enerate a
p unit(s).
ating ; ]
1
ng supply
ng supply
ng supply
ng supply
12
ASHP is to have Heating Power of 75 kW (Fig. 50) and Cooling Power of 15 kW (Fig. 49). Besides Load
Duration Curves, H1 cluster with different occupant behaviors was generated and peak heating and
cooling loads added together (Fig. 13). The peak cooling loads matched, but heating load was 30 kW
greater on the Fig. 13 approach.
Scenario No.
Amount of H1 Units
Peak Single Unit Cooling Load; [kW]
Total Cooling Load; [kW]
Peak Single Unit Heating Load; [kW]
Total Heating Load; [kW]
1 3 1.08
33.65
2.94
130.03 2 3 7.27 13.07
3 4 2.15 20.5
Fig. 13. H1 cluster with different occupant behavior peak heating and cooling loads
There are a couple of ways how load requirements of a DHC system can be estimated. For this
research Load Duration Curve and Coincidence Factor were consider as tools for selecting the ASHP
capacity:
Load Duration Curve – illustrates the variation of a certain load in a downward form such
that the greatest load is plotted in the left and the smallest one in the right. On the time
axis, the time duration for which each certain load continues during the day is given [22].
Load Duration Curve indicates the frequency of when a particular power is used by the DHC
plant to satisfy demand.
Coincidence Factor – is a measure of the probability that a particular piece of equipment will
turn on coincidentally to another piece of equipment. For aggregate systems it is defined as
the ratio of the sum of the individual non‐coincident maximum loads of various subdivisions
of the system to the maximum demand of the complete system [23]. Coincidence factor is
used for determining required heating power in large District Heating networks, where
loads vary greatly.
Load Duration Curves were chosen as the tool for ASHP capacity selection.
4.5.1 Modeling district systems
To compare the effectiveness of different space conditioning systems the initial TRNSYS Existing Case
model was setup with Type660 simplified conditioned zone [24, p. 43]. Type660 comes with internal
heating and cooling controls (Fig. 31) and as a result the loads reflect on electric UFH accurately as
>95% of electricity is converted into heat. This model was adjusted for Investigated Case and
Type660 was replaced with Type759 conditioned zone [24, p. 44]. To control AHU external heating
and cooling controls were created, which modulate heat recovery unit and hot or chilled water flow
through the AHU water‐to‐air heat exchanger (Fig. 35). For ASHP electrical energy consumption
seasonal COP and ERR values were used (Fig. 41).This allowed comparing the heating and cooling
demands of the two different systems, while using the same core model data (Appendix A:
Properties and boundary conditions).
4.5.2
Due to t
investiga
50) and
satisfy t
capacity
Pump.
4.5.3
2000 lit
water. C
4.5.4
Pre‐insu
in H1 clu
4.5.5
Due to t
investiga
52) and
to be ca
heat exc
modulat
Append
Central ASH
Fig. 14. 2
time constra
ation 75% pe
50% peak c
he demands
y is going to
Buffer tank
er buffer ta
Calculations a
Insulated Pi
ulated flexibl
usters [25].
AHU
time constra
ation 75% p
50% peak co
apable of 191
changer me
ting fluid flo
ix C‐3: Air Ha
HP
20” shipping co
in the full po
eak heating
cooling load
s 5 ASHP unit
o be used. A
nk was chos
and addition
pe
e RAUTHERM
in the full po
eak heating
ooling load (1
1.39–318.98
ets the requ
ow rate goin
andling Unit.
ntainer will hou
otential of Lo
load (75 kW
d (15 kW) as
ts (Danfoss D
Additional in
sen for hot
nal informatio
MEX pipes ar
otential of Lo
load (6.7 kW
1.6 kW) as th
m3/h ventil
uirements. T
g through th
.
use the central
oad Duration
W) was select
s the cooling
DHP‐AQ) wit
nformation is
water and 5
on is present
re going to b
oad Duration
W) was selec
he cooling ca
ation rates (
The heating/
he heat exc
ASHP and inve
n Curves was
ted as the h
g capacity o
th 15 kW hea
s present in
500 liter buf
t in Appendi
be used for h
n Curves was
cted as the h
apacity of th
(Fig. 34). DU
/cooling out
hanger. Add
rter in Investiga
not investig
eating capac
of the centra
ating capacit
Appendix C
ffer tank wa
x C‐2: Buffer
hot and chille
not investig
heating capa
e central ASH
PLEX 370 EC
put of the A
itional infor
ated Case
gated. After g
city of the A
al ASHP (Fig
ty and 10 kW
C‐1: Air Sou
as chosen fo
r tank sizing.
ed water dis
gated. After g
acity of the A
HP (Fig. 51).
CV4 with wat
AHU is contr
rmation is pr
13
graphical
SHP (Fig.
. 49). To
W cooling
rce Heat
or chilled
tribution
graphical
AHU (Fig.
AHU has
ter‐to‐air
rolled by
resent in
14
Fig. 15. A
4.5.6
PV pane
H1 PV sy
unit clus
estimate
4.5.7
Total ou
for DC to
5. Re
The resu
1. Hea
leve
light
2. In e
time
3. Inve
5.1 Th
The mai
model v
troubles
AHU will provide
PV roof outp
els are placed
ystem is esti
ster is 23400
e.
Inverter
utput of PV s
o AC convers
sults and d
ults of this re
t recovery sy
els (Lowers
tweight struc
lectricity con
es less energ
estments into
he challeng
n challenge
validation. L
shooting and
e space conditio
put
d on H1 roof
imated to an
0 kWh. Addit
system insta
sion [26].
discussion
eport show t
ystem and co
summer ind
cture residen
nsumption t
gy than Existi
o more capit
ges of the re
was lack of
Like with al
d getting use
oning and PV w
f slope, whic
nnually gene
tional inform
lled on H1 c
hat:
ooling in a fo
door tempe
nce);
terms Invest
ng Case (844
tal intense In
esearch
annual meas
ll niche soft
d to the use
will cover some Case
ch has an are
erate 2340 k
mation is pre
luster roof is
orm of AHU
ratures and
igated Case
403 kWh) wi
nvestigated C
surement da
tware a co
r interface a
of the central A
ea of 19.45 m
Wh of electr
esent in App
s 24 kW. Tw
(Investigated
removes u
(21287.6 kW
th UFH (Fig.
Case pays off
ata of the H1
nsiderable a
nd the capab
ASHP electricity
m2 and is fac
ricity. Combi
endix C‐4: P
o 12 kW inv
d Case) incre
underheating
Wh) with cen
56, Fig. 58);
f in 9 years (F
1 residence f
amount of
bilities of the
y demand in Inv
cing the Sout
ined capacit
PV annual pr
verters were
eases indoor
g (Fig. 16))
ntral ASHP r
Fig. 17).
for simplified
time was s
e tool.
vestigated
th. Single
y of a 10
oduction
selected
r comfort
in a H1
require 4
d TRNSYS
spent on
15
5.2 Comfort levels
The most demanding occupancy scenario is Scenario No. 3. As a result indoor comfort effects of
different cases are going to be visible on this scenario the most (Fig. 16). From the graph it can be
seen that Investigated Case indoor temperatures are in a narrower band than Existing Case and with
lower summer temperatures – better indoor comfort.
As can be observed by overheating and underheating hours in Fig. 6 and Fig. 10, the Investigated
Case has none, while Existing Case had occurrences of underheating hours due to lack of mechanical
ventilation with heat recovery. The effectiveness of heat recovery can also be observed in lower
annual heating demand for Investigated Case. Additional information is present in Appendix D‐3:
Comfort levels.
Fig. 16. Scenario No. 3 Existing Case and Investigated Case indoor temperatures
For the summer months (from 3600 h to 5760 h) the average indoor temperature was 0.3°C lower in
Investigated Case (Fig. 16). During peaks indoor temperature was up to 3°C lower in Investigated
Case (Fig. 16).
5.3 Life‐cycle costs
The initial capital required for Investigated Case is 90000 € higher than Existing Case. The running
costs difference is 10000 €/yr. 9 years are required for Investigated Case to pay itself off (Fig. 17).
Additional information is present in Appendix D‐4: Life‐cycle cost calculations
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
Temperature, [°C]
Time, [h]
Indoor Temperatures OCS‐3
Existing Case OCS‐3 Investigated Case OCS‐3
16
Fig. 17. Investigated Case payback time (9 years)
6. Conclusion
Climate change trends indicate that in the future West Europe will receive more summertime heat
waves [27]. As a result investments into comfortable indoor environment during summer will
become more important for developers and consumers alike. Investigated Case annual electricity
demands for space conditioning were met by the PV system (Fig. 58). It has to be taken into
consideration that economies of scale can play a major factor in Initial Investment requirements –
the costs calculated in this report were off‐the‐shelf, while at greater volumes the cost of ASHP and
PV panels can drop significantly. Climate change prospects, PV electricity coverage of heating and
cooling demand and H1 lifespan (30 years) indicates that increased indoor comfort outweighs the 9
year payoff period and Investigated Case is more futureproof design, when compared with Existing
Case.
7. Further Research
With detail TRNSYS Type56 model the MRT of zones can be computed. MRT is required for more
informative PMV and PPD indoor comfort indicators. With more precise indoor comfort indicators
the significance of H1 Air Conditioning during the summer can be better judged.
In the Investigated Case it’s not clear how much of the space conditioning electrical energy demand
is directly met by the PV system and how much of the energy has to be exported and later re‐
exported (imported) from the grid. This information would be useful for off‐grid version of H1.
Furthermore smart electrical grid feature of running the central ASHP with surplus electrical grid
energy can further decrease the running costs of the Investigated Case system.
92,600 €
90,804.15 €
0 €
20,000 €
40,000 €
60,000 €
80,000 €
100,000 €
120,000 €
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Costs, [€]
Years
Investigated Case Payback Time
Investment Difference Running cost Difference
17
8. Acknowledgment
I would like to like to thank the following people for their guidance and support:
PDEng A. Papadopoulos – for helping to define the initial Research Proposal for Combined
Graduation in Building Physics and Services Building Performance Chair;
prof.dr.ir. J.L.M. Hensen – for accepting my Combined Graduation in Building Physics and Services
Research Proposal at Building Performance Chair;
dr. M.H. Hassan Mohamed – for constructive feedback and guidance;
PhD Stud. L. Xu – for constructive feedback and guidance;
PhD Stud R. Kotireddy – for helping to troubleshoot TRNSYS BPS issues;
PhD Stud. V. Zavrel – for helping to troubleshoot TRNSYS BPS issues.
18
9. References
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[4] B. R. Establishment, Energy, heating and thermal comfort: practical studies from the building research establishment. Construction Press, 1978.
[5] R. Slavid, Micro: Very Small Buildings. Laurence King Publishers, 2007. [6] “What Is The Tiny House Movement?,” The Tiny Life. [Online]. Available:
http://thetinylife.com/what‐is‐the‐tiny‐house‐movement/. [Accessed: 08‐Sep‐2014]. [7] design & interactie Fabrique [merken, “Heijmans ONE,” Heijmans N.V. [Online]. Available:
http://heijmans.nl/en/heijmans‐one/. [Accessed: 14‐Apr‐2016]. [8] “Bouwexpo Tiny Housing :: Tiny Housing.” [Online]. Available: http://www.bouwexpo‐
tinyhousing.nl/. [Accessed: 15‐Apr‐2016]. [9] A.‐F. service W. design & Development, “30 Heijmans ONE huizen voor Wonen Limburg,”
Heijmans ONE. [Online]. Available: http://www.heijmans‐one.nl/nl/nieuws‐en‐media/2015/10/30‐heijmans‐one‐huizen‐voor‐wo/62. [Accessed: 15‐Apr‐2016].
[10] J. Guan, N. Nord, and S. Q. Chen, “A Case Study of Campus Building End Use of a University in Norway,” Adv. Mater. Res., vol. 1073–1076, pp. 1259–1262, Dec. 2014.
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[13] B. Giskes, “Optimizing the energy performace of the Heijamns ONE residence,” Eindhoven University of Technology, Dec. 2015.
[14] M. Hamdy and J. L. Hensen, “Ranking of dwelling types in terms of overheating risk and sensitivity to climate change,” Build. Simul. 2015 14th Int. Conf. IBPSA Hyderabad India, pp. 8–16, Dec. 2015.
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[16] R. R. Kotireddy, P. Hoes, and J. L. M. Hensen, “Optimal balance between energy demand and onsite energy generation for robust net zero energy buildings considering future scenarios,” Build. Simul. 2015 14th Int. Conf. IBPSA Hyderabad India, pp. 1970–1977, Dec. 2015.
[17] B. W. Olesen and others, “Radiant floor heating in theory and practice,” ASHRAE J., vol. 44, no. 7, pp. 19–26, 2002.
[18] “Energy‐savings of Far Infrared,” Herschel Infrared Ltd. [Online]. Available: http://www.herschel‐infrared.com/heater‐fundamentals/energy‐savings/. [Accessed: 13‐Jan‐2016].
[19] R. Wiltshire, Advanced District Heating and Cooling (DHC) Systems. Woodhead Publishing, 2015. [20] T. Ommen, W. B. Markussen, and B. Elmegaard, “Lowering district heating temperatures –
Impact to system performance in current and future Danish energy scenarios,” Energy, vol. 94, pp. 273–291, Jan. 2016.
[21] 2008 ASHRAE Handbook ‐‐ HVAC Systems and Equipment (I‐P): I‐P Edition (includes CD in Dual Units). American Society of Heating, Refrigerating & Air‐Conditioning Engineers, Incorporated, 2008.
[22] A. Poulin, M. Dostie, M. Fournier, and S. Sansregret, “Load duration curve: A tool for technico‐economic analysis of energy solutions,” Energy Build., vol. 40, no. 1, pp. 29–35, 2008.
19
[23] “Estimation of actual maximum kVA demand ‐ Electrical Installation Guide.” [Online]. Available: http://www.electrical‐installation.org/enwiki/Estimation_of_actual_maximum_kVA_demand. [Accessed: 14‐Apr‐2016].
[24] J. Thornton, D. Bradley, and T. McDowell, “TESS Component Libraries for TRNSYS 16,” Therm. Energy Syst. Spec. LLC Madison, 2005.
[25] “REHAU RAUVITHERM flexible pre‐insulated pipe solutions for district heating.” [Online]. Available: https://www.rehau.com/gb‐en/building‐technology/renewable‐energy/biomass‐biogas/rauvitherm‐pre‐insulated‐pipe#tab3. [Accessed: 08‐Apr‐2016].
[26] “SolarEdge SE11400A‐US‐U Inverter ‐ Wholesale Solar,” WholesaleSolar.com. [Online]. Available: http://www.wholesalesolar.com/9900118/solaredge/inverters/solaredge‐se11400a‐us‐u‐inverter. [Accessed: 09‐Apr‐2016].
[27] “The effects of Climate Change in the Netherlands: 2012 ‐ PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency.” [Online]. Available: http://www.pbl.nl/en/publications/the‐effects‐of‐climate‐change‐in‐the‐netherlands‐2012. [Accessed: 12‐Apr‐2016].
[28] A. S. of H. Engineers Refrigerating and Air‐Conditioning and I. E. S. of N. America, Energy standard for buildings except low‐rise residential buildings. ASHRAE, 2000.
[29] “SHADING COEFFICIENT CALCULATION SALHIA TOWER, BAHRAIN.” . [30] T. Hoyt, K. H. Lee, H. Zhang, E. Arens, and T. Webster, “Energy savings from extended air
temperature setpoints and reductions in room air mixing,” Int. Conf. Environ. Ergon. 2009, Aug. 2005.
[31] L. Cargill, “Buffer tank sizing guide,” The Green Home, 24‐Oct‐2013. . [32] “2000 liter Buffervat ‐ zonder spiraalbuis,” CVkoopjes.nl. [Online]. Available:
https://www.cvkoopjes.nl/buffervaten/2000liter‐buffervat‐zonder‐spiraalbuis.html. [Accessed: 09‐Apr‐2016].
[33] “500 liter Buffervat ‐ zonder spiraalbuis,” CVkoopjes.nl. [Online]. Available: https://www.cvkoopjes.nl/buffervaten/500liter‐buffervat‐zonder‐spiraalbuis.html. [Accessed: 09‐Apr‐2016].
[34] “Underfloor Heating Solutions.” [Online]. Available: http://infraredtechnologies.co.uk/underfloor‐heating‐solutions. [Accessed: 22‐Nov‐2015].
[35] “Rekuperatorius Toshiba VN‐M350HE, 350 m3/h | Vilpra: Warmth for your home.” [Online]. Available: http://www.vilpra.lt/en/air‐conditioning‐and‐ventilation‐equipment/ventilation‐equipment/w1tos‐vn‐m350he. [Accessed: 08‐Apr‐2016].
[36] N. L. Truong and L. Gustavsson, “Minimum‐cost district heat production systems of different sizes under different environmental and social cost scenarios,” Appl. Energy, vol. 136, pp. 881–893, Dec. 2014.
[37] M. Hamdy, A. Hasan, and K. Siren, “A multi‐stage optimization method for cost‐optimal and nearly‐zero‐energy building solutions in line with the EPBD‐recast 2010,” Energy Build., vol. 56, pp. 189–203, Jan. 2013.
[38] “Rauvitherm Pre Insulated Pipe And Fittings Supplies | MyTub Ltd | page 1.” [Online]. Available: https://www.mytub.co.uk/rauvitherm‐pre‐insulated‐pipe‐and‐fittings‐products‐1. [Accessed: 08‐Apr‐2016].
[39] “≥ Vind 20 ft container op Marktplaats.nl.” [Online]. Available: http://www.marktplaats.nl/z.html?query=20+ft+container&postcode=5642. [Accessed: 08‐Apr‐2016].
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20
Appen
Building
this app
building
SHGC (S
Factor fo
0.91 (Fig
Prodix A:
g properties u
endix. H1 ha
g are negligib
Solar Heat Ga
or H1 was ca
g. 19), which
operties an
used to defin
as glazed sur
ble.
Area
Volum
Width
Lengt
Heigh
Fi
ain Coefficie
alculated to
results in SH
Fig. 19.
nd boundar
ne zones and
faces at the
Property
me (VH1)
h
h
t
g. 18. General
ent (Fig. 20))
be PF=P/H=
HGC of 0.4*0
Overhang Proje
ry conditio
d other para
front and ba
Va
45
164.
3.5
9.26
5.97
H1 building env
for window
=0.13 (P=650
0.91=0.36.
ection Factor a
ons
meters requ
ack, hence sh
alue U
m2
85 m3
m
m
m
velope propert
ws in NL – 0.4
0 mm; H=500
nd SHGC Multip
uired for sim
hading effect
Units
ies
4 [28, p. 30].
00 mm) henc
plier [29]
ulations is p
ts on the sid
Overhang P
ce SHGC mu
resent in
es of the
rojection
ltiplier is
21
Orientation Area; [m2]
U‐Value; [W/m2K]
SHGC Transmittance
West 2.04 1.4 0.36 0.622
East 8.23 1.4 0.36 0.622
Fig. 20. H1 window properties
The thermal capacitance (Fig. 21) of the zone includes capacitances of building materials, furnishings
and conditioned air (Fig. 22): Ctotal = Cmat+Cfurn+Cair=10675.54+306+213.71=11195.25 kJ/K
Cmat=dfloor*Afloor*cfloor*ρfloor+dcross*Across*ccross*ρcross=1035.3+9640.24=10675.54 kJ/K
Cfurn= Vwood*ρwood*cwood=0.5*1.7*360=306 kJ/K
Cair=VH1*ρair*cair=164.84*1.29*1.005=213.71 kJ/K
Type660 H1 heat loss coefficient (U‐value*surface area) (Fig. 21) = 0.294*149.57 + 0.337*29.75 = 54
W/m2K [13]
Property Value Units
Type660 or Type759 H1 zone capacitance 11195.25 kJ/K
Type660 or Type759 H1 zone heat loss coefficient 54 (164.4) W/m2K (kJ/hK)
U‐value ground floor 0.337 W/m2K
Ground floor surface area 29.75 m2
U‐value external wall/roof 0.294 W/m2K
External wall/roof surface area 149.57 m2
Fig. 21. General TRNSYS model properties
Material Volume (V); [m3]
Area (A); [m2]
Thickness (d); [m]
Specific heat (c); [kJ/kgK]
Density (ρ);
[kg/m3]
Air 164.84 n/a n/a 1.005 1.29
Floor finish n/a 29.75 0.04 1.45 600
Crosslam panel n/a 179.32 0.07 1.6 480
Wood 0.5 n/a n/a 1.7 360
Fig. 22. Material properties for thermal capacitance calculations [13, p. 30]
22
Fig. 23. H1 grounnd and first flooorplans [13, p. 228]
Fig. 24.
Fig. 25.
. H1 facades [13
H1 sections [1
3, p. 29]
3, p. 29]
23
24
Appendix A‐1: Model validation TRNSYS model properties
Simulation properties used for simplified H1 model validation. ACH to kg/h conversion: H1 volume –
164.85 m3; Air density – 1.29 kg/m3. W to kJ/h conversion: 1 W=3.6 kJ/h. Heating set‐point,
ventilation rate, infiltration, schedule were selected to match the previous research H1 model
validation simulation properties [13, p. 14].
Scenario No.
Heating; [°C]
Cooling; [°C]
Gains; [W], [kJ/h]
Schedule – Weekday
Schedule – Weekend
1 21 n/a 500 (1800) 07:00‐08:00 17:00‐00:00
08:00‐00:00
Fig. 26. Model validation H1 model heating and cooling properties
Scenario No.
Infiltration; ACH (kg/h)
Ventilation; ACH (kg/h)
Schedule
1 0.25 (53.16) 0.28 (60) fixed
Fig. 27. Model validation H1 model ventilation properties
Appendix A‐2: Existing Case TRNSYS model properties
Simulation properties used for local UFH H1 model. ACH to kg/h conversion: H1 volume – 164.85 m3;
Air density – 1.29 kg/m3. W to kJ/h conversion: 1 W=3.6 kJ/h. Heating set‐points were chosen to be
18°C, 21°C and 23°C [16, p. 4]. Ventilation rates were chosen to be 0.9 ACH, 1.2 ACH and 1.5 ACH
[16, p. 4]. Gains were calculated to be 500 W [13, p. 31].
Scenario No.
Heating; [°C]
Cooling; [°C]
Gains; [W], [kJ/h]
Schedule – Weekday Schedule – Weekend
1 18 n/a 500 (1800) 07:00‐08:00 17:00‐24:00 12:00‐24:00
2 21 n/a 500 (1800) 17:00‐24:00 12:00‐24:00
3 23 n/a 500 (1800) 08:00‐24:00 12:00‐24:00
Fig. 28. Existing Case model heating and cooling properties
Heating; [°C]
Cooling; [°C]
Gains; [W], [kJ/h]
18 n/a 0
Fig. 29. Existing Case H1 model outside of occupancy hour heating and cooling properties
Scenario No.
Infiltration; ACH (kg/h)
Ventilation; ACH (kg/h)
Schedule
1 0.20 (42.53) 0.9 (191.39) Fixed
2 0.20 (42.53) 1.2 (255.19) Fixed
3 0.20 (42.53) 1.5 (318.98) Fixed
Fig. 30. Existing Case H1 model ventilation properties
Append
Simulati
164.85 m
chosen t
24°C [14
Gains w
ScenariNo.
1
2
3
dix A‐3: Invon propertie
m3; Air dens
to be 18°C,
4, p. 4], [30]
ere calculate
o Heating;[°C]
18
21
23
Fig. 33. In
vestigated C
es used for c
sity – 1.29 k
21°C and 23
. Ventilation
ed to be 500
; Cooling; [°C]
28
26
24
Fig. 32. In
He[°C
18
vestigated Case
Fig. 31. Ex
Case TRNSY
central ASHP
g/m3. W to
3°C [16, p. 4
n rates were
W [13, p. 31
Gains; [W[kJ/h]
500 (1800)
500 (1800)
500 (1800)
nvestigated Cas
eating; C]
8
e H1 model out
xisting Case TRN
YS model pr
P AHU H1 m
kJ/h conver
4]. Cooling se
e chosen to b
1].
W], Schedu
) 07:00‐0
) 17:00‐2
) 08:00‐2
se model heatin
Cooling; [°C]
28
tside of occupa
NSYS model
roperties
model. ACH t
sion: 1 W=3
et‐points we
be 0.9 ACH,
ule – Weekda
08:00 17:00‐
24:00
24:00
ng and cooling p
Gains; [W[kJ/h]
0
ncy hour heati
o kg/h conv
.6 kJ/h. Hea
ere chosen to
1.2 ACH and
ay Sch
24:00 12:
12:
12:
properties
W],
ng and cooling
version: H1 v
ating set‐poi
o be 28°C, 2
d 1.5 ACH [1
hedule – We
:00‐24:00
:00‐24:00
:00‐24:00
properties
25
volume –
nts were
26°C and
16, p. 4].
eekend
26
Appen
The indo
2015 [13
SceNo.
1
2
3
Inddix B:
oor tempera
3, p. 39].
enario .
Infilt(kg/
0.20
0.20
0.20
Fig. 34
oor tempe
ature measur
tration; A/h)
0 (42.53)
0 (42.53)
0 (42.53)
4. Investigated C
Fig. 35. Inves
erature me
rements wer
ACH Ventil(kg/h)
0.9 (19
1.2 (25
1.5 (3
Case H1 model
stigated Case T
easuremen
re done from
lation; AC)
91.39)
55.19)
18.98)
ventilation pro
TRNSYS model
nts
m 27th of Ap
CH Schedul
Fixed
Fixed
Fixed
operties
pril 2015 unt
le
til 15th of Se
eptember
Fig. 36. Indoor
Fig. 37. Indoor
r temperature A
r temperature
April [13, p. 39]
May [13, p. 39]
27
28
Fig. 38. Indoor
Fig. 39. Indoo
r temperature J
or temperature
June [13, p. 40]
July [13, p. 40]
Appen
HVAC a
present
Buidix C:
nd other bu
here.
F
Fig
lding servi
uilding servic
Fig. 40. Indoor t
g. 41. Indoor te
ices equipm
ces equipme
temperature A
mperature Sep
ment spec
ent specifica
ugust [13, p. 41
ptember [13, p.
cifications
ation data a
1]
41]
nd calculatioons are goin
29
ng to be
30
Appendix C‐1: Air Source Heat Pump
For electricity consumption calculations ASHP performance data for Dutch climatic conditions was
taken from previous research [12, p. 20].
Month COP ERR
January 2.2
February 2.5
March 3.0 4.1
April 3.5 4.0
May 3.7 3.8
June 3.9 3.7
July 4.0 3.5
August 4.0 3.5
September 3.5 4.0
October 3.0 4.1
November 2.5 4.2
December 2.2
Fig. 42. Investigated Case ASHP performance data for Dutch climatic conditions.
Scenario No.
Amount of H1 Units
Single Unit electricity demand for Cooling; [kWh/yr]
Total electricity demand for Cooling; [kWh/yr]
Single Unit electricity demand for Heating; [kWh/yr]
Total electricity demand for Heating; [kWh/yr]
1 3 4.6
352.1
1384.8
20935.5 2 3 16.1 1876.1
3 4 72.5 2788.2
Fig. 43. Investigated Case H1 cluster electricity demand for heating and cooling
Appendix C‐2: Buffer tank sizing Buffer tanks volumes for hot water and chilled water were calculated. The following information was
used to calculate the size (Vbuff) of the buffer tanks [31]:
Symbol Value Unit Note
Vbuff n/a Gallon Buffer tank volume; 3.78541; [l]
t 10 Minutes ASHP on (cycling) time
P 255911 BTU/h ASHP Power; 75 [kW]
PZ 22900 BTU/h Zone Load; 6.7 [kW]
dT 10 °F Temperature difference; 5.56 [°C]
Fig. 44. Hot water buffer tank sizing parameters
Vbuff = t *(P – Pz) / (500*dT)=10*(255911‐22900)/(500*10) = 466 Gallons = 1764 l
The required buffer tank volume (Vbuff) for hot water was calculated to be 1764 liters. 2000 liter
buffer tank was chosen [32].
31
Symbol Value Unit Note
Vbuff n/a Gallon Buffer tank volume; 3.78541; [l]
t 10 Minutes ASHP on (cycling) time
P 51182 BTU/h ASHP Power; 15 [kW]
PZ 5460 BTU/h Zone Load; 1.6 [kW]
dT 10 °F Temperature difference; 5.56 [°C]
Fig. 45. Chilled water buffer tank sizing parameters
Vbuff = t *(P – Pz) / (500*dT)=10*(51182‐5460)/(500*10) = 91 Gallons = 350 l
The required buffer tank volume (Vbuff) for chilled water was calculated to be 350 liters. 500 liter
buffer tank was chosen [33].
32
Appenddix C‐3: Air Handling UUnit
Append
LG‐300N
(STC1) pe
8.5 m, s
placed o
from we
electricit
PVGis w
PVGIS e
Location
Solar rad Nominal EstimatedEstimatedOther losCombine
Fixed syorientat
Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
1 STC (Sta
dix C‐4: PV N1K‐G4 PV m
eak power r
so 8 PV pane
on H1 roof sl
eather data f
ty annually.
was used to ca
estimates of
n: 52°18'0" No
diation databas
power of the d losses due tod loss due to asses (cables, ined PV system
ystem: inclination=0°
Ed
2.33
3.76
6.87
andard Test C
annual pro
monocrystall
ating (Pmax) i
els fit on the
ope, which h
file – 52°18'0
alculate ann
solar electri
orth, 4°45'54"
se used: PVGI
PV system: 2o temperatureangular reflecnverter etc.): 1losses: 23.1%
ation=29°,
Em Hd
72.3 1.1
105 1.9
213 3.5
ondition): Irra
oduction est
ine panel w
s 300W. Dim
e roof with
has an area o
0"N 4°46'2"E
ual PV panel
city generati
East, Elevatio
IS-CMSAF
2.4 kW (crystae and low irradtance effects: 14.0%
%
Hm
7 36.2
1 53.5
8 111
adiance 1000
timate
was chosen f
mensions (L x
combined p
of 19.45 m2
E. Single H1
l production
ion
on: -4 m a.s.l.,
alline silicon)diance: 7.7% (3.2%
W/m², Modu
or Scenario
x W x H) – 16
peak power o
and is facing
PV system (
estimate fo
,
(using local am
le Temperatu
. Panel Stan
640 x 1000 x
of 8*300=24
g the south.
8 panels) pr
r a single H1
mbient temper
re 25 °C, AM
ndard Test C
x 40 mm. H1
400W. PV pa
Location use
roduces 2340
:
rature)
1.5
33
Condition
length is
anels are
ed comes
0 kWh of
34
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Yearly average
Total foyear
Ed: AveraEm: AveraHd: Avera(kWh/m2
Hm: Avera
Appen
Charts, t
Append
Deman
d, [kW
]
9.64
9.88
9.97
9.53
8.62
6.96
4.71
2.47
1.88
e 6.40
or
age daily electage monthly eage daily sum2) age sum of gl
Resdix D:
tables and ca
dix D‐1: Hea
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1
,[]
Investi
289 5.2
306 5.4
299 5.5
296 5.3
267 4.8
209 3.8
146 2.4
74.0 1.2
58.2 0.9
195 3.4
2340
tricity productelectricity prod
m of global irra
obal irradiatio
sults calcul
alculations o
ating and co
2 3
gated Case OC
2 156
8 170
9 168
8 167
0 149
1 114
9 77.3
7 38.0
4 29.2
8 106
1270
tion from the duction from tadiation per sq
on per square
lations
of simulation
ooling dema
Fig. 46. Invest
4 5
Heat
CS‐1 Inv
given system the given syst
quare meter re
meter receive
results
ands
tigated Case he
5 6
Mon
ting Dem
vestigated Ca
(kWh) tem (kWh) eceived by the
ed by the modu
eating demand
7 8
nth
mand
se OCS‐2
modules of th
ules of the giv
9 10
Investigate
he given syste
ven system (kW
0 11
ed Case OCS‐3
em
Wh/m2)
12
3
35
Fig. 47. Existing Case heating demand
Fig. 48. Investigated Case cooling demand
Appendix D‐2: Load Duration Curves
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Deman
d, [kW
]
Month
Heating Demand
Existing Case OCS‐1 Existing Case OCS‐2 Existing Case OCS‐3
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Deman
d, [kW
]
Month
Cooling Demand
Investigated Case OCC‐1 Investigated Case OCC‐2 Investigated Case OCC‐3
36
Fig. 49. 10 unit H1 cluster cooling load duration curve
Fig. 50. 10 unit H1 cluster heating load duration curve
30.69
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Load
, [kW
]
Time, [h]
Cooling Load Duration Curve
Cooling Load Average 75% 50%
100.65
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
Load
, [kW
]
Time, [h]
Heating Load Duration Curve
ASHP 75% 50%
37
Fig. 51. Existing Case single H1 cooling load duration curve
Fig. 52. Existing Case single H1 heating load duration curve
Appendix D‐3: Comfort levels
Comfort levels were analyzed by looking at indoor temperatures. The differences between
temperature peaks and lows of Existing Case and Investigated Case indicate space conditioning
effectiveness of each case.
3.24
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Load
, [kW
]
Time, [h]
Cooling Load Duration Curve
Average 75% 50%
8.91
0
2
4
6
8
10
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
Load
, [kW
]
Time, [h]
Heating Load Duration Curve
Average 75% 50%
38
Fig. 53. Scenario No. 1 Existing Case and Investigated Case indoor temperatures
Fig. 54. Scenario No. 2 Existing Case and Investigated Case indoor temperatures
Appendix D‐4: Life‐cycle cost calculations Life‐cycle costs calculations were done for initial investment and running costs of Existing Case and
Investigated Case space conditioning systems.
Equipment Quantity Price/Unit Total Notes
UFH 10 2000 € 20000 € Electric Underfloor Heating; [34]
Total 20000 €
Fig. 55. Existing Case equipment (Initial investment) costs
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
Temperature, [°C]
Time, [h]
Indoor Temperatures OCS‐1
Existing Case OCS‐1 Investigated Case OCS‐1
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
Temperature, [°C]
Time, [h]
Indoor Temperatures OCS‐2
Existing Case OCS‐2 Investigated Case OCS‐2
39
Services Quantity Price/Unit Total Notes
Electricity 84403 kWh 0.12 €/kWh 10128.36 €
Annual electricity consumption of Underfloor Heating system. It’s considered that the efficiency of UFH is 100%; Fig. 8, [12, p. 32]
Total 10128.36 €
Fig. 56. Existing Case annual services costs
Equipment Quantity Price/Unit Total Notes
AHU 10 1500 € 15000 € Air Handling Unit also known as Recuperator; [35]
Heat Exchanger
20 650 € 13000 € Water‐to‐Air Heat Exchanger; [12, p. 32]
ASHP 75 kW 520 €/kW 39000 € Air Source Heat Pump – 5*DHP‐AQ‐16; [36], [37]
Piping 200 m 40 €/m 8000 € Rehau RAUVITHERM; [25], [38]
Buffer Tank 1 1800 € 1800 € 2000 l buffer hot tank; [32]
Buffer Tank 1 800 € 800 € 500 l buffer cold tank; [33]
20” TEU 1 1000 € 1000 € 20” Shipping Container; [39]
Inverter 2 1800 € 3600 € 12 kW inverter; [26]
PV panels 80 380 € 30400 € 300 W PV panel; [40]
Total 112600 €
Fig. 57. Investigated Case equipment (Initial investment) costs
Services Quantity Price/Unit Total Notes
Electricity 21287.6 kWh
0.12 €/kWh 2554.5 € Annual electricity consumption of Central Air Source Heat Pump; Fig. , [12, p. 32]
PV Electricity 23400 kWh ‐0.12 €/kWh ‐2808 € Annual H1 cluster PV electricity production (2340*10); Appendix C‐4:
DHC Maintenance
75 kW 3.9 €/kW 292.5 € District Heating and Cooling Operations and Maintenance costs; [36], [37]
Total 39.01 €
Fig. 58. Investigated Case annual service costs