elsner - charismatic routinization and al-qa'ida - final paper
TRANSCRIPT
1
Beyond Bin Laden: Al-Qa’ida’s Evolution Through the Charismatic Cycle
Eric Elsner
Johns Hopkins University
2
Abstract
When Usama Bin Laden (UBL) died on 01May 2011, al-Qa'ida lost its founder, a seeming
victory for the United States after almost eleven years of hunting down the man who authorized
and backed the worst terrorist attack on United States soil. The leadership of al-Qa'ida appeared
at the time to be at its weakest, but al-Qa'ida endures today as one of the most substantial threats
to the United States and its objectives in the Middle East and the world. What should have been
the end of an organization based on an unstable form of leadership has endured; while a new
charismatic leader rises in the crisis of Syria's civil war. These Charismatic organizations rise
from crises and grow by the success of charismatic leaders message, but endure after the loss of
these same leaders through routinization, changing the organization from a charismatic cause to a
traditional organization determined to continue the mission of their leaders. Through Max
Weber's theory of Charisma and Leadership, the rise of al-Qa'ida can be explained through a
cycle of crisis, leadership's message, and routinization.
3
Beyond Bin Laden: Al-Qa’ida’s Evolution Through the Charismatic Cycle
Executive Summary
Usama Bin Laden has been dead for more than three years, but the organization he
founded lives on. Through Max Weber's theory of charismatic leadership, the intelligence
community can understand the cycle of charismatic leadership; the charismatic leader rises
through a crisis, reveals a message and finds those followers who are drawn to the message, and
once the leader falls or is lost, the organization created will begin to transform itself into a more
permanent structure, turning into either traditional or rational/legal leadership. Al-Qa'ida started
as an organization centered around a charismatic leader, Usama Bin Laden, who himself rose
from the crisis of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, grew an organization based on the message
of Jihadist ideology and the need to attack the United States. Al-Qa'ida wants to continue to
spread the message of Bin Laden, continuing through the leadership of Ayman Zawahiri and has
been able to spread its influence through affiliates which have been acting in "al-Qa'ida's" name.
These affiliates have been al-Qa'ida's growth, but also a problem as their actions can reflect
negatively against al-Qa'ida. Now one of its affiliates, al-Qa'ida in Iraq, has broken away and
declared itself the Islamic State, under the leadership of Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi. The Jihadists
are turning to Abu Bakr and his message of Jihadist ideology, the newly declared caliphate, and
the "global nature of the Islamic State's struggle" (Al-Tamimi, 2014). The survival of any
charismatic organization is dependent on its ability to cope with immediate changes after losing
its charismatic leader; in al-Qa'ida's case, it is now facing the competition of a new charismatic
4
leader who is using success to grow a state based on Jihadist ideology Bin Laden embodied when
he began al-Qa'ida.
Understanding Weber's theory of charismatic leadership and the rise of charismatic
leaders through crisis shows intelligence community how to prepare for such leaders and find
methods to counter the charisma and the message delivered by the charismatic leader.
Understanding of charismatic leadership allows intelligence community understand survivability
of fragile organizations and prepare better strategies to counter these organizations.
Weber's Definition of Charisma
According to Max Weber, the term "charisma" applies "to a certain quality of an
individual by virtue of which he is considered extraordinary and treated as endowed with
supernatural, superhuman, or at least specifically exceptional powers or qualities" (Weber,
1978). It is characterized as a "gift of grace" of "self-appointed leaders who are followed by
those in distress" (Gerth, 1973). To Weber, "Charisma is the great revolutionary force" (Weber,
1978) which embodied the rise of a new force to oppose traditional authority systems. Genuine
charisma does not come from any formal or legal structure of authority, but from the charismatic
leader who has arisen to take on a mission targeted at a specific group. The group targeted for
the mission can be social, political, or any group of people who feel they are marginalized or in
crisis. From these people, a charismatic leader will find his followers.
Charismatic leaders succeed when they find followers. If the charismatic leader does not
find any followers, his charisma breaks down and his message fails. When a leader finds his
followers, they begin to form a bond that is "outside the ties of the culture, the job, even the
5
family" (Gerth, 1973). The group rejects all ties to the outside "in favor of the exclusive
glorification of the charismatic leader, its attitude is revolutionary and transvalues everything"
(Gerth, 1973). Charismatic movements are enthusiastic, the circumstances giving rise to a
charismatic leader are direct and interpersonal in order to rise above the ordinary. The
relationship between the charismatic leader and his followers is a "charismatic bond constructed
through a complex process of negotiation which rests on an exchange of mutual needs, the
charismatic leader is given authority in return for recognition, affection, and reinforcement of
worth" (Hoffman, 2014). To Weber, genuine charisma "quickly give way to institutions,
emerging from a cooling off of extraordinary states of devotion and fervor" (Gerth, 1973). The
charismatic leader was most influential at the beginning of the mission, then there was "cooling
off" of the mission's enthusiasm. In it's pure form, charisma is anathema to everyday structures.
In order for charisma to become more permanent, it is "necessary for the character of the
charismatic authority to radically change" (Weber, 1978). This "routinization" of charisma
"comes rapidly, the leader's thoughts are assimilated into the needs of the members of the group"
(Yinger, 1970).
Charisma is not a permanent structure, but it is in fact the opposite of permanence.
Charisma is a phenomenon of enthusiastic movements, but once its domination is established "it
gives way to forces of everyday routine" (Weber, 1978). In theory if successful, "charisma
almost immediately moves in the direction of routinization, but once routinized, charisma
becomes either traditional or rational-legal authority" (Ritzler, 2000). What the organization
routinizes into depends on the nature of the institution. Weber argues "all efforts are doomed to
failure; (in the) long run charisma cannot be routinized and still be charisma" (Ritzler, 2000).
6
Once charisma becomes traditional or rational-legal authority, the stage is set for the cycle to
begin again.
Al-Qa'ida under Usama Bin Ladin
Weber believed a charismatic leader was someone with extraordinary gifts whom
followers were meant to find and follow during a crisis. Bin Ladin did come from an extremely
wealthy family which started from a poor man in Yemen to become extremely rich through
construction for Saudi Arabia and the Saud family. Bin Ladin was one of 50 brothers and sisters
who did not seem to be stand-out in the family. Bin Ladin's charisma would rise in crisis.
Crisis
Charismatic Leader rises
with a message
Charismatic Leader Departs
Organization Routinizes to
Continue Message
Figure 1, Cycle of Charisma
7
Sayyid Qutb and Islamist Ideology, the Base of al-Qa'ida's Message
Weber saw charisma as a revolutionary force in leadership and crisis as a catalyst for a
charismatic leader to rise. In Jihadist ideology, Islam is in continual crisis against corrupt
leaders, Western values, and those in the world who are not under Islam. One of the first modern
Islamist theorist, Sayyid Qutb, believed that Islam was the only moral choice for mankind. Qutb
was an Egyptian who saw colonial rule and the rule of King Farouk as corrupt and anti-islamic.
In his mind, Qutb saw the modern world "steeped in Jahiliyyah (ignorance of Divine guidance),
and all the marvellous material comforts and high-level inventions do not diminish this
ignorance (Qutb, 1964)." Qutb's Islamist ideology was framed during a time when Egypt was in
crisis, Egypt and other Arab countries lost the war to destroy Israel in 1949, it was the final days
of King Farouk and colonialism of the British in Egypt, and the revolution which would bring
Gamel Nasser into power was underway. In Qutb's view, the West was a corrupt, crusader world,
and everything from outside, including Marxism, Capitalism, Democracy, Christianity, and
particularly anything from the West, was corrupt and a threat to Islam. Qutb believed " Islam
was under assault, and redemption could not wait for a bloodless revolution (Kramer, 1996)."
Qutb believed a revolutionary vanguard was needed to "organize itself, retreat from impious
society, denounce lax Muslims as unbelievers, and battle to overturn the political order. As Qutb
put it: those who have usurped the power of God on earth and made His worshippers their slaves
will not be dispossessed by dint of Word alone (Kramer, 1996)." Qutb is one of the most
important theorists for Jihadist ideology and was a direct influence on Bin Ladin and Zawahiri.
Qutb was one of the first in the modern era to espouse the Jihadist message, a message Bin
Laden would hear early in his life.
Bin Laden's Early Years and Abdullah Azzam's Message
8
Bin Ladin would be exposed to Jihadist ideology early in his life. When he was 14, he
studied at the al Thagher Model School, "the most prestigious high (school) in Jedda (Coll,
2005)." While at al Thagher he participated in the Islamic study group led by a man who taught
radical Islamic ideology. An interesting point to note that even as Bin Laden was being
influenced by these teachers of radical Islamist ideology, Bin Laden himself never studied Islam
formally. For someone who would be spreading a message of Islamic domination under Sharia
law, Bin Laden was not taught about the message of Islam but was influenced by the simple
message of Jihadist ideology. But in his academic career, he met teachers who would influence
his future calling; a calling which would be influenced by events in the Middle East and shaped
by a limited view of history that would define Bin Laden's ideology. Teachers like Abdullah
Azzam would continue to shape Bin Laden's Jihadist ideology and directly influence his own
message. Azzam was an influence on Bin Laden as one of his teachers in Jeddah in the 1970s.
Azzam a Palestinian Islamist who tried to fight for the Palestinian cause but found it too
secular when he wanted to movement to be Islamist. Azzam saw Jihad as sacred warfare
"interrelated and (forming) a singular chain from which the next operation, war or conflict will
be born (Abou-Eneim, 2010)." Azzam taught Jihadist ideology focused on Muhammad the
warrior, a myopic view of Muhammad and Muhammad's message of Islam. Azzam himself had a
myopic view of history seen through a narrow lens of Muslim victimhood. Azzam would further
the message of martyrdom, turning it into a fantasy. The messages of Qutb and Azzam would
begin to shape and define Bin Laden's ideology and grow as part of Bin Laden's message to
Jihadists as growing up he watch crises in the Muslim world.
In his teens and college years Bin Laden would see Islam in continual crisis with the rise
of an Islamist government in Iran and the takeover of the Grand Mosque in Mecca, but the
9
largest event to define Bin Laden was the invasion of Afghanistan by the Soviet Union. This one
event would bring about Bin Laden's transformation from pious student and billionaire's son to
Jihadist, and the first step toward the rise of Bin Laden's charisma. Later Bin Laden would work
under Azzam in the Maktab al-Khidmat, or Service Bureau, set up by Azzam in Pakistan after
the Soviet Invasion. Azzam wanted to see more Arabs join in the fight against the Soviet Union.
Bin Laden worked for Azzam after leaving his father's business. Under Azzam, Bin Laden
organized and expanded the operations of the Service Bureau and started to fund-raise for
refugees and mujahedeen as well as recruit Arabs to go and fight against the Soviet forces. Bin
Laden was able to "fix an organization that was badly run and had little effect for the
mujahedeen in Afghanistan (Wright, 2006)." This would begin Bin Laden's early days of being a
Mujahedeen and be one of his earliest successes.
While Azzam and Bin Laden were old friends, Bin Laden was ambitious and wanted to
show what the Arab volunteers could do in battle. He was frustrated by perceptions by the
Afghanistan mujahedeen that the Arab volunteers were not good in battle and should be used as
support rather than as actual fighters. In 1986, Bin Laden ignored Azzam and others to establish
his own base and fighting force in Jaji, Afghanistan. This became an important step in beginning
Bin Laden's charisma, bringing a message of Arab volunteers being directly involved in Jihad.
The base was established near a Soviet base and was known as al Masada, aka the Lions' Den.
The base was Bin Laden's dream of showing what the Arab fighters could do, and he went so far
as to want it close to Soviet forces to ensure it would be attacked. Bin Laden saw the base and
military force at the base as an important psychological boost for Afghans and the Muslim world
while ignoring Azzam's opposition to what was seen as a foolish and potentially dangerous
endeavor.
10
In 1987, Bin Laden got his wish and al Masada was attacked by Soviet forces. While the
battle is seen by most outside the Muslim world as minor skirmish, but for Bin Laden it was the
beginning of "Bin Laden's almost mythic persona, because a group of Arabs had held off the
Soviets. It got a lot of play in the Middle East (Amanpour, 2006)." Even Azzam turned it into a
mythical battle of miracles as the small Arab force stood up against an overwhelming Soviet
force and managed to hold them off. In Azzam's magazine Jihad, he wrote
Beginning the night of Ramadan, the enemy tried to take over, but every time they tried,
our men hit them with weapons. And they tried again for another hit with their
commandos, but we hit them with our rocket-propelled grenades. And we saw them
retreating with our telescopes. Russia lost many of their well-respected commandos to the
mujahedeen. (Bergin, 2006, p 54)
This became a turning point for Bin Laden, both in his career as a mujahideen and his own
charisma. Bin Laden went from being a fund-raiser to a mujahedeen. His success built his
charisma and made him appear to be someone who was blessed. It also brought Bin Laden to the
attention of Jihadists active in Afghanistan; in particular, Ayman al-Zawahari. When Azzam was
killed in 1989, Bin Laden became "the most prominent leader of Arab fighters in Afghanistan
(Abou-Eneim, 2010)."
Al-Qa'ida pre-9/11
As the charismatic leader rises, his power is established by the followers who surrender
"to a message outside regular laws and authority (Weber, 1978)." Bin Laden had been inculcated
in Jihadist ideology. Qutb taught that Islam was the only pure way of life and must go against
Western civilization in order to build a better world, even using violence to bring about this end.
11
Azzam taught it was duty of all Muslims to participate in Jihad and turned martyrdom into a
fantasy. Bin Laden would build his message on these foundations, adding that the real enemy of
Islam was the United States, who had to be defeated in order to bring about an Islamic state
under Sharia law. In 1996, Bin Laden declared a Jihad against the United States, condemning "
the U.S. military presence in Saudi Arabia, criticized the international sanctions regime on Iraq,
and voiced his opposition to U.S. support for Israel (Blanchard, 2007)." Bin Laden believed the
U.S. was the greatest enemy of Islam and it had to be defeated and made to withdraw from the
Muslim world before an Islamic state could be established. Instead of building an organization to
fight the Muslim leaders, Bin Laden believed first you had to defeat their largest backer, then the
leaders would fall. This is the message Bin Laden used to build al-Qa'ida, finding followers who
wanted to build an Islamic state based on Sharia while ridding the Muslim world of U.S.
influence and power.
In a charismatic organization, the charismatic staff constitutes "a charismatic aristocracy
composed of select adherents, united by discipleship and loyalty and chosen according to
personal charismatic qualifications (Weber, 1978)." In a charismatic organization, there are "no
formal and regulated appointment or dismissal, no career, no supervisory or appeals body, no
jurisdiction, and no permanent institutions which are independent of personal charisma (Weber,
1978)." The members of the charismatic staff are not "officials", they are not appointed or
dismissed from positions, they do not have careers or promotions, only qualifications based the
needs of the charismatic organization. The disciples "tend to live primarily in communistic
relationship to the leader, with no administrative organs, but agents who have been provided with
authority by their chief or who possess charisma of their own (Weber, 1978)."
12
Under Bin Laden, al-Qa'ida was an organization with a central core built around Bin
Laden. Al-Qa'ida reached out to organizations with the same ideology, but wanted to keep al-
Qa'ida under the direct control of Bin Laden. In the chart below, from Staff Statement 15 of the
9/11 commission, the "organizational structure should not be read as defining a hierarchical
chain of command for specific terrorist operations. It served as a means for coordinating
functions and providing material support to operations. But once a specific operation was
decided upon it would be assigned to a carefully selected clandestine cell, headed by a
senior al Qaeda operative who reported personally to Bin Ladin (National Commission On
Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States, 2004).
(Organization chart derived from Staff Statement No. 15, found on www.globalsecurity.org)
The organizational structure included:
- The "Shura" or Advisory Council, an inner circle of Bin Laden's close associates
Figure 2, al-Qa'ida Structure under Bin Laden, Pre 9/11
13
- The "Sharia" and "Political Committe" responsible for issuing fatwas - edicts purporting
to be grounded in Islamic Law directing or authorizing certain actions - including deadly
attacks
- The "Military Committee" responsible for proposing targets, gathering ideas for and
supporting operations, and managing training camps
- The "Finance Committee" responsible for fundraising and budgetary support for
training camps, housing costs, living expenses, travel, and the movement of money
allocated to operations
- The "Foreign Purchases Committee" responsible for acquiring weapons, explosives, and
technical equipment
- The "Security Committee" responsible for physical protection, intelligence collection and counterintelligence
- The "Information Committee" in charge of propaganda
(Staff Statement 15, 2004).
While the staff did not have to turn to Bin Laden for every mundane item, for large operations
Bin Laden had to be consulted. Like many charismatic groups, Bin Laden kept some distance
from the everyday needs of running al-Qa'ida, along with maintaining a social and physical
distance between himself and members. Bin Laden "limited his accessibility, but mnay aspring
jihadists heard him speak in al-Qa'ida camps, while personal audiences were much sought after
(Bergen, 2006)." This is seen in charismatic organization as "too much exposure leads to de-
legitimization, (while) some distance invites processes of projection (Hoffman, 2014). Would-
be recruits "often had to go through a vetting process before gaining access to Bin Laden
(Bergen, 2006)." In order to undertake a mission for al-Qa'ida, "Bin Laden had to approve,
though operational plans were planned by trusted lieutenants, being a figure who stood above the
fray (Bergen, 2006)."
14
Nasser al-Bahri, aka Abu Jandal, was one of the militants that traveled to Afghanistan in
1996 and trained in an al-Qaeda camp, eventually becoming a trainer. In 1998, he was chosen by
Bin Laden to be one of his personal bodyguards. Abu Jandal described his first meeting with Bin
Laden as "beautiful." Abu Jandal described his security arrangement with Bin Laden, that Abu
Jandal was to kill Bin Laden because Bin Laden wanted "martyrdom rather than captivity."
(Bergen, pgs 259-260) Abu Jandal continued to describe his time with Bin Laden, stating "we
never felt afraid as long as we were with that man ... Our love for Sheikh Osama spring from the
fact that we went hungry together and were filled together ... The man was very simple in all his
dealings and in everything in his life. He was consistently very generous with others (Bergen pg
267)." One of Bin Laden's body guards, Shadi Abdallah, stated "bin Laden is a very charismatic
person who could persuade people simply by his way of talking. One could say he "seduced"
many young men ... He said (Bin Laden) that our common path must be the sacrifice for Islam."
(Bergen, pg 265)
Like other charismatic leaders, Bin Laden had to exert his authority in order to "maintain
a charismatic bond, relative to traditional and rational authority, impressions created are
inherently precarious (Hoffman, 2014)." Charismatic leaders "must perform a careful balancing
act, in order to maintain a constant reaffirmation of charismatic status, the primary source of
power (Hoffman, 2014)." The charismatic leader that cannot properly manage his authority risks
losing the charismatic bond that creates the charismatic authority over the followers.
Al-Qa'ieda after 9/11, Losing Control of the Message
After the 9/11 attacks, Bin Laden had to go underground. He soon disappeared and was
only heard through videos. In one respect Bin Laden's charisma grew amongst Jihadists as he
15
conducted the most successful terrorist attack on the U.S. and continued to elude U.S. pursuit.
This became another success for Bin Laden, growing the charisma he had already established
with his followers. During the time Bin Laden was in hiding, al-Qa'ida saw the growth of its
brand through different franchises, particularly in the Muslim world. Al-Qa'ida members fought
with the Taliban against U.S. forces in Afghanistan. After the U.S. invasion of Iraq, al-Qa'ida in
Iraq (AQI) emerged to fight against U.S. forces. Al-Qa'ida emerged in the Arabian Peninsula
(aka al-Qa'ida in the Arabian Peninsula or AQAP), and an affiliate emerged from the islamist
groups fighting in Algeria called al-Qa'ida in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM). All of these groups
stated they followed the ideology of Bin Laden, even while the leader was hiding.
But while in hiding, Bin Laden was not able to balance his charisma with control over the
al-Qa'ida organization, particularly the affiliates. In the 17 documents released since the death of
Bin Laden, Bin Laden focused in his private letters was "Muslims’ suffering at the hands of his
jihadi 'brothers' (Lahoud, 2012)." The letters show "Bin Ladin’s frustration with regional Jihadi
groups and his seeming inability to exercise control over their actions and public statements
(Lahoud, 2012)." In the letters, there appear to be three different groups of opinions concerning
cells’ desire to affiliate with al-Qa'ida. One group wanted to remain faithful to al-Qa'ida and
distance or disassociate from those groups who would not consult with al-Qa'ida. The second
group believed in including the regional Jihadist groups to contribute to al-Qa'ida's growth. The
third group, apparently Bin Laden's position, wanted to maintain communications to urge
restraint from the regional affiliates, but did not want to grant formal unity with al-Qa'ida. The
affiliates themselves did reach out to Bin Laden to bless off on symbolic matters, but
operationally the affiliates rarely consulted or obeyed Bin Laden's directives. They operated in
al-Qa'ida's name, but did not act in ways that reflected positively on al-Qa'ida. Bin Laden became
16
more of a symbolic figurehead for the affiliates, but not someone to formally work with. While
the affiliates were continuing operations, Bin Laden became very concerned with the mistakes
they were making, which he felt reflected badly on al-Qa'ida and himself. In a letter to
Atiyyatullah, or Atiyya, a leader in al-Qa'ida, Bin Laden expressed alarmed about the "increased
mistakes" committed by the "brothers" who are spread over "many regions" and communicated
a desire to bring the regional groups in line with al-Qa'ida's vision and code of conduct (Lahoud,
2012). In 2010, Bin Laden asked Atiyya to "prepare a memorandum of understanding that
would require jihadi groups to consult with al-Qa'ida Central (AQC) before they act (Lahoud,
2012)."
Bin Laden also discussed wanting to centralize al-Qa'ida's media and control the message
being sent out in the name of al-Qa'ida. He wanted al-Qa'ida's media to be more sophisticated
and believed a coherent media strategy was critical. In a letter to Attiya, Bin Laden stressed that
"(winning) the media occupies the greater portion of the battle today (Lahoud, 2012)." UBL
explained "we are in need of sincere internal advice and a constructive critical evaluation of all
our politics and (media) releases be they from AQC or from regional groups (Lahoud, 2012)."
UBL believed Jihadist media was inadequate, and was not alone in this opinion. Adam Gadahn,
a senior member of and a known spokesman for al-Qa'ida, wrote about Jihadist forums and
believed them to be "repulsive to most Muslims and a liability to al-Qa'ida ... most of their
participants are characterized by religious fanaticism and biases ... "distort to some extent the
image of al-Qa'ida (Lahoud, 2012)." Further, UBL wanted to create a credible jihadi media to
counter the current media portrayal of him which he considered full of factual errors and he
thought corrupted his legacy. UBL wrote to Atiyya "He who does not make known his own
history ... (runs the risk that) some in the media and among historians will construct a history for
17
him (Lahoud, 2012)." Message is very important for a charismatic leader. The message brings in
followers who recognize the leaders charisma and authority. Bin Laden was clearly worried his
message was being distorted by the affiliates while he was losing his control over the
organization.
As with other charismatic leader, Bin Laden was worried about the perception of al-
Qa'ida, so much so he wanted more control over the message and actions linked to al-Qa'ida.
Charisma depends on the success of the leader and his message. When groups associated with
al-Qa'ida fail, al-Qa'ida and Bin Laden fail. These failures, both operational and the message
delivered through Jihadist media, undermine the charisma of the leader. When the message from
the media becomes murky and "repulsive" to the main audience of the message, this also
weakens the charisma of the leader. His strongest criticism was for al-Qa'ida in Iraq (AQI) and
its leaders.
AQI under Abu Musab al Zarqawi was the most brutal affiliate. AQI directly targeted
civilians, particularly the Shi'a. AQI also performed beheadings and filmed them to be shown
throughout the world. While Zarqawi was in charge of AQI, al-Qa'ida's leader distanced itself
from AQI as it became more brutal. Al-Qa'ida did not want to be branded with such brutal
tactics that were alienating Iraqis and other Muslims against al-Qa'ida in general, and AQI in
particular. But Zarqawi would not listen to al-Qa'ida's leadership and continued mass attacks and
beheadings. Zarqawi was never able to set aside his violent tendencies. By all accounts,
"Zarqawi never elevated himself beyond thug and butcher, never set aside violent tendencies,
even to preserve unity among sunnis (Abou-Eneim, 2010)."
18
Zarqawi's actions ended up hurting al-Qa'ida. Bin Laden's message of jihad was to unite
Muslims against the West and attack the U.S. Instead, Zarqawi attacked Muslim's and beheaded
westerners, all under the name of al-Qa'ida. Bin Laden's message was guide Muslims towards
true Islam while weakening Western influence in the Muslim world. According to Weber, if the
ideas are not adopted "the message will fail to influence or the followers will be alienated (Gerth,
1973)." Zarqawi's attacks on Muslims weakened the message of al-Qa'ida, for which Bin Laden
tried to dissuade Zarqawi, but couldn't. In the letters, Bin Laden was disappointed with AQI.
Even after Zarqawi's death, AQI under Abu Umar al-Baghdadi (AUAB) and Abu Ayyub al-
Misri (AAM) declared an Islamic State and were perceived by Jihadi leaders as "more repulsive
and dangerous than al-Zarqawi (Lahoud, 2012)." The leaders were continuing to make mistakes
and were rebuked, but the leaders continued to target Shi'a Muslims and the declaration of the
state made it vulnerable to Coalition attacks. Bin Laden hoped after the deaths of AUAB and
AAM there could be unity in the Iraqi militants.
Bin Laden was becoming more limited in his direct role in al-Qa'ida after 9/11. While in
hiding he watched al-Qa'ida expand from core of followers built around himself and his message
of violent Jihad against the U.S. to affiliates that expanded al-Qa'ida's influence throughout the
Middle East and North Africa. However, without the direct control over the operations and
messaging of these organizations, Bin Laden became frustrated with the mistakes the affiliates
made in al-Qa'ida's name. His message of Jihad and the hope of building a Sharia ruled Islamic
state were being undermined by operations and messages that reflected badly on al-Qa'ida. Bin
Laden hoped to eventually bring the affiliates back under a central al-Qa'ida leadership which
would guide the affiliates away from their mistakes and once again be able to spread the message
19
of Bin Laden to attack the U.S. and lead Muslims to a Sharia ruled state. Bin Laden would not
see this happen, but would be killed in May 2011, leaving Zawahiri to take over al-Qa'ida.
Death of Bin Laden and Zawahiri as the Successor
According to Weber, charismatic organizations were fragile and unstable. There is a
"desire to transform the rulership into a permanent relationship, especially from the leader, his
disciples, and the followers (Weber, 1978)." The loss of the leader is one of the greatest hazards
a charismatic staff has to deal with as they are "likely to outlive the leader, and have vested
interests in continuing the existence of the organization (Ritzler, 2000)." The charismatic staff
must create circumstances to continue the message of the leader, adopting a variety of strategies
to create a lasting organization. If Zawahiri is unable to adopt a strategy of continuation, the
ideas will not be "adapted, and the message will fail to influence or the followers will be
alienated (Gerth, 1973)." The nature of the leadership will radically change "as the purely
personal character of charisma is eliminated (Ritzler 2000)." The organization will create a set of
rules to choose a new leader, but such rules become the basis of tradition, changing charismatic
leadership into traditional or even rational leadership. The new leader will be chosen according
to the rules set by the charismatic staff but is "unlikely to achieve the same success as the
predecessor (Ritzler, 2000)."
Zawahiri took over al-Qa'ida in June of 2011 with little argument from the Shura council.
Despite taking over the leadership, Zawahiri has not been able to shed the image of him lacking
charisma, being rigid, and described as an "irritable micromanager (Mulraine, 2011)." Upon
taking over al-Qa'ida, he assumed control of an organization that has affiliates in North Africa,
20
the Arabian Peninsula, and the Levant, with its core membership still active in Afghanistan and
Pakistan. However, like Bin Laden, Zawahiri had to remain in hiding and could exercise little
direct control over the affiliates. Zawahiri has taken over a al-Qa'ida whose central leadership
has been decimated and has not conducted a successful major attack against the U.S. for over a
decade. Further, Zawahiri and al-Qa'ida are losing ground in a confrontation with the Islamic
State, the latest incarnation of AQI. As Weber stated, the Charismatic leader "gains and
maintains authority solely by proving his strength in life (Gerth, 1973)." Zawahiri's most recent
announcement was the creation of al-Qa'ida in the Indian Sub-continent (AQIS) in September
2014, after a two year silence. The move was seen as " a desperate response to the existential
challenge posed to al-Qa'ida Central (AQC) by the upstart IS, whose seizure of Northwestern
Iraq and swaths of Eastern Syria has seemingly rendered al-Qa'ida impotent and irrelevant in the
eyes of many potential recruits along with formerly dependable donors (Olmstead, 2014)."
Zawahiri runs an organization that has influence throughout the Middle East and North
Africa, with potential allies in Africa. However, in the face of the rise of the Islamic State (IS),
Zawahiri is being perceived as failing against a former affiliate and rising charismatic
organization. In order to become more viable and not lose more recruits, donors, and face
against IS, al-Qa'ida will need to build more successes. In September 2014, AQIS tried to
"hijack Pakistani Navy frigates and use them to attack U.S. and Indian vessels (Shay, 2014)."
The attack was "carried out in party by Pakistan navy personnel that had been recruited by al-
Qa'ida (Shay, 2014)." But Zawahiri and al-Qa'ida continues to lose ground against IS. More
jihadists appear to be impressed with IS and its actions as
21
Al-Qaeda foot-soldiers, from Yemen, Libya, Saudi Arabia and elsewhere, are flocking to
ISIS standard. To them, its leader Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi si confronting the apostates and
building the Caliphate, while al-Zawahiri talks. (Lister, 2014)
Rise of Abu Bakr and the Islamic State, Message of International Jihad
Weber stated "charismatic authority is specifically unstable, when the leader's mission is
extinguished, followers will look for a new holder of charisma (Gerth, 1973)." While al-Qa'ida
goes down its own path, it and the world are faced with a new challenge born out of a new crisis,
the rise of the Islamic State. Since its rise from the Syrian civil war, the Islamic State has seized
Iraqi cities, captured weapons from the Iraqi Army, and pilfered hundreds of millions of dollars
from the Iraqi state. It is a highly organized and brutal organization centered around the
leadership of Abu Bakr. Its brutality has made other rebel groups have turned against the Islamic
State; even al-Qa'ida has renounced the Islamic State for its brutality and arrogance. Yet IS is
finding more recruits as it continues to succeed in taking and holding territory in Syria and Iraq
As Weber noted " the Charismatic leader must continually prove his right and divine mission to
the benefit of followers or lose his followers and authority (Weber, 1978)."
The Islamic State started out as al-Qa'ida in Iraq (AQI), an affiliate of al-Qa'ida under
Abu Musab al-Zarqawi. After Zarqawi was killed, leadership of AQI went to Abu Ayyub al-
Misri (AAM) with Abu Umar al-Baghdadi (AUAB) as head of the Islamic State of Iraq (ISI), a
declared Islamic state in Iraq in 2006 under the control of AQI. After the deaths of AAM and
AUAB, Abu Bakr took over AQI, then known as Abu Dua. The AQI he inherited was weaker,
and seemed to be on the brink of collapse after the Sunni awakening in Iraq turned the Iraqi
22
Sunnis against AQI. But the civil war in Syria gave AQI new life. The Syrian Civil war brought
to life two factions affiliated with al-Qa'ida,"Jabhat al-Nusra (JN), which was founded at the
beginning of 2012 by Abu Mohammed al-Jowlani, and the Islamic State of Iraq and ash-Sham
(ISIS) (Al-Tamimi, 2014)." During the formation of both groups, Abu Dua, now calling himself
Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, proposed the groups be merged into one group under his leadership. Abu
Mohammed al-Jowlani disagreed and wanted to keep JN separate from ISIS, and in a secret letter
from Zawahiri, AQC agreed with al-Jowlani. Instead, Abu Bakr claimed JN was under ISIS.
The relationship between al-Qa'ida and AQI deteriorated until in 2014, Zawahiri declared al-
Qa'ida had "no connection" with ISIS, which is not an affiliate with the al Qaeda group and has
no organizational relation with it. Furthermore, al Qaeda's general command is not responsible
for ISIS' actions (Joscelyn, 2014)."
Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, a man described as "ruthless, resilient and ambitious terrorist
leader who unfortunately has shown a knack for tactical operations and, it seems, military
strategy (Ignatius, 2014)." Abu Bakr has become a leader with far more charisma than Zawahiri
and has succeeded in Iraq and Syria while Zawahiri is stuck hiding in Pakistan. The perception
of Abu Bakr is his ability to inspire intense support from his followers combined with an
"unusual degree of organization, technical skill, and planning (Ignatius, 2014)." It is reported
Abu Bakr holds a master's and doctorate in Islamic Studies, a major difference from both UBL
and Zawahiri, from Baghdad University. Abu Bakr is also claiming to be a direct descendent of
the prophet Muhammad. In his time as the leader of the Islamic State, Abu Bakr has taken a
large swath of Iraq and Syria and a near blitzkrieg assault. Abu Bakr has been described as
headstrong and opportunistic.
23
Abu Bakr is highly reclusive, keeping a low profile and limited movements and contacts.
He maintains "operational control over the Islamic State despite the fact there are leaders and
deputies in the Islamic State who have never seen him (McGrath, 2014)." Like other charismatic
leaders, Abu Bakr maintains a distance between himself and his followers, both for security and
to build a mystic around himself. As of now, Abu Bakr's charisma is built through his successes
in Syria and Iraq. Abu Bakr has learned from the mistakes his predecessors and does not try to
alienate the Sunnis, but uses their distrust and alienation from the Iraqi government to grow the
Islamic State and recruit from the tribes. He is the undisputed leader of the Islamic State, but
Abu Bakr "empowers his local commanders and employs a decentralized structure to run the
Islamic State, combined with brutal methods to terrorize the civilian population (Ignacius,
2014)." The Islamic State has also learned to effectively use social media to boost its cause. It
published its own magazine called Dabiq, a name
Taken from the area named Dabiq in the norther countryside of Halab (Aleppo) in Sham.
This place was mentioned in the hadith describing some of the events of Malahim (what
is sometimes reffered to as Armageddon in English). One of the greatest battles between
the Muslims and the crusaders will take place near Dabiq. (Dabiq, 2014).
IS also uses beheading videos of prisoners try and intimidate enemies while showing its power
to recruit like-minded individuals to join the organization. Through social media, Abu Bakr has
put out an autobiography on himself stressing his piety and family background of a father who
was a tribal elder and pious grandfather. Abu Bakr is portraying himself as an individual
"considered extraordinary and treated as endowed with supernatural, superhuman, or at least
specifically exceptional powers or qualities (Weber, 1978)." Abu Bakr's message for IS has
become the internationalization of Jihadist ideology. In a video-taped speech, Abu Bakr stated
24
So let the world know we are living today in a new era... The Muslims today have a loud,
thundering statement, and possess heavy boots. They have a statement that will cause the
world to hear and understand the meaning of terrorism, and boots that will trample the
idol of nationalism, destroy the idol of democracy and uncover its deviant nature.
The world has been divided into two camps and two trenches, with no third camp present;
the camp of Islam and faith, and the camp of kufr (disbelief) and hypocrisy - the camp of
the Muslims and the mujahedeen everywhere, and the camp of the Jews, the crusaders,
their allies, and with them the rest of the nations and religions of kufr, all being led by
America and Russia, and being mobilized by the Jews. (Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, 2014)
In Abu Bakr's speech, he has decided to divide everyone into believers and non-believers. He
has created a black and white message of believers and non-believers, where non-believers are to
be attacked, no matter who they are.
As the Islamic State continues to succeed, it may already be routinizing Abu Bakr's
charisma, changing from a purely charismatic organization into bureaucratized state built around
Jihadist ideas of Sharia law. Under Abu Bakr, there are two deputies,"(one) who supervises the
State in Iraq and is essentially the second man in the organization, and (another) who oversees
Islamic State operations in Syria (Barrett, 2014)." Under them are the councils, which are
responsible for the military and administrative organization of IS. Two councils are directly
under Abu Bakr, the Shura Council and the Sharia Council. The Shura Council is "responsible
for conveying directive from Abu Bakr down the chain of command and for ensuring that they
are carried out (Barrett, 2014)." The Sharia Council is "directly overseen by Abu Bakr and is the
most powerful body of The Islamic State (Barrett, 2014)." The Sharia Council is responsible for
25
"selecting a Caliph and ensuring the compliance of all other parts of the administration with
Sharia law, according to its own interpretation (Barrett, 2014)." In addition, there is a Security
and Intelligence Council to find dissent and eliminate challenges, the Military Council, the
Finance Council, and the Media Council. In comparison, al-Qa'ida was directly centered around
Bin Laden who only had one deputy, Zawahiri. However, al-Qa'ida was a Jihadist group that did
not have any state apparatus, but was a Jihadist movement attempting to attack Western
influence in the Muslim world. IS is a declared Islamic state, trying to build a state apparatus to
attract Muslims to help build the state and continue attacking all non-Muslim interests. The
whole of the Islamic State is designed to enforce Sharia on the people living in the state,
including Sharia courts and special religious police who enforce Sharia laws that cover all parts
of everyday life. All of it centered around the Caliph, Abu Bakr.
Conclusion
The U.S. has been fighting al-Qa'ida for over 13 years and is now facing the Islamic
State. While the death of Bin Laden was a victory, it was not the end of al-Qa'ida.
Crisis, the First Stage of Charisma
Charismatic leaders tend to rise from crises which "centralize the emergence of
charismatic authority by setting the social context that shapes an audience susceptible to the
influence of charismatic leaders (Hoffman, 2014).". In the case of al-Qa'ida, Bin Laden rose in
the crisis of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. He then took what he learned from that crisis
and built on the Jihadist ideology on Islam being in crisis to form al-Qa'ida. Since his death,
Zawahiri has been chosen to continue Bin Laden's message of jihad and crisis. Zawahiri has
26
been rebuilding an al-Qa'ida that has been weakened in its core membership through years of
fighting, but still can rely on affiliated groups to continue Bin Laden's message and mission. The
crisis of the Syrian civil war has brought about the leadership of Abu Bakr and the rise of the
Islamic State. Crisis sparks the rise of charismatic leaders who will seek out those who are draw
to the message and mission of the leader. As long as crises continue in Syria and throughout the
Middle East, people who espouse and are attracted to Jihadist ideology will find charismatic
leaders whom to follow. When the crisis is over, or at least mitigated, then the charisma of the
leader will flounder. The charismatic leader's strongest time is early when his followers are the
most enthusiastic. This moment goes away quickly.
Message, the Second Stage of Charisma
When a charismatic leader arises the leader needs followers who will heed his message
and support his mission. Message is very important for the Charismatic leader. It is what bring in
the followers who will help build a community and begin to spread the message of the leader.
The leader will gain more followers as he succeeds in his mission. Success continues the leader's
charisma, spreading the message and allowing the community and the leader's authority to grow.
Success is important to charisma. When the leader succeeds, his charisma grows, but when he
fails, the followers begin to doubt his charisma. The more the leader fails, the more the leader's
charisma fails. Since charisma is not based on any authority other than the belief that the leader
is exceptional and is therefore been blessed to spread his message, failure undermines the
authority of the leader.
In his writings, Bin Laden was deeply concerned about the failings of the al-Qa'ida
affiliates. When they did actions Bin Laden did not agree with, he worried those actions would
27
reflect badly on al-Qa'ida. Bin Laden understood when the affiliates failed, it was as though al-
Qa'ida itself failed, and by connection, Bin Laden failed. AQI's brutality against Muslims in Iraq
was directly connected to al-Qa'ida. This action went against Bin Laden's message of fighting
for Muslims and trying to bring about a better world through Jihad and Sharia. AQI's failure
became a failure for Bin Laden and weakened his message, and undermined his charisma.
Without the charisma, Bin Laden would have no authority in the Jihadist movement.
Zawahiri is also understanding how failure can hurt even after the leader has been lost.
When he tried to keep Abu Bakr from taking over al-Qa'ida's operations in Syria, he went into
direct confrontation with Abu Bakr and AQI. Instead of falling in line, Abu Bakr declared all al-
Qa'ida operations in Syria were under his control, going against Zawahiri. Zawahiri's failure to
keep Abu Bakr in line with al-Qa'ida has led to a schism within the Jihadist movement and
undermined Zawahiri's authority. Zawahiri's failure is further shown as Abu Bakr has done what
al-Qa'ida has not been able to do and taken control of a large area of the Middle East and
declared an Islamic state. Al-Qa'ida looks weak and ineffective compared to the Islamic State,
while Abu Bakr becomes the new charismatic leader for the Jihadist movement, succeeding in
the crisis of the Syrian civil war.
One of the keys to defeating a charismatic organization is exposing the message of the
leader to failure and countering it with another message. If the leader's message fails, it will not
attract those whom the message is aimed at. When the leader's message fails to attract followers,
it undermines the charisma of the leader. Since charisma does not derive its authority from
traditional or rational-legal powers, it is only the perceived charisma of the leader which gives
authority. When this authority is undermined, the leader loses his right to hold authority and the
charismatic message and mission fails. Bin Laden's feared his message was failing due to the
28
mistakes of affiliates, Zawahiri is seeming to fail in the face of the rise of the Islamic State. It
will have to be seen how to make Abu Bakr fail. While a coalition against the Islamic state and
small victories in the battlefield have occurred, Abu Bakr's charisma still seems to be on the rise.
As long as Abu Bakr continues to succeed in the face of the enemies of the new state, he will be
seen as the new leader of the Jihadist movement and a continual threat in the Middle East.
In the case of al-Qa'ida and the Islamic state, countering the message is one of the best
ways to break the Charisma cycle. Both rely on limited interpretations of Islam and give black
and white answers to complex questions in the problems Islam is facing. Finding scholars who
can argue persuasively against the message al-Qa'ida and IS are spreading can undermine their
message. Continue to show the hypocrisy of their actions and how they are hurting more
Muslims then they are actually helping. Zarqawi's operations in Iraq turned the Shi'a and the
Sunnis against AQI and countered the terrorist groups operations in Iraq. When the message of
al-Qa'ida and IS are countered and defeated, the Charisma of their leaders is defeated and the
leaders are weakened.
Routinization, the Final Cycle of Charisma
Charismatic organizations turn to routinization when the leader is lost. The members of
the organization do this to continue the message of the leader. While the death of Bin Laden was
hoped to usher in the end of al-Qa'ida, it has instead continued, routinizing its message and
mission through its affiliates. Zawahiri still commands an organization with influence throughout
North Africa and the Middle East, even keeping a presence in Afghanistan and Pakistan despite
the loss of most of its core leadership. Al-Qa'ida changed, going from a centralized organization
led by one man, it has evolved into affiliated groups who use the name of al-Qa'ida to spread the
29
message of Jihadist ideology. While the message of al-Qa'ida has spread throughout the Middle
East and North Africa, the organization has become more disperse and less centralized. When
Bin Laden was alive, he was afraid the message of al-Qa'ida was being hurt by the actions of the
affiliated groups. Under Zawahiri, the organization continues to spread Bin Laden's message,
but his control of the organization outside of the core members has been weakened.
In the Islamic State, the message is international Jihad and a new Caliphate ruled under
an austere interpretation of Sharia law. While Weber pointed out that Charismatic organizations
have "no formal rules, no administrative organs (Ritzler, 2000)." But the fragile nature of
Charisma leads organizations to routinize.
In order for Charismatic authority to become more permanent, it is necessary for the
character of the charismatic authority to radically change. In its pure form, charismatic
authority cannot remain stable, but must become either traditionalized, rationalized, or a
combination of both. (Weber, 1978)
The Islamic State already seems to be routinizing through an administration built around Abu
Bakr's authority. Abu Bakr is aided by a "cabinet of deputies, who manage both the Islamic
State's military operations and its new, self declared, caliphate (Sherlock, 2014)." The Islamic
state has its own councils directly under the command of Abu Bakr. There are Islamic courts
and Islamic police who are authorized to enforce Sharia laws on the people in the Islamic state.
Abu Bakr is already routinizing his mission into a permanent bureaucracy, going from
charismatic authority to bureaucratic authority in less than a year.
In the end, a greater understanding of the charismatic cycle and how it works, particularly
in the face of terrorism and terrorist groups. Understanding that charismatic leadership is
30
sparked by a crisis, rises with the message of the leader, then can continue even when the leader
falls by routinizing the charisma of the leader, the intelligence community can gain greater
insight and build better policies to deal with these organizations. The continuing crises in the
Middle East along with perceptions of crisis in Islam will continue to see the rise of charismatic
leaders determined to fight against the West and especially the U.S. The charismatic leaders that
have so far arisen in these crises have turned to Jihadist ideology as a message to attract
followers. When these leaders succeed, their charisma grows and strengthens their mission. If
these organizations are to be defeated, the message has to be defeated. The message coming from
these organizations is narrow, simplistic, and contradictory to the values Islam is suppose to
convey. Understanding that these presumed fragile organizations can become durable
organizations through routinization can allow the intelligence community to understand how
these organizations survive even with the loss of their founding leader.
Once the intelligence community begins to understand this cycle, it more effectively
understand the survival of al-Qa'ida and other terrorist organizations, leading to more effective
policies to undermine and dismantle terrorist groups. Dealing with crisis earlier and more
decisively can undermine the creation of charismatic leaders and their organizations. Continuing
to argue effectively against Jihadist ideology and its message of crisis in Islam can better
undermine the charismatic message of the Jihadist leaders. If an organization does emerge under
a charismatic leader, the U.S. needs to understand that defeat and failure and needed to
undermine the leader. If the leader continues to fail, he loses his charisma then he loses his
authority. Then the cycle of charisma can be broken and the U.S. can build more effective
policies to deal with these organizations.
31
References
Aboul-Eneim, Youssef H., Cdr. (2010) Militant Islamist Ideology, Understanding the Global Threat.
Naval Institute Press. Annapolis, Maryland.
Al-Baghdadi, A. (2014). A Message to the Mujahidin and the Muslim Ummah in the Month of Ramadan.
Al-Hayat Media Center.
Al-Qaida/Al-Qaeda Organizational Structure. (2004). GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieve from
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/para/al-qaida-structure.htm
Al-Tamimi, A. (2014). Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi's Message as Caliph. Middle East Forum. Retrieved from
http://www.meforum.org/4744/abu-bakr-al-baghdadi-message-as-caliph
Al-Tamimi, A. (2014). The Dawn of the Islamic State of Iraq and ash-Sham. Middle East Forum.
Retrieved from http://www.meforum.org/3732/islamic-state-iraq-ash-sham
Amanpour, C. (2006, August 22). Insight, Profile of Osama bin Laden. CNN.com. Retrieved from
http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0608/22/i_ins.01.html
Barrett, R. (2014). The Islamic State. The Soufan Group. New York, New York. Retrieved from
http://soufangroup.com/the-islamic-state/
32
Bergen, Peter L. (2006). The Osama Bin laden I Know, An Oral History of al Qaeda's Leader. Free
Press, New York, New York.
Blanchard, C. (2007). Al Qaeda: Statements and Evolving Ideology. CRS Report for Congress.
Retrieved from http://books.google.com/books?
id=lTq3OsNZdjIC&pg=PT3&lpg=PT3&dq=GMP20040209000243&source=bl&ots=rkr7NG47
zX&sig=edd5Sj8XPxfRWjdIg_tmQXN_AHU&hl=en&sa=X&ei=ceB4VI6lCJS3ogSq7ICQDA
&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=GMP20040209000243&f=false
Coll, S. (2005). Young Osama. How he learned radicalism, and may have seen America. The New
Yorker. Retrieved from http://web.archive.org/web/20051215085524/http://www.newyorker.co
m/fact/content/articles/051212fa_fact
Dabiq. (2014). Introduction. Retrieved from http://www.clarionproject.org/news/islamic-state-isis-isil-
propaganda-magazine-dabiq
DiGirolamo, J. (2011). The Leadership Style of Osama Bin Laden. Turbocharged Leadership.
Retrieved from http://blog.turbochargedleadership.com/?p=280
Eckman, J. (2014). Is ISIS Leader Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi the New Osama Bin Laden? Issues in
Perspective. Retrieved from http://graceuniversity.edu/iip/2014/06/is-isis-leader-abu-bakr-al-
baghdadi-the- new-osama-bin-laden/
33
Gerth, H.H. and Wright, C. (1975). From Max Weber: Essay in Sociology (Reprinted). Oxford
University Press.
Hofmann, David C. & Dawson, L. (2014). The Neglected Role of Charismatic Authority in the Study of
Terrorist Groups and Radicalization,. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 37:4, 348-368
Ignatius, D. (2014). A Terrorist with Gang-Leader Charisma. The Washington Post. Retrieved from
http://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/david-ignatius-abu-bakr-al-baghdadi-the-terrorist-
with-gang-leader-charisma/2014/06/24/c4a88f2c-fbd2-11e3-8176-f2c941cf35f1_story.html
Joscelyn, T. (2014). Al Qaeda's General Command Disowns the Islamic State of Iraq and the Sham. The
Long War Journal. Retrieved from
http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2014/02/al_qaedas_general_co.php
Kramer, M. (1996). Fundamentalist Islam at Large: The Drive for Power. The Middle East Quarterly.
Retrieved from http://www.meforum.org/304/fundamentalist-islam-at-large-the-drive-for-power
Lahoud, N., Caudill, S., Collins, L., Koehler-Derrick, G., Rassler, D., al-Ubaydi, M. (2012). Letters from
Abbottabad: Bin Ladin Sidelined? West Point, New York. Harmony Program. the Combating
Terrorism Center at West Point.
Lister, T. (2014). Al Qaeda Battles ISIS for Global Jihadist Leadership. CNN.com. Retrieved from
http://www.cnn.com/2014/09/10/world/meast/isis-vs-al-qaeda/
34
Lynch, M. (2013). The Gift, How the Arab Spring turned out to be a win for al Qaeda. Foreign Policy.
Retrieved from http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2013/08/08/the_gift_al_qaeda_arab
_spring
McGrath, T. (2014). Here's Everything We Know So Far About the Islamic State's Mysterious Leader
Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi. Global Post. Retrieved from
http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/regions/middle- east/iraq/140707/everything-we-
know-so-far-about-isil-leader-abu-bakr-al-baghdadi
Musharbash, Y. (2011). Charisma Deficit: Loss of Bin Laden Threatens Al-Qaida 'Brand'. Spiegel
Online International. Retrieved from http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/charisma-deficit-
loss-of-bin-laden-threatens-al-qaida-brand-a-783655.html
Mulraine, Anna. (2011). New Al Qaeda leader Ayman al-Zawahiri: Do his flaws diminish group's
threat? The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved from
http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Military/2011/0620/New-Al-Qaeda-leader-
Ayman-al-Zawahiri-Do-his-flaws-diminish-group-s-threat
National Commission On Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States. (2004). Staff Statement No. 15,
Overview of the Enemy. Retrieved from
http://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/staff_statement_15.pdf
35
Olmstead, J. (2014). The Real Reason al-Qaeda Is Establishing an India Branch. The Diplomat.
Retrieved from http://thediplomat.com/2014/09/the-real-reason-al-qaeda-is-establishing-an-
india-branch/
Osama bin Mohammed bin Awad bin Laden. (2014). The Biography.com website. Retrieved from
http://www.biography.com/people/osama-bin-laden-37172.
Ritzler, G. (2000). Sociological Theory, Fifth Edition. University of Maryland. McGraw Hill.
Shay, S. (2014). Al-Qaeda in the Indian Subcontinent (AQIS) and "Jihad on the Seas". International
Institute for Counter-Terrorism. Retrieved from http://www.ict.org.il/Article/1256/Al-Qaeda-in-
the-Indian-Subcontinent
Sheridan, Mary B. (2011, June) Zawahiri named new al-Qaeda leader. The Washington Post. Retrieved
from http://www.washingtonpost.com/pb/world/al-zawahiri-named-new-al-qaeda
leader/2011/06/16/AGNk87WH_story.html
Sherlock, R. (2014). Inside the Leadership of Islamic State: How the New 'Caliphate' is Run. The
Telegraph. Retrieved from
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/iraq/10956280/Inside-the-leadership-of-
Islamic-State-how-the-new-caliphate-is-run.html
36
Silinsky, Mark M. (2010). Jihad's Charisma: Mullah Omar, Osama bin Laden, and Charismatic
Leadership in Afghanistan. London School of Economics.
Walker, A. (2014). History Doesn't Bode Well for Baghdadi's Islamic State. Middle East Eye. Retrieved
from http://www.middleeasteye.net/columns/history-doesnt-bode-well-abu-bakr-al-baghdadis-
islamic-state-1177423357
Weber, Max. Roth, G. and Wittich, C. (Eds.). (1978). Economy & Society. Berkley, California.
University of California Press.
Windrem, Robert. (2014, February). Stealth Search: Embattled Al Qaeda Hunts for a New Bin Laden.
NBC News. Retrieved from http://www.nbcnews.com/news/investigations/stealth-search-
embattled-al-qaeda-hunts-new-bin-laden-n37656
Windrem, Robert. (2014, February). Six Potential al Qaeda Leaders Eliminated Since Bin Laden
Raid. NBC News. Retrieved from http://www.nbcnews.com/news/investigations/six-
potential-al-qaeda-leaders-eliminated-bin-laden-raid-n38171
Wright, L. (2006). The Looming Tower, al-Qaeda and the Road to 9/11. New York, New York. Vintage
Books.
Yinger, J.M. (1970). The Scientific Study of Religion. New York, New York. The MacMillan Company.