electronics radiation characterization (erc) project* – overview of fy03 kenneth a. label erc...

Electronics Radiation Characterization (ERC) Project* – Overview of FY03

Kenneth A. LaBelERC Project Manager

NASA/GSFC Code 561

[email protected]

301-286-9936

ERC is a portion of the NASA Electronic Parts and Packaging (NEPP) Programunder the auspices of NASA HQ/AE

Electronics Radiation Characterization (ERC) Project – RHET Meeting – Oct 30, 2002 - Presented by Kenneth A. LaBel2

Outline

• Overview of the Project– Radiation impacts on

science

• Technology Planning• FY03 Deliverables

– Samples

• Summary• Backup charts

– Individual ERC tasks

Led by the devil himself!

NASA at the IEEE Nuclear andSpace Radiation Effects Conference 2002


ERC Overview

OMNET 10 Gbps fiber optic link pod transferredto NASA in a collaboration with DARPA and NAVAIR

during proton exposure. DTRA has co-funded thiseffort.

Anchor

RF line RF line

Drive capacitor

Contact bridge

Spring

Topography of GaAs RF MEMS switch – new test techniques are required for new

technologies


ERC Project Goals and Objectives• Main goal – NASA science objectives

– Minimize engineering resources required to maximize space and earth science data collection

• ERC objectives– Evaluate new and emerging technologies

• Explore failure mechanisms and technology models

– Develop guidelines for technology usage, selection, and qualification– Investigate radiation hardness assurance (RHA) issues

• Increase system reliability and reduce cost and schedule

HST has utilized a robust system design toconquer radiation challenges


Radiation impacts on space science:ERC provides guidance to flight programs

Europa offers uniqueradiation environment challenges

Chandra has gathered aggressive science despite radiation anomalies on detectors


Sample radiation impacts on science dataERC Objective:

Minimize the impact of radiation on space systems with knowledge of the effects on electronics

• Direct science impacts– Detector noise

• Detector and electronics

– Detector degradation• Primary and secondary

radiation issues

– Anomalies requiring spacecraft safing and recovery

• Solar events• Random single event

– Reduced mission lifetime– Inability to operate-through

solar events or planetary belts

– Anomaly-inducing failure

• Indirect science impacts– Degraded spacecraft power

output• Increased electronics power

consumption

– Decreased speed or data retention capabilities

– Increased design needs for shielding or redundant electronics

• Decreases available resources for science instrument

Post-irradiationlatent damage


ERC efforts fall into two categories

• Radiation effects on new and emerging technologies

– Looking 2-5 years into NASA’s future by developing technology models and exploring new failure modes

• New detector technologies

• SiGe-based ultra-high speed electronics

• Ultra-low power electronics

• Novel memory devices

• New semiconductor materials

• High-speed fiber optics

• Technology insertion guidelines

• Existing technology issues– Helping the projects in

current and near-term design phases by providing application, test, and qualification guidance

• Off-the-shelf electronics characterization

• Qualification guidelines

• Lessons learned

• Technology application and selection guidelines

• Validating system performance and models

Co-funding and in-kind received from DoD, industry, ESA, CNES, NASA flight projects

CEB

SiGe

0

30

60

90

- 30

- 60

- 90

Errors per cell ofarea 4000 sq. km.

20 or more

5- 19

2- 41

0 30 60 90 120 150 180- 30- 60- 90- 120- 150- 180

SeaStar Satellite: SEUs at 705 Km AltitudeH10- second transmissions onlyLJanuary 1, 1999 - Mar. 14, 2002

SiGe devicesare going

mainstream

Where SEUs occurprovides lessons learned

for risk management


ERC – Collaborative Research in FY02

• Universities: 16% of ERC budget

– Auburn/Georgia Tech on SiGe

– Michigan State on High Energy Heavy Ion Facility

– Vanderbilt on Linear SET– U of New Mexico on CULPRiT

• NASA Flight Projects– HST, NGST, LWS

• Industry (in-kind)– Many vendors including NSC,

Interpoint, and Peregrine

• DoD (in-kind or co-fund)– Defense Threat Reduction Agency

(DTRA)• SiGe, Photonics, Sensors, Linear

SET, Optocouplers, Flight Data Analysis

– Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL)

• Linear SET hardening approach• SEL test structures

– NAVSEA Crane• Linear SET• COTS Evaluations

– Naval Research Laboratories• Laser Testing• MPTB

• DOE (in-kind)– Sandia NL (SNL)

• SiGe

Plans to expand collaborations in FY03


ERC Technology Planning:enabling NASA’s future

HST has utilized a robust system design toconquer radiation challenges


ERC and Technology Planning

• Two types of existing roadmaps are of particular interest to ERC– Technology Development (I.e., Semiconductor Industry

Association – SIA)• ERC needs to be apprised of emerging technology patterns to

determine maturity levels of technology– “Is the technology maturity appropriate to begin evaluation?”

– NASA Technology Needs• The research ERC performs needs to be focused on NASA’s prime

technology needs in space, earth, human, and aeronautics applications

– “What is the benefit of the research to NASA and the aerospace community?”

• ERC’s research plans are based on all the above


Technology Planning for ERC:Advanced imaging and data collection

SiGe PhotonicsDeep

Sub-micronCMOS

Current ERC Effort

Out-years ERC EffortFY03 ERC New Start

Sensor Technologies

NovelDielectrics

Future Electronics

Bioelectronics

InP

Nanotechnology

InAs

Vertical CavitySurface Emitting Lasers

Exotic-dopedFiber components

Wavelength DivisionMultiplexing

Free spaceOptical interconnects

Novel Detectors

Advanced Imaging and Data Collection

Ultra-low powerSiGe on SOI

Silicon on Insulator (SOI)

IR

Visible

Others

Legend


Technology Planning for ERC:Miniaturized instruments and spacecraft

Ultra-lowPower ICs

Microelectro-mechanical

Systems (MEMS)

System on a Chip (SOC)

AdvancedSemiconductor

ProcessingTechniques

Current ERC Effort


IC Interconnect/Packaging

Technology*

+ Analog, Digital, Mixed signal* May show charging effects

Miniaturization

Cu Interconnects

Thin Oxides

Emerging

SiGe on SOIMirrors

RF Switches

Accelerometer

GaAs

Si

Propulsion

Gyros

Others such assensors

Legend

Integrated ICs

Field ProgrammableGate Arrays (FPGAs)+

Application SpecificIntegrated Circuits

(ASICs)+


Technology Planning for ERC:Planetary exploration and deep-space:

temperature extremes and harsh environments

MagneticDevices

WideBandgapDevices

COTSICs

Current ERC Effort


Legend

Harsh Environments

GaN

SiC

Emerging ICTechnologies

80K Temp

30-80K Temp

Hardened byDesign (HBD)

<3K Temp

SiGe

Chalcogenide

Other ICTechnologies

SOI

FerroelectricDevices

GiantMagnetoresistive

(GMR)

TunnelingMagnetoresistive

(TMR)


Technology Planning for ERC:Cost-effective space systems

MemoriesHybrid/

Mixed SignalProcessors

Current ERC Effort


AnalogElectronics

PowerElectronics

CustomDevices

Legend

Cost-effective Systems

Linear Devices

Analog ASICs

RF Devices

FPGAs

Digital ASICs

High PowerMOSFETs

Other

PowerPC

Microcontrollers

Digital SignalProcessors

Other ComplexProcessors

Power conversion

BiCMOS

Board Evaluation

Analog/digitalconversion

Optocouplers

Volatile

SRAM

DRAM

Non-volatile

Magnetoresistive

EEPROM

SDRAM

DDR

RDRAM

Flash

Ferroelectric


Technology Planning for ERC:Increased robustness/reliability and lifetimes

Ground testprotocols

Test FacilitiesRadiation and

ReliabilityIn-Flight

PerformanceMaterials and

Shielding

Current ERC Effort


PerformanceTools

Legend

Increased Reliability

Latchup andLatent Damage

Long-term storage

ThinningTechniques

Sensors

Fiber Optic Links

High EnergyHeavy Ion

Pre-screen Facilities

Two-photonAbsorption laser

COTS Processors

Optocouplers

Solid state memories

Power Switches

Fiber optic data busses

Fiber Optic Links

BiCMOS

Single event transients

Enhanced LowDose Rate (ELDRS)

MEMS

Optical

RF, other

BoardAssemblies/Hybrids


Caveats on ERC and Technology Planning

• With a limited budget, there are numerous “missing” technologies– Materials and Charging

• ESD, surface charging, deep dielectric• Mechanical property degradation• Shielding and secondaries

– Solar cells• Degradation

– TRLs < 4• Nanotechnologies

– High risk, high payoff

• Other technologies have limited investment plans due to cost constraints

– New high performance technologies often mean expensive evaluation costs and test equipment (infrastructure issue)

• NEPP funds no test equipment

– MEMS: still emerging but MUCH interest in areas like microgyros, micromirrors, RF components

– FSOI, EDFAs, etc – attempts to highly leverage other’s efforts


Sample ERC Deliverables in FY03:Based on NASA Needs

Mars Global SurveyorDust Storms in 2001

SeaWIFSGlobal Carbon Cycle


Visible imaging:detector characterization and performance

Solar particle event induces transients in a Charge-Coupled Device

(CCD) in the SOHO/LASCO C3

Coronograph July 14, 2000

ERC is developing a lessons-learned on test

and flight experience with visible sensors in

FY03. DTRA is a co-funder.


Microwave Anisotropy Probe (MAP): Single particle-induced transient in a analog device

• MAP was launched in June 2001 to a L2 orbit– Anomaly occurred in Nov 2001 causing the

command and data handling processor to reset

• System worked as designed for recovery of anomalies

• Event occurred during a solar particle event– Heavy ion contribution was likely the cause

• Sensitive design issue: linear comparator used with a small differential input– Much more sensitive than with larger

differential input– Potential for further processor resets from

both solar events and GCR• ERC with DTRA co-funding is developing

guidelines for test and application of these types of devices in FY03

10-12

10-10

10-8

10-6

10-4

10-2

100

102

0.1 1 10 100

CREME96 Worst Day ModelMPTB/CREDO Event Averaged (2926-2933)MPTB/CREDO Peak Orbit (#2929)

LET (MeVcm2/mg)

Inte

gra

l Flu

x (#

/cm

2 -s)

MAP Spacecraft

Heavy ion spectrafrom solar particle event


HST Optocouplers Changes in technology make old devices, new

issues• In February of 1997, several anomalies

occurred in a HST instrument while transiting through the SAA– High-speed optocoupler identified as the

potential source• This was verified by ground testing in March

1997

– Device was not reviewed for radiation issues other than total dose

• Common philosophy prior to this timeframe on slower optocouplers

• Science instrument operations modified such that no operations were active during SAA transits

• ERC is releasing a final guideline for test and application of optocouplers in FY03. DTRA is a co-funder.

380 m

2 m+ + - + - - ++ - - + - + + -+ + - + - - ++ - - + - + + -

+ + - + - - ++ - - + - + + -

+ + - + - - ++ - - + - + + -

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+ + - + - - ++ - - + - + + - + + - + - - +

+ - - + - + + -

+ + - + - - ++ - - + - + + -+ + - + - - +

+ - - + - + + -

+ + - + - - ++ - - + - + + -

+ + - + - - ++ - - + - + + -

+ + - + - - ++ - - + - + + -+ + - + - - ++ - - + - + + -

+ + - + - - ++ - - + - + + -

+ + - + - - ++ - - + - + + -

+ + - + - - ++ - - + - + + -

Proton

Proton

Direct Ionization Across Long Pathlengths

And Nuclear Reaction Recoils


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Nu

mb

er o

f u

pse

ts/d

ay

July 14/15 2000

November 9, 2000

April 15, 2001

September 25, 2001

November 5/6 2001

Spikes correspondto Solar Particle Event

The number of SEUdecreases with the increasing solar activity

SeaStar SSR:ERC delivers a lessons-learned for solid state

recorders in FY03. DTRA is a co-funder.

Seastar: 705 km, 98° inclination

DRAM - Hitachi MDM1400G-120,4megabit x 1, 220 DRAMs per SSR

Single bit EDAC can be used effectively with x1 devicesin most system implementations

Caveat: beware of more modern devices that have other failure modes!


Summary of ERC

• ERC provides a balanced scope of research to support NASA’s science programs

• ERC supports both near-term and mid-term NASA mission planning

• Collaboration with others is critical• Contact for more info

– [email protected]– http://nepp.nasa.gov

Pluto: challenges for radiation,temperature, and lifetime

We are happy to provide you anyPOCs or information available


Backup charts:Individual FY03 tasks


Radiation Effects Websites

Benefits• Increased information availability

for NASA and Aerospace Community

Participating Centers• JPL, GSFC

Period of performance• FY 96-02+

Deliverables• NASA radiation websites• Inputs to NEPP

Provide radiation information and radiation effects databases (RADATA, RADHOME) as a means of providing critical information to NASA and its partners. Website and data management are the prime

subtasks as coordinated with IMD.

http://radhome.gsfc.nasa.gov

Co-winner of Best Presentation atRadiation Effects Data Workshop atIEEE NSREC – GSFC Compendium

http://nepp.nasa.gov

http://radnet.jpl.nasa.gov


Advanced Sensor Technologies Assessment, Test Techniques, and

Predictive/Mitigative Methods

Benefits• Increased reliability of sensors in space

systems• Improved science precision and reduced data

loss• Improved understanding to allow better

particle rejection software/hardware

Prime Customer(s)– Scientists (instruments)– Attitude control (eg., star trackers)– DoD partners (object recognition)

Participating Centers• GSFC


Deliverables • NASA CCD and sensor array test

guidelines

• Lessons learned document on sensor radiation characterization techniques

• Guidelines to insertion of new sensor technologies for space radiation issues

• Radiation test reports on sensors

Perform radiation evaluations of advanced sensor technologies in the visible, infrared (IR), etc wavelengths. This includes technologies such as P-channel Si-based charge

coupled detectors (CCD), infrared (IR) sensors, and active pixel sensors (APS). Document radiation characterization techniques and technology guidelines.

Significant interagency collaboration withDTRA and AFRL as well as flight projects

and industry.


Mitigative Approaches Technology Evaluation

Benefits• Provides flight designers’ an

apples-to-apples assessment of HBD techniques that are available to NASA flight projects

Prime Customers• Flight projects that need radiatio

tolerant products and ASICs


Period of performance• FY 03

Deliverables• Database on HBD 8051

microcontrollers

• Assessment on the state of HBD for insertion into NASA flight projects

A side-by-side comparison of the effectiveness of hardened-by-design (HDB) radiation mitigation techniques using 8051 microcontrollers as

test vehicles.


Emerging CMOS Microelectronic Technologies Assessment, Modeling, and

Test Technique Development

Benefits• Provides technology insertion

guidelines for emerging CMOS technologies

• Develop technology models and test techniques

Prime Customers• Mid-term projects (3-7 years)


Period of performance• FY 00-04

Deliverables• Radiation test reports on new

microelectronics technologies• Failure mode analyses of new

emerging technology microelectronics

• Technology suitability guidelines for the space radiation environment

Perform radiation effects evaluation of emerging CMOS and related microelectronics technologies including: highly scaled, low and

ultra-low power, commercial silicon-on-insulator (SOI), etc.


Emerging SiGe IC and Competing Technologies Evaluation, Test,

and Insertion Guidelines

Benefits– SiGe is an emerging commercial

microelectronics technology of key interest to future NASA missions

• High-speed communications• Low-noise and cold-temp

instrumentation• System-on-a-chip

– Enables increased precision and performance in science instruments

Prime Customer(s)– Instrument and communication system

designers



Deliverables• Models and guidelines for radiation sensitivity

of SiGe microelectronics• Radiation test protocols and performance

prediction techniques [FY03]• Radiation hardening approaches for single

event upsets (SEUs)

• Develop guidelines to SiGe technology insertion into NASA flight projects

Provide radiation assessment of emerging technology (SiGe) for high-speed communication, RF, mixed signal, and system-on-a-chip applications. Develop technology models, mitigative techniques, and provide NASA

guidelines (test and insertion)

CEB

SiGe


Evaluation of Commercial and Hardened Communications Architectures

Benefits– Enables increased reliable

communication between spacecraft systems

• Helps avoid processor/IO bottlenecks

Prime Customer(s)– Many NASA projects are considering

such device usage (NGST, SDO, GPM, NPOES, SLI, former HPCC, …)



Deliverables• Guideline for radiation testing of

communication links• Test reports and insertion

assessments for representative communication links

Provide radiation assessment of emerging high-speed communication link options. Develop methodologies for evaluating complex link protocols and novel

interconnect schemes such as fabric-based switching. Provide comparison to new hardened options (funded by other NASA programs).


Investigation of Radiation Induced Effects in Advanced High and Low Dielectric

Constant Gate Oxide Materials

Benefits• Commercial CMOS manufacturers are

moving towards these technologies due to increased leakage (re: power consumption) with thin oxides

– ERC is developing methodology for evaluation and usage for when these technologies emerge

Prime Customer(s)• Space systems to be designed after

2004

Participating Centers• JPL

Period of performance• FY02-03

Deliverables• Test reports on novel radiation

issues associated with the high-K dielectric materials (FY02)

• Technology report on space radiation suitability of high-K dielectrics (FY03)

• Evaluate low-k suitably and radiation effects (FY03)

Investigate radiation-induced issues with novel high-K dielectrics. Develop models and assurance guidelines.


COTS Processors

Benefits• Provides support to near-term flight

projects for– COTS selection criteria and database

• Develops methods for future flight qualification of COTS technologies

Prime Customers• Near-term flight programs• Aerospace community



Deliverables• Radiation test reports on

SOTA PowerPCs• Assessment guide for NASA

projects

Provide radiation assessment of commercial state-of-the-art (SOTA) PowerPC microprocessors. Collaterally, investigate effects of new processes (SOI, Cu

interconnects, etc) on single event results.


Radiation Qualification Techniques for Microelectronics at Extreme Temperatures

Benefits• Determines usability of COTS

devices below standard operating temperature range

Prime Customer(S)• Deep-space and planetary

exploration


Period of performance• FY00-02+

Deliverables• Test reports on novel radiation

issues associated with the operation of electronics outside of the normal temperature operating ranges

• Test techniques involved with the irradiation of electronics at extreme temperatures

Investigate radiation-induced issues with COTS microelectronics when exposed to extreme (hot, cold) temperature ranges. Develop

radiation test techniques and explore failure modes.


Radiation Hardness Assurance (RHA) on Linear Devices

Benefits• Provides guidance to reduce radiation-

induced anomalies due to linears (MAP, Cassini, GOES, etc)

• Delivers test guidelines for organizations on how to test

• Supports effort to provide SET-hardened devices

Prime Customer(s)• Near-term flight projects• Test organizations



Deliverables• Radiation test reports on linear

devices• NASA guideline for SET testing of

linears and application to flight programs – draft due 4Q FY02

Characterize linear devices for SET concerns Develop guidelines for testing and usage of these basic building blocks of NASA flight projects. Support

interagency modeling, mitigation, and test efforts.

In collaboration with DTRA-funded research efforts - Vanderbilt, NAVSEA Crane, NRL, MRC, Aerospace, NRL, NSC, RLP

Research


Radiation Assessment of Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS)

Technologies

Benefits• Provides an enabling performance

for future space missions (accuracy and volume reduction)

Prime Customer(s)• Next generation flight projects

and instruments• Future communication

architectures



Deliverables• Radiation test reports on

MEMS/MOEMS• Radiation test techniques for

MEMS technologies• Technology suitability guidelines

for the space radiation environment

Characterize microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) of interest to NASA for radiation susceptibilities. This includes RF, optical, and

other MEMS technologies


Radiation Assessment of Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS)

Technologies - FY03 Specifics

• Review Comments– A solid proposal on a important new

technology. Appears to utilize the most relevant parts available, and present a rational test plan.

– Due to the complexity of these devices, radiation affects must be carefully isolated or correlated. I would suggest that the MEMS device being developed for NGST NIRSpec be included also

– RF MEMS has become a technology of extremely high interest. The Space Based Radar program office at SMC would be very interested in your work with beam forming and other applications.

– Should be talking to Sandia if possible– Relatively weak technical approach.

FY03 Deliverables – Radiation test reports on

micro-mirror arrays, deformable mirrors, RF MEMS switches, and accelerometers

– Framework for MOEMS radiation testing lessons learned

Collaborators– Rockwell, HRL Laboratories

ERC Project Manager’s note– Need to talk with SBRC on

their developments


Power Devices







Deliverables• Test reports, application and

testing guidelines

Provide radiation assessment of commercial power transistors and modules (DC-DC converters). Improved Single Event Gate Rupture (SEGR) test guidelines


Assessment and Development of Test Protocols and Predictive Methods of

Emerging Photonic Devices and Data Links

Benefits• Enables high-speed communication for

imaging, processing, etc• Supports developments in phased array

systems• Supports designs of next generation

science instruments

Prime Customers• Next generation space systems and

instruments

Participating Centers• GSFC, JPL


Deliverables• SEE-induced BER predictive model

evaluation for on-orbit performance of fiber optic links - delivered

• Guidelines for proton testing of fiber links - delivered

• Periodic test reports on emerging photonic link technology

• Guidelines for fiber optic links and radiation effects (Barnes, Marshall, and others have done versions in the past - updates as knowledge progresses)

• Develop test qualification and insertion guidelines for novel MOEMS

Provide radiation assessment of emerging technology andCOTS fiber links and photonic devices. This includes free-space optical interconnects

(FSOI), exotic-doped fiber amplifiers, high-speed fiber links and related components, high-power lasers and LEDs, microoptoelectro mechanical systems (MOEMS), and passive

media such as optical fiber. Develops test methods and performance models.


Validation of Radiation Test Guidelines and Predictive Models for Optocouplers

Benefits• Provides test methods for

qualification and use of optocouplers in space

Prime Customer(s)• All flight projects that use

optocouplers (>90%)



Deliverables• Test reports on optocouplers

of generic interest to NASA

• Pre-flight predictions for flight experiment

Provide ground radiation test data for flight experiment that will provide validation (or demonstrate inaccuracies) of NEPP-developed

optocoupler radiation models and test methods


Analyses of and Lessons Learned from Radiation-Induced Performance of In-Flight

Technologies and Anomalies

Benefits• Provides direct feedback on radiation

qualification techniques and RHA matters

• Delivers guidance to designers/managers on techniques that work/don’t work

Prime Customers• RHA developers• Flight projects



Deliverables• MPTB AS1773 Fiber Optic Data Bus

Performance Report (4+ years) - 4QFY02• Yearly reports• Lessons learned on radiation-induced

performance of solid state recorders (SSRs) during spaceflight (draft FY02)

• Space radiation performance of commercial microprocessors (survey in FY02)

Evaluation of in-flight radiation-induced performance (transient and long-term) of COTS and emerging technologies on multiple NASA and other satellites as well

as review space radiation-induced anomalies.

MPTB AS-1773Flight Experiment


High Energy Heavy Ion Test Facility

Benefits• Easier ability to evaluate PEMS and packaged

components• Increased fidelity of the test environment

(closer to space energies)• Ability to test complex devices in an open-air

test chamber– Reduces test cost

• Ability to prepare for future technology evaluation

– Ion track structure and energy issues

Prime Customer(s)• Radiation Effects Test Community

– Benefits all Aerospace

Performing Centers• GSFC

Period of performance• FY03

Deliverables• Upgraded dosimetry and user interfaces at

NSCL• Report on facility capabilities and limitations

comparing to existing SEE facilities• Evaluation of facility for testing PEMS and

packaged devices

Complete the development of a high energy heavy ion test facility leveraging off of NSF-funded upgrade of the National Superconducting Cyclotron Laboratory (NSCL). Upgrade dosimetry systems and perform

“shakeout” testing at the facility

1.5 mm Plastic

SiliconExisting Test Facilities

NSCL SEETF


Development of Improved Radiation Test Methods for Qualification

Benefits• Increases reliability knowledge on

existing technology

• Provides flight projects improved qualification techniques

Prime Customer(s)• Near-term flight projects

• Flight qualification test organizations



Deliverables• Radiation test reports on linear

devices

• NASA ELDRS Test Method and GuidelineInvestigation of latent damage effects induced by single event latchup

Provide new and improved methods of radiation test qualification for important radiation hardness assurance (RHA) issues such as ELDRS, proton

damage, and SEL/catastrophic SEE.

Vaporized wirebondsin a

Agere LSP2916MEMS Driverfrom an SEL


FPGA Radiation Evaluation







Deliverables• Test reports, application and

testing guidelines– ACTEL, XILINX, and others

Provide radiation assessment of commercial FPGA devices and mitigative techniques.

electronics radiation characterization (erc) project* – overview of fy03 kenneth a. label erc...

Documents

project radiation impacts

radiation challenges

radiation anomalies

impact of radiation

erc project goals

erc efforts

sample radiation impacts

categories radiation