einstein college of engineering tqm

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TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT - BA 913

UNIT-1(introduction to quality management)

Definition:

Total - Whole, entire, complete Quality - Excellence, class, meeting expectationManagement - organising, administering, art of getting things done

TQM is defined as both philosophy and a set of guiding principles that represent the foundation of continuouslyimproving organisation. It is the application of quantitative methods and human resources to improve all theprocess within the organisation and exceed customer needs now and in the future.

Total Quality Management is an effective system for integrating the quality development, quality maintenanceand quality improvement efforts of various groups in an organization continuously, so as to enable marketing,engineering, production and service at the most economic levels which allow for full customer satisfaction.

Historical Review of TQM

Industrialisation led to mass production in which it led to the concept of one product at a time to the assemblyline of production. Though workmanship was affected but mass production led to more job and reduction incost of the product and increase in quality, reduction of defects etc.

1924 - After WWI, W.A. Sherwat of Bell Telephone statistical chart for the control of various. Concept ofsample tests were followed. It was a failure in the initial stages.1946 - ASQC American Society for Quality Control, now ASQ. Frequent meetings, conferences andpublications were made to public.1950 - W.Edwards Demings his guidance and lecture to Japan engineers transformed quality concepts in theorganisation. His cycle ACT-PLAN-DO-CHECK 1954 - Joseph M.Juran Concept of efficient and productive.Juran Trilogy Quality planning - Quality Control - Quality Improvement 1960 - Quality control circles wasformed. Zero defects concepts 1970 - Reactive approach to proactive approach. Shift from Japan to USA 1980 -SPC - Statistical Process Control. Concepts of parameter and tolerance. Experiments 1990 - Concepts ofcertification of ISO, CMM etc2000 - six sigma concept - Six Sigma stands for Six Standard Deviations (Sigma is the Greek letter used to

represent standard deviation in statistics) from mean. Six Sigma methodology provides the techniques and toolsto improve the capability and reduce the defects in any process.

TQM Basic Concepts1.Management Involvement - Participate in quality program, develop quality council, directparticipation2.Focus on customer - who is the customer - internal and external, voice of the customer, do it right first timeand every time.3.Involvement and utilisation of entire work force - All levels of management4.Continuous improvement - Quality never stops, placing orders, bill errors, delivery, minimise wastage andscrap etc.5.Treating suppliers as partners - no business exists without suppliers.6.Performance measures - creating accountability in all levelsBarriers in TQM Implementation1.Lack of commitment from top management - avoiding training for self and employees, meetings2.Lack of employee involvement - particularly at managerial level, supportive attitude, trust3.Lack of team work - Co-operation and co-ordination within workers.4.Lack of customer oriented approach - Know the customer need, demand, taste, shortcomings5.Lack of attention to feedback and complaints -6.Supplier control - in terms of materials, cost, quality, delivery etc7.Review quality procedures - up gradation, correct past errors. Learn from experienceFive Pillars of TQM are,ProductProcessSystemPeople


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LeadershipBenefits of TQM :Customer satisfaction oriented benefits :1.Improvement in product quality2.Improvement in product design3.Improvement in production flow4.Improvement in employee morale and quality consciousness5.Improvement in product service

6.Improvement in market place acceptanceEconomic improvement oriented benefits :1.Reduction in operating costs2.Reduction in operating losses3.Reduction in field service costs4.Reduction in liability exposurePrinciples of TQM :Visionary leadership Customer-drivenexcellence Organizational and personal

learning Valuing employees and partnersAgilityFocus on the futureManaging for innovationManagement by factPublic responsibilityFocus of results and creating valuesSystems perspective

Quality - When a product or service meets or exceeds expectation considering the intended use and the sellingprice.Quality = performance / expectation

Definition by ISO 9000:2000 It if defined as the degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfilsrequirement.Degree - good, excellent, bad Inherent -existing, within, natural Requirement -need or expectation

Vision Statement:It is a short declaration of what an organization aspires to be tomorrow. It is the ideal state that might neverreached but which you continuously strive to achieve.Example : We will be the preferred provider of safe, reliable, and cost-effective products and services thatsatisfy the electric-related needs of all customer segments.FLORIDA POWER & LIGHT COMPANY

Mission Statement :The mission statements answers the following questions :

Dimensions of quality

1. Performance - Fulfilment of rimar re uirement2. Features - Additional thin s that enhance erformance3. Conformance - Meetin s ecific standards set b the industr

4. Reliabilit - Consistence erformance over a eriod of time

5. Durabilit - Lon life and less maintenance6. Service - Ease of re air, uarantee, and warrant

7. Res onse - Dealer customer relationshi human interface8. Aesthetics - exteriors acka es9. Re utation - Past erformance rankin brandin


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Who we are ? Who are the customers ? What we do ? and How we do it ?It is the usually a one paragraph statement which describes the function of the organization. It provides a clearstatement of purpose for employees, customers and suppliers.Example : To meet customers transportation and distribution needs by being the best at moving their goods ontime, safely and damage free.CANADIAN NATIONAL RAILWAYS

Quality Policy:The Quality Policy is a guide for everyone in the organization as to how they should provide products andservice to the customers. The common characteristics are Quality is first among equals.Meet the needs of the internal and external customers.Equal or exceed the competition.Continually improve the quality.Include business and production practices.Utilize the entire work force

Customer perception of qualityBefore 1988 - Performance, Prize and serviceAfter 1989 - Performance, service and prize

ASQ - American Society for Quality1. Performance - availability (ready for use), reliability (free from failure), maintainability2. Features - psychological and technical. Added feature along with main usage3. Service - intangible, made up of many small things4. Warranty - Vs guarantee. Customer feels comfortable with this5. Price - value for money, ready to pay at the same time comparative study to be done6. Reputation - Branding merges with quality. Good exp reaches 6 bad reaches 15

Service QualityShift in focus from manufacturing industry to service industry and the services involved in manufacturingorganization.Customer service is the set of activities an organization uses to win, attract and retain customers. It can beprovided before, during and after the sale of the product.

Elements of customer service Organization1.Identify each segment - where the organization needs to concentrate on quality2.Write down requirement - Proper documentation of quality policy in the form of a handbook3.Communicate requirements - Inform its importance to all levels in the organisation4.Organize process - create a systematic process as it is ongoing and never ending process5.Organize physical spaces - aesthetics, atmosphere, room space, recreation, wifi etcCustomer Care - Henry Ford - The boss just handles the cash it is the customer who pays your salary1.Meet the customers expectation - treat all customers alike, respond quickly2.Get the customers point of view - think in the point of view of a customer3.Deliver what is promised - keep up promise at any cost4.Make the customer feel valued - customer must feel that due respect and importance is given to him5.Respond to all complaints - minimize complaints and eradicate similar and repeated complaints6.Over-respond to customer - make him feel he is cloud nine7.Provide clean and comfortable reception area - cleanliness, spacious, dress code, weather etcCommunication - All forms of communication written, verbal, advt, web site must prove quality1.Optimize trade off between time and personal attention2.Minimize the number of contact points - channels and levels3.Provide pleasant and knowledgeable enthusiastic employees4.Write document in customer friendly language - simple and point blankFront-line people - The people who have first and direct contact or interaction with the customer1.Hire people who like people - train groom them2.Challenge them to develop better methods - small changes in packing, billing etc3.Give them authority to solve problems - give discounts, free gifts etc4.Serve them as internal customers5.Make sure they are adequately trained - written and oral communication, body language etc


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6.Recognize and reward performance - Nordstorm example obsess with the customerLeadership1.Lead by example - spend time with all level, dealers and suppliers. Like having food , using co product2.Listen to front line people3.Strive for continuous process improvementCustomer Retention

- It is the final result of customer satisfaction and customer loyalty- Most cases what customer says or feels may vary from actual consumption or purchase- Customer must refer more customers and increase the revenue- External research must be done to feel the pulse of the customer- Employee retention is proportional customer retentionQuality cost:During the 1950s the concept of Quality Cost emerged. Different people assigned different meanings tothe term. Some people equated quality cost with the cost of attaining quality; some people equated the termwith the extra incurred due to poor quality. But, the widely accepted thing is Quality cost is the extra costincurred due to poor or bad quality of the product or service.

Categories of Quality Cost :

Many companies summarize quality costs into four broad categories. They are,a)Internal failure costs - The cost associated with defects that are found prior to transfer of the product to thecustomer.b)External failure costs - The cost associated with defects that are found after product is shipped to thecustomer.c)Appraisal costs - The cost incurred in determining the degree of conformance to quality requirement.d)Prevention costs - The cost incurred in keeping failure and appraisal costs to a minimum.Analysis technique for Quality Cost

The term "trend analysis" refers to the concept of collecting information and attempting to spot a pattern, ortrend, in the information. In some fields of study, the term "trend analysis" has more formally-defined

meanings. Although trend analysis is often used to predict future events, it could be used to estimate uncertainevents in the past, such as how many ancient kings probably ruled between two dates, based on data such as theaverage years which other known kings reigned.

Pareto AnalysisThis fact gave rise to the Pareto effector Paretos law: - the vital few and the trivial many.The Pareto effect is named after Vilfredo Pareto, an economist and sociologist who lived from 1848 to 1923.Originally trained as an engineer he was a one time managing director of a group of coalmines. Pareto analysisis a statistical technique in decision making that is used for selection of a limited number of tasks that producesignificant overall effect. It uses the Pareto principle - the idea that by doing 20% of work you can generate 80%of the advantage of doing the entire job. Or in terms of quality improvement, a large majority of problems(80%) are produced by a few key causes (20%).

Pareto analysis is a formal technique useful where many possible courses of action are competing for yourattention. In essence, the problem-solver estimates the benefit delivered by each action, then selects anumber of the most effective actions that deliver a total benefit reasonably close to the maximal possibleone. Use of Pareto principle in prioritizing or ranking a range of items which have different levels ofsignificance. Its objective is to separate the 'vital few' from the 'useful many.'

Steps to identify the important causes using Pareto analysis

Step 1: Form a table listing the causes and their frequency as a percentage. Step 2: Arrange the rows in the decreasing order of importance of the causes (i.e, the most

important cause first) Step 3: Add a cumulative percentage column to the table Step 4: Plot with causes on x- and cumulative percentage on j-axis Step 5: Join the above points to form a curve
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Juran TrilogyThe Trilogy consists of three sequential and logical groups of activities:

- Quality Planning- Quality Control- Q

uality Improvement All three

processes are universal

- Applied to a particular process- Performed by top management or by middle managementr Juran Trilogy: A systematic and comprehensive system for break-through quality improvementsr Quality Defined: meet customer needs and freedom from deficiencies

Trilogy Components- Quality Planning - discover customer needs and deficiencies and design adequate

processes

- Quality Control -- compare actual performance to goals and takeaction on the differences

- Quality Improvement -- the attainment of unprecedented levels ofperformance

Cause-and-Effect Diagrams - 1943 by Mr. Kaoru Ishikawa at the University of Tokyo Purpose: One importantpart of process improvement is continuously striving to obtain more information about the process and it'soutput. Cause-and-effect diagrams allow us to do not just that, but also can lead us to the root cause, or causes,of problems.

Constructing the Cause-and-Effect Diagram:Step 1: Select the team members and a leader. Team members knowledgeable about the quality. Teammembers focus on the problem under investigation.Step 2: Write the problem statement on the right hand side of the page, and draw a box around it with an arrowrunning to it. This quality concern is now the effect.Step 3: Brain-storming. The team members generate ideas as to what is causing the effect.Step 4: This step could be combined with step 3. Identify, for each main cause, its related sub-causes thatmight affect our quality concern or problem (our Effect). Always check to see if all the factors contributingto the problem have been identified. Start by asking why the problem exists.Step 5: Focus on one or two causes for which an improvement action(s) can be developed using otherquality tools such as Pareto charts, check sheets, and other gathering and analysis tools.Conclusion: Improvement requires knowledge. The more information we have about our processes the betterwe are at improving them. Cause-and-effect diagrams are one quality tool that is simple yet very powerful inhelping us better understand our processes

Ten Principles of Customer/Supplier Relationship1.Customer and supplier fully responsible for quality control2.Customer and supplier must be independent and interdependent3.The customer must provide clear information to the supplier4.Proper understanding in quality, quantity, price, delivery and payments5.Supplier must satisfy the customer need


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6.Both must accept the evaluation in terms of quality and service7.Contracts must be signed so the disputes can be settled amicably8.Both must have exchange of information to improve quality and service9.Both should strive for mutual satisfaction and good relationship10. Both should think in the shoes of the end user.Partnering

Benefits1. Improved Quality2. Increase efficiency3. Lower cost4. Increase the opportunity for innovation5. Continuous improvement of product and service

Key Elements in Partnering1. Long-term commitment2. Trust3. Shared vision

CONTRIBUTIONS OF CROSBY:Crosby's approach to quality was unambiguous. In his view, good, bad, high, and low quality are meaningless

concepts in the abstract; the meaning of quality is "conformance to requirements."What that means is that a product should conform to the requirements that the company has itselfestablishedbased on its customers' needs. He also believed, that the prime responsibility for poor quality lies withmanagement, not with the workers. Management sets the tone for thequality initiative from the top.Nonconforming products are ones that management has failed to specify or control. The cost ofnonconformance equals the cost of not doing it right first time, and not rooting out any defects in processes.

"Zero defects" does not mean that people never make mistakes, but that companies should notbegin with"allowances" or substandard targets with mistakes as an inbuilt expectation. Instead,work should be seen as aseries of activities or processes, defined by clear requirements andcarried out to produce identified outcomes.Systems that allow things to go wrong and thatresult in those things having to be done again can costorganizations between 20% and 35% of their revenues, in Crosby's estimation.

His seminal approach to quality was set out in Quality is Free, and is often summarized as the"Fourteen Steps."1.Management commitment it: the need for quality improvement must be recognized and accepted bymanagement, who then draw up a quality improvement program with an emphasis on the need fordefect prevention. Quality improvement equates to profit improvement. A quality policy is neededwhich states that "...each individual is expected to perform exactly like the requirement or cause therequirement to be officially changed to what we and the customerreally need."2.The quality improvement team: representatives from each department or function should bebrought together to form a quality improvement team. Its members should be people who havesufficient authority to commit the area they represent to action.3.Quality measurement: the status of quality should be determined throughout the company. Thismeans establishing and recording quality measures for each area of activity inorder to show where improvement is possible and where corrective action is necessary. Crosbyadvocateddelegation of this task to the people who actually do the job, thus setting the stagefor defect prevention on thejob, where it really counts.4.The cost of quality evaluation: the cost of quality is not an absolute performance measurement,but an indication of where the action necessary to correct a defect will result in greater profitability.5.Quality awareness: this involves making employees aware of the cost to the company ofdefects, through training and information, and the provision of visible evidence of the results of a concern forquality improvement. Crosby stresses that this sharing process is a key, or even the key, step in the progress ofan organization toward quality.6.Corrective action: discussion of problems will result in the finding of solutions and also bring tolight other elements that are in need of improvement. People need to see that problems are regularly

being resolved. Corrective action should then become a habit.7.Establishing an ad hoc committee for the zero defects program: zero defects is not a


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motivation program: its purpose is to communicate and instill the notion that everyone should do things rightfirst time.8.Supervisor training: all managers should undergo formal training on the Fourteen Steps beforethey are implemented. Managers should understand each of the Fourteen Steps well enough to beable to explain them to their people.9.Zero defects day: it is important that the commitment to zero defects as the performancestandard of the company makes an impact, and that everyone gets the same message in the same

way. Zero defects day, when supervisors explain the program to their people, should make alasting impression as a "new attitude" day.10. Goal setting: all supervisors ask their people to establish specific, measurable goals thatthey can strive for. Usually, these comprise 30-, 60-, and 90-day goals.11. Error cause removal: employees are asked to describe, on a simple, one-page form, anyproblems that prevent them from carrying out error-free work. Problems should be acknowledgedand begin to be addressed within 24 hours by the function or unit to which th begin to grow moreconfident that their problems will be attended to and dealt with.12. Recognition: it is important to recognize those who meet their goals or performoutstanding acts with a prize or award, although this should not be in financial form. The act of recognition itselfis what is important.13. Quality councils: the quality professionals and team leaders should meet regularly to discussimprovements and upgrades to the quality program.14. Doing it over again: during the course of a typical program lasting from 12 to 18 months,turnover and change will dissipate much of the educational process. It is important to set up anew team of representatives and begin the program again from the beginning, starting with zero defects day.This "starting over again" helps quality to become ingrained in the organization

CROSBYS four absolutes of quality:1.The definition of quality is conformance to requirements.2.The system of quality is prevention.3.The performance standard is zero defects.4.The measurement of quality is the price of nonconformanceCONTRIBUTIONS OF MASAAKI IMAI:Masaaki Imai is Founder of KAIZEN Institute (KI), which was established in Switzerland (1985) to helpcompanies introduce KAIZEN concepts, systems, and tools. KI (also now known as KAIZEN InstituteConsulting Group- KICG) has offices in over 30 countries around the globe. Over the last 30+ years, Mr. Imaihas held lectures on KAIZEN, Lean and other related management subjects, as well as havingconsulted with global companies (outside of Japan) and assisting them in their process of introducing changeand continual improvement. KAIZEN Institute dispatches both local and global consultants, who are corporatemanagers and academics and considered experts in the various technicalities of KAIZEN, to variousassignments to work closely with the local KAIZEN consultants. Mr. Imais rolehas been oneofintegrating various KAIZEN management practices, such as Just-in-time, TQM, and TPM,into thecultural environment of client companies. KAIZEN Institute regularly sponsors KAIZEN Tours, within Japan,Europe and other strategic locations where best practices can be found. .

Kaizen is defined as making continuous improvement - slow, incremental but constant. Western wayofpragmatic approach why-fix-it-if-it-aint-broke Kaizen extends a more optimistic philosophical view:Everythingeven if it aint brokecan be made better! "kai > Means "change" or "the action to correct""zen > means "good Importance is given to the process not the results, as Japanese believe that good processwill deliver good results.

CONTRIBUTION OF FEIGENBAUM:

Armand Vallin Feigenbaum (born 1922) is an American quality control expert and businessman. He devised the

concept of Total Quality Control,later known as Total Quality Management (TQM).

Feigenbaum received a bachelor's degree from Union College,and his master's degree and Ph.D. fromMIT.Hewas Director of Manufacturing Operations at General Electric (1958-1968), and is now President and CEO of
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General Systems Company ofPittsfield, Massachusetts,an engineering firm that designs and installs operationalsystems. Feigenbaum wrote several books and served as President of theAmerican Society for Quality (1961-1963).

His contributions to the quality body of knowledge include:

"Total quality control is an effective system for integrating the quality development, qualitymaintenance, and quality improvement efforts of the various groups in an organization so as to enableproduction and service at the most economical levels which allow full customer satisfaction."

The concept of a "hidden" plantthe idea that so much extra work is performed in correcting mistakesthat there is effectively a hidden plant within any factory.

Accountability for quality: Because quality is everybody's job, it may become nobody's jobthe ideathat quality must be actively managed and have visibility at the highest levels of management.

The concept of quality costsTAGUCHIS CONTRIBUTION:

Genichi Taguchi is a Japanese quality expert, known for the Quality Loss Function and for methodologies tooptimise quality at the design stage - robust design. Taguchi received formal recognition for his work

including Deming Prizes and Awards.

Genichi Taguchi considers quality loss all the way through to the customer, including cost of scrap, rework,downtime, warranty claims and ultimately reduced market share.

Genichi Taguchi's Quality Loss Function

The Quality Loss Function gives a financial value for customers' increasing dissatisfaction as the productperformance goes below the desired target performance.

Equally, it gives a financial value for increasing costs as product performance goes above the desired targetperformance. Determining the target performance is an educated guess, often based on customer surveys andfeedback.

The quality loss function allows financial decisions to be made at the design stage regarding the cost ofachieving the target performance.

Quality through Robust Design Methodology

Taguchi methods emphasised quality through robust design, not quality through inspection. Taguchi breaks the

design process into three stages:

1. System design - involves creating a working prototype2. Parameter design - involves experimenting to find which factors influence product performance most3. Tolerance design - involves setting tight tolerance limits for the critical factors and looser

tolerance limits for less important factors.

Taguchis Robust Design methodologies allow the designer through experiments to determine which factorsmost affect product performance and which factors are unimportant.

The designer can focus on reducing variation on the important or critical factors. Unimportant or

uncontrollable noise factors have negligible impact on the product performance and can be ignored.

Robust Design of Cookies

This is easier explained by example. If your business makes cookies from raw ingredients, there are manypossible factors that could influence the quality of the cookie - amount of flour, number of eggs, temperature ofbutter, heat of oven, cooking time, baking tray material etc.

With Genichi Taguchis Robust Design methodologies you would set up experiments that would test a range of
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combinations of factors - for example, high and low oven temperature, with long and short cooking time, 1 or 2eggs, etc. The cookies resulting from each of these trials would be assessed for quality.

A statistical analysis of results would tell you which the most important factors are, for example oventemperature affects cookie quality more than the number of eggs.

With this knowledge you would design a process that ensures the oven maintains the optimal temperature andyou would be able to consistently produce good cookies.

5S PRINCIPLES:

The 5S framework was originally developed by just-in-time expert and international consultant HiroyukiHirano. The 5S framework is an extension of Hirano's earlier works on just-in-time production systems. The 5Ssrepresent a simple "good housekeeping" approach to improving the work environment consistent with the tenetsof Lean Manufacturing System.

It promotes daily activity for continuous improvement. It fosters efficiency and productivity while improvingwork flow. It encourages a proactive approach that prevents problems and waste before they occur. It provides apractical method for dealing with the real problems that workers face every day. And it fits with a facility's otherefforts, such as total preventive maintenance, just-in-time manufacturing, pollution prevention, safety initiatives,

and lean manufacturing efforts.

SEIRI / SORT / CLEANUP:

The first step of the "5S" process, Seiri, refers to the act of throwing away all unwanted, unnecessary, andunrelated materials in the workplace. People involved in Seiri must not feel sorry about having to throw awaythings. The idea is to ensure that everything left in the workplace is related to work. Even the number ofnecessary items in the workplace must be kept to its absolute minimum.

There are two main objectives of Seiri; first is the simplification of tasks and effective use of space.

In performing Seiri, this simple guideline is a must:

1. Separate needed items from unneeded items.2. Remove unneeded items from working areas.3. Discard the items never used.4. Store items not Item not needed now.5. Remove all excess items from working areas, including work pieces, supplies, personal items,

tools, instruments, and equipment.6. Use red tag to get rid of unneeded items.7. Store items needed by most people in a common storage area.8. Store items only needed by each individual in his/her own working area.9. Organize working / storage area.

SEITON / SET IN ORDER / ARRANGING:

Seiton, or orderliness, is all about efficiency. This step consists of putting everything in an assigned place sothat it can be accessed or retrieved quickly, as well as returned in that same place quickly. If everyone hasquick access to an item or materials, work flow becomes efficient, and the worker becomes productive. Everysingle item must be allocated its own place for safekeeping, and each location must be labeled for easy

identification of what it's for.

Its objective includes; the needed items can be easily found, stored and retrieved, supports efficiency and

productivity, First-in first-out (FIFO), and save space and time.

In performing Seiton, follow these guidelines:

1. A place for everything and everything in its place.2. Place tools and instructional manual close to the point of use.
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3. Store similar items together. Different items in separate rows.4. Don't stack items together. Use rack or shelf if possible.5. Use small bins to organize small items.6. Use color for quickly identifying items.7. Clearly label each item and its storage areas (lead to visibility).8. Use see-through cover or door for visibility.9. Use special designed cart to organize tools, jigs, measuring devices, etc., that are needed for each

particular machine.

SEISO / SHINE / NEATNESS

Seiso, the third step in "5S", says that 'everyone is a janitor.' Seiso consists of cleaning up the workplace andgiving it a 'shine'. Cleaning must be done by everyone in the organization, from operators to managers. Itwould be a good idea to have every area of the workplace assigned to a person or group of persons forcleaning. Seiso is not just cleaning, but a whole attitude that includes ensuring everything is in perfectcondition. Everyone should see the 'workplace' through the eyes of a visitor - always thinking if it is cleanenough to make a good impression.

Its objective includes; cleanliness ensures a more comfortable and safe working place, cleanliness will lead to

visibility so as to reduce search time and cleanliness ensures a higher quality of work and products.

Follow these guidelines in performing Seiso:

1. Use dust collecting covers or devices to prevent possible dirt or reduce the amount of dirt.2. Investigating the causes of dirtiness and implement a plan to eliminate the sources of dirt.3. Cover around cords, legs of machines and tables such that dirt can be easily and quickly removed.4. Operators clean their own equipment and working area and perform basic preventive maintenance.5. Keep everything clean for a constant state of readiness.

SEIKETSU / SYSTEMIZE / DISCIPLINE:

The fourth step of "5S", or seiketsu, more or less translates to 'standardized clean-up'. It consists of definingthe standards by which personnel must measure and maintain 'cleanliness'. Seiketsu encompasses bothpersonal and environmental cleanliness. Personnel must therefore practice 'seiketsu' starting with theirpersonal tidiness. Visual management is an important ingredient of seiketsu. Color- coding and standardizedcoloration of surroundings are used for easier visual identification of anomalies in the surroundings.Personnel are trained to detect abnormalities using their five senses and to correct such abnormalitiesimmediately.

The guidelines include:

1. Removing used, broken, or surplus items from the work area2. Making safety a prime requirement by paying attention to noise, fumes, lighting, cables, spills,

and other aspects of the workplace environment3. Checking that items are where they should be4. Listening to the "voice" of the process and being alert to things such as unusual noises5. Ensuring that there is a place for everything and that everything is in its place6. Wearing safe working apparel and using safe equipment7. Minimizing all waste and the use of valuable resources such as oil, air, steam, water, and

electricity

SHITSUKE / SUSTAIN / ON-GOING IMPROVEMENT:

The last step of "5S", Shitsuke, means 'Discipline.' It denotes commitment to maintain orderliness and topractice the first 4 S as a way of life. The emphasis of shitsuke is elimination of bad habits and constant
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practice of good ones. Once true shitsuke is achieved, personnel voluntarily observe cleanliness andorderliness at all times, without having to be reminded by management.

The characteristic of 5S tends to overlap significantly rather than cover very different subjects. Rather thanworry about what fits into Seiri and what fits into Seiton, use them to reinforce each other and implement thewhole thing.

QUALITY CIRCLE

Quality Circle is a small group of 6 to 12 employees doing similar work who voluntarily meet together on aregular basis to identify improvements in their respective work areas using proven techniques for analysing andsolving work related problems coming in the way of achieving and sustaining excellence leading to mutualupliftment of employees as well as the organisation. It is "a way of capturing the creative and innovative powerthat lies within the work force".

CONCEPT

The concept of Quality Circle is primarily based upon recognition of the value of the worker as a human being,as someone who willingly activises on his job, his wisdom, intelligence, experience, attitude and feelings. It is

based upon the human resource management considered as one of the key factors in the improvement of productquality & productivity. Quality Circle concept has three major attributes:a. Quality Circle is a form of participation management.b. Quality Circle is a human resource development technique.c. Quality Circle is a problem solving technique.

OBJECTIVE

The objectives of Quality Circles are multi-faced.a)Change in Attitude.From "I dont care" to "I do care" Continuous improvement in quality of work life through humanisation ofwork.

b)Self DevelopmentBring out Hidden Potential of people

People get to learn additional skills.

c)Development of Team SpiritIndividual Vs Team - "I could not do but we did it"Eliminate inter departmental conflicts.

d)Improved Organisational CulturePositive working environment.Total involvement of people at all levels.Higher motivational level.

Participate Management process.

ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE

A Quality Circle has an appropriate organisational structure for its effective and efficient performance. It variesfrom industry to industry, organisation to organisation. But it is useful to have a basic framework as a model.The structure of a Quality Circle consists of the following elements.

i. A steering committee: This is at the top of the structure. It is headed by a senior executive andincludes representatives from the top management personnel and human resourcesdevelopment people. It establishes policy, plans and directs the program and meets usuallyonce in a month.

ii.

Co-ordinator: He may be a Personnel or Administrative officer who co-ordinates andsupervises the work of the facilitators and administers the programme.


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iii. Facilitator: He may be a senior supervisory officer. He co-ordiates the works of several qualitycircles through the Circle leaders.

iv. Circle leader: Leaders may be from lowest level workers or Supervisors. A Circle leaderorganises and conducts Circle activities.

v. Circle members : They may be staff workers. Without circle members the porgramme cannotexist. They are the lifeblood of quality circles. They should attend all meetings as far aspossible, offer suggestions and ideas, participate actively in group process, take training

seriously with a receptive attitude.The roles of Steering Committee, Co- 0rdinator, Facilitator,Circle leader and Circle members are well defined.

The Quality Circles also are expected to develop internal leadership, reinforce worker morale andmotivation, and encourage a strong sense of teamwork in an organisation.

A variety of benefits have been attributed to Quality Circles, including higher quality, improved productivity,greater upward flow of information, broader improved worker attitudes, job enrichment, and greater teamwork.Problem quality circles often suffer from unrealistic expectations for fast results, lock of managementcommitment and support, resistance by middle management, resentment by non participants, inadequate

training, lack of clear objectives and failure to get solutions implemented

8D Methodology8D is a problem-solving methodology for product and process improvement. It is structured into eightdisciplines, emphasizing team synergy. The team as whole is better and smarter than the quality sum of theindividuals. Each discipline is supported by a checklist of assessment questions, such as "what is wrong withwhat", "what, when, where, how much1.Use Team ApproachEstablish a small group of people with the knowledge, time, authority and skill to solve the problem andimplement corrective actions. The group must select a team leader.2.Describe the ProblemDescribe the problem in measurable terms. Specify the internal or external customer problem by describing it

in specific terms.3.Implement and Verify Short-Term Corrective ActionsDefine and implement those intermediate actions that will protect the customer from the problem untilpermanent corrective action is implemented. Verify with data the effectiveness of these actions.4.Define and Verify Root CausesIdentify all potential causes which could explain why the problem occurred. Test each potential cause againstthe problem description and data. Identify alternative corrective actions to eliminate root cause.5.Verify Corrective ActionsConfirm that the selected corrective actions will resolve the problem for the customer and will not causeundesirable side effects. Define other actions, if necessary, based on potential severity of problem.6.Implement Permanent Corrective ActionsDefine and implement the permanent corrective actions needed. Choose on-going controls to insure the rootcause is eliminated. Once in production, monitor the long-term effects and implement additional controls asnecessary.7.Prevent RecurrenceModify specifications, update training, review work flow, improve practices and procedures to preventrecurrence of this and all similar problems.8.Congratulate Your TeamUNIT-3(STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL AND PROCESS CAPABILITY)

Definition of Statistical Process Control (SPC) :

A method of monitoring, controlling and, ideally, improving a process through statistical analysis. Its fourbasic steps include measuring the process, eliminating variances in the process to make it consistent,monitoring the process, and improving the process to its best target value.
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Control Charts:

Control charts, also known as Shewhart charts or process-behaviour charts, in statistical processcontrol aretools used to determine whether or not a manufacturing or business process is in a state of statisticalcontrol.

A control chart is a statistical tool used to distinguish between variation in a process resulting from common

causes and variation resulting from special causes. It presents a graphic display of process stability orinstability over time. Every process has variation. Some variation may be the result of causes which are notnormally present in the process. This could be special cause variation. Some variation is simply the result ofnumerous, ever-present differences in the process. This is common cause variation. Control Charts differentiatebetween these two types of variation.
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land R

chartXand schart

p-chart

np-chart

c-chart

u-chart

One goal of using a Control Chart is to achieve and maintain process stability. Process stability isdefined as a state in which a process has displayed a certain degree of consistency in the past and isexpected to continue to do so in the future.

There are two main categories of Control Charts, those that display attribute data, and those that displayvariables data.

Attribute Data: This category of Control Chart displays data that result from counting the number of

occurrences or items in a single category of similar items or occurrences. These count data may beexpressed as pass/fail, yes/no, or presence/absence of a defect.Variables Data: This category of Control Chart displays values resulting from the measurement of acontinuous variable. Examples of variables data are elapsed time, temperature, and radiation dose.

A control chart consists of:

Points representing a statistic (e.g., a mean, range, proportion) of measurements of a qualitycharacteristic in samples taken from the process at different times [the data]

The mean of this statistic using all the samples is calculated (e.g., the mean of the means, mean of theranges, mean of the proportions)

A center line is drawn at the value of the mean of the statistic The standard error (e.g., standard deviation/sqrt(n) for the mean) of the statistic is also calculatedusing all the samples Upper and lower control limits (sometimes called "natural process limits") that indicate the threshold

at which the process output is considered statistically 'unlikely' are drawn typically at 3 standarderrors from the center line

Types of charts

Cha

rtProcess observation

Quality characteristic measurementwithin one subgroupQuality characteristic measurementwithin one subgroup

Fraction nonconforming within onesubgroup

Number nonconforming within one

subgroupNumber of nonconformances within one

subgroupNonconformances per unit within one subgroup

Process observationsrelationships

Independent

Independent

Independent

Independent

Independent

Independent

Process observations type

Variables

Variables

Attributest

Attributest

Attributest

Attributest

Construction of control chart for variables:

Step 1 - Determine the data to be collected. Decide what questions about the process you plan to answer.Refer to the Data Collection module for information on how this is done.Step 2 - Collect and enter the data by subgroup. A subgroup is made up of variables data that represent acharacteristic of a product produced by a process. Thesample size relates to how large the subgroups are.STEP 3 - Calculate and enter the average for each subgroup. Use the formula below to calculate the average(mean) for each subgroup and enter it on the line labeledAverage in the data collection section
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Step 4 - Calculate and enter the range for each subgroup. Use the following formula to calculate the range (R)for each subgroup.Step 5 - Calculate thegrand meanof the subgroups average. Thegrand meanof the subgroups average (X-Bar) becomes the centerline for the upper plot.Step 6 - Calculate average of subgroup rangesStep 7 - Calculate UCL and LCL for subgroup averagesStep 8 - Calculate UCL for ranges

Step 9 - Select scales and plotStep 10 - Document the chart

Control Charts for attributesWhen the quality controls have to focus on a quality characteristic hard or expensive to measure on a numericalscale, the control chart for attributes are a useful alternative.

Attributes concern quality characteristics which are able to be classified in two types, conform and notconform to specifications. What is called nonconforming means that the unit controlled is not conformed tostandard on one or more of examined quality characteristics.

The goal of control charts for variable is still to control mean and variability of a process but here, wefocus of number of nonconforming units or nonconformities in a population. Three types of charts exist. Theiruse depends on the production (which quality characteristic to control, how many to examine), the

characteristic of controls (constant or variable sample size): The p-chart: it is a control chart for fraction nonconforming The c-chart: it is a control chart for number of defects ornonconformities

The u-chart: it is a controlchart for number of nonconformities per unit

It is so to choose the best adapted control chart to the production.

The p-chart: Control chart for fraction nonconformingThe focus of the chart is the ratio of the number of nonconforming units in a population over the total

number of units in this population. This fraction is called p.

Dj -

Pi = where p : fraction of nonconformingi

D : number of nonconforming units in the ith

sample

T , , n : sample size of the ithsample . T

In general, m samples of n units are tested but the sample size can be either constant or variable. In

the following, we study both cas es.1.For a constant sample size

Mathematical notions

If the sample size is constant, the formula for the value plotted on the p-chart is:A Dj

Pi =

n

The central line and control limits are computed as shown bellow:

\ m

Zm


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Central line

p(1 -

p)

i =iPi

P =~

n

LCL = p- 3i

Limits UCL =n

p (1 - p)p+ 3^


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Central

Limits

ui =

Central lineu

To construct the p-chart, we plot the fraction nonconforming for each sample.

The c-chart: Control chart for number of nonconformities observed

The focus of the chart is the number of nonconformities in a population. This number is called c andis directly plotted on a c-chart. In this case again, m samples of n units are controlled and the sample size canbe constant or not.

For a constant sample sizeMathematical notions

The central line and control limits are computed as shown bellow:m

c

Zm

. m

UCL = c+ 34c

LCL = c- 3y[c

The u-chart: Control chart for number of nonconformities per unit

The u- chart is often used for controls where the sample size is variable. It consists plotting thenumber of nonconformities per unit tested.

where u : average nonconformities perX

unit

x : number of total nonconformities in a sample n : sample size

Mathematical

notions

Here are formulas for control chart characteristics:

m

i=1Z


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UCL = u +3

,

LCL = u -3.

i=m

i:1i

Limits


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Process Capability:

Process capability can be defined as the ability of a process to produce more uniform products with littlevariations.

Process capability compares the output of an in-controlprocess to the specification limits by using capabilityindices. The comparison is made by forming the ratio of the spread between the process specifications (the

specification "width") to the spread of the process values, as measured by 6 process standard deviation units(the process "width").

Six Sigma concepts:

Six Sigma has evolved over the last two decades and so has its definition. Six Sigma has literal, conceptual,and practical definitions.Features that set Six Sigma apart from previous quality improvement initiatives include - A clear focus on achieving measurable and quantifiable financial returns from any project. An increased emphasis on strong and passionate management leadership and support. A special infrastructure of "Champions," "Master Black Belts," "Black Belts," etc. to lead and

implement the Six Sigma approach. A clear commitment to making decisions on the basis of verifiable data, rather than assumptions and

guesswork.At Motorola University, we think about Six Sigma at three different levels:

As a metric As a methodology As a management system

Essentially, Six Sigma is all three at the same time.Six Sigma as a MetricThe term "Sigma" is often used as a scale for levels of "goodness" or quality. Using thisscale, "SixSigma" equates to 3.4 Defects Per Million Opportunities (DPMO). Six Sigma started asa defectreductioneffort in manufacturing and then applied to other business processes for the same purpose.Taking the 1.5 sigma shift into account, short-term sigma levels correspond to the following long-termDPMO values (one-sided):

One Sigma = 690,000 DPMO => efficiency 31% Two Sigma = 308,000 DPMO => efficiency 69.2% Three Sigma = 66,800 DPMO => efficiency 93.32% Four Sigma = 6,210 DPMO => efficiency 99.379% Five Sigma = 230 DPMO => efficiency 99.977% Six Sigma = 3.4 DPMO => efficiency 99.9997%

Six Sigma as a MethodologyAs Six Sigma has evolved, there has been less emphasis on the literal definition of 3.4 DPMO, or countingdefects in products and processes. Six Sigma is a business improvement methodology that focuses anorganization on:

Understanding and managing customer requirements

Aligning key business processes to achieve those require][plkvcments Utilizing rigorous data analysis to minimize variation in those processes Driving rapid and sustainable improvement to business processes

At the heart of the methodology is the DMAIC model for process improvement. DMAIC is commonly usedby Six Sigma project teams and is an acronym for:DMAIC - The basic methodology consists of the following five steps:

Define processimprovement goals that are consistent with customer demands and theenterprise

strategy. Measure key aspectsof the current process and collect relevant data. Analyze the data toverify cause-and-effect relationships. Determine what the relationships are,and attempt to ensure that all factors have been considered.


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Improve or optimize the process based upon data analysis using techniques like Design ofExperiments.

Control to ensure that any deviations from target are corrected before they result in defects. Set uppilot runs to establish process capability, move on to production, set up control mechanisms andcontinuously monitor the process.

Total Productive Maintenance

Total = Overall features for productionProductive = production of goods and services that meet expectationMaintenance = Keeping the equipments and plant as good as new and working condition

Goals of TPMMaintaining and Improving equipment capacityMaintaining equipment for longer life Using supportfrom all areas of operation Encouraging input from allemployees Continuous improvement

Improvement needsMachines expected to fail at one point or another - minimise that risk Employeeswho use and work that machine give the first hand information

Six major loss areas in terms of timeDowntime loss1.Planned - i) start ups ii) Shift change iii) tea / lunch breaks iv) planned maintenance2.Unplanned - i) Equipment breakdown ii) changeovers iii)lack of materials3.Idling and minor stoppages4.Slow downs5.Process change6.ScrapsCalculating Equipment Effectiveness

Downtime loss measured by equipment availability A= (T/P) X 100A - availability, T - operating time (P - D), P - Planned operation time D- Downtime

Performance efficiencyE = (CXN/T) X 100E - Performance efficiency, C - Theoretical cycle time, N - Processed amount (qty)

Rate of quality products R =(N-Q/N)X 100R - Rate of quality products, N = Processed amount Q - nonconformities

UNIT-4(TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES FOR QUALITY MANAGEMENT)

Quality Function Deployment (QFD) is a way of making the 'voice of the customer' heard throughout anorganization. It is a systematic process for capturing customer requirements and translating these intorequirements that must be met throughout the 'supply chain'. The result is a new set of target values fordesigners, production people, and even suppliers to aim at in order to produce the output desired bycustomers.QFD is particularly valuable when design trade-offs are necessary to achieve the best overall solution,e. g. because some requirements conflict with others. QFD also enables a great deal of information to besummarized in the form of one or more charts. These charts capture customer and product data

gleaned from many sources, as well as the design parameters chosen for the new product. In this way theyprovide a solid foundation for further improvement in subsequent design cycles.
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QFD is sometimes referred to by other 'nicknames' - the voice of the customer (from its use as a way ofcommunicating customer needs), or the House of Quality (from the characteristic house shape of a QFDchart).HistoryThe creation of QFD is generally attributed to Mitsubishi's Kobe shipyard in Japan. The original approach,conceived in the late 1960's, was adopted and developed by other Japanese companies, notably Toyota and itssuppliers. In 1986 a study by the Japanese Union of Scientists and Engineers (JUSE) revealed that 54% of 148

member companies surveyed were using QFD. The sectors with the highest penetration of QFD weretransportation (86%), construction (82%), electronics (63%), and precision machinery (66%). Many of theservice companies surveyed (32%) were also using QFD. Specific design applications in Japan range fromhome appliances and clothing to retail outlets and apartment layouts.In the USA the first serious exponents of QFD were the 'big three' automotive manufacturers in the 1980's,and a few leading companies in other sectors such as electronics. However, the uptake of QFD in the Westernworld appears to have been fairly slow. There has been no survey comparable to the JUSE study regarding thespread of QFD in North America, and there are relatively few sources of literature and case studies, comparedwith other methodologies such as Benchmarking.There is also some reluctance among users of QFD to publish and share information - much more so than withother quality-related methodologies. This may be because the data captured and the decisions made usingQFD usually relate to future product plans, and are therefore sensitive, proprietary, and valuable to

competitors.Benefits of QFDThe main 'process' benefits of using QFD are:improved communication and sharing of information within a cross-functional team charged with developinga new product. This team will typically include people from a variety of functional groups, such as marketing,sales, service, distribution, product engineering, process engineering, procurement, and productionthe identification of 'holes' in the current knowledge of the design teamthe capture and display of a wide variety of important design information in one place in a compact formsupport for understanding, consensus, and decision making, especially when complex relationships and trade-offs are involvedthe creation of an informational base which is valuable for repeated cycles of product improvement Themain 'bottom line' benefits of using QFD are:

greater likelihood of product success in the marketplace, due to the precise targeting of key customerrequirementsreduced overall design cycle time, mainly due to a reduction in time-consuming design changes. This is apowerful benefit: customer requirements are less likely to have changed since the beginning of the designproject; and more frequent design cycles mean that products can be improved more rapidly than thecompetitionreduced overall cost due to reducing design changes, which are not only time consuming but verycostly, especially those which occur at a late stage.reduced product cost by eliminating redundant features and over-design.When to use QFDQFD is a powerful tool that leads to significant improvements in product/process performances. However, itis not a short-term answer to product development problems. The method on which QFD is implemented may

have a large impact on benefits derived and companies should take up QFD only after getting the consent andcommitment of the team members.QFD provides a systematic approach to build a team perspective on what needs to be done, the best ways todo it, the best order to accomplish the tasks proposed and the staffing and resources required to enhancecustomer satisfaction. It is also a good format for capturing and recording/documenting decision making.Applied through the Kaizen philosophy under Total Quality Control, QFD is the most highly developed formof integrated product and process development in existence.Strengths and weaknesses of QFD

Strengths include:1. Enhanced customer satisfactionListening to the voice of the customerRobust design2. Shorter time to market


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Reduced rework during developmentCreates team consensus and commitment3. Reduced costs Competitive benchmarking Concurrent Engineering

Weaknesses Targets set based only on the House of Quality, may be unrealistic Customer requirements are a mix of functional requirements and customer attributes Sometimes customer influences may backfire

Success with QFDCompanies using QFD for product development have on the average, experienced:

50% reduction in costs 33% reduction in product development time 200% increase in productivity

Companies that have successfully applied QFD include Toyota, Honda, ICI, Black & Decker, IntegratedDesign Control Systems and Rover.

QFD - House of QualityMEANING: The voice of the customer from the market research and various benchmarking is linked to the

technicalities of the design and process of the product both new and existing.DEFINITION: It is kind of conceptual map that provides a means of interfunctional planning andcommunication.

FEATURES:

- Concept of matrix and its correlation- Plan as per the voice of the customer- Focus on Customers need and technicalities- WHAT the Customer wants and HOW to do it- It is base tool for quality planning managers WHAT - Customer requirement and priority HOW - Technical description and priority Relationship with WHAT and HOW the main area Interrelationships - Roof the cause of concern and importance

Step I - List customer requirementWHAT - Decide Primary and secondary needs of the customer

Step II - List technical descriptions HOWAgain primary and secondary is decidedPrimary - Material and ProcessSubdividing materials and process requiredHere current materials and process must be considered

Step III - Relation ship matrix between WHAT & HOW The crucial stage Relating WHAT & HOW

Interlinking both primary and secondary No scope for variation Points and grading is donehere Gives results of WHAT and HOW Key elements are discussed The Managementdecides the combination

Costing and current process must be consideredStep IV - Interrelation matrix between HOWs

The materials and manufacturing is analyzedRatings are doneEnables the decisions in the process Current

process to be considered Technical knowledge is a must for theanalyst Step V - Our product with others

Analyzing competitors products customer expectationDifficult to get data Mismatch in requirements is possible Helps in

identifying customer trend Step VI - Technical Competitiveassessment


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Analyzing how the similar companies are handling To whatthey give importance.Impact on technical process to meet the customers request.

Step VII - Prioritize Technical DescriptorsDegree of technical difficultyMost needed change is decidedTarget valuePhysical attributes to be considered

Interrelationship between technical descriptors (correlation matrix) HOWs vs. HOWs

House of Quality Benefits

Orderly way of obtaining informationShorter product development cycleConsiderably reduced start up costFewer engineering changesReduces design process

Leads to teamworkConsensus decisionEverything is preserved in writing

Failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA) is a procedure for analysis of potential failure modes within asystem for the classification by severity or determination of the failures' effect upon the system. It is widelyused in the manufacturing industries in various phases of the product life cycle and is now increasingly findinguse in the service industry as well. Failure causes are any errors or defects in process, design, or item especiallyones that affect the customer, and can be potential or actual.Effects analysis refers to studying theconsequences of those failures.

Step 1: SeverityDetermine all failure modes based on the functional requirements and their effects. Examples of failure modesare: Electrical short-circuiting, corrosion or deformation. It is important to note that a failure mode in onecomponent can lead to a failure mode in another component. Therefore each failure mode should be listed intechnical terms and for function. Hereafter the ultimate effect of each failure mode needs to be considered. A

+ 9 Strong Positive + 30

Positive- 3 X Negative- 9 * Strong negative

Technical descriptors (HOWs) Relationship between

\Primary Material

selectionManufacturing

rocess

Primary

\. Secondary & \TJ \C \ \u \U \

Steel

Aluminum

1 Titanium

W

elding

Diecasting

Sandcasting

Forging

Powdermetallurgy

custc

t

>mer requirements

:chnical descriptor

WHATs vs. HOWs

+ 9 Strong + 30

Medium + 1A

Weak

and

Customerrequirements

(WHATs) A

esthetics Reasonable cost A O O A 3 4 2 8 4 1.

1.

1

Prioritizedcustomer

requirements

Aerodynamic look A A A o O 4 5 3 5 4 1 1.

8Nice Finish o A A O 4 5 3 5 4 1 1 5Corrosion resistant A A O O O O 4 4 2 2 4 1 1 2

Performance Lightweight A A 3 4 2 7 4 1.

2 1Strength O A 0 O A 3 3 4 5 3 1 1 5

Durable O O A O O 3 3 4 3 3 1 1 3

Technicalcompetitiveassessment

Our product 0 5 0 0 5 0 0 0

Ourproduct|

Asproduct|

B'sproduct

|Importancetocustomer

|Targetvalue

|Scale-upfactor

Salespoint

1Absoluteweight

A's product 0 0 5 0 5 0 0 0Bs product 5 0 0 4 0 0 0 0

Degree of technical difficulty l 6 9 4 7 3 6 9

Target value 5 5 5 4 5 0 0 0

Customer

competitive

assessmentAbsolute weight 6822

19

92 16

12

13

12

Relative weight 25

40

30

16

21

20

16

17

Prioritized technicaldescriptors

Figure 12-13Adding Prioritized Technical Descriptors to the House of Quality
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failure effect is defined as the result of a failure mode on the function of the system as perceived by the user. Inthis way it is convenient to write these effects down in terms of what the user might see or experience.Examples of failure effects are: degraded performance, noise or even injury to a user. Each effect is given aseverity number(S) from 1(no danger) to 10(important). These numbers help an engineer to prioritize. If theseverity of an effect has a number 9 or 10, actions are considered to change the design by eliminating thefailure mode, if possible, or protecting the user from the effect. A severity rating of 9 or 10 is generallyreserved for those effects which would cause injury to a user or otherwise result in litigation.

Step 2: OccurrenceIn this step it is necessary to look at the cause of a failure and how many times it occurs. This can be done bylooking at similar products or processes and the failures that have been documented for them. A failure cause islooked upon as a design weakness. All the potential causes for a failure mode should be identified anddocumented. Again this should be in technical terms. Examples of causes are: erroneous algorithms, excessivevoltage or improper operating conditions. A failure mode is given a probability number (O),again 1-10. Actionsneed to be determined if the occurrence is high (meaning >4 for non safety failure modes and >1 when theseverity-number from step 1 is 9 or 10). This step is called the detailed development section of the FMEAprocess.Step 3: DetectionWhen appropriate actions are determined, it is necessary to test their efficiency. Also a design verification isneeded. The proper inspection methods need to be chosen. First, an engineer should look at the current controls

of the system, that prevent failure modes from occurring or which detect the failure before it reaches thecustomer. Hereafter one should identify testing, analysis, monitoring and other techniques that can be or havebeen used on similar systems to detect failures. From these controls an engineer can learn how likely it is for afailure to be identified or detected. Each combination from the previous 2 steps, receives a detectionnumber(D). This number represents the ability of planned tests and inspections at removing defects or detectingfailure modes.After these 3 basic steps, Risk Priority Numbers (RPN) are calculated.Risk Priority NumbersRPN do not play an important part in the choice of an action against failure modes. They are more thresholdvalues in the evaluation of these actions.After ranking the severity, occurrence and detectability the RPN can be easily calculated by multiplying these 3numbers: RPN = S x O x D

This has to be done for the entire process and/or design. Once this is done it is easy to determine the areas ofgreatest concern. The failure modes that have the highest RPN should be given the highest priority forcorrective action. This means it is not always the failure modes with the highest severity numbers that shouldbe treated first. There could be less severe failures, but which occur more often and are less detectable.

Timing of FMEA

The FMEA should be updated whenever:At the beginning of a cycle (new product/process)Changes are made to the operating conditions A change is made in the designNew regulations are instituted Customer feedback indicates a problemUses of FMEADevelopment of system requirements that minimize the likelihood of failures.

Development of methods to design and test systems to ensure that the failures have been eliminated.Evaluation of the requirements of the customer to ensure that those do not give rise to potential failures.Identification of certain design characteristics that contribute to failures, and minimize or eliminate thoseeffects.Tracking and managing potential risks in the design. This helps avoid the same failures in future projects.Ensuring that any failure that could occur will not injure the customer or seriously impact a system.AdvantagesImprove the quality, reliability and safety of a product/processImprove company image and competitivenessIncrease user satisfactionReduce system development timing and costCollect information to reduce future failures, capture engineering knowledge

Reduce the potential for warranty concerns


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Early identification and elimination of potential failure modesEmphasis problem preventionMinimize late changes and associated costCatalyst for teamwork and idea exchange between functionsDisadvantagesIf used as a top-down tool, FMEA may only identify major failure modes in a system. Fault tree analysis(FTA) is better suited for "top-down" analysis. When used as a "bottom-up" tool FMEA can augment or

complement FTA and identify many more causes and failure modes resulting in top-level symptoms. It is notable to discover complex failure modes involving multiple failures within a subsystem, or to report expectedfailure intervals of particular failure modes up to the upper level subsystem or system. Additionally, themultiplication of the severity, occurrence and detection rankings may result in rank reversals, where a lessserious failure mode receives a higher RPN than a more serious failure mode. The reason for this is that therankings are ordinal scale numbers, and multiplication is not a valid operation on them. The ordinal rankingsonly say that one ranking is better or worse than another, but not by how much. For instance, a ranking of "2"may not be twice as bad as a ranking of "1," or an "8" may not be twice as bad as a "4," but multiplicationtreats them as though they are.

Seven tools of Quality

I

- Pareto chart: Italian economist Vilfredo ParetoShows on a bar graph which factors are more significant.This method helps to find the vital few contributing maximum impact.Purpose: The purpose of the Pareto chart is to prioritize problems No company has enough resources to tackleevery problem, so they must prioritize.Pareto Principle: The Pareto concept was developed by the describing the frequency distribution of any givencharacteristic of a population. Also called the 20-80 rule, he determined that a small percentage of any givengroup (20%) account for a high amount of a certain characteristic (80%).Conclusion: The most important thing in improving quality is to start somewhere, doing something. As youbegin using the Pareto chart to decide where your problems are, you will discover many things about yourprocesses and will come because you will know where to improve.

II- Flowchart: A technique that separates data gathered from a variety of sources so that patterns can be seen(some lists replace "stratification" with or "run chart").Purpose: Flow Charts provide a visual illustration of the sequence of operations required to complete a task.A picture of the steps the process undergoes to complete it's task.Every process will require input(s) to complete it's task, and will provide output(s) when the task is completed.Flow charts can be drawn in many styles.Flow charts can be used to describe a single process, parts of a process, or a set of processes. There is no rightor wrong way to draw a flow chart. The true test of a flow chart is how well those who create and use it canunderstand it.Input .............................. Process ...................... Output

III- Cause-and-Effect Diagrams - 1943 by Mr. Kaoru Ishikawa at the University of Tokyo Purpose: Oneimportant part of process improvement is continuously striving to obtain more information about the processand it's output. Cause-and-effect diagrams allow us to do not just that, but also can lead us to the root cause, orcauses, of problems.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top-down_and_bottom-up_designhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top-down_and_bottom-up_designhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fault_tree_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fault_tree_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fault_tree_analysishttp://www.asq.org/learn-about-quality/cause-analysis-tools/overview/pareto.htmlhttp://www.asq.org/learn-about-quality/cause-analysis-tools/overview/pareto.htmlhttp://www.asq.org/learn-about-quality/cause-analysis-tools/overview/pareto.htmlhttp://www.asq.org/learn-about-quality/cause-analysis-tools/overview/pareto.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fault_tree_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top-down_and_bottom-up_design


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Constructing the Cause-and-Effect Diagram:Step 1: Select the team members and a leader. Team members knowledgeable about the quality. Teammembers focus on the problem under investigation.Step 2: Write the problem statement on the right hand side of the page, and draw a box around it with an arrowrunning to it. This quality concern is now the effect.Step 3: Brain-storming. The team members generate ideas as to what is causing the effect.

Step 4: This step could be combined with step 3. Identify, for each main cause, its related sub-causes that mightaffect our quality concern or problem (our Effect). Always check to see if all the factors contributing to theproblem have been identified. Start by asking why the problem exists.Step 5: Focus on one or two causes for which an improvement action(s) can be developed using other qualitytools such as Pareto charts, check sheets, and other gathering and analysis tools.Conclusion: Improvement requires knowledge. The more information we have about our processes the betterwe are at improving them. Cause-and-effect diagrams are one quality tool that is simple yet very powerful inhelping us better understand our processes.

IV- Check SheetsPurpose: Check sheets allow the user to collect data from a process in an easy, systematic, and organizedmanner.

Data Collection: Before we can talk about check sheets we need to understand what we mean by datacollection.This collected data needs to be accurate and relevant to the quality problem.The first is to establish a purpose for collecting this data.Second, we need to define the type of data that is going to be collected. Measurable data such as length, size,weight, time,...etc., and countable data such as the number of defects.The third step is to determine who is going to collect that data and when it should be collected.

V- HistogramsPurpose: To determine the spread or variation of a set of data points in a graphical form. It is always a desire toproduce things that are equal to their design values.Histograms: A histogram is a tool for summarizing, analyzing, and displaying data. It provides the user with a

graphical representation of the amount of variation found in a set of data.Constructing a Histogram: The following are the steps followed in the construction of a histogram:Data collection: To ensure good results, a minimum of 50 data points, or samples, need to be collectedCalculate the range of the sample data: The range is the difference between the largest and smallest datapoints.Range = Largest point - smallest point.Calculate the size of the class interval. The class interval is the width of each class on the X axis. It iscalculated by the following formula: Class interval = Range / Number of classes.Calculate the number of data points (frequency) that are in each class. A tally sheet is usually used to find thefrequency of data points in each interval.Conclusion: Histogram is simple tools that allow the user to identify and interpret the variation found in a setof data points. It is important to remember that histograms do not give solutions to problems.

VI- Scatter DiagramsPurpose: To identify correlations that might exist between a quality characteristic and a factor that might bedriving it.Scatter Diagrams: A scatter diagram is a nonmathematical or graphical approach for identifying relationshipsbetween a performance measure and factors that might be driving it. This graphical approach is quick, easy tocommunicate to others, and generally easy to interpret.Interpreting the Results: Once all the data points have been plotted onto the scatter diagram, you are ready todetermine whether their exists a relation between the two selected items or not. When a strong relationship ispresent, the change in one item will automatically cause a change in the other. If no relationship can bedetected, the change in one item will not effect the other item. Their are three basic types of relationships thatcan be detected to on a scatter diagram:1.Positive relationship2.Negative relationship3.No relationship


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Conclusion: Scatter diagrams allow the user to graphically identify correlations that could exist between aquality characteristic and a factor that might be driving it. It is a quality tool that is simple, easy tocommunicate to others, and generally easy to interpret.

VII- Control ChartsPurpose: Process is in control and to monitor process variation on a continuous basis. Identifying the tolerancelevel in the variations. Control charts is one SPC tool that enables us to monitor and control process variation.

Types of variation Common and Special Cause VariationControl charts: Developed in the mid 1920's by Walter Shewhart of Bell labs. There are two basic types ofcontrol charts, the average and range control charts. The first deals with how close the process is to thenominal design value, while the range chart indicates the amount of spread or variability around the nominaldesign value. A control chart has basically three line: the upper control limit UCL, the center line CL, and thelower control limit LCL. A minimum of 25 points is required for a control chart to be accurate.

Seven New Management and Planning Tools

In 1976, the Union of Japanese Scientists and Engineers (JUSE) saw the need for tools to promote innovation,communicate information and successfully plan major projects. A team researched and developed the sevennew quality control tools, often called the seven management and planning (MP) tools, or simply the sevenmanagement tools. Not all the tools were new, but their collection and promotion were.

The seven MP tools, listed in an order that moves from abstract analysis to detailed planning, are:1. Affinity diagram: organizes a large number of ideas into their natural relationships.2. Relations diagram: shows cause-and-effect relationships and helps you analyze the natural links

between different aspects of a complex situation.

3. Tree diagram:breaks down broad categories into finer and finer levels of detail, helping you moveyour thinking step by step from generalities to specifics.

4. Matrix diagram: shows the relationship between two, three or four groups of information and cangive information about the relationship, such as its strength, the roles played by various individuals,

or measurements.
http://www.asq.org/learn-about-quality/idea-creation-tools/overview/affinity.htmlhttp://www.asq.org/learn-about-quality/new-management-planning-tools/overview/relations-diagram.htmlhttp://www.asq.org/learn-about-quality/new-management-planning-tools/overview/relations-diagram.htmlhttp://www.asq.org/learn-about-quality/new-management-planning-tools/overview/tree-diagram.htmlhttp://www.asq.org/learn-about-quality/new-management-planning-tools/overview/tree-diagram.htmlhttp://www.asq.org/learn-about-quality/new-management-planning-tools/overview/matrix-diagram.htmlhttp://www.asq.org/learn-about-quality/new-management-planning-tools/overview/matrix-diagram.htmlhttp://www.asq.org/learn-about-quality/new-management-planning-tools/overview/matrix-diagram.htmlhttp://www.asq.org/learn-about-quality/new-management-planning-tools/overview/tree-diagram.htmlhttp://www.asq.org/learn-about-quality/new-management-planning-tools/overview/relations-diagram.htmlhttp://www.asq.org/learn-about-quality/idea-creation-tools/overview/affinity.html


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