elementary geography for surveyors and topographers students

ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY

FOR SURVEYORS AND CARTOGRAPHY

STUDENTS

ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY FOR TOPOGRAPHERS STUDENTS/1

MARTIN MUÑOZ BAEZA SUSANA BASTIAS SARANITI /

CONTENTS PAGE

Introduction......................................................3

Part I : Physical Geography

I.1. Introduction.................................................................4I.2. Weather and climate...................................................4I.3. Landforms of the earth’s crust...................................9I.4. Waters........................................................................ 22I.5. The natural regions of the world................................24

Part II : Human Geography

II.1. Introduction.................................................................33II.2. Population...................................................................33II.3. Settlements.................................................................36II.4. Agriculture..................................................................39II.5. Mining and power supplies........................................43II.6. Manufacturing industry..............................................44II.7. Transport and communications................................45II.8. Man-made geographical regions..............................47

References.........................................................................52

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INDICE

ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY FOR TOPOGRAPHERS STUDENTS/

Why geography in your cartography course?

In making maps cartographers translate geographical information into a graphical language. For a good translation on every possible scale a cartographer should have some knowledge of the nature of the geographical information; for the special characteristics of the geographical information have to be preserved in the map as much as possible.

Being a cartographer you have to follow these lectures to get a basic unders-tanding of geography. In addition to these lecture notes you may study the following book:

-H. Robinson & F. S. Hudson: “Physical and human geography” - Published by MacDonald and Evans Ltd., London, 1978 (third edition).

What is geography?

The simplest definition of geography is: the description of the earth. But geo-graphers not only describe the earth, but also examine the spatial distributions and interdependence of the things on earth.

In short, geographers want to know the where?, why? and how? of things.

Depending on the character of the phenomena of the earth studied, natural or man-made, a distinction is made between physical and human geography. Physical geography is dealt with in Part I of these lecture notes, human geo-graphy in Part II.

INTRODUCTION

Antique map of the world.

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MARTIN MUÑOZ BAEZA SUSANA BASTIAS SARANITI

PART I - PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

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I.1. INTRODUCTION

Physical geography deals with the physical (natural) features of the earth. In this respect we consider the earth to have three main components:

1. The atmosphere: The layer of gases, water-vapour and dust which forms the outer envelope of the globe (‘the air’).

2. The lithosphere : The solid crust which envelope the central core of the earth.

3. The hydrosphere: The waters of the earth’s surface collectively. In the next chapters a number of concepts related to the atmosphere (chapter I.2.), the lithosphere (chapter I.3.) and the hydrosphere (chapter I.4.) will be discussed.

In the last chapter of Part I (chapter I.5.) the natural regions of the world, as based on the potential natural vegetation will be discussed.

I.2.WEATHER AND CLIMATE

I.2.1.Weather

The weather is the total sum of the conditions of the various weather elements.

The chief elements of weather are:

a.temperatureb.air pressurec.windd.precipitation

a)Temperature

The temperature of a place is the amount of heat it enjoys as measured by a thermometer. The main source of heat is the sun.

The temperature is expressed in:

1.degrees Fahrenheit2.degrees Celsius or Centigrades

ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY FOR TOPOGRAPHERS STUDENTS


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To compare these measuring units:

Freezing point Boiling point of water of water

Fahrenheit scale 32º F 212º

Celsius/Centigrade scale 0º C 100ª C 5 tº C 9 tº F - 32

To change degrees Fahrenheit into degrees Celsius you may use the next formula:

XºF = 5/9 (X – 32)º C

To change degrees Celsius into de-grees Fahrenheit you may use the next formula:

YºC = (9/5Y + 32)º F

Isothermal map = a thematic map that shows the distribution of the tempe-rature by isotherms.

An isotherm = a line connecting points of equal temperature.

b)Air pressure

Air pressure = the weight of a column of sir from the top of the atmosphere to the earth’s surface per cm².This weight and so the air pressure, is expressed in millibars.

The air pressure is not the same on all places of the earth. An isobar = a line connecting points of equal sir pressure.

c)Wind

Air moves from areas of high pressure

to areas of low pressure, just as water flows from high ground to low ground. When the ground is steep, water flows rapidly; in the same way, air, in the form of wind, blows strongly when the differences in air pressure are large.

In order to describe wind it is neces-sary to know:

1.Its direction

2.Its force (speed)

1.The direction of wind is the compass point from which it is blowing. E.g. a north-eastern wind comes from the north-east.

It can be expressed in the directions of the compass or in degrees (north being 0º) See figure 1.

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Figure 1: Directions of wind.Source: www.meted.ucar.edu



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2. The speed with which air moves is either given as a real velocity (in m/sec of in knots) or as wind force (expressed in the Beaufort Wind Scale).

d)Precipitation

Air humidity = the amount of water vapour in the air.

Air of a certain temperature and pressure can hold a certain maximum amount of water vapour. If this maximum amount is present then you can call the air saturated.

Precipitation takes place when this saturation point is reached.

Precipitation = the deposition of moisture on the earth’s surface.

There are different types of precipitation:

- rain- snow- sleet (mixture of snow and rain)- hail- fog and mist- dew- hoar - frost (frozen dew)

Source: www. mountwashington.org



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Rainfall, the most common form of precipitation, is expressed in millime-tres, as captured in a measuring glass that collects the water.

Based on daily rainfall measurements, monthly or yearly averages of the rainfall can be calculated.

However, the average rainfall figures for an area give only a very simplified impression of the rainfall. For rainfall is a climate element with a very high variability, i.e. the rainfall in a certain period in one year may greatly differ from the amount of rain in another period in the same year or the same period in the next year.

Especially in arid regions this variability is very important. Thus, for practical application (in for example agriculture) figures on the rainfall variability and rainfall probability are of much more use.

Source: www.keep3.sjfc.edu

For that matter, about the same may be said of temperature: yearly ave-rages of the temperature do not say much about e.g. the chance of a killing night-frost.Moreover, the effectiveness of the rainfall is also very important in e.g. agriculture.

The effectiveness of rainfall: The total rainfall minus the total possible evaporation.

Evaporation: The process by which water is changed from the liquid to the gaseous form and so incorporated into the atmosphere. The loss of water takes place from a free effective for plant growth if the amount of rainfall exceeds the amount of evaporation.The rate of evaporation is mainly a function of temperature, winds and the nature of the surface.

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So there are not only considerable seasonal differences in the rate of evaporation but also spatial ones. (see fig. 2).

Due to the spatial differences in evaporation the effectiveness of the same amount of rainfall varies greatly between e.g. cool and hot countries. The mean annual potential evaporation rate amounts to 6250 mm. in Khartoum in the Sudan, while the mean annual rate for London is only 460 mm.

Source: www.rainfall.geography.hawaii.edu

Fig.2: Global annual precipitation and potential evapo-transpiration.

Source: www.futurewater.nl

An isohyetal map:a map showing the rainfall by isohyets.

An isohyet: A line connecting points of equal rainfall amounts.

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I.2.2. Climate

The weather over a long period of time is summed up and called climate, which may therefore, be defined as:

The average weather at a certain place (continent, country, region, town, etc.) over a certain period (by international agreement - 30 years).

I.3 LANDFORMS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST

Is outer part of the solid crust that envelopes the core of the earth three zones can be recognized (see fig. 3 below).

1. The bed rock: The solid, unchanged rock.2. The soil : The completely weathered material.3. The residuas: The transitional zone between bed rock and soil.

Macro-climate = the general climate of a large area.

Micro-climate = the climate of the lower 2 metres of the atmosphere or the climate of a very small area.

The world can be divided in many climatic regions according to different classifications: e.g. the classification of Köppen and Thornothwaite.

Source: www. blueplanetbiomes.org

Source: www.elearning.stkc.go.th Source: www. britannica.com

Fig. 3: Division of the lithosphere.

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In these lecture notes we will only dis-cuss the bed rock and what happens to it, in order that various landforms come into being.

The bed rock

The rocks are classified:

1. According to their mode of origin.2. According to their age.

1. The origin of rocks

Rocks have been formed in three principal ways:

a. By an upward movement of mol-ten material from the earth’s interior igneous rocks.

b. By the wearing down of older rocks and the redeposition of rock particles: sedimentary rocks.

c. By the changing of other rocks: metamorphic rocks.

Source: www. bmorrish.wrytestuff.com

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The broad geographical patterns of mineral distribution are highly associa-ted with the rock types. The big and very important group of mineral fuels for instance - which is sedimentary in origin - is mostly found in the contact zone of sedimentary rock and meta-morphic or igneous rock.

Metallic minerals are originally typical for igneous and metamorphic rocks. As a result of erosion and sedimenta-tion later on, many metallic minerals are now found in the contact zone of sedimentary rocks (especially in the very old types) with igneous and metamorphic rocks.

The age of rocks

Rocks can be classified according to age in using a geological time-chart (see fig. 4). A geological time-chart should be read upwards the oldest period being at the foot.



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Fig. 4: Geological time-chart

Quaternary Holocene Pleistocene

0 years ago

Tertiary Pliocene Miocene Oligocene Eocene

1.000.000 years ago

Mesozoic Cretaceous(secondary) Jurassic Triassic

Mesozoic Cretaceous(secondary) Jurassic Triassic

Archaean Pre-Cambrian

Paleozoic Permian(Primary) Carboniferous

Devonian Silurian

Ordovician

Cambrian

70.000.000 years ago

600.000.000 years ago

2.000.000.000 -4.500.000.000

years ago

250.000.000 years ago



/MARTIN MUÑOZ BAEZA SUSANA BASTIAS SARANITI 12/

What happens to the rock?

All kinds of forces try to change the rock. Some of these forces act very slowly and rock changes are hardly visible within a man’s life-time. Other forces occur suddenly and quickly with often disastrous effects.

All these forces can be grouped under two main headings:

1. Endogenetic forces = Forces in the earth.2. Exogenetic forces = Forces from outside the earth.

1. Endogenetic forces

a. volcanic activityb. earthquakesc. mountain building movements

a. Volcanic activity = All those processes in which molten rock material (mag-ma) or gases rise into the earth’s crust and are poured out on its surface. So not only the well-known volcanoes are the result of volcanism, but also geysers are resulting from volcanic processes. (see fig. 5)

Fig. 5: Cross-section of a volcano.Source: www.scienceclarified.com



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Most volcanic activities are associated with certain lines of weakness in the earth’s crust. (see fig. 6 below)

Fig. 6: Earthquake zones and volcanoes: lines of weakness in the earth’s crust.

Fig.7: Fold mountains Source: www.tulane.edu

Folding

Fold mountains have been formed by the folding of surface rocks.(see fig. 7below).Folding is the result of horizontal forces in the earth’s crust.

b.Earthquakes = Sudden and rapid movements of the earth’s crust. As with volcanic activities, the earthquakes too, are associated with about the same lines of weakness in the earth’s crust. (see fig. 6 above)

c.Mountain building movements

Mountain building movements are very slow and take place over many centuries. We can distinguish between:

-folding-faulting



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In the folded layers upfolds are called anticlines, down folds synclines (see fig. 8 below).Fig. 8: Anticlines and synclines.

Faulting

Vertical forces in the earth’s crust will result in uplift or sub-sidence of rock. In this way block mountains (horsts) and rift valleys (grabens) are formed. (see fig. 9)

Fig. 9: Faulting - the formation of horsts (above) and rift valleys (below) Notice the difference between fold and fault:Horsts generally have more level summits than fold mountains. A block mountain in often a plateau.

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2.Exogenetic Forces

The mountains, that we know today and that have been built by the moun-tain building movements of folding an faulting, at one time never existed and at some time in the distant future will no longer be in existence for they will have been worn away by erosion.

This very slow process of land being built up and then being worn away is a continuos cycle that has been going on since the crust of the earth was first formed and will be going on for ever. This process is termed the erosion cycle.

While endogenetic processes are building the land up, all exogenetic processes are aiming at bringing the earth’s surface to a common level. Some of the exogenetic processes level down, others level up.

Exogenetic forces that try to lower the landscape (called denudation) are:

a. Weatheringb. Erosionc. Mass movement

a.Weathering = The process of decomposition and disintegration of rock, breaking it up into small particles.Most of the weathering processes are the result of the influence of climatic elements on the solid bed rock.

b.Erosion = The loose material produced by weathering is collected and transported by running water, ice or wind. These so-called “agents of erosion” use the loose material as they carry it away, in scraping, scratching, grinding, battering and pulverising (i.e. in eroding) the land surface.

c. Mass movement = The down-hill transport of weathered material under the influence of gravity.

Usually a high content of water in the soil on the slope contributes to the mass movement. (e.g. after heavy rains).

An exogenetic process that tries to level up the earth’s surface is called sedimentation.

Sedimentation = The deposition of the transported weathered materials if the capacity of the agents of erosion to transport the materials decreases.The sedimentation is a direct result from a loss in transporting power, e.g. when river water velocity decreases if the river enters a flatter area or the sea, or when wind velocity decreases at the lee-side of a hill.

The exogenetic processes (resulting from exogentic forces) that we have discussed are the main sculptors of the earth’s surface. They produce the so-called landforms, which are directly visible for the human eye.

In general, three major landforms can be recognized on earth.

1. Plains2. Plateau’s3. Hills and mountains

1. Plain is a landform whose surface is flat, nearly flat or gently rolling. The elevation is usually low. Most plains start at sea level and slope upward in an inland direction.Examples are: the Thar Indo-Gangetic Plain, Great Plain of China, Great Plains (U.S.A.).

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2. Plateau is a table like land surface, fairly flat or moderately rolling and bounded on at least one side by steeper slopes descending to much lower areas. On other parts the plateau may be bounded by slopes rising up to higher mountains.

3. Hills and mountains are landforms with moderate to steep slo-pes with an irregular surface. Valleys and ridges are typical features of hills and mountains.

In mapping the landform, and this has always to be done in a generalized way, it is very important that their cha-racteristics are preserved. Therefore, cartographers should have a basic understanding of the characteristics of landforms and that is why

we will discuss the work of the main agents of erosion, which are the most important sculptors of landforms.Successively we will deal with the work of running water, the sea, ice and the wind.

The work of running water

Running water is able to transport loose material. The higher the velocity of the water, the more the load that can be transported, up to big boulders. The velocity of the water chiefly depends upon the gradient of the slope from which the water is flowing. Strong erosions potentials may, therefore, be expected first of all on steep slopes.The erosive forces of the water are cause of the developing of river-valleys. In fact, the erosive forces of the running water can act in a horizontal (widening of the valley) and a vertical (deepening of the valley) way.

Vertical erosion is especially marked at the upper courses of a river, horizontal erosion at the middle and lower courses.Therefore, rivers usually have narrow V-shaped valleys in their upper courses. But as the volume of water carried by the river increases in the power courses it begins to widen its valley by sideways erosion. The development of a broad flood plain is the direct result of this sidewise cutting. Besides, the river often develops loops or meanders in its lower and middle courses. (see fig. 10)

Fig. 10: Widening of a valley.Source: www.sleepingdogstudios.com

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A meandering river undercuts the bank on the outside of the loop (erosion) and deposits material (sedimentation) on the inside of the bend where the current is slack. (see fig. 11)

Fig. 11: A meandering river and its cross-section.

Gradually the meander becomes more curved until only a narrow neck of land separates one loop from the next.When the river is in flood this narrow neck of land may be cut through so that the river straightens its course and the meander is abandoned. The old meander is left as a lake, called an oxbow-lake. (see fig. 12)

Fig. 12: the formation of meanders and an oxbow-lake.

Source: www.greenfieldgeography.wikispaces.com

Source: www.scalloway.org.uk

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In times of flood the river channel is unable to hold all the water. It spills over the banks and - because of a sudden loss of river velocity – deposits some of the transported material on the banks, thus increasing their height. The raised banks are called natural levees. (see fig. 13 below)

Fig. 13: Natural levees.

Due to losses in the transporting power of the river (e.g. at times of low water), it also deposits material in its own bed to form sand banks. In places the river thus becomes braided.

A braided river = A river whose course consists of a network of inter-connected shallow channels with banks of sand and gravel and boulders in between. (see fig. 14)

Fig. 14: Braided river

Source: www. web.mst.edu

Source: www. braidedriver.net

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When a river enters standing water (the sea or a lake), river velocity suddenly decreases and therefore material dropped by a river, it gradually accu-mulates, so that the land is built out into the sea forming a delta.

Deltas have various shapes, depending on local conditions. We can distin-guished the following delta types. (see fig. 15 below)

1. Abird’s foot-delta (e.g. the Mississippi-delta)

2. An arcuate or fan-shaped delta (e.g. the Nile-delta)

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3. A cuspate-delta, which is pointed like a tooth (e.g. the Ebro-delta)

4. An estuarine-delta (e.g. the Rhine-delta)

The work of the sea

Like rivers the sea also has erosive forces and also deposits the transported loose materials at some places.In this way the action of the sea(by the forces of waves, tides and currents) is continually altering the shape of the coastline.

There are several types of coast (see fig. 16)



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1. Estuarine coastal

2. Ria coastal

3. Fiord coastal

4. Dalmatians coastal

5. Lagoon coastal

6. Depositional coastal



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The work of the wind

The work of the wind is most effective in arid regions especially where there is little vegetation to protect the soil.

The loose material produced by the (heavy) weathering is easily picked up by the wind and transported through the air or over the ground surface. This process is called deflation.

When wind velocity de-creases the transported material is deposited. Then the sand is blown into dunes.There are two main types of sand-dune:

1. Barchans2. Seifs

1. Barchans = Crescent-shaped dunes occuring at places where the wind blows from only one direction. (see fig. 17)

2. Seifs = Long parallel dune of sand at places where strong winds blow from two directions.

Unless they can fixed by vegetation, all dunes constantly move forward, blown by the wind.

Fig. 17: A barchan. Types of Dunes



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The work of ice

As snow on the top of high mountains or in Polar regions accumulates, the lower la-yers are compressed into ice. This ice slides very slowly downhill, usually following existing river valleys. The-se rivers of ice are called glaciers.

The work of ice, like that of running water, the sea or the wind, comprises both erosion and sedimentation.

In slowly moving down, the ice picks up loose rock material and steepens the sides and flattens the bottom of the original valley.

So the glaciers have widened and deepened the valley sides and bottom, giving them a U-shape (or trough-shape).

The material carried by the ice is dropped at the end of the glacier. It forms a mound called a terminal moraine.

I.4. WATERS

I.4.1.Rivers

In the foregoing chapter we have already learned a lot about rivers and the way they work. In this section we will discuss some more features of these rivers.A river may be defined as: a natural stream of water flowing over the land surface from its source in a spring, a marsh, at rain water, until it reaches its mouth, which opens into a sea, ocean, lake or other body of water.

In running downslope rivers get united with other rivers, thus forming a system of streams which occupies a basin, called a catchment area. (see fig. 18 )

Fig. 18: Catchment area.

Catchment-areas are separated from each other by a watershed (or water-divide): elevated land which lies between the head-streams of the river-systems,Drainage patterns

The term drainage pattern refers to the whole river system, i.e. the head-stream with its tributaries.



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Some typical drainage patterns are:

a. Dendritic patternb. Trellis patternc. Radial patternd. Parallel pattern

a. A dendritic pattern is a tree-like pattern that is most common for river systems. (see fig. 19)

Fig. 19: A dendritic drainage pattern.

b. A trellis pattern is a rectilinear pattern in which streams tend to join one another at right-angles. (see fig. 20 below)

Fig. 20: A trellis drainage pattern

c. A radial pattern is a pattern deve-loped by streams which radiate from a central point.

Fig. 21: A radial drainage pattern

d. A parallel pattern is usually found where there are pronounced slope or geological controls which lead to regular spacing of parallel or near

stremas. (see fig. 22)

Fig. 22: A parallel drainage pattern



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I.5. THE NATURAL REGIONS OF THE WORLD

The geographical factors that we have discussed so far (for example, climate, bed rock, waters, landforms, etc.) all have mutual relation-ships, i.e. they interact and influence each other, they are interdependent. All together the discussed physical conditions of the earth constitute the physical environment.

The physical conditions of the earth also have a deciding influence upon the kind of vegetation that will cover the land surface and upon the distribution of animal life. Vegetation and animal life are interdependent too, and together, in forming the so-called bio-geographical environment, they will influence the physical environment.

The mutual interactive between organisms and environment can be seen as a functioning spatial organisation and is called an eco-system. (see fig. 23)

1.4.2. Lakes

We can distinguished between:

a. Natural lakes: formed in a variety of ways.b. Artificial lakes: valleys dammed up by man to make reservoirs for drinking water, irrigation or hydro-electricity.

I.4.3. Oceans

Nearly three-quarters of the earth’s surface is covered by oceans and seas. The largest ocean is the Pacific.

The ocean floor has a relief that is comparable to the mountains, plains and plateaus of the landsurface.



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As we will see in the second part of these lecture notes, man also plays a very important part in this ecological system.

But in this first part we will leave man’s influence as much as possible out of consideration, and then we may say that we are talking about a natural ecological system. We can think of the world as one big ecological system, but as circumstances differ at various places in the world, we can divide it into a number of smaller natural ecosystems, or natural regions.

As natural vegetation and climate give a very good indication of the ecological circumstances at different places, they are often used as the main factors for the division of the world in natural regions.

In this chapter we will briefly discuss a broad division of the world in natural regions. Of course one should note, that the natural vegetation is not the same as the actual vegetation that covers the lands at many places. Much of the actual vegetation is planted by man, i.e. it is cultivated vegetation instead of natural vegetation.

The broadest division of the world in natural regions comprises of:

A. ForestB. GrasslandC. DesertD. Mountain vegetation

Fig. 23: Schematic representation of the eco-system.



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A. Forest regions

1. Equatorial and tropical rain-forests2. Tropical monsoon forests3. Tropical thorn forests4. Mediterranean evergreen tress and shrubs5. Eastern warm temperate forests6. Cool temperate deciduous forests7. Cold temperature coniferous forests

B. Grassland regions

8. Tropical grassland or savanna9.Temperate grasslands10. Arctic grassland or tundra

C. Desert regions

11. Hot deserts12. Temperate deserts13. Ice deserts

D. Mountain regions

14. Mountain vegetation

Within these four groups a more detailed division is possible. (see fig. 24)Fig. 24: Natural regions.



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A. Forest regions

1. Equatorial and tropical rainforests

The equatorial and tropical rain-forests are in regions with a very hot and humid climate. The natural vegetation is a dense, very luxuriant forest. Within this forest a great variety of trees grows (for example hardwoods). Also innumerable varieties of living creatures inhabits these forests. Hu-man life is often backward, especially at places where the original natural vegetation still remaint (for example, in the Amazon Basin, where the rain-forests are called Selvas). But some areas, for example, equatorial Java, can be very densely populated. In these areas most of the natural vegetation has disappeared.

Fig. 26: Tropical monsoon forests.

2. Tropical monsoon forests (see fig. 26)

The less wet tropical monsoon lands (where there is a dry season) support forests which are a little less luxuriant and more open than the rain-forests. Trees are mainly deciduous. Bamboo often forms a dense undergrowth in these forests.

The tropical monsoon lands of South Asia are very densely populated and are largely cleared of their natural native forests. The other tropical monsoon region, northern Australia, is very sparsely populated.

Fig. 27: Tropical thorn forests.

3.Tropical thorn forests (see fig. 27)

In certain dry tropical areas the natural vegetation consists of scrubby thorn forests. Examples of these regions are parts of the East African Plateau, the southern part of the Indian Deccan, etc. The landscape is normally very drab and usually only sparsely populated.



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4. Mediterranean evergreen trees and shrubs (see fig. 28)

Except for the countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea, other mediterra-nean lands are: parts of California, central Chile, and south-west and part of south-east Australia. The medite-rranean climate is hot in summer and warm in winter, with most rain falling in the winter.

The characteristics vegetation of the mediterranean lands is open wood-land, the trees and shrubs being mainly evergreen but with various natural devices to live through the long summer droughts. Typical types of mediterranean vegetation are the maquis and the garigue. Agriculture and especially horticulture, play a prominent part in the occupation of the moderately mediterranean lands.

Fig. 28: Mediterranean evergreen trees and shrubs.

5. Eastern warm temperate forests (see fig. 29)

Due to the specific climatic properties of some eastern margins of the earth’s land masses - warm and with heavier rainfall than on the corresponding western margins - a relatively rich forest vegetation has developed there.

Examples are: Florida, part of China and the Parana Basin in South America. Much of the original natural vegetation has been cleared and agriculture now determines the actual vegetation.

Fig. 29: Eastern warm temperate forests.



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6. Cool temperate deciduous forests (see fig. 30)

In a.o. Western and Central Europe, the north-eastern part of the USA and east-Asia, the original deciduous forests have almost completely been cleared for agriculture and settlement. A very intensive use is made of the ground, to accommodate for a dense population.

Fig. 30: Cool temperate deciduous forests.

7. Cold temperate coniferous forests (see fig. 31)

Evergreen forests extend in a great belt across the northern hemisphere through Alaska, Canada, Europe and Asia. There natural regions are usually called the taíga. There is only a very small variety of trees and these forests are very important suppliers of timber. Usually the taíga is very sparsely populated.

Fig. 31: Cold temperature coniferous forests.



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8. Tropical grassland or savanna (see fig. 32)

The most extensive areas of savanna are located in Africa, South America and Australia. In the savanna regions there is a marked difference between a dry and a wet season. Usually the land is undulating and the natural covering of tall, coarse grass is sometimes broken by scattered clumps of low, drought-resistant trees.

Some cultivation of the land and cattle-ranching is practised. The dry season produces many problems. Fig. 32: Tropical grassland and savanna.

9. Temperate grasslands (see fig. 33)

In the northern hemisphere the tem-perate grasslands are located meanly in the central areas of the continents. In North America they are called the Prairies and in Eurasia the Steppes. In the southern hemisphere these grasslands are more in the east of the land masses; in South America they are called the Pampas.

All these regions are natural grasslands because the rainfall is generally insuffi-cient for tree growth. Nowadays these areas have become the world’s chief grain-producing lands. Stock raising is also of considerable importance and at many places the natural grasses were ploughed in for the ground to be resown with especially selected grasses.

B. Grassland regions



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Fig. 33: Temperate grasslands. Fig. 34: Arctic grasslands or tundra.

10. Arctic grasslands or tundra (see fig. 34)

The greatest part of the tundra region lies along the norther, arctic margins of Alaska, Canada, Greenland and Eurasia. Winters are long and bitterly cold and permafrost is normal (Permafrost is a condition of perennially frozen ground). Only the top few centimetres of soil ever thaw out.The typical vegetation of the tundra of mosses, low berry-bearing bushes and some shrubs. In the tundra there are only a few permanent settlements and it can be said that the tundra in all is commercially undeveloped.

Source:www.news.mongabay.com



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C. Desert regions

11. Hot deserts

In general, the hot desert regions of the world are located astride the two tropics on the western sides of the continental land masses. The most prominent example of a hot desert is the Sahara.

There are three main types of hot deserts:

a. Ssand dune deserts (e.g. the Sahara)b. Rocky and stony desertsc. Deserts which consist of vast streches of hard flat ground

There are very few deserts which are completely barren, for most adapted to the arid conditions. Deserts are very sparsely populated apart from oases and irrigated valleys.

12. Temperate deserts

Major areas of temperate desert are: Patagonia in South America, the Wes-tern Plateaus of the USA and the Gobi in Aisa. Vegetation is richer than in the hot deserts, but the temperate deserts also have a very low population.

13. Ice deserts (see fig. 37)

We can find no vegetation at all in the ice deserts of Greenland and Antarctica. Of course, human life is impossible in these ice deserts.

D. Mountain regions

14.Mountain vegetation mainly consists of forest, Alpine flora an ice.

Source: www.blindloop.com

Source: www.ehow.com


PART II - HUMAN GEOGRAPHY

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how? of man-made things on earth.As with physical geographical factors, in mapping the spatial relationships and distribution of human geographical phenomena cartographers ought to know something about the character of these phenomena.

First, we will have a look at the po-pulation (chapter II.2.). After that we will discuss man’s settlements (chapter II.3.), agriculture (chapter II.4.), mining and power supplies (chapter II.5.), manufacturing industry (chapter II.6.), transport and communications (chapter II.7.), and finally the man-made geographical regions (chapter II.8.).

II.2. POPULATION

Total population of the earth is approxi-mately 4.500.000.000 and this number of people is still rapidly increasing.

The distribution of the world’s population

Nearly three-quarters of the earth’s surface is covered by oceans and seas. So the world population has to live on the one quarter of the earth composed of land and its adjacent water fringes.But the population is also not evely distributed over this land surface: there are big differences in the density of the population.

Population density: The number of inhabitants per unit area. (e.g. per square kilometre)

In fact, 90% of the world population is living on only 10% of the landsurface. The other. The other 90% of the land supports only 10% of the population.Population is concentrated in 4 major regions of the world. (see also fig. 39)

II.1. INTRODUCCION

The natural regions discussed in the last chapter of Part I provide the natural environment in which mankind unfolds its activities.

Mankind and natural environment have many mutual relationships, i.e. there is a two-way relationship between man and his environment each may affect or modify the other. In fact, man is also part of the world ecological system.

The natural environment has a con-siderable influence upon man. Na-tural (physical) factors, such as relief, vegetation and climate, limit man’s activities to some extent: agriculture is not possible every-where, problem in power supply, etc.

But it is also true to say that man is able considerable to modify his natu-ral environment to suit his particular needs. We have already mentioned the clearing of natural vegetation to make way for agriculture and settle-ments. Also some parts of the world have been transformed form desert into fertile agricultural land by means of irrigation.

Although the limitations of the natural environment always will persist, it can now even be said, that man controls nature in many respects.

In the second part of these lecture notes we shall discuss man’s interference into the natural environment.

In fact, the latter is the subject of human geography: human geographers study the earth as the world of man. They want to know the where? why? and



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1. Eastern Asia (e.g. China and Japan)In total this region contains 25% of the world population.

2.South Asia (e.g. India, Bangladesh and Java)India contains the Ganges Valley, the most intensely congested long valley in the world. South Asia also contains 25% of the world population.

3.Western and Central EuropeOne sixth of the world population is located in this region. Nevertheless, its share in the world’s population is diminishing as the other parts of the world grow faster.

4.Eastern Anglo-American (the eastern part of the U.S.A. and Canada)This region contains about 5% of the world’s population.

Thus, over 50% of the earth’s people are jammed into the comparatively small space of Eastern and Southern Asia.

In total, nearly three-quarters of the world’s population are living in the deve-loping countries. Slightly more that 20% is to be found in the industrial west (Eastern Anglo-America and Europe).

Outside the 4 major regions mentioned above, there are some smaller clusters of fairly dense population e.g. the Nile Valley in Egypt, in Nigeria, in south-east Brazil and around Buenos Aires. (see fig. 39)

The very sparsely populated parts of the world include the ice deserts and tundra lands of the Arctic and Antarctic, the high mountain regions (Himalayas, Rocky Mountain, Andes), the taíga lands, the hot deserts (Sahara, Australian deserts) and the uninhabited rain-forest (e.g. the Amazon Basin). (see fig. 39)

Fig. 39: Density of population in the world.Source: www. sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu



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Outside the 4 major regions mentioned above, there are some smaller clusters of fairly dense population e.g. the Nile Valley in Egypt, in Nigeria, in south-east Brazil and around Buenos Aires. (see fig. 39)

The very sparsely populated parts of the world include the ice deserts and tundra lands of the Arctic and Antarctic, the high mountain regions (Himalayas, Rocky Mountain, Andes), the taíga lands, the hot deserts (Sahara, Australian deserts) and the uninhabited rain-forest (e.g. the Amazon Basin). (see fig. 39)

- Some geographical terms concerning population:

Population pyramid: The graphical representation of the distribution of the popu-lation of a certain place at a given time by the age and sex of its components. (see fig. 40 below)

The (horizontal) abscissa of the population pyramid indicate the number of people and the (vertical) ordinate the ages. Therefore, to each age group of each sex (male to the left, female to the right) there corresponds a rectangle which is as long as the numbers of the group are large.

The general shape of the pyramid is a triangle. This is simply because of the mortality factor (death rate), which progressively reduces the numbers of the generations as they get older, or, in other words, as they move towards the upper reaches of the pyramid.

Fig. 40: Population pyramidSource: www. ofm.wa.gov



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Crude marriage rate: The relationship of the marriage of one year to the average population of that year (for a country, town, etc.)

Crude birth rate: The relationship of the births of one year to the average po-pulation of that year (for a country, town, etc.)

Crude death rare (morality): The relationship of the deaths of one year to the average population of that year (for a country, town, etc.)

Infant mortality rate: The relationship of the annual number of deaths of children under one to the number of newly-born of the same year.

For instance and for example, the average population of England and Wales in 1987 (population around the middle of the year) has been estimated at 48 390 800 and during that year there were:

386 .052 - Marriage832 .164 - Births542 .516 - Deaths15 266 - Deaths of children under the of one

The result of this is a crude marriage rate of:

386 052 = 8.0 per 1000 inhabitants. 48 390 800

or of 16,0 per 1000 if one considers the persons married instead of the marriages (the figure is twice the preceding one).

It also gives a crude birth rate of:

832 164 = 17.2 per 1000 inhabitants. 48 390 800

The crude death rate:

542 516 = 11.2 per 1000 inhabitants. 48 390 800

And finally, it gives and infant mortality rate of:

15 266 = 18.3 per 1000 newly-born. 832 164

Though somewhat summary, all the foregoing rates yield significant infor-mation on the situation and trend of the phenomena in question.

The same is true for data about migration:

Migration: Moving of people from one country or region to settle in another.

Considering migration, we can distin-guish between:

1. Internal migration: Migration within the borders of a single country (e.g. rural-urban migration).

2. International migration: Migra-tion across the borders of a country.

For a particular country, region or place or place we can make a distinction between:

1. emigration: The out-going movement of people from that place, country or region to settle in another.

2. immigration: The in-coming move-ment of people from another country, place or region.

Migration and the number of births and deaths are responsible for changes in the total population of any country or other area of the earth’s surface.

Population changes have a natural change component and a migration change component. Births and deaths together make up the natural change component.

The natural change component of a population: The difference between the number of births and the number of deaths in a certain period.

When no migration has taken place, the total population of a country will increase if births are more numerous than deaths in any period. If deaths are more numerous than births, there will be a population decrease.An important unit of measurement is the rate of natural growth of a country or other spatial entity.

The rate of natural increase (or decrease) of a population in a certain period = the crude birth rate minus the crude death rate. Thus, in our example the rate of natural increase was:

17.2 – 11.2. = 6.0 per 1000inhabitants or 0.6% (in 1967)

However, population change is also affected by the migration change component.

The migration change component of a population = the differences between the number of emigrants and the num-ber of immigrants in a certain period.

When at a time the number of births exactly equals the number of deaths in a country, there will be a population increase, when immigrants are more numerous than emigrants.

When no migration has taken place, the total population of a country will increase if births are more numerous than deaths in any period. If deaths are more numerous than births, there will be a population decrease.

An important unit of measurement is the rate of natural growth of a country or other spatial entity. The rate of natural increase (or decrease) of a population in a certain period = the crude birth rate minus the crude death rate.



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The rate of natural increase (or decrease) of a population in a certain period = the crude birth rate minus the crude death rate.

Thus, in our example the rate of natural increase was:

17.2 – 11.2. = 6.0 per 1000 inhabitants or 0.6% (in 1967)

However, population change is also affected by the migration change component.

The migration change component of a population = the differences between the number of emigrants and the number of immigrants in a certain period.

When at a time the number of births exactly equals the number of deaths in a country, there will be a population increase, when immigrants are more nume-rous than emigrants.

If emigrants are more numerous than immigrants, there will be a population decrease.

Thus, the net changes in population totals represent the interactive effect of four elements:

- Births and immigrants tend to push the total up.

- Deaths and emigrants tend to bring the total down.

Although migration may be the most important component in small areas (for instance in a city), it is less significant on national and higher levels. Therefore, the natural change component in population growth is often considered the most important.

II.3. SETTLEMENTS

A settlement: A group of buildings inhabited by an organized group of people making a living out of their surrouding environment.

Settlements vary in size, complexity, and stage of development. There are always reasons why a group of people choses to live in a certain place. Further, there are always reasons why one settlement grows from an isolated farmstead to a sizeable village, eventually becoming a town or even a city.

Types of settlement (see fig. 41)

We can make a distinction between:

A. Rural settlementsB. Urban settlements



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A. Rural settlements

Rural settlements may be:

Dispersed : One family or a few family residences, scattered about in isolated places, separated from one another by open country.

Nucleated : Grouping of several family residences with collective amenities to serve the community (like shops, schools, markets, places of worship, a transport network, etc.).

Source: www.south-africa-tours-and-travel.com

Source: www.codinghorror.com

Fig. 42: Types of settlement.

A

B



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Linear : Linear shape of settlement along a road, canal, etc. (e.g. a “street village”).Three main types of rural settlement can be distinguished:

1. The isolated dwellingsThe isolated dwellings are often farmhouses.

2. The hamletThe hamlet is smaller than the village and the buildings composing it are more scattered.

3. The villageTypically, the village has certain social features, e.g. a school or a church.

B. Urban settlementsFour main types of urban settlements can be distinguished:

4. The small townThe small town has often been developed because of a function as a marketing centre.

5. The cityA city is a large town that is often a product of industrialism and modern commerce. Usually it has many function.

6. Ribbon developmentThis is the linear enlargement of a city along a major road.

7. The conurbationwhen towns and cities grow together, sometimes swallowing smaller villages and hamlets, a continuously build-up urban area develops, the so-called conurbation. An example is “Megalopolis” in the north-eastern part of the U.S.A. (see fig. 42 below)

Fig. 42: Megalopolis.Source: www. en.wikipedia.org



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Many big cities in the world, especially in the developing countries, are very fast-growing nowadays. To a large extent this is due to an important rural-urban migration: caused by population pressure on the land or by the loss of jobs in agriculture through mechanization, many people find themselves attracted to the bid city, where they suppose to find better jobs and a higher standard of living.

But poverty-stricken rural populations in many instances arrived in cities hat were not prepared to receive such a great and rapid influx of people. As a consequence, in those cities many people are unemployed and the housing problems are enormous. Characteristic are the shanty-towns – a form of uncon-trolled settlement, on the outskirts of many big cities in the developing countries.

II.4. AGRICULTURE

II.4.1.Introduction: Economic activities

In most statistics the following division of human economic occupation is employed:

1. Primary production2. Secondary production3. Tertiary production

1. Primary production

Activities involved in extracting products from nature and in collaboration with nature.Examples are: agriculture (see chapter II.4.2.) mining (see chapter II.5.), forestry (see chapter II.4.3.) and fishing (see chapter II.4.4.)

2. Secondary production

Activities in which man increases the utility or value of nature’s products by changing its form.Examples are: the miller change grains of wheat into flour, the steelmaker iron ore into pig iron and steel.

3. Tertiary production

Activities in which man renders services that are of value to his fellow men.Examples: transporters, repair men, teachers, musicians, doctors, lawyers, government employees, bankers, etc.Transport and communications are discussed in chapter II.7.In developing countries the primary occupations are prevalent. In developed countries the secondary and tertiary occupations prevail. So we may say, that in the course of the process of development the importance of primary activities, as compared with the other two types of human economic occupation, decreases.In this chapter we will discuss the primary production, and especially agriculture.



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II.4.2. Agriculture

At present, about a quarter of the earth’s land surface is in agricultural use. But here are many different types of agricultural uses.

Agriculture may first be divided into:

1. Livestock farming2. Crop farming

1.Livestock farming may be based on:

a. natural pastures - Improved - Unimproved

b. fodder provided from field crops

2. Crop farming

Crops themselves may be loosely subdivided into:

a. Field crops that are replaced annually or at least over short periods.

b. Perennial shrub or tree crops that are more permanent (i.e. no forestry, for in forestry, trees are grown for their timber rather than for their fruit or leaves).

In practice, crop and livestock farming are often practised side bay side. In this mixed farming the emphasis is on production of both animals and crops. In mixed farming crops play a triple role:

a. animal feedb. cash salec. use in the farm family

Pigs, cattle, sheep and poultry are mostly raised in mixed farming:

The emphasis can also be on either livestock farming or on crop farming.

II.4.2.1. Livestock farming

When the emphasis is on livestock farming we can distinguish between:

1.Livestock ranching2.Dairy farming

1. In livestock ranching domesticated animals are supported largely by natural forage and raised primarily for the sale of meat, wool and hides.

Concerning livestock ranching we can make distinction between:

a.Nomadic pastoralismb.Fixed pastoralism

a. Nomadic pastoralism, as practised at the margins of the hot and temperate deserts and in the tundra-regions, im-plies the periodic migration of people with their sheep, goats, camels and reindeer in

search of pasture. Portable dwellings are carried with them.

b. In fixed pastoralism the animals are restricted to (sometimes very large) parcels of land by fencing in. The herdsmen who own or lease parcels of land also have a settled home. Most livestock ranching of this kind occurs in the Prairies of North America, the Steppes of Eurasia and the Pampas and tropical grasslands of South America.

2.In dairy farming domesticated animals are supported mainly by improved grasslands and by some cultivated crops (oats, hay, corn) to feed the animals during the winter when pastures are dormant.Animals are raised especially for milk (and other dairy-) production.



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The largest dairy farming ares are:

a. Western Europe

b. Eastern part of the U.S.A. and Canada

c. Southeast Australia and New Zealand

II.4.2.2. Crop farming

The emphasis can also be on crop farming.

In crop farming attention can be given to a variety of crops but also monocultural farming is possible (i.e. one-crop farming).

A so-called plantation is the most important unit of monocultural farming.

Plantation: A monocultural farm on large plots of ground, operated by large companies with the help of numerous farm-labourers.

Grain farming is the most highly spe-cialized of all agricultural endeavours. The most widely cultivated grains for human food are wheat, rice and maize (i.e. corn), with rye, barley, milled an oats as second.

As with livestock ranching, crop farming can be “nomadic” or “fixed”. In fact, we can distinguish between:

a. sedentary farming

b. shifting cultivation

a. In sedentary farming the farmers live in the same house and look after the same plot of land year after year.

b. In shifting cultivation farmers aban-don both fields and dwellings every 3-4 years and move to fresh fields which are cleared from the natural vegetation (e.g. tropical rainforest) by slashing and burning of trees, etc.

Each language has its own term for the cleared plot, e.g. swidden (english), ladang (Indonesian), milpa (Central American), chitemene (Central Africa).Shifting cultivation is found mainly among less advanced people in tro-pical lands.

Some 250 million people still live chiefly be this form of land use.

The distribution of crop farming in the world (see fig. 43)

The distribution of crop farming is affected by many factors, of which the factors of the natural environment (like soil, water, temperature, slope, etc.) play a prominent part.

In section I.2.1. we have already stated that the effectiveness of the rainfall is very important in agriculture (i.e. the total amount of rainfall minus the total possible evaporation).

If the water-availability is too little for plant growth, rainfall may be supple-mented by irrigation water.Irrigation offers an attractive though limited and costly way of providing new agricultural land or of raising the yields.

At present, more than 10% of all the cropland in the world is irrigated land (like e.g. parts of India, Chine, Egypt, the U.S.A. and Russia).

As we have already stated, fishing and forestry also belong to the primary production class.



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II.4.3.Forestry

Most of the world’s timber is still obtained from “natural” forests. There are two main production areas:

1. The tropical rainforests, with a great variety of trees producing hardwoods, as e.g. mahogany and teak (expensive exploration).

2. Temperate forests, with fewer tree-species and producing softwoods.

II.4.4.Fishing

Fishing: To harvest off water creatures, whether fish, molluscs or mammals, whether inland fishing of ocean fishing. The most important fishing grounds are the temperate seas of the northern hemisphere, particularly off the western coasts of Europe, the western seaboards of North America (see fig. 44 below).

Fig. 43: The main areas of crop farming in the world. Source: www. khorreports-palmoil.blogspot.com

Fig. 44: Chief commercial fishing grounds.Source: www. grida.no



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II.5.MINING AND POWER SUPPLIES

Although mining is also a from of primary production it is quite different form such occupations as agriculture, fishing and forestry in that the mined minerals are non-replaceable resources. Whereas from fields, forests and the sea one can continue indefinitely, with proper organization, to obtain crops, timber and fish, once a mineral has been extracted from the earth it has disappeared for good.

Farming and mining contrast again in their distribution as activities, since crops and livestock are distributed over large continuous patches of the earth’s sur-face, while minerals are extracted in small localities, more points on the map.

Minerals may be classified broadly into two main types according to use:

1. Minerals used as materials for construction and manufacturing (so-called raw materials).

2. Minerals used as sources of fuel and power (energy).

II.5.1. Raw materials

The raw materials can be divided into:

a. non-metallic raw materials (e.g. limestone, phospate rock).b.metallic raw materials (e.g. iron ore, silver, copper, bauxite).

II.5.2. Power supplies

For manufacturing industry and transport man needs energy. Some minerals can be a source of energy.

a. coalb. petroleumc. natural gasd. minerals used to generate nuclear energy (uranium, plutonium, thorium).

Other sources of energy, not based on minerals and therefore, renewable, include:

e. fuel woodf. water power (hydro-electricity or “white coal”)g. solar radiationh. geothermal energyi. windj. tidal energy

In a sense animals, as beasts of burden still in use in many parts of the world, can also be considered a source of energy.The particular methods of power generation which are of over-riding economic significance are coal, petroleum, natural gas and hydro-electricity (water-power).



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II.6. MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY

Scarcely any product of primary production is usable when it comes from forests, mines, fields or water. Logs must be converted into wood pulp, ores must be smelted, wheat must be milled, hides must be tanned, etc. This conversion into a more useful form is called manufacturing.There is not an even distribution of manufacturing in the world today. Large scale concentrations of modern manufacturing have developed and now flourish in a limited area which comprises less than 10% of the earth’s land surface. Manufacturing has been concentrated in certain areas where conditions have been favourable and in turn those areas have become centres of political and economic power. Of greatest importance are western Europe, north-east America an Japan, fo-llowed by western Russia, east-central Europe and California. (see fig. 45 below)

Source: www.mapsofworld.com

Fig. 45: Distribution of CO2 emissions from industrial processes.Source: United Nations



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Manufacture generally takes place in two stages:

1. The preparation of the materials: basic manufacturing industry.2. The making of the finished articles: general manufacturing industry.

1. The basic manufacturing industry is concerned with such things as iron and steel, cement, construction materials, heavy chemicals and metal refining.The average size of an iron and steel plant is very large.

2. The general manufacturing industry is concerned with shipbuilding, chemicals, textiles, light industries, etc. Particularly the textile industry is very widespread nowadays.

II.7. TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICARTIONS

Communications and routeways are the means whereby people move from place to place and also the means by which goods of various kinds, e.g. foodstuffs, raw materials and manufactures, are transported from producers to consumers, from sellers to buyers.

We can make a distinction between:

1. Water transport2. Land transport3. Air transport

II.7.1.Water transport

Water transport is the cheapest but the slowest form of bulk transport (i.e. the transport of goods which are of low value in proportion to their weight). Of course, water transport is also confined to more limited areas.

Two types of water transport may be distinguished:

a. Inland water transportb. Ocean transport

a.Inland water transportMany rivers provide natural routeways, although many rivers have their limitations for transport too (e.g. high or low water, a current that is too strong, winding courses, and so on). That is why many rivers are canalized and/or improved by dams and locks which help to maintain a uniform depth of water.Also many new canals have been constructed (e.g. Suez and Panama-canals).

b.Ocean transportTransport by sea is the principal method of exchanging goods between geographically separated regions. As a result of the needs of world trade and communications, a great web of sea routes now connects practically every part of the world. (see fig. 46 below)



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II.7.2. Land transport

The two most important forms of land transport are:

1. Roads2. Railways

Other forms of land transport are:

3. Pipelines: widely used in the industrial west to transport oil and gas.4. Electricity transmission lines: linking the producing and the consuming regions.

II.7.2.1. Road transport

The chief importance for road transport is still for the movement of lighter goods over relatively short distances.

The concept of what constitutes a road varies widely: from mule track to modern highway.

We can use numerous criteria to reveal differences among roads:

a. width in metres or feetb. number of lanesc. types of surfaced. sharpness of curvese. steepness of slopesf. toll roads or free roadsg. traffic: number of vehicles per day

Fig. 46: The world’s major sea routes and ports.Source: www. transportcity.wordpress.com



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II.7.2.2. Railway transport

It is usual for heavy and long-distance goods to be taken by rail, since railways have the best facilities for bulk handling.

Railways (e.g. the trans-continental lines) have, in many instances, decided the pattern of population and land use distribution.

In mountainous areas there are many difficulties in constructing roads and rai-lways. Embankments and cuttings, viaducts and tunnels are required to keep the track nearly level. Where the gradient exceeds 1:50, zig-zags are constructed for railways (automobiles can manage a gradient up to1:3).In highland areas communication generally also make use of passes and gaps.

We could refine the picture of world railway lines if we could introduce into our maps such matters as:

a. Number of track (four-track, double-single track)b. Gauge of track (2 ½’ – 6’)c. Weight of rail (heavier rail can support heavier car load)d. Type of traffic control (automatic control system)e. Type of motor power (electric, coal/wood fired)

These data would give a better impression of the capacity for traffic, but they are difficult to obtain.

II.7.3. Air transport

Air transport is mainly concerned with the moving of passengers, and it is only competitive for freight if the latter is light and expensive enough to be able to stand the high tariffs.Airports need very much space an therefore helicopters are used more an more on short distance and internal air flights.

II.8. MAN-MADE GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS

In last chapter of the first part of these lecture notes, the natural regions of the world were discussed. We will finish the second part with the discussion of man-made regions.Man-made geographical regions are mental constructions invented to arrange earth features into some abstract order.Examples are the Sahel, the American Manufacturing Belt, the Cotton Belt, etc. as with natural regions, man-made geographical regions do not have well-defined boundaries. That is in contrast to specific individual localities that are identifies by its given name, e.g. cities (Rangoon, Nairobi, Moscow) states (Texas, Alaska), provinces (Overijssel, Gelderland) or countries (The Netherlands, U.S.A, Kenya). All these localities are instituted by official action and have well-defined boundaries.



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That is in contrast to specific individual localities that are identifies by its given name, e.g. cities (Rangoon, Nairobi, Moscow) states (Texas, Alaska), provinces (Overijssel, Gelderland) or countries (The Netherlands, U.S.A, Kenya). All these localities are instituted by official action and have well-defined boundaries.Thus, we can define a man-made geographical region as follow:A part of the earth that is similar in terms of the specific criteria chosen to delimit it from others regions, but has no well-defined boundaries.

Concerning man-made geographical regions, we can distinguished:

1. Formal regions2. Nodal regions or functional regions

II.8.1.Formal regions

The formal regions is defined by the likeness or even homogeneity of features of forms as explained above. Formal regions are uniform throughout.Examples are a textile manufacturing region and the Cotton Belt.

II.8.2.Nodal or functional regions

Nodal regions or functional regions are organized with respect to some focus to which they are linked by lines of circulation. They are considered as a spatial entity functioning around a central city through a network of circulation. (see fig. 47)

The limits of such a supporting and tributary area, or hinterland can be determined by the extent and intensity of spatial interaction, such as the in-and-out-flow of goods, travel, long distance calls, newspaper circulation, wholesale deliveries, etc.A nodal regions is a portion of the earth’s surface that is homogeneous in rela-tionship to a central point or node.

Other examples of nodal regions are:

- Urban milk shed, i.e. the area from which a city draws its daily milk.

- Employment or labour field, i.e. the area to which the resi-dents of a settlement commute to work.

- Trade area, i.e. the re-gion from which a business establishment’s customers come and from which it gets money for its goods and servi-ces. (see fig. 47 above).

Fig. 47: Nodal regions Source: www. revistainvi.uchile.cl

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REFERENCES

These lecture notes are based on the previous lecture notes by Prof. F. J. Or-meling & Drs. E. S. Bos “Geographical Elements (for cartography courses)”, and on the following books:

- Cole, J. P. “Geography of world affairs” 4th ed.Harmondsworth, 1972.

- Haggett, P. “Geography: a modern synthesis” New York, 1972.

- Jackson, N. & Ph. Penn “A groundwork of physical geography”- 2nd ed., London, 1972.

- Monkhouse, F. J. “Principles of physical geography” 7thd., London, 1971.

- Parker, G. “The geography of economics. A world survey”

2nd ed., London, 1972.

- Pressat, R. “Population” Pelican Books, Harmond sworth, 1970.

- Robinson, H. & F. S. Hudson “Physical and human geography” 3 rd ed., London, 1978.

- Zonneveld, I. S. “Land evaluation and land(scapescience” ITC Textbook, 1972.

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