THE PliINCIPIA OR

THE FIRST PRINCIPLES OF NATURAL THINGS

1'0 WHICH ARE ADDED

rrHE MINüR PRINCIPIA AND SUMMARY OF THE PRINCIPIA

DY

EMANUEL SWEDENBORG

TRANSLATED FROM THE LATIN DY

JAMES R. RENDELL, B.A., AND

ISAIAH TANSLEY, B.A.

WITH AN INTRODUCTION DY

ISAIAH TANSLEY, B.A.

AND A FOREWORD DY

PROFESSOR SIR WILLIAM F. BARREir, F.R.S.

VOLUME I.

THE SWEDENBORG SOCIETY

(INSTITUTED 1810)

! BLOOMSBURY STREET, LONDON

1912

THE PRINCIPIA OR

THE FIRST PRINCIPLES OF NATURAL THINGS

TO WHICH ARE ADDED

rrHE MINÜR PRINCIPIA AND SUMMARY OF THE PRINCIPIA

DY

El\1ANUEL SvVEDENBORG

TRANSLATED FROM THE LATIN BY

JAMES R. RENDELL, B.A., AND

ISAIAH TANSLEY, B.A.

WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY

rSAIAH TANSLEY, B.A.

AND A FOREWORD BY

l'ROFESSOR SIR 'WILLIAM F. BARRETT, F.R.S.

VOLUME I.

THE SWEDENBORG SOCIETY

(INSTITUTED 1810)

! BLOOMSBURY STREET, LONDON

1912

FüREWüRD.

BY PROFESSOR SIR W. F. BAERETT, F.R.S.

SWEDENBORG the seer has largely obscured the fame of Swedenborg the savant. And yet two-thirds of his life were devoted to the service of science and the publication of numerous works, ranging over every department of natural knowledge. The neglect of Swedenborg's scientific writings is now being removed by the publication, under the able editorial supervision of Ml' A. li. Stroh, of Swedenborg's chief contribu­tions to science, with Introductions written by eminent living savants. The sumptuous Latin edition of Swedenborg's Principia, issued under the auspices of the Swedish Royal Academy of Sciences, is prefaced by an Introduction from the pen of that distinguished man Professor Svante Arrhenius, to whom in 1903 was awarded the Nobel prize for chemical physics.

The present admirable English translation of the Principia we owe to the arduous and loving labour of Ml' J. R. Rendell and Ml' 1. Tansley. The Introduction, written by the latter, was carefully read in proof both by myself and my friend Professor Silvanus P. Thompson, D.Sc., F.R.S., and 1 wish to acknowledge the courtesy with which the author adopted most of the numerous suggestions and criticisms we made; though the responsibility for the opinions expressed rests, of course, solely with the author.

Those who may read this translation of the Principia must remember that Swedenborg lived at a time when many of the now recognized branches of science had no existence, and the whole of experimental science was then an almost untrodden field. Swedenborg's Principia, wit.h its archaic expressions and

v

VI FOREWORD.

obsolete farms of thought, its deductive and often erroneous reasoning, marks the transition from the old to the new. Swedenborg, thollgh profoundly influenced by the then new school of Cartesian philosophy, which liberated the mind from the fetters imposed by. theologians, was nevertheless in many respects in advance of Descartes. This is strikingly shown in his adumbrution of the nebular hypothesis which Laplace gave to the world a century later.

As l have said elsewhere 1 Descartes' philosophy, moreover, led to dualism-to an unbridgeable gulf between mind and matter, between Nature and Spirit, between the finite and the Infinite. Swedenborg saw this, as Leibnitz did fifty years earlier. Leibnitz del'ived aB matter from infinitely minute points or 11wnads, each of which mirrored a phase of the universe, of the mind of God, between whom and the sum of created 1nonads, which made up nature, Leibnitz held there existed a pre-established harmony.

In some respects Swedenborg's conception of the physical universe resembles that of Leibnitz, whose writings he had studied, though he did not adopt the theory of pre-established harmony. But Swedenborg's view of the origin of matter though overlaid with complexities and faBacious ideas~ is more like that to which science is tenàing at the present day. He conceived aB matter as ultimately derived from what he tel'ms " natural points "-which are, as it were, intermediate between the finite and the infinite. From the varied aggregation and motion of these points and their derivatives, he believed the physicia.l universe \Vas built up according to mechanical and geometrical laws. In his P1'incipia he points out how the rapid motion of a minute, corpuscle can generate a line, and the line an area, and the area a solid, and he goes on to say "a corpusclè thus moving can represent by its celerity and direction something which previously had no existence, and which is quite different from the corpuscle itself: and it is every \Vay a figure, so far as our senses are concel'l1ed, although

l ContC7npO'I'Ctr!/ Review, July 1912.

F.OREWORD. Vit"

it is merèly motion which produces the effect, or by means of motion form is fixed."

In the physical point Swedenborg, like Leibnitz, asserts that aH fini te things are latent; the macrocosm is bidden in the microcosm. In fact, some years later in his ATccma Cœlestia he says: "The Deity is in each single thing, and this even to such an extent that there is in it a representation of the Eternal and Infinite. From this influx arises effort, from effort force, and from force the effect." This may corne to be the orthodox view of science-for nature is the unfold­ing and indweHing of the inscrutable creative thought of God.

Swedenborg, in fact, considers the origin of matter to be infinitely minute centres of fune which fill aH space, and thus he approaches the views advanced sorne thirty years later by the Italian philosopher Boscovich. The great name of Faraday is associated \Vith much the same opinion, for he remarks: "Matter must fill aH space, or at least all space to which gravitation extends, for gravitation is a property of màtter dependent on a certain force, and it is this force which constitutes matter." Science at the present day is tending to the same view, for the once universal belief in eternal immutable atoms, scattered in various states of aggregation through empty space, has been replaced by congeries of infinitely minute swiftly moving electrons; which appear again to be reducible to physical points, or centres of electric force filling aH space, from the motion of which the funda­mental properties of matter may eventually be deduced.

Ml' F. \V. Very remarks in his able papel', given in Appendix A, that Swedenborg conceived of the existence of a vortex-atom, which we have been accustomed ta associate with modern ideas; but as Ml' Very points out, "while the first conception of elementary particles, formed by vortical motion of a sort, is attributable to Swedenborg, he has failed to hit upon the most probable form of this motion, as far as we are able to judge from present information."

viii FOREWORD.

The first part of the PrincipiCl with its elaborate discussion of the author'a theory of the sub-division and modes of motion of material entities, and the strange terms he employs­Finites, Actives, and Elementaries-together with the series of Elements he derives from his fivefold series of finites and actives-the first or Universal Element, the second or Magnetic Element, the third or Ethereal Element and the Êourth or Aërial Element-aU this will repel, or excite a smile, in the scientific reader. Swedenborg himself appeared to realize this as seen in the first paragraph of the Preface to his work. But in spite of much that we may dismiss in the light of modern knowledge, there runs throughout the whole work not only the true scientific spirit of an earnest seeker after truth, but a conception of the constitution of matter and of the structure of the universe, which may be regarded, as Mr Very remarks, "as a first daring venture into the unknown and as the pointing out of a new road which is now being travelled in chemistry and physics with increasing surety that the goal is in sight."

Swedenborg unfortunately does not appear to have studied Bacon's NOVUrl1 OrgClnon, published more than a century before he wrote his Principia; had he done so, and freed his mind from the errors of the Aristotelian and deductive philosophy which fettered scientific inquiry in his day, there can be little doubt that his learning and industry would have given him a high place in the history of science. As it is, his name does not even appear in the admirable chronology of physical and mathematical science compiled by Baden Powell in his History of Natuml Philosophy.

The error which led ancient philosophers to argue that the circle is the most perfect of figures, that the heavenly bodies are perf8ct, and therefol'C their movements must ail be performed in exact circles and with uniform motions, we find vitiating Swedenborg's reasonings. Even when the observation of the motions of the planets demonstrated that their orbits were not circular, instead of doubting the principle, as Sir John

IX FOREWORD.

Herschel remarks, "they saw no better way of getting out of the cli fficulty than by having recourse to endless combinations of circular motions to preserve their ideal of perfection." In like manner we find Swedenborg saying in his Principia, vol. i. p. 115, that from a pTiori principles the figure of the motion of the simple will be admitted to be absolutely perfect, " and the only figure which has this degree of perfection is the circular; and if the figure of motion is conceived as being in space then no other can be conceived than the absolutely perfect spiral." Hence he becomes almost obsessed with the idea of spiral motion. This is well discussecl by Mr Very in Appendix A, who, in reference to Swedenborg's Cosmology, remarks on p. 626, that "it is evident that Swedenborg is still following Descartes, and though improving on the latter's corpuscular theories, Swedenborg has failed to grasp the snpreme significance of Kepler's first law. The ellipticity of the planetary orbits, with the sun at one focus, instead of at the centre, was the great fact of nature whichoverthrew theCartesian doctrine," and with it much of Swedenborg's reasoning.

Nevertheless, Swedenborg does accept Kepler's first law, i.e., that the orbit of a planet is an ellipse of which the sun is in one focus, for when speaking of "magnetic spheres," he says: "This is observable in the large vortex of the sun, where the plauets describe ellipses round their centre or sun, in one focus of which the sun is situated." - Principia, vol. i. p. 256.

The second part of the Principict deals with magnetism, and is chiefly occupied with a transcript of Muschenbroek's experiments on magnetism. Whilst we may dismiss Sweden­borg's idea of a magnetic element and magnetic spheres, we find a remarkable prevision of the molecular structure of a magnet. "Magnetism," Swedenborg remarks, "consists only in the regular arrangement of the minutest parts of the magnet ;­

"Indeed, what proof could be plainer than the one derived from iron filings sprinkled round a magnet, which in a continuous !ine follow the

x FOREWORD.

course of the magnetism and dispose themselves into the same situation and path as the smallest parts of the iron; and if we eould see the latter with the help of lenses or with the naked eye, they would be seen tn be arranged in a similar manner. In filings, therefore, we see the effigy of the parts in the iron which are bought into a regular arder at the will of the magnet. If we could artificially combine steel dusl inta a solid lllass and move the magnet over it, we shollld have oeular proof that every atolll took up that position, which the smallest parts of the iron assume when rubbed ; that is ta say, a reglllar arrangemen t. If this arrangement of the parts of the iron be disturbed either by too freqnent bendings or by tao hard blows, or by fire, then the iron immediately divests itself of its magnetism and assumes its original character."

All this might have been written by a student of the

present day and is perfectly correct. In chapter i. of the second part of the P1'incipia Sweden­

borg admirably depicts the molecular arrangement of iron before and after magnetization, and also the lines of force around a magnet, or between magnets with similar or opposite poles juxtaposed. These ll\ImerOUs drawings show that he must carefully have studied the curves formed by fine iron filings sprinkled on a surface placed above the magnets. Though electro-magnetism was unknown until long after, his repre­sentation of right and left handed spires round a magnet look very like electro-magnetic solenoids.

Again, Swedenborg regarded heat and also light as produced by the" tremulation" of the minute parts of bodies and he adopted the undulatory theory of light in a continuous medium-the ether. This was the theory propounded by Huygens a little prior to Swedenborg, although the authority of Newton and his corpuscular hypothesis long delayed the general acceptance of the wave theOl'y of the propagation of light.

It is not necessary to dwell on Swedenborg's system of Cosmology contained in the third part of his Pl'incipùt, as this has been discussed and some of Swedenborg's remarkable anticipations of modern views set forth by Prof. Arrhenius in his introduction to the Principict, already referred to. In part II. Swedenborg gives a painstaking calculation and forecast

XI FOREWORD.

of the magnetic declillation in Paris-that is the angle enclosed between the geographical and magnetic meridian­for 200 years in advance of his time. Unfortlll1ately the data upon which he based his calculations were then too few to enable such a forecast to be made, and accordingly, instead of the declination being 36 0 east in the present year, as Swedenborg calculates, it is less than half this to the west. Swedenborg was, however, correct in his assumption of the rotation of the N. magnetic pole around the N. geographical pole, but the rate of this secular change was incorrectly cal­culated, although his theory and observation agreed up to the time when he wrote.

One of the most interestilJg and striking chapters in the Principia is that entitled "The Diversity of Worlds," vol. ii. p. 162 et seq. Here it will be seen how complctely Sweden­borg has emancipated himself hom the narrow and iutolerant theology of his own day (and long after) that regarded the Bible as the only recognized authority on science, and denounced as hel'etical any theory of the cosmos which did not agree with the literaI interpretation of the Biblicai story of creation. So far from conforming to any restricted and geocentric conception of the universe, he l'evels in the thollght of the immensity and the mystery of creation, and exclaims, " How many myriads of heavens, therefore, may thel'e not be, how many myriads of world systems." W orlds, indeed, may wax and wane, "the coming into existence of infant heavens and earths is possible, when others are beginning to become old and fall into decay." Then he contemplates the vast succession of changes throllgh which the world has passed before arriving at its present state; nevertheless, he says, " in each elementary particle we see the whole process of its creation evident and manifest, resembling the worlel, both as it exists anel sllbsists." The law of continuity, he insists, l'uns throughout the universe, whether in the molecules of matter or in stellal' systems, whether in the present life or in the life beyond the grave.

XII FOREWORD.

But although the universe is based upon a common plan, yet he remarks, "how great is the extent of our ignorance. Everyone measures his wisdom by his understanding of those things with which he is acquainted. The limit of his own information he considers to be the limit of aIl that is attain­able, for he is ignorant of aIl else. The bounds of his know­ledge are the bounds of his wisdom." But, he continues, there is no limit to the extent of our ignorance, "There is not a particle in our globe with the thousandth part of whose nature we are acquainted. In the mineraI, vegetable, and animal kingdoms, what we know is nothing compared to what we have yet to learn; for the soul [the intellect] knows nothing of those things which the senses do not perceive." And yet the spirit of arrogance and self-sufficiency is not unknowll among scientific men of the present day.

In his Conclusion to the Pl'incipia, p. 289 et seq., Sweden­borg gives a summary of his philosophy of nature, and he adds noble words tbat were characteristic of his whole life, viz., that it was a matter of indifference to him whether he won praise or censure, for he desired neither renown nor popularity, but was actuated solely by the love of truth. He has no wish, he tells us, to oppose those who impugn his statements, but if he sbould perchance win the assent or approbation of others he will receive it as an indication that he has pursued the truth. The future, he adds, will show whether hill system of philos­ophy is in agreement with the phenomena of nature and, if so, assent in due time will follow.

This is the true spirit of science, and illustrates what Sir John Herschel so weIl said, that" humility of pretension, no less than confidence of hope, is what best becomes the character of the true philosopher."

INTRODUCTION ,1

EMANUEL SWEDENBORG, the author of the present work, was born at Stockholm, on the 29th of January 1688, his father being Bishop of Skara, of West Gothland. Swedenborg was little, if at all, influenced by the narrow dogmatic theology of the period; the bent of his mind was scientific; and very early in his life he gave evidences of quite an unusual love of experiment and observation in the natural and physical sciences; a fact clearly sho\vn in his correspondence; dating from 1709 to 1726. The fact that he invented a new form of air pump, which Professor Silvanus P. Thompson says was the first mercurial air pump, and an effective instrument, gave suggestions for a submarine, and drew a rough plan of a flying machine, showed the activity of his mind, and promised well for the future work of this restless

young genius. On the conclusion of his University career at Upsala he

travelled abroad. In England he met with Flamsteed, the distinguished astronomer, made the acquaintance of Halley, and picked up all the knowledge of men and things that he couId. Although there is no evidence that he ever met ~ewton, yet he \Vas a diligent and appreciative student of his Principia. He edited at Upsala, 1716 and 171 7, the Daedalus Hyperboreus,2 the earliest scientific magazine published in Sweden. As assessor of the College of Mines he made an extensive collection of observations on metals and smelting

1 The writer has to thank Professor Sir IV. F. Barrctt, F. R.S., and Professor Silvanus P. Thompson, D.Sc., l".R.S., for their kindness in reading the proofs of this Introduction and for tbeir valuahle snRgestions and criticisms.

2 Recently reprodnced in facsimi\e by Upsala University. xiii

xiv INTRODUCTION.

processes, during a prolonged visit to Germany, and published the results of his observations at Dresden and Leipsic (1734) in three folio volumes, entitled, Opera Philosophica et

J.11ineralic~, which are elaborately and profusely illustrated; the present worle being the first of these three volumes. This costly publication was printed at the expense of the Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg. Although geology as a distinct science had not taken shape in Swedenborg's day, yet he worked in this field with considerable industry and care, and wrote much on the subject. Professor Nathorst remarks "that Lhe contributions of Swedenborg and Linnœus in the geological field have been less valued than they deserve is without doubt due to this, that their fame in other fields was so great, that what they produced in geology in comparison therewith seems relatively unimportant, and has therefore been much overlooked." 1 His correspondence shows how closel)' and widely he had investigated and taken note of the natural formation and structure of Sweden, his native country.

But there \Vas a speculative tendency in his nature which instinctively led him to enter another field of thought, whither he was probably urged by an important controversy which agitated his own University. The celebrated Descartes was invited to Sweden in the early months of 1649 by Queen Christina. The University was then under the sway of the prevalent theology and scholastic philosophy; these were regularly taught, and without question. Aristotle's writings formed the text-book of the school~, always studied with the direct intent of confirming the dogmatic and prejudiced teachings of the church. But the coming of René Descartes introduced a contentious clement; for the priests in session at Stockholm complained that Cartesianism had entered the University. "But the discussion which arose," says a writer, "was not so much concerning the limitations to be imposed upon the leaders of the dawning natural sciences,

1 See Emanuel Swedenborg, Geologica et Epistolae. Introduction by Prof. Alfred G. Nathorst, Supcrintendent, State i\ruseum:for Fossil Plants, Stockholm.

xv IN TRODUCTION.

who, basing themselves upon experiments and the principles of Descartes, were demonstrating the laws of nature from its own phenomena, thus destroying the structures of Aristotelian Scholasticism not only in the field of the natural sciences, but even in that of theology itself, thus endangering religion." 1

This controversy was at its height about the time of Swedenborg's birth; but Cartesianism triurnphed over the ecclesiastical forces ranged against it, one of the results being greater freedom of thought, and the consequent awakening of a llew scientific spirit. In 1710 the first scientific society in Sweden was established, which included Swedenborg among its members. Into thls clearer and scientific atmo­sphere, then, this remarkable genius was born. But great as was the influence of Cartesianism, Swedenborg's mind was not one to be seriously affected by opinion; he was an original thinker. It ii) certain, from his early correspondence that he was particularly interested in practical astronorny; and there is evidence that his mind soon began to dwell on

cosmological questions. There are no details clearly indicating how his speculations came to assume their final form as con­tained in The P?'incipin; but it is certain that he was .acquainted with the cosll1ology of Descartes and the philo­sophy of Leibnitz; beyond that there is little to guide us in our investigations. That he had made extensive preparation before finally publishing his thoughts is clear from the existence in MS. of an earlier work} in which he entered into a careful and elaborate study of the problems of which he attempted an ultimate solution in the later treatise.

And we wonld remark here tbat aIl the evidence goes to show that Swedenborg possessed a remarkable power of generalization, and that with this there \Vas allied an active scientific imagination, an essential attribute of an investigator, as Professor Tyndall long ago felicitously remarked. In the

1 See The Cartesian Controversy at [lpsala, 1663-1689, by Alfred H. Stroh, ~I.A.

2 See The iJlinor Principùt at the end of vol. ii. of the present work.

XVI INTRODUCTION.

exercise of this facnlty in cosmological speculation he endeavonred to work out a theory of origins both daring and unique. Ris reasoning proceeds along lines never before attempted, we believe, by any writer, his main purpose being to propound a theory of the evolution of our planetary system. The detaif:; of the arguments which he uses in leading up to this ultimate issue are often involved in considerablé obscurity ; but while mathematical analysis may find many weak links in his chain of reasoning, showing that he is some­times lost in the maze of his own theory, yet it will be shown hereafter that sorne of his anticipations of modern ideas are, at least, remarkable. But no theory is ever given to the world so complete as to be invulnerable. Darwin's great generaliza­tions have presented many weak points; and have been con· siderably modified by subsequent investigations. The theory of matter which held the scientific field up till recently, and

.appeared to be supported by aIl the resources of chemical and mathematical analysis, has been relegated to the domain of scientific history, while the theory of an all-pervading ether, involves almost insuperable difficulties in framing a concep­tion of its nature. But, nevertheless, it still holds that great generalizations form epochs in the advance of scientific ideas. As a writer says, "Science lives on facts, but it has always been great generalizations which have given them birth." 1

In the case of Swedenborg's theory, the facts which he had to work upon were necessarily few. Exact experimental pro­cedure was little known in his day; but a mere collection of facts without the genius for seeing their connection could never advance science in any way. It is men like Kepler, Newton and Faraday, with little material to their hands, but with the power to see the correlation of phenomena, who have given great and permanent generalizations to the world.

Several instances might be adduced to prove that Swede~borg had the scientific spirit for interpreting facts brought together by himself and other investigators. It

l Dr Gustave Le Bon, The Bvolution of il/alter, p. 318.

XVII INTRODUCTION.

may be sufficieut to refer to his theory of the functions of the brain, aud his explanatiou of the functions of the ductless glands. Professor Neuburger,1 in a paper dealing with Swedenborg and Modern Physiologists, says: "It would lead me too far were l to show in detail how early Swedenborg iu these questions approached the present ideas, and how advancing science is beginning just now to verify many of his theses in a snrprising manner." "He was the first," he continues, "to assign definitively the higher psychical fnnctions and the perception of the senses to the grey substance of the brain; he taught in harmany with modern science that the varions motor functiolls have each their special localization in the cortex eerebri, and so farth." Z

And D. Goyder, M.D., of the Bradforà Infirmery, in a paper, read before the International Swedenborg Congress, on the Ductless Glands, says: "Swedenborg by his wonderful de­ductions anticipated many of the pre-eminent offices of these

ductless glands which the medical profession of to-day are only beginning to discover."

Our purpose in calling attention to these points is tü prepare the reader to follow Swedenborg when he takes him iuto a region of thonght which seems to have been peculiarly his own. His speculations lead him to consider the question of origins. Whatever may have been the influence of Oartesianism upon Swedenborg's thought he certainly goes beyond Descartes, and, in a measure, appears to be moving in the atmosphere of ancient philosophersa For this

question of the origin of things, the" whence ? " and" why ? "

engaged the attention and absorbed the thOllght of early Greek thinkers. These men endeavoured to solve the

problem of the mystery of matter. The earliest Greek philosopher of whom we have record who tried to read the inner history of phenomena was l'hales (640-550 B.e.). He

l Professor of the History of Medicine, Vienna University. 2 See l'he Tmnsadions of the Intc'l'1wtional Swedenborg Congnss, pp. 123,124. 3 Sec his Econmny of the Animal Kingdom, vol. ii. n. 591,605.

b

xviii INTRODUCTION.

saw in water the origin of the life and change manifested in

the visible wodd. The Pythagoreans thought that the ex­

planation of the wOl'ld must be based, not on qualitative, but

quantitative grounds. The Eleatics, who had al1l0ng them

sorne very keen reasoners, were practically monists; they

endeavoured " to rednce the manifold of existp,nce to a simple

ultimate principle." 1 They sought an ultimate ground of

ongllls. Melissus of Samos (cina 400 R.e.) reasoned in a

way which shows very elear/y how keenly men were inter­

esting themflelvefl ill the eternal questions "\Vhence ?" and

"why?" "If anything is," he says, "then it has either become

or is eternal. In the former cafle, it must have arisen either

from heing or from non-being. But nothing can come from

non-being; and being cannot have arisell [rom being, for then

there mllst have been being, before being came to be. Hence

being did not become, it hence also is eternal." 2 Anaxagoras

(b. 500 Re.) saw that to postulate an eternal ground of things,

àpX~, as Anaxirnander did, withont a principle of explanation,

\V hy, ont of this àpX~, the phenomena of the \Vorld arose, was

philosophically unsatisfactory. He, therefore, assumed a

spiritual force which he called vouç, which set up movement

in the inert maSfl of things in the form of a vortex. This

was a distinct advance ; and the notion of a vortex or whirling

movement was destined to be perpetuated long aftel' the time

of its originator. It is interesting to observe hel'e the genesis

of the idea of motion as acconnting for change and becoming,

which has oeen so elaborated in the course and process of

thinking that it now forms the basis of modern molecnlar

physics.

Democritus the atomist carried the method of interpreting

the universe farther than Anaxagoras, and introdnced the

principle of differentiation. He couflidered primaI matter to

consist of atoms. Mendeléef puts his position as f01l0ws:

" The atOllS, which are infinite in Humber and form, constitut\l

l Sehwegler, History of Phûosophy, p. 15. 2 Ueberweg, Histm'y of Philosophy, vol. i. p. 59.

INTRODUCTION. XIX

the visible uuiverse by their motion, impact, and consequent revolving motion. The variety of objects depends only on a ·difference in the number, form, and order of the atoms of which they are formed, and not upon a qualitative difference of thcil' atoms." 1 These remarkable propositions were pmcly

intuitive conc.:eptions; experimental science being unknown in the fifth celltnry B.e. wheu Demoeritus wrote; but they are an extraordinary anticipation of the general prineiples on whieh rnoleeular physics was based, until reeently. No single philosopher has ever enuneiated a prillciple so fundamental, and so far reaehing in its effect upon the

thinking consideration of things. It was lcft to Lucretius, who lived iu the days of Cicero and Cœsar, to elaborate, amplify and extenc1 the prineiples of Demoeritus. He saw that matter was in constant movernent. "He actuaUy anticipated," Bays a writer, "the modem seientifie and philosophie theory wllich reduces aU material phenomcna to

motion, or to mass and motion." 2 'We have then, so far, two fundamen tal points established hy these gl'eat thinkers,

matter and motion. Practieally no advanee heyond this position had been made except in the elaboratiou of these concepts by the resources of modern experimental science and mathcmatics, until the coming of what has been termed the

" new knowledge," which, while retaining the idea of motion, has reconstructed the concept of mattcr.

We have gone at some length into this subject beeause it seems nccessary to understand this early phase of iuteUectual development and its bearing upon modern thought; for practicaUy the position is still this, that two things are definitely postulated-a primai matter, and motion or energy intimately assoeiated with it.

We would, then, in this eonneetion, remark that' while Swedenborg was undoubtedly aequainted with Cartesian eosmological physies, he was, douhtless, perfeetly familial' with

l Qllotcd by Ronald Co.mpbell Macfic, M.A., i1l8cience, Matter and Imnwrlality, p. 13. 2 Ibid. p. 24.

xx INTRODUCTION.

the views of the Greek philosophers and the atomic theories of Lucretius.1 In Descartes he would find ancient ground worked over and some new conceptions imported into the same. But what René Descartes meant by matter it is not easy to see. Ueberweg says that "he attributes to matter nothing but extension and modes of extension, no internaI states, no forces; pressure and impulsion must suffice for the explanation of a11 material phenomena." 2 But the fo11owing words seem to take us no fartlter in thought than the Greek notion of a mnte?,ia;

p?'ima. "Let us suppose, then, if you will," says Descartes, "that God divided at the beginning a11 the matter of which he has formec1 the visible world into parts as equal as possible." 3'

He fnrther supposed that these material particles knocked their corners off by striking one against another, so that they became perfectly round and transparent; these were ca11ed' " particles of the second kind." Out of the knocked-off corners there was formed a fine dust of "particles of the first kind," which formed the fixed stars, and so on. Professor Arrhenius,4 who condenses Descartes' views as above, and says that he without doubt exercised the greatest influence upon Sweden­borg's views, seems to us to be quite mistaken when he remarks that in Swedenborg's work no other change is made in these conditions than that the number of particles is increased and an attempt made to derive a11 of them from the mathernatical point.5 However, we are not sorry that Professor Arrhenius has stated his view of Descartes' theory, as it will enable the reader to see that, whatever the influence of this philosopher upon Swedenborg's thought, he nevertheless cut out a course for himself.

But even if this " matter " is to be taken as given in concep­tion, the question of origins still remains where it was. Having

1 See The Jj}cono1nY of thc Anim.al Kingd01n, "01. ii. n. 605. 2 His/m'Y of Philosophy, vol. iL p. 52. J. B. Stallo, Oonccpts of JlIoclcrn Physics,.

p. 228. 3 Principlcs of Phitosophy, part iii. p. 143. 4 Principal of the Nobel Institnte for Physical Chemistry, Stockholm. • Sec Latin reprints, vii. CosmologicCi, Introduction by Svante Arrhenius, p. xxv.

INTRODUCTION. XXI

practically taken over one principle of ancient philosophy­primal matter, modified in idea by its association with the Infinite, Descartes also took over the complementary idea of motion, and enunciates the fundamental physical principle that "all variations of matter, or all diversity of its forms, depend on motion." 1 But in this he did not advance much beyond Lucretius. Subsequent thinkers also, Thomas Hobbes, the philosopher, Leibnitz, Huygens, and Newton, all argued for a mechanical intel'pretation of the universe; on the principle of movement alone could nature be explained. And the same principle characterizes the latest phase of modern molecular physics. Swedenborg, then, was quite familial' with this doctrine, made it the basis of his own theory of origins, and worked it out minutely in application to his own system. He found the principle stated by :Musschenbroek, a Dutch scientist, who was the first to publish a comprehensive treatise on physics, and who said, "no change is induced in bodies whose cause is not motion." It may be interesting to guote the exact words of this writer in order to show, by subsequent comparison, that Swedenborg must have care­fully studied this ,vode. His words are: "Nulla autem corporibus inducitur mutatio, cujus causa non fuerit motus, sive excitatus, sive minutus, aut suffocatus; omne enim incrementum vel decrementum, generatio, corruptio, vel qualis cumque alteratio, qUŒ in corporibus contingit, a motu pendet." 2

A quotation from Swedenborg will show that his view of the fundamental importance of motion was practically identical with that of Musschenbroek. "Rational philosophy," he says, "will Ilot admit that anything can be, or exist without ft mode; and since a mode in limited, finite, or in physical things consists solely in the variation of limits, it therefore follows that nothing can exist without motion. Whatever is

) Descartes, P1'inâples ~f Philosophy, ii. 23. 2 P. v. J\Iusschenbroek, IlltI'od. ad Philos. naturalern, vol. i. cap. l, § 18 (puù­

lished li26). See note on Musschenbroek in Appendix B.

XXII INTRODUCTION.

c1evoid of motion, re11lains sueh as it is; whatevel' is at l'est,

produces nothing. If ûnything is to be produced, it must be

produced by ft mode or by motioll ; if anything is to be changec1,

it must be changed bya mode or by motion; whatever comes

to pass does so by a mode that is, in physics, by motion.

'Nithout motion or change of place, or more generally, with­

out a change of statc, no new existence, no product, no coming

to pass can be conceivec1, that is, nothing is capable of existence

or change, except by motion." 1

Swedenborg, then, worked ove1' the idea of motion 1111nded

down by his predecessors and applied it, as we shall see, in his

own way to his own theory; indeed, the C[notation jUBt given

might almost stand as a setting forth of the func1amental

position of modern physics. Dut while aùopting this principle, as he was bonnd to do, he took np an entirely

new attitude in regard 1.0 the qnestion of a 17uttel"ia

prima, the undifferentiatecl, from which has come by

various proccsses of division and composition the cOlllplex

material of nature.

'1'0 solve the mystery of the primai substance has always

been a faseinating and attractive study. And so the efforts of

chernists are directec1 towarcls the simplification of concep­

tions and the tracking clown of what seems highly complex 1.0

sorne simple non-complex material from which ail things are

componnded. Ml'. W. C. D. vVhctham, in a historieal refercnce

to the evolution of matter, says, "Ntvertheless, throughout these years, on the whole sa unfavourable ta its existence, there

persistecl the idea of a eommon origin of the distinct kinds of

matter known 1.0 cbemists. l ndeed, this idea of unity in

substance in nature seems to accord with s011le innate clesire

or intimate structure of the human mind." And he continues:

"As Ml' Arthur Balfour weil puts it, 'there is no a prioTi reason that l know of for expecting that thc material world

should be a modification of a single medium, rather than a

composite structure built out of sixtYor seventy elemental'Y sub­

l 1'h e Principia, vol. i. p. 55.

fNTRODUCTI01V. XXlll

stances eternal and eternally different. ",Vhy, then, should we

feel content with the first hypothesis and not with the second?'

Yet so it is. Men of science have always been l'estive under

the Illultiplication of entities. They have eagerly watched for

any sign that the different chemical elements own a COIlllllon

origin, and are aIl compounded out of some primordial sub­

stance." l Scientific men acting on the belief expressed

in the above words have been enc!eavonring to prove by

research and experiment what they believed à priori to be

the case.

N ow Swedenborg, anticipating ",Volff in his work, Oos­molo,Cjù( Genel'alis, hac1 a clear perception of the question oE

a materùi p1'1:ma, although he was Ilot, of course, able to prove

its existence, or even approximately do so, by experiment.

But philosophical insight may have a prevision of results that

are afterwards substantiated. The following words from The

Economy of the An~irnal Kinr;clom, a worIe published later than

The PT1:ne~ipia, shows, at least, a remarkable forecast of what

is now in course of being full Y estab1ished by experimenta1

science. "The primary substance of the world," he says, " is

the on1y one which does Hot cOIlle within the understanding as

differentiated. From this, as from the tlrst determining sub­

stance, or the substantia prima, proceed aIl the l'est as series or discretions. Thus, whithersoever we turn our attention,

a11 things we become acquainted with are on1y discretions originating in the primary substance." 2 Consequent1y this

su-estantici prima, he says, "This primarT substance of the

mundane system is the most universal of substances, because

the on1y one in compound substances." 3 vVe shall have

occ41sion to refer to this proposition later in fo11owing out the

deve10pmen t of his theory.

Up to recent tirnes the conception of Democritus,

although given to the world many centuries ago, were

1 Paper on the Evolution of Matter, by W. C. D. Whelham, M.A., F.R.S., in DaTwin and llfodeTn Science, p. 566. Cambridge University Press.

2 Vol. ii. p. s. 3 Ibid. p. 25.

xxiv INTRODUCTION.

eurrent in the scientific world; although the main idea has been, of course, subject to variation in the course of philosophie

speculation. Descartes, although introducing certain modifica­tions, held that "the matter which exists in the world is everywhere one and the same." 1 Newton does not appear to

have held precisely this view, but the following words show that he did not attempt to go behind an original substance.

" It seems probable," hesays, "that God in the beginning formed matter in solid, massy, hard, impenetrable movable particles of such sizes and figmes, and with such other pl'operties and in such proportion to space as most conduced to the end for which he formed them." 2 Herbert Spencer held the view that properties of bodies result from the variety in arrange­

ment of an original discreted material. " The properties of the different elements," he says, "result from differences of arrange­ment by the compounding and recompounding of ultimate homogeneous units." 3 'l'hese, out of numerous opinions, suffi­ciently prove our contention expressed above, that up to the time of those writers little change had taken place since the

views of Democritus were given to the world. But the mystery of the origin of matter still remains where it was. 'l'hat there is a desire to fathom this mystery is clear to anyone acquainted with the strivings of philosophy to get behind

matter. Even the title of an article indicates the trend of thought in this direction, such as " The Evolution of Matter," by Ml'. W. C. D. Whetham, M.A., F.R.S., in the series of

monographs forming the Cambridge centenary volume, DanDin and Modern Science. For the human mind will not l'est satisfied with efï'ects; it desires to find out causes. Seeing quite clearly that particular phenomena can be traced to some definite cause, the mind wants to know what is the cause of the collective whole. "If a cause is needed for a finite series," it feels that the cause is " equally needed for an infinite series." 4

1 "Materia itaque in toto nnivcrso una et cadem existit," Prin. Phil. ii. 23. 2 Opticks, fourth cd., p. 375. 3 Contemporary Review, June 1872. "' H. M. Gwatkin, r.-I.A., The Knau:ledge af Gad, vol. i. p. 17.

xxv INTRODUCTION.

The scientist may profess that he is not concerned with

ultimate origins ut aU; but if he is endeavouring to trace the

evolution of matter he is unmistakably trying to get behind

the ?ncdeTia pTimCl to find out how it has come to be what it now

is. Already there are evidences that the new spirit in science

is leading men away from the old inconsistent and illogical

materialism and inducing the best millds in the scientific

world to seek for a more intelligent interpretation of the

universe. Science and philosophy are not 1l0W so antagonistic

as formerly. Philosophy makes use of the new material

provided by science, and science is breathing a more

philosophical atmosphere. Science, which is mainly con­

cerned with the perceptual, enters into the domain of the

conceptual when formulating and discussing its theories.

This fact is too frequently overlooked by scientists. They

may not be concerned about it; but they are logically

involved in its toils. Professor Karl Pearson has dealt very

cleverly with this point. "Ether," he says, " is a conception

rather than a perception. Hertz' experiments, for example, do

not seem to me to have specially demonstrated the perceptual

existence of the ether, but to have immensely increased the

validity of the scientific concept' ether' by showing that a

wiàer range of perceptual expel'ience may be descl'ibed in

terms of it> than had hitherto been demonstrated by experiment." 1

lnto this conceptnal region the reader of The PTincipia will find then that Swedenborg fearlessly takes him. But he

will also find that he is by no means unmindful of the

importance of the perceptual; for in the first chapter, writing

on "The means leading to true philosophy," he regards

experience, mathematics, and reasoning as of the first import­

ance. And in developing his theory of the magnet he

adduces a vast body of evidence from the experiments of

Musschenbroek. Swedenborg here, however, entel'S a specu­lative region in which hypothesis could hardly be followed up

1 The Gramma1' of Science, p. 214. Contemporary Science Series.

XXVI INTRODUCTION.

by experiment; but his hypothesis was to lead up to ail

issue, which we hope to show later, has been confirmed by

modem research. His initial purpose, as we have said, is

to trace the evolution of matter, to get behind the materia pri1na and find how it originated. A daring philosophical

atternpt, indeed, but, on that account, the more worthy of

commendation. His mode of procedure is to postulate a

c1efinite starting point without theological prejudice-the

Infinite, the primary cause. « ""\iVhat can be more self-con­

tradictory," says a writer, "than the hypothesis of a chain of

canses and effects, each link of which hangs on a preceding

link, wbile yet the whole chain hangs on nothing. Reason,

therefore, itself points ns to the need of a first cause of the

universe, who is at the same time a self-existing, necessary,

Infinite Deing." 1 If the mind wishes to avoid the conception

of an absolute origin it is landed in the dilemma of an eternal,

self-existent, non-caused, materia pTùna from which the

universe has been evolvec1. But this takes us into the

regioll of the unknowable, cuts the ground frorn under many

scientific theories, and would stifte ail desire to pass beyond

the domain of the perceptual into tbe region of the conceptual.

Swedenborg postula,tes the Infinite, not with any theological end in view, not influenced by dogmatic prejudice, but with

the freedom of a philosopher seeking to establish certain

principles, and endeavouring ta reach a certain end. '1'0 quote his OWIl words," nothing tbat is finite can exist from

itself, that is, without purpose and a cause. :For there must

also be a reawn why it was finited in this way, and in

no other; or why it has reaehed this limit, and no other. In other words, nothing ean exist without a cause save the

Infinite ... what is fini te, therefore, takes its origin frorn

wbat is intinite, as an effect from a cause, and as a thing limited from what is in itself unlimited, yet having the

power to limit aU other things." 2 And this Infinite is

l Pl'ofessor James Orr, J'he Christian View of God, p. 96. 2 17~e Pri71cipia·, vol. i. p. 51.

INTROD UCTION. xx\·ii

totally inclusive, and also the absolllte and primary cause. The(C

Infinite itself is the cause and origin of the whole finite

worle! and universe ; this Infinite is a unity in which greater

or less can have no existence, and in which there are

simllltaneolisly aU things that ever can be." 1 The Infinite, then,

instead of being absolllte, apart from, and having no relation

to the universe, is intimately related thereto. But the

difficlllty encountered is the representation of this relation,

the formation of a concept which, at the same time, embraces

the idea of transcene!ence ane! immanence; for the Infinite

relatively to the finite III ust be consie!ered negativel.)' and

non-quanLitavely, and as a higher order of being in which

there are no limits or macles. The Infinite 1ll1lSt be conceivecl

as imposing quantitative condit.ions upon the finite, itself

rcmaining eternally llnconditionccl. This conception is fUl1l1a­

mental ta Swedcnborg's position, and he expresses himself as

follows: "Everything finite acknowlcdgcs a certain mode,

by which it is what. it is and nothing else; a mode by which

it is of such a form and no other; a mode by which

it occllpies sucl! a space anù no oUler. Ina word aH

finite things are modified; allll thercfore they aCklll1\vledge

a mode prior to this modification, and accol"Cling to which

it takes place; they acknowledge also a time in which

they are so moe!ified. Rence nothing il:; at once what

it can become except the Infinite. AIl finite things

must necessarily undergo different states successively; but

not so the Infinite. And thus we perceive that al! things

exccpt the Infinite have their modification, but that in the

Infinite there is no such thing as development, si11l1'ly because Re is the first aud t.he original cause of aU moe!i fication." Z

Having stated this conception of the Infinite, Swedenborg

has before him the problem of showing how the finite

conld arise from it, how matter subject to modification conld

originate frOll1 that which is negative in this regard. Al­

though tbis would seem to be an insn1'erable 1'roblem, yet Oll

1 l'he Principia, vol. ii. p. 151. 2 Ibid. vol. i. p. 53.

xxviii INTRODUCTION.

the principle of relativity the finite implies the Infinite; the limited theunlimited; the conditioned the unconditioned. But what is the nexus? How does the limited, the modi­fiable, arise from the non-llmited and the unmodifiable ? vVe are confronted with a similar problem in the antithesis between thought and brain substance. How does a material impression on nerve substance become a mental picture which is capable at any moment of being represented, and yet has none of the qualities of matter? Yet there must be a nexus bet\veen thought and matter, between the sequent and the antecedent. Though t corresponds so precisely in its active relation to matter that a connection must be inferred unless the undemonstrable monistic position be assumed again. Now if Swedenborg fails, as it must be confessed he does, to provic1e the material for the formation of a definite concept, yet he makes a bold attempt to account for the derivation of the finite from the Infinite in a way attempted by no other writer or philosopher. Ab initia the Infinite is absolute and non-relative, for as yet there is nothing to which it can come into relation. In it as the

antecedent aU sequents are in potentin. "The Infinite," he says, "is the cause and origin of the whole finite woriel and nniverse; this Infinite is a nnity in which there are simul­taneously aU things that ever can be." 1 Either this condition, certainly profonndly difficnlt, must be granted or the quest must be abandoned. But he dic1 not abandon it; he foUows up sequents to the Infinite itself and finds in it the origin of motion, an internaI state or effort towards motion. "vVhen we lay down the position," he says, "that the first motion exists in the Infinite, it is absolutely necessary that such motion should be considered as pure and total." 2 Absolute motion then is the primary antecedent of aU sequents. vVhatever opinions may be held on the moot question of origins, there can be no doubt in the minds of those acquainted with modern results that all phenomena are

1 The PTincipict, vol. ii. p. 151. 2 Ibid. vol. i. p. 61.

INTRODUCTION. XXIX

regarded as due to motion. And to such refinement has thought upon the relation of motion to phenomena been carried, that a concept of motion in relation to the constitu­tion of matter implies enormous velocities, and highly complex movements. The tendency of modern physics, as long ago stated by Professor Huxley, is to reduce a11 scientific problems to the motions of ultimate particles of matter, and if a11 phenomella could be mathematically expressed in terms of motion we should have a complete

interpretation of the universe. Swedenborg practica11y says that motion is a synonym for nature. Keeping to his

position of Infinite origins he says, "Nature is onl)' a word which expresses ail the motive forces proceeding from the first motion of the Infinite till the world was completed." 1

In the primary, infinite, absolute motion then a11 things were in potentict, as, analogously, a universe is potentially in

a nebula. Fo11owing out bis postulate Swedenborg endeavours to explain what is to be understood by ausolllte motion. " How then," he asks, "are we to conceive of this purity and totality in motion? Certainly in no other way, if geometrically

and rationa11y understood, than as an in ternal state or effort toward motion. For if in the whole motion there are no steps in space, no moments in time, and thus no velocity, and if again there is nothing substantial as before observed, what else, according to human notions or idea, can result thence but effort. vVhen we understand space simply as it is, and consider motion as pure and apart from time, in such case the motion must be instantaneously present in every part of its own space: and thus it will he like effort itself: for in effort not only is motion everywhere present, but also its force and direction." 2 The reference which the author makes to effort makes his definition of absolute motion equivalent to state. Effort, as a matter of our experience, implies persistent motion in potentia. In effort we have no conception of velocity, but

l The P1"inciJYia. The ~1cans leading to true Philosophy. 2 The P?'inâpia, vol. i. p. 63.

xxx INTRODUCTION.

that of a state capable of becoming kinetic in some self­

representatiye, self-realizillg act. The concept of motion is

commonly associated with velocity, or of passing from place ta

place; but potential motion as Il state" is the source of ail

self-realization as seen in the countless things made by human

hands. vVe are glad ta find sa distinguished a philosopher as

Hm'mann Lotze takillg a sil1lilar view. Discussing motion he

says, " Still l feel that these doctrines [in rp,garcl ta l1lovement]

are inadeqnate, as strongly as l am persuaded that they are

eonect; they leave in obscurity a pal'ticuJar point on which l

will not pretend to see more clearly than others. l t concerns that transition of e, from one inner state ta another, which in

acting on us produces for us the sel1lblance of a motion in c. It

must of course be conceived as going on at times when it does

Hot flct on us, or before it begins ta act on us; and at those

times it can be llothing but an innc?' unspatial OCC'U1TCiwe which has a ca7JClCity of appearing at sOIne late?' time as motion in space by means oE that action upon us which it is fol' the moment

\Vithout," and again, il It is certain!y my belief, though l wilillOt

attempt a more definite proof, that mental life \Vould present

instances oE such a self-pel'petuating process, whic11 \Vou Id cone­

spond in their own \Vay to the idea, extraordinary as it is thongh

not foreign to mechanics, oE a state of motion." 1 This lllight

be taken, \Ve thillk, as a pretty fair expression of Swedel1bol'g's

position in l'eference to alJsolute motion in the Infinite.

But our anthor's conception seClllS to be still further en­

forceJ if we take effort as equivalent to will. For while it may

be contended that the Infinite is unknowable as not being com­

mensurate with anything finite, yet agreeing with Schopenhauer

that in the uni verse there is " Will," we are bound to admit

that the finite will is anfllogous to the Infinite "Will as an effort

towards self-realization. But as the se1f·realization of finite

will in act implies end or purpose, so it is legitimute to infer

from the evidences Eurnished on eye!'y hand by science that

1 Hermann Lotze, System, of l'hilosophy, J1letaphysics, n. 170. The italics are ours.

XXXI INTRODUCTION.

the Infinite Will would realize itself in end or pm'pose, in the

generation of a uni verse, in which it would find itself realized,

and self-reflected. It is true enough that the mechanical or

necessital'ian evolutionist pretends to see neither method nor

purpose in the process by which wc are assured an amœba,

through countless ages, c1evelopcd into homo sapiens. But,

assuming that this was the case, such pl'ocess must bave taken

place along definite lines terminating in a definite organism.

If this does not imply end or pllI'P0se, then language must

have another meaning and the laws of logic must be a delusion.

Either the universe in al! its details is merely fortuitous, or a

controlling, directi ve factor III ust he ackno\vledged to enter

into the calculation. On this point Sir Oliver Lodge has the

following: "Take the ol'igin of species by the pel'sistence of

favoul'able variations," he says; "how is the appearance of

these same favourable variations accounted for? Except by

artificial selection not at aIl. Given their appearance, their

development by struggle and inheritance, and survival can be

explained; but that they arase spontaneously, by random

change without purpose, is an assertion which cannot be

justihed. Does anyonü think that the skill of the beaver, the

instinct of the bee, the genius of a man, arose by chance, and

that its presence is accounted for by handing down and by

survival ? vVhat struggle for existence will explain the advent

of Beethoven? vVbat pitiflll necessity for earning a living as

.a drarnatist will cduce for us a Shakespeare? Tbese things

are beyond science of the orthodox type: then let it !Je silent

_and den)' nothing in the uni verse till it has at least made an

honest effort ta comprehenc1 the whole." 1 This is a rebuke

which c10gmatic scientists might take ta heart; for if chance

has no place in the cosmos then we must assnme that there

is a rational order in it, that it is a unity, that thcre is

an adjustment of means to ends, that, on all the evidence,

thought is behind phenomena and is indeed the necessary P1'Ù1S

·of all else, as put by the late ProfessaI' T. H. Green, of Oxford.

1 11lun und the Unive7'se, p. 39.

XXXII INTRODUCTION.

Motion reslllting in a universe and the subsequent cause of aIl its phenomena implies this p1'ius, or we should be brought to the unthinkable position that aIl sueh motion is fortuitous, uneolltrolled, and undireeted. It is highly interesting to be able to quote Professor G. F. Fitzgerald, who very signifieantly uses words which completely support the above remarks. "What," he says, "is the inner aspect of motion? In the only places where \ve can hope to answer that question, in our brains, the internaI aspect of motion is thought. Is it not reasonable to hold with the great and good Bishop Berkeley that thought underlies all motion." 1 We welcome these words because they state a principle a pTioTi, based on no positive experimental evidence, and yet expressiug an undoubted truth. We are glad to quote them, more especially because Professor Fitzgerald, in a report on Swedenborg's PTincipia, drawn up by request of the Swedenborg Society, condemns Swedenborg because he bases his system on à, P?'iOTi principles! As a matter of fact the words above quoted might be Swedenborg's. For "the internaI aspect" of Infinite "motion is thought." Effort or conatus in the Infinite seeking for realization could do so only because thought was the p1'ius of such realization. We ha'le wri tten as above in order to take the reader another step with Swedenborg in the working out of his principles.

In an earlier work he developed his idea of motion in considerable detai!. This was a laborious preparation for The PTincipia; this work he left in MS.; it has now been translated, and will be found under the title The .1}fin01' P1'ineipia, forming a part of volume II. of the present worle In this essay he expresses himself perhaps a little more fully on the primary question than in the later treatise; but he takes over his main ideas with him in writing the pub­lished '.York. Geometry or mathematics he regards as having a similar origin. "Those who desire to sem'ch out the matter," he says, "will find that natural philosophy and geometry ha\'e the saille origin. If according to our thesis,

1 Helmholtz jJ[emoi'icû Leetui'e.

INTRODUCTION. xxxiii

there is nothing in nature that is not geometrical, then

the origin of nature and geometry must be acknowledgecl

to be the same." l Argning, therefore, that from the llon­

perceptual geometrical point, thc line, the area, and the solid

are pl'Oduced, he concludes that the primal'Y result of innnite

motion, effort or conntns realizing itself was a point. "We,

therefore," he says, " carry our reasoning through these infinities

up to a certain primarily existing entity or point. For we can

only define this point as having originated from iofinite motion

in an infinitely small space; conseqnently from such infinity

something definite existed, that is, the first natural point from

wh ich aIl other things derive their origin; and together wi th

this very point geometry, or nature bounded by geometrical

laws, was born. This point seems to be something between the Infinite and the finite." 2

In J'he P1'ineipia, the later work, he remarks: "Thus does

rational philosophy first acknowledge something produced from

the Infinite, and some simple as the ol'igin of entities not

simple. This first entity, or this simple, we call the natural

point." 3 This point is the medium between the Infinite and

the finite; it is llndifferentiated; it is pure and perfect motion, or effort toward motion, a centre of potential motion; energy

in potentia. This is the primaIT result of the Infinite

realizing itself. But it may be objected that this renders the origill of

things no less incomprehensible than bef0re. But let it be

born in mincI that Swedenborg, while endeavouring to trace

matter to its origin, makes use of the principle of motion

which, as we have previously pointed out, is the basis of

modern conceptions in physics. And it may be further objected that the author takes us into the region of the

unsubstantial. vVe would reply that in this he has distinctly

anticipated modern ideas. Fol' modern physical science takes

us completely into the unsubstantial, non-perceptual regiotl

1 The Ninor P1'incipict, vol. ii. of PrincipiCt, p. 298. 2 Ibid. p. 300. 3 Vol. i. pp. 53, 54.

INTRODUCTION.XXXIV

of motion; and althollgh refnsing to take us up to the

primary source, it deals with motion absolutely as a working

principle. "Matter," says Dr Gnstave Le Bon, "may be con­

sidered as a particnlar form of energy." 1 He remarks further :

" I have shown that one of the most constant products of the

dissociation of matter was the so-called pal'ticle of electricity,

deprived, according to the latest researches, of ail mate rial

support." 2 And let the reader consider carefnlly the foHowing

words by another scientific writer: "It often happens that in

inverting a problem the truth ùrops out. Copernicus, instead

of assuming that the snn moveù ronnd the worlJ, succeeded

better by assuming that the world moved ronnd the snn.

Kant, also, instead of assnllling that Imowledge mnst conform

to objects, inverted the idea br assnming that objects lllnst

conforrn to onr lmowledge. In a similar fashion it is now

proposed to invert the conception of matter and electricity

that we have so far gained. Insteat! of assuming that cor­

puscles are particles of matter possessillg the properties of

negative electricity, we shall assume, i\lstead, that corpllscles

are particles of negative electricity possessing the properties of matter. It will be seen that tilis new way of 100king at

things will lead to new knowledge. lt is proposed in this

chapter to show by argnments addnced from facts that J.1attel' is meule 1/p of Eleetrieity and notMng z,ut Eleetricity." 3 And

Sir Oliver Lodge says: "1. The theOl')' that an electric charge

must possess the eqni valent of inertia was clearly estaLlished by J. ,r. Thomson in the Philosophical Magazine for April 1881.

"2. The discovery of masses ",maller than atoms was made

experimentally by J. J. Thomson, and communicated to section A of the British Association at Dover in 1899.

"3. The thesis that the corpuscles so discovered consisted

wllOlly of electrical charges was sustained by many people,

and was clinched by the experiments of Kauffmann in 1902." 4

1 The Evolution of FOI'CCS, p. 80. 2 Ibid. p. 29. 3 Robert Kennedy Duucau, Proressor or Chemistry in Washington and

Jefferson College, The New Rnowlcdgc, p. 179. • The Ethel' of "'paer, pp. 95, 96.

xxxvINTRODUCTION.

Matter, then, is now intel'preted in terms of electricity and

is no longer a substantial entity, but is resolved into motion,

or electric charges which are considered to be a form of

motion.! ,Vhen, therefore, Swedenborg saw in motion the

ol'igin and completion of things he had a wonderful prevision

of the truth.

The point ol'iginating from potential motion in the Infinite is

kinetic, and, as we shall see, gives rise to a universe. Infinite

,Vill has now realized itself, and has become kinetic in an entity.

If matter is electricity and nothing more, and electricity be a

form of motion, then the universe in its complex details is

electricity, or a form of motion. If this be the case, and at

present the1'8 seems no reason to dou bt the tru th of it, then

we owe i t to modern science that we are in a positiou to

apprehencl conceptnally what Swedenborg means by infinite,

absolute motion in potentia realizing itself in a point and in

a universe that is consequently and necessarily interpreted in

terms of motion. The nexus between the finite and the

Infinite becomes now a possible concept.

Although this may be met with a direct uegative, we

nevertheless can bring forward a philosopher who in certain

ultimate ('ol!cln~ions is faidy il! line with Swedenborg.

Herbert Spencer, after a profound and profuse analysis of the

human faculties and the il' capacities, and after blockillg ont

a vast region in the snpposecl world of knowledge as actnally

unknowable, finds himself bound to make au admission. He

states, aud states in no uncertain tenns, that there is a Power

behind ail phenomena. "'l'bus," he says, "the consciousness

of an Inscrutable Power manifested to uS in ail phenolllclla, has been growing ever clearer; and must be eveutually freecl

from its imperfections," 2 Oonsciousness of a thing illlplies

the formation of a concept; and Spencer's statement

amounts to the formation of a concept of an Inscrutal)le

Power. This Power tben is a manifestecl Power, a Power

1 TIt;s j, not regardeù hy Prof'. Silvanns P. Thomson as proved. 2 Fi1'st P";j/('ipic." p, lOS,

X:(XVI INTRODUCTION.

realizing itself in al! the phenomena of the Uni verse. " Hs lmiversal presence," he says, "is the absolute fact without

which there can be 110 relative facts." 1 Let us take this

Power as equivalent to the Infinite with which Swedenborg

sets out. Further, let us see what Spencer has to say in

regard to this Power now designated an "Inscrutable Exist ­

ence." "But one trutli," he says, " must grow ever clearer

-the truth that there is an Inscrutable Existence everywhere

lilanifested, to which he can neither fiud nor conceive beginning

or end. Amid the mysteries which become the more mysterious

the more they are thought about, there still remains the one

absolute certainty that he is evel' in presence of an Infinite

al1d Eternal energy from which aU things proceed." 2 From

these words it is legitimate to illfer that the Power or Inscrutable

Existence postulated is the source of " the Infinite and Eternal

:Euergy from which all things proceed," that this energy or

motion in potentin in this Inscrutable Existence becomes

tinetic, or motion in action, in giving rise to the universe. There is, then, a remarkable paraUel between Spencer and

Swedenborg here. Swedenborg postnlates an Infinite which

he says is "ntterly incomprehensible," 3 Spencer assumes an

'Inscrutable Existence." Swedenborg says that in the point, which is the primary result of motion in the Infinite, or in its

motion, is the very quality or actual power of producing other

finites, and indeed in succession al! those which collectively

iorm the \Vorld" ; 4 "in the primitive force of which al! things are latent." 5 Spencer says that al! things proceed from ., au

Infinite and Eternal Energy." In both cases the nniverse has

come into existence from motion. Spencer evidently does Hot

1uestion the reasonableness of assuming a nexus; neither do

we, with snch a critical philosopher as an illustrions example

before liS. Spencer having c1eliberately committed himself to

this position, which we think both a reasonable and necesstlry

1 rS!Jcholo{J1J, vol. ii. cap. xix. cnd. 2 Ecclesiastùxû lnstitutioils, p. 843. 3 l'he Pi'incipia, vol. i. p. 63. ·1 The rl'i,wipia, vol. i. p. 79. 5 [bitl. vol. ii. p. 164.

INTRODUCTION. XXXVll

one, it seems to us to be a legitimate inference from his

premisses that there was a reason why the "Infinite and

Eternal Energy" proceeded in such a way from the" Inscrut­

able Existence" as to produce a universe in which science

finds a rational order.

Swedenborg differs hOll! the ordinary scientist in fearlessly

slating what his opinion is in regard to end or pnrpose ; and the

following words are worth careful consideration and though:,.

" If then it be admitted," he says, " that the first simple was produced by motion hom the Infinite, we are at the same

time bound to suppose, that in the producillg cause there was

something of will that it should be produced; something of

an active quality, which procluced it; and something intelligent

producing it thus and not otherwise, or in this particular

manner and in no other; in a word, something inflnitely

intelligent, provident, powerful, and productive. Rence this

first point could not come into being by chauce, nor by itself,

but by something which exists by itself; in which sOlnething

there must also be a kind of will, an agency, and an under­

standing that the production takes place thus and not otller­

wise. There must likewise be sOllle provident design, that

the effect produced be successi vely 11l0dified in a particular

way and no other; and that by this series, certain particular

contingellcies and no others should arise. AlI this 111uSt of

necessity have been in some way present in this first mode

and motion: for in this particular and first motion of the

In fini te, things future and coming ta pass can be considered

in nu other way thall as if they were present and already in existence." 1

This is a clear and lucid statement of a position from which

there seelllS ta us to be no escape except by a direct negation. 'Vithout recnrring to our previous argument on this poillt \ye

will, as a conclusiolI, quote words by a modern writer who, in

discussing the design argnment, consic1ers that particular piece

of reasoning as too narrow. "It is uot the marks of purpose

l The P;'incipia, p. 55.

XXXVlll iNTRODUCTION.

alone," he says, "wbich necessitate the illference that the

universe has a wise and intelligent author, but everything

wbich bespeaks order, plan, arrangement, barmony, beauty;

rationality in the connection and system of thillgS. It is the

proof of the presence of th01(r;ht in tbe world-w batever shape

that may take. The assumption on whicb the whole of

science proceeds-and cannot but proceed-in its investiga­

tions is, tbat the system it is studying is intelligible-tbat

there is an intelligible unity of things. It acJmits of being

reduced to terms of thOllght. Thel'e is a settled and

established order on which the investigator can depend." 1

Thefirst natural point which Swedenborg discusses is

indivisible; to divide it would be to annihilate it. This

necessarily follows from the fact tbat it is pure motion. :Follow­

ing out Swedenborg's tbeOl'y we find that a simple fil1lte

rcsults from the point or points. Motion becomes embodied

in a finited entity, which "derives its existence from tbe

motion of tbe points among themselves; and is thus the first

substantial." 2 From this sllbstantial ail other finites are

derived; it therefore entel'S into and permeates all existences;

and he l'emarks, "if ail fil'st substances of which compounds

consist, were resolvec1, there would remain in the universe

only simples or points." 3 The conception of motion

still follows up tbis finite. It is motion which finites

and limits. "An aggregate of points cannot be finited or terrninated except by motion." 4 Motion dominates every­

where in Swedenborg's principles. It is motion which gives

rise ta a second finite from the first. And here he makes the

significant remark that, "it is motion which gives both figure

and space." 5 Referring back to his treatment of the first

natural point we find that this idea is more fully enlarged

upon in a way that calls to mind certain modern conceptions.

"Motion itself," he says, "which is merelya quality and a

1 ProfessaI' James Orr, The C'1U'istian View of Gad an,/' the TVorld, p. 102. 2 'l'he P;'incipia, vol. i. p. 80. 3 Ibid. p. 82. • Iuid. p. 84. 5 Ibid. l'. 107.

XXXIXINTRODUCTION.

moch\ anù nothing substantial, may yet exhibit something

substantial, or the resemblance of what is so, provided there

is anything substantial put in motion. If some small body

is moved in the direction of a line or circle, there is im­

mediately produced by the motion the semblance of a line or

a circle; although there is nothing substantial ln it, except

that small body in the place which it occupies. If now the

motion be very rapid, so that in a moment the body is

pl'esent in innumerable places, during that moment it makes

all that space, wherever it is present, substantial. By motion

alone, therefore, something resembling what is substantial cau

be produced." 1 Elsewhere 2 he puts the matter in full el'

detail. "Let us imagine," he says, "some small corpuscle, or

aggregate of small parts, to be moved very rapidly, either in

a circle or otherwise. This motion will give rise immediately

to a figure or form different from the original one. A very

rapid motion proceeding from one point to another will give

rise to a line; the lllovement of the line laterally describes

an area; and the motion of the area from one position to a

lower marks out a solid, although merely the very rapid and

reciprocal fluxion of a corpuscle, lille or elrea is involveù.

Sa, too, if the same corpuscle revolves round a centre with a

very rapid circular motion, a circle will be described; if a

semicircular line rota tes on a diameter, a complete surface will

be represented; and so on, as is weil known. A corpuscle

thus moving can represent fonn by its celerity and direction,

or something which previollsly had no existence, and which is

quite different from the corpuscle itself; and :it is in every

way a figure so far as our senses and touch are concerned, although it is mcrely motion which produces the effect; or by

means of motion form is fixed." 2

He returns to this later when, in the development of his

theory, he shows that the fil'st finite becomes an active force by

l The Principia, vol. i. [J. ;5. 2 GCf'tœin Points bcaring on the Fil'st Pi'incipies of Natumi Things at the end of

vol. ii. of the present issue, l'. 5:35.

xl INTRODUCTION.

passing into local motion. This entity is most perfectly active

and endowed \Vith a considerable power of acting upon the nearest finites. In this acti \le there is nothing substantial

with the exception of that one which alone is in a state of

motion. On the ba.sis of this assumption he says " A surface

may be represented by motion just as if it consistecl of substantia]s only." 1

Now we want to connect this up with some eonsidcrations

which show that Swedenborg in the above statements is in line

with modern conceptions. If, as Sir Oliver Lodge says," elec­

tricity is the fundamental substance out of which atoms of all

sorts are built up "2 ; and if e]ectricity is a form of motion then

what we are accustomed to regard as line, surface or solid are

motion and nothing more, and Swedenborg's contention that

by motion a surface or solid can be fonned, is definitely proved;

for bis first finite or substantial 1s thc aggregate of points which

themsel ves are pure motion. We think the pat'allel we have

drawn above is fairly complete.

A. surface, says Swedenborg, can be rcpresented by motion,

and it is pl'etty weil establisbed that motion imparts rigidity.

A circulaI' flexible chail! becomes a rigid wheel by motion. It

is saie! that a jet of \Vatel' moving with a high velocity cannot be

cut thl'ough with a sword. It !lIay a]so be assumed that watel'

falling over a barri el' in an extl'emely thin sheet, moving with the

velocity of light, would be impenetrable even by a shell hom

a Dreae!nought. A circulaI' disc of tissue paper, if its tension

coule! be maintained, and caused to makc a hundred thousand

revolutions pel' second, \vould eut through steel as though it

\Vere butter. Motion imparts l'igidity.3 Mertz 4 says: "Two of

the most suggestive ideas by which physical science bas benefited

in the nineteenth century are the successful explauation of the

dead pressure of gases by a rapid transitional, and of the rigidity

of solid bodies by a rapid rotati onal motion of matter."

l l'he Prineipia, vol. i. p. 139. 2 ilfodem Vie-les of Eleetrieity. 3 See furthcr, Spinning Top_~, by Prof~ssor J. Pel'1'Y, F.R.S. 4 Histo'i"y ~f Seientijic l'lwught, vol. ii. p. 6.

xli INTRODUCTION.

It is not our purpose to follow the author throllghout all

the complex details of his finites and actives; we l'efer the

reader to Appendix A, where the subject is carefully dis­

cussed with certain cletails, in which it is shown that

Swedenborg was not always clear and accurate in his cal­

culation of the spiral and other motions of his actives. But

we would remark, here, that the first finites or substantials by

effort towards axillary and local motion become confluent and form a second finite.

A further advance is now made, and v"'e find that by the

first t1nite passing into local motion we have an Active, desig­

nated the Active of the first Finite. An active and a passive

are the fundamentals by which a1l subsequent results are

workecl out. By thus compounding and recompounding of

finites we arrive at a series of elements.1

vVe have, then, actives origillating out of first substantials

and passives, which are fil'st substantials not rllnllillg into

local motion, but acted upon. There results from this what

the author designates a first element. "Before anything

elementary can exist," he says, "it is necessary that in

the world there should be two things, one active and the

othel' passive; one which is perpetllally in local motion,

another which is Ilot in Jocal motion.... These twin-born

entities, which are so averse to each other, coalesce into one

figure The particle thus pl'oJuced l call the first element­

ary lt is composed of second finities and of actives of the

fil'st finite." 2 This elementary particle has a vortical motion;

it is a compendium of the whoJe world-system. Tt c1el'ives its inherent motion from the points which in a final analysis

l'eally compose it. It might perhaps be cornpared to a vortex

ring. SuhsequentJy, there arises a second elementary particle,

designatecl the magnetic element. This consists of third

finites on the surface and actives of the second and third finites in the internai space. These elementary pUl'ticles arp,

1 See allthor's preface, vol. i. 2 l'he P"incipia, vol. i. pp. 156, 15i, 158.

xlii INTRODUCTION.

subject to a vortical or spiral motion. "These spiral

gyrations," lie says, "which arise from a certain active centre,

~ may, in what fo11ows, call vorticles, and every gyration

round its own proper centre, a single vorticle," 1 and he

fnrther compares this to the motion of our planetary system.

"The motion of one large system is latent in a least system." 2

He also says fllrther that: "In every vorticle round the

magnet there are probably minute particles moving about the

centre and revolving round an axis; such as is the case in

every vortex in the heavens." 3

As we have previously endeavoured to show that Sweden­

borg anticipated certain modern ideas, so we will draw the

reader's attention to a singular resemblance, in the furthel'

development of his theory, to the modern conception of matter.

}3ut we would remark in passing that it should be now quite

evidellt that there is hardly any resemblance between the

particles of Descartes and the finites, actives and elementaries

of Swec1en borg. Let HS give a summary of Descartes' position

as put by George I~ewes : "The suustance which fi11s an space,"

he says, "according to Descartes must be assumed as divided

into equal angular parts. This substance being set in motion

the parts arc gJ'ouncZ into a SphcTical jOT1n, and the COT1W7'S thns

1'ubbed off like jilings, 01' saWd1tst, fonu a second and more

subtle kind of substance. There is beside a third kind of

snbstance, coarser and less fitted for motion. The first kind

makes IllminoHs bodies, sucll as the sun and the fixed stars;

the second makes the transparent substance of the skies, etc."

The only resemulance that we can trace in the partieles of

Descartes to the finites of Svvedenborg is that they are subject

to whirling movements or vonices.

vVe now cOllle to consider more specifically Swedenborg's

conception of the nature of matter-points, primat')' sub­stant,ial. Ol' tirst finite, t'rom this derivative finites and actives

resulting from free motion amongst these, and then the prùnw'Y

clement fOrlned of second tlnites aud aeti\'e~. This he defines

1 Tite PTillcipia, vol. i. l'. 2n. , Ihid. p. 22:3. 3 Ib'id. vol. ii. p. 15:3.

INTRODUCTION. xliii

in the following terms: "This element is the most aLtenll­

ated, the first and most Ilniversal of onr mundane system and

of the universe in general. It consists of the smallest elemen­

tar)' parts. In every system, both the greatest and the least

spaces are occupied by this element. All thing» in the starry

s)'stem appear, as it were, present by means of il. Tt is by

virtue of this element, therefore, that lI"e can contemplate

the remotest stars and also the plunets by their reflected

light." l Tt will be seen that this cOl'l'esponds to what

is now termed the luminiferous and all pervasive ethe1'. Again: "That it is the most llniversal element may be COll­

cluded Ù, ]Ji'i01"i, becallse it is the origin of all subsequent

elements; because, also, it consists of the smallest constitllent

parts, can occupy the smallest spaces, and be present where

no other element can." 2 And earlier he says: "Recause this

first element is the most universal, passing through all the

vortices, and is a con tiguous medium between the eye and the

sun as well as all the stars of the heaYens, it follows that

it is the 1l10st universal element of our own solar vortex." 3

Swedenborg, in addition to this primary element, endeavours to

account for three other", a magne tic element, a third which he

designates ether, and a fourth the air element. All these

elements result from finites, alld are dimensionally clifferent.

To the two latter he assigns different functions. The

magnetic element is the cause of magnetic phenomena, and

the other the medium for the propagation of light and heat.

Although, withont prejudice, we desire to give Swedenborg

a very high place as a speculative scientist, still we do not

regard his statements as sacrosallct; fol' while some of his

deductions touch modern science at lIH\llY points, others are

questionable in the light of rigid scieutific proof. J3ut if his

third element is open to qnestioll as the medium of light, t,here

is a remarkable resemblance between his first element and

the ether of modern them'y, known as the Illlniniferolls ether.

The unclulatory theory of light, wllich ascrihes the phenomenon

1 The Prinl.'ipia. vol. i. 1'1'.187,188. 2 l/Jid. pp. 187. 3 [birl. pp. 181, 182.

xliv /iVTRODUCTION.

of light to an all pel'vading medium, was doubtless known to Swedenborg 1 through the writings of Huygens- who died when the former \Vas seven years old-a theory taken

up by Euler and established on a sound basis by Young.2

When he published his J11iscellaneous Observations connectecl

VJith the Physiwl Sciences, he seems to have been feeling his way toward his tbeories. He then appeared to have the idea that light \Vas a particle that couId run between ether particles.3 Later, however, in the same work, he says that "according to the corpuscular hypothesis it follows that light is nothing more than undulation of the rays, or than vibration of the ether." 4 And in reference to light and sensation he puts the matter in quite a modern form : " As, therefore, sensa­tion must be tbe reslllt of sorne kind of motion, and as every

minute motion is ulldlllatory and vibratory, l therefore think that we may properly assume that vision is due to the un­dulation of rays in the membranes of the eye." 5 Seven years later he wrote the l1fino1' P1'incipia, where he speaks of un­d111atory pressure as the cause of the sensation of light, while

in 174 9 he conceives a third element as the ligh t medium. But the tendeney of modern speculation is to trace all

phellomena to the ether. Whether it is the source of gravita­tion is not yet detennined. Light, as Clerk Maxwell showed, is an electromagnetic disturbance of the ether. Ether is not gross matter; and it answers to none of the tests of matter.

Sir Oliver Lodge says : "1 should prefer to say that ether is not matter at aIl. Tt may be the subtance or substratum or mate rial of which nwtter is composed, but it would be

l From the very beginning Swedenborg taught that light is proctuccd by thc ullctnlatory motion of an elastic ether, and that colours are produccd by thc modification of this motion in the material objects receivinl; it. He devclopcd and modified the theory frolll tilllC to time, but that it was originally derivcd from the older workcrs, from Descartes, Huyghens or Hooke, is clear from Swedenborg's eadier works.-Alfred H. Stroh in a preface to Swedenborg's 111isccllcmea de Rebus ncttuml'ibus, p. xxxiv.

2 Thomas Yonng \"as born in Somersetshire in 1773. His "Course of Lectures on National Philosophy" \Vas publishect in 1807.

3 Jlùcellanemls ObsCi'vatioi/s, p. 86. • Ibid. pp. 104, 105. 5 P, 105.

xlv INTRODUCTION.

confusing and inconvenient not to be able to discriminate between matter on the one hand and ether on the other." 1

Although we would strongly object to ascribe to Swedenborg more than his cluc, yet we venture to say that, as in other departments of science already indicated, so in this he had a remarkable power of drawing deductions and arriving at con­clusions since established by the observations and experiments of modern scientific men, and in the light of our remarks

above, and quotations from authorities, we concluc1e that what Swedenborg designates the first clement is the equivalent of what science caUs ether. It is ail pervading, extends through aU space, and is the medium by which light from the remotest

stars reaches us. His mind seems to have continued to dwell upon this subject ; for seven years after the publication of The

P1'incipia we find him again writing on the question of the substanIia p1'i1n(~ and discussing the question of series and degrees in accounting for the derivation of this primal sub­

stance. He would seem to have been influenced in this ne\" line of though t by the writings of W 01ff,2 his cqntell1porary. At the time of writing his P1'incipia he had not met with the works of this distinguished thinker, for he remarks at the close of this treatise: "The principles laid down in the present

work had been formulated and committed to paper two years before I had an opportunity of consulting his works." 3 In

1741 he published his Econo111Y of the Animal Kingdmn,

and it 1S in this work that the influence of vVolff becomes evident. Indeed, he makes specific references to the Coslnologia Generalis. And we must assume that this change of attitude towards, or perhaps his mental advance in physical questions, was due to the study of this book, and the fresh domain of thought opened up before him by his anatomical studies in his search for the nature of the soul. However that may be, we now find him discussing the nature of an1'Cts, a term

l The Ether of Space, p. 108. 2 Born at Breslau, 16i9 ; died nt Halle, li54. 3 'J'he P1'iaâpia, vol. ii., Conclusion.

xlvi iNTRODUCTION.

not found in The Pj'incipia. But almost incidentally he makes

a remark in the Ecol101ny of the Animal Kingdom which seems

ta us of the greatest importance in arriving at the fundamental

connotation of the phrase "First Element" nsed in The

Pi'inci)n:a. Speaking of the first aura he remarks as follows :

"No impression upon it is los t, but passes unimpaired into the

whole atmosphere, showing that there is a perfect agreement

of all its parts and that each part corresponds in its character

to the whole uni verse, not ta mention other characteristics of

which l have spoken in lnY Principia, part i. chap, vi., where

l have called this aura the jiTst clement of the woT!cl.1 Now

the quotations hotn the later work which we shall give show

that this aura or, first element of the world, has acquired in

the developrnent of his mind characteristics with which he had

not endowed it in the earlier treatise.

"The first aura of the \l'orld is not matter for neither

weight nor lightness can be predicated of it; but on the contrary

active jorce, the origin of weight and lightness in terrestrial

bodies. "2 Again," The first aura of the world has no inertia,

no materiality, sa far as materiality involves inertness and

gravity.3 And a fm'ther significant remark is the following:

"This aura is the very and most perfect force of nature and

form ... it knows nothing of resistance or of weight." 4 The

characlel'istics of ether as shawn above could hardI,)' be ex­

pressed more succinctly. Swedenborg, then, by a killd of

intuition had a prevision of what modern science by exten­

si ve research if' estabk:hing on a very firm basis. For

it is now agreed "that ether is a substance ycry different

from malter, that it has no weight, is immaterial in the USIHll

acceptation of that word, and fonlls the imponderable world." 5

Notice no\V the following remark of Swedenborg. " The first

aura is the matter from which other t!rings are derived. 6 Js

1 The Economy of the A" ilnal Kingdmn, part ii. JI. 312. 2 ibid. l'art ii. n. 3D. 3 Ibid. parI: ii. II. 11)6. • Ibid. palot i. n. 638. 5 Dr Gustave Le Bou, 'J'he EvoluNou of 11fattcr, p. 91. 6 The E,;onoJnY '1tilo Aiiilllal Khlg,/oln, part i. n. 636.

xlvii INTRODUCTION.

it not remarkable, then, how fully he is in line \Vith modern

results? As we have seen he regards the first aura, the first

element, the universal all-pervading substance, as the origin

of the material universe. And Sir Oliver Lodge says: "AH mass is lllaSi'> of the ether, ail momentum, momentulll of the

ether; and ail kinetic energy, kinetic energy of the ether." 1

Passing from the apparent iden ti ty of Sweden borg's first

element or aura with the ether we have now ta considcr

our author's ideas of motion in relation ta the modern con­

ception of the atam. We would beg the readcr ta dismiss

from his mind the supposition that we hold a bl'icf for

Swedenborg; we simply desire ta make it evident, that, as

in the case of Democritus, Lucretius, Dalton, Faraday, and

others, we find the anticipation of modern ideas, sa also in

Swedenborg do we find a prevision of certain modern con­

ceptions. Amid much that is entirely out of date in his

scientific works there are ta he found great ideas which sa far

resemble presellt scientific beliefs that we might almost suppose

them ta have beeu worked over in the course of modern in­

vestigation, did we not know that his \\'orks are pl'actically

ullknown ta t.he \Vorld of science.

'J'he history of the utOlll goes back ta the time of Dell1Gcritus,

who held that the plennm of space, in contrast ta the void,

consists of indi visible, primitive particles or atoms which are

distinguished from one another, not by their intrinsic

qualities, but only geometrically, by their form, position and

arrangement. These atoms are ail subject ta motion.

Centuries sa\\' litt.le change in fUlldamental ideas of the atom ;

and it \Vas reserved for Dalton ta place it in, what was

supposed to be, an assurecl position. Human thought,

however, is not a fixed quantity, old ideas form a suggestive

region out of which the mind evolves new conceptions. The

desire ta trace back the eighty or sa elementary substances ta

an original simple undifferentiated matter caused thillkers ta

!Je seeptical about atoms as simple, un changeable, indivisible

1 Ethe;' ~f Space, p. lOï.

xlviii INTRODUCTION.

and indestructible. In 1872 Herbert Spencer held that

"The proportion of the different elements result from

differences of arrangement, arising by the componnding and recompounding of ultimate homogeneous units." 1 In the

comse of the eyol ution of ideas on this question Sir William

Crookes brought forward evidence of the existence of radiant

matter. In 1895 came the discovery of the X-rays. Then

followed the experiments of Henri Becquerel, who discovered

the power of salts of uranium to ernit radiations which affect

the photographic plate, to pass through metals and other opaque

substances, and discharge electrified bodies. 'l'hen iu 1898

came the epoch-making discoveries of Monsieur and Madame

Curie, which resulted iu making known radium to the

world. A new era had dawned in the story of the atom,

and the old conceptions of its indivisibility and inelestruc­

tibility became a matter of history. On August 16, 1905,

Professor G. H. Darwin, in the course of his address before

the British Association at Cape Town, said: "Within the last

fe\V years the electrical researches of Lenard, Rontgen,

Becquerel, the Curies, and of their own colleagues Larmor and

Thomson, and a host of othe l'S, had shown that the atom \Vas

not indivisible, and a flood of light had thereby been throwll

on the ultimate constitution of matter. By yarious

convergent lines of experiment it had been proveù that the

simplest of all atoms-that of hydrogeu-consisted of abont

800 separate parts, while the number of parts of the atom of

the denser metals must be counted by thousanùs. These

separate parts of the atom had bee11 called corpuscles or

electrons, and might be described as particles of negative

electricity. The mechanism \Vas as yet obscure whereby the

mutual repulsion of the negative corpuscles was restrained

from breaking up the atom, but a positive electrical charge,

or some equivalent, must exist in the atom, to prevent

disruption." Here, then, we have a complete revollltion iu

scientific ideas on the nature of the atom. The ancient utom

1 The Contempo1'Ct'ry RevielO, June 1872.

xlix INTRODUCTION.

no\V becomes a kind of centre of positive electricity \Vith a

sphere of negative electricity. Instead of the atom being an

eternal, stable, indivisible solid m,ini7n7{'?n, it turns out to be

capable of breaking up and of liberating electrons. In a historie

debate at the British Association at Leicester, August 1907,

Professor Rutherford said " that Kauffman had shown that the

mass of the electron varied \Vith its speed, and that the whole

mass of the atom could be explained in terms of electricity, which

meant that the electron \Vas electricity in motion." Mattel'

is, then, to be interpreted as motion,-motion of electricity,

a conception completely subversive of the common idea of that.

matter which appeals ta the senses every moment of our

lives. The same authority said also that "as regarcled the

atom, Professor J. J. Thomson defined it as a sphere of

positive electrification, containing a number of negative

particles, commonly calleel electrons." Startling as these new

ideas are, they are far in advance of the old conception of the

nature of the atom, because they invol~e motion as the

funclamental basis of the nniverse. This we have alreaely seen is Swedenborg's conception, who states that the universe

has been evolveel from motion. When The P1'incipia was

published his views wonld necessarily be regarcled as

chimerical and hardIy worth consideration; but now we see

that, \Vith certain modifications, his position is actually that

of the scientific mind to-day.

Vve will here aclduce further opinions on the nature of the

atom in order to still further elucidate the position. Sir Oliver

Lodge remarks that " Our conception of matter, if it is to be

composed of electrons, is necessarily rather like the conception

of a solar system" ; 1 and Carl Synder says : "The atom might

be conceived, therefore, as a great swarm or cluster of corpuscles revolving about a mutual centre much as planets whirl about the sun lJ 2; and a writer sums up the position as follows:

" According to this new conception of the atom, it is a miniature

solar system, with a certai.n number of negative corpuscles

1 The Ether of Space, p. 84. 2 New Cmwcptions of Science, p. 160.

cl

INTRODUCTION.

rotating and gyrating likc planets round a nucleus, or within

a sphere of positive electricity. The negativc corpuscles move

in definite orbits round the central nucleus or within the sphere

aneZ alsa spin VJith tremendous velacity TonneZ thei?' mun axes; 1

and the stability of the atom depends on an eguilibrium of

forces." 2

Now Swedenborg's elementary particle consists of an outer

sphere of passive finites and an interior of actives. There

certainly seems to be a resemblance here to the outer sphere

of positive electricity of the atom and the centre of negative

corpuscles. Indeed, on turning to his illustration of the first

elementary particle, vol. i. p. 158, the reader will see that

it might almost stand for a pictnre of an atom with the

exception that the rotation round a centre is not shown. But

according to our autllOr the very essence of the elementary

particle is motion. He says: "The first elcmentary particle

and also the second, ha \'e the most perfect aptness and

susceptibility to n~otion." 3 They resemble a bubble in form.

They have a gyratory motion. "They are perfectly apt for,

and prone to motion," he says, "and the}' spontaneously en­

deavour to enter into a vortical motion, provided there is an

active centre round which they can gyrate." 4 Theil' motion

is vortical or gyratory round a centre, and is spiral, and every

gyration round its own centre he designates a simple vorticle.

While not following Swedenborg in all the complicated details

of his theory, wc have stated sufficient, we think, to show that

he had a conception which is fairly parallel to modern ideas of the atom. :Modern experiment and investigation have led to

a result almost identical wi th Swedenborg's à priori idea.

The scientist may say that even if Swedenborg's conception

is fundamentally true, it has had no influence upon the

progress of thought; but had a study by competent thinkers

been made of the work with which we are dealing, his

1 The statement in italics, which arc our own, is doubted hy some scientific authorities.

• R. O. Macfie, M.A., M.B., C.M., Science, AJat/cr and Irmnoi'lality. 3 Principia, vol. i. p. 234. ' Ibid. p. 235.

li INTRODUCTION.

conception of the atom might have long ago revolutionized

the ideas of the nature of matter and the structure of the

atom. It is certainly a rnost remarkable thillg that

Swedenborg's interpretation of matter in terms of motion

should resem ble the modern view. And further, it is an extra­

ordinary coincidence that Swedenborg should contend that,

in the final analysis, matter is motion, and that" pure motion

does not necessarily require anything substantial as the

basis of its existence" ; 1 and that the following words could

be written in the twentieth century: "vVe are led, therefore,

to regard the corpuscle from one aspect as a disembodiecl

charge of electricity. Thus, on this theory, matter and

electricity are identified; and a great simplification of our

conception of the physical structure of nature is reached." 2

Whether his scientific works will be studied in future or

not, those who admire his genills feel that justice should be done to his name, and, to use words of my co-translator,

J. R. Rendell, B.A., "It is very desirable that his precise place in the lineage of science should be determined." 3

Before we leave the subject of the relation of Swedenborg's

idea of matter to that of modern conceptions, there is

another point intrinsically associated with it, upon which

we would desire to write briefly.

Previous to the discoveries which led to changed views

of matter, the scientific world was dominated by tbe belief

that energy is associated with matter, that they are two

things not one. A body has potential energy when in a

position to do work, and that energy becomes kinetic when

work is actually being done by the body. "According to the most fundamental principles of mechanism," says Dr

Gustave Le Bon, "when we comlllunicate to a material

body a deterrnined quantity of energy this energy may be

transfol'med, but the body will never give back a quantity

l The Princiyia, vol. i. p. 58. • W. C. D. Whetham, ~LA., F.R.S., in DM'win and },foclern Soiencc, p. 569. 3 Letter to Prof. Fitzgerald.

Iii INTRODUCTION.

111 excess of that received by it." l But if the new atomic

theory he true then the atoUt must itself be intrinsically

a reservoir of energy; lt crrn produce energy. Scientists,

on the basis of the enormous speeds attained by corpuscles,

have calculated the kinetic energy, or, as designated, their

intra-atomic energy. Dr Gustave Le Bon, on the calculation

that the kinetic enèrgy of a body in motion equals the

products of its mass by the sqnare of its speed, estimates

that, if the atoms contained in one gramme of coppel' moving

with nearly the speed of light were stopped in a second,

the kinetic energy would be represented by about six

thonsand eight hundred million horse-power, snfficient

to work a goods train on a horizontal line eqnal in length

to a little over four times and a quarter the circumference

of the earth." 2 "VVe need hardly explain to the reader that

when a body in motion is stopped by a body at l'est it

is said to do work upon that object. A shell from a

gun stopped by an ironclad does work in penetrating

the armour. The energy possessed by the shell, as to

penetrating power, is equal to half its mass multiplied

by the square of its speed. The kinetic energy of a

corpuscle exceedingly small rnoving with the speed, say,

of light, one hundred and eighty thousand miles in a

second, wonId therefore he enormous. Suppose a disc the

size of a pin's head to revolve with the speed of light its

mechanical power would be equal to several thousands

of locomotives. The speed of the corpuscles is so enonnous

that though exceedingly minute they are able to develop

enormous energy. Professor J. J. Thomson estimates that a few grains weight of hydrogen has within it sufficient

force to raise a million tons to a height of more than tl1Tee

hundred feet, and Max Abraham calculates that one gramme

weight of corpuscles contains energy eqllal to 80,000,000

hOl'se-power.3 Speed then, or motion of the elements of the

1 The Evolution of F01'Ces, p. 14. 2 Dr Gustave Le Bon, Evolut{on of jl:[atte,', p. 40. 3 See Mac/ie, Science, Natte,' and Iimnortality, pp. 85, 86.

INTRODUCTION. liii

atom constitutes their energy; velocity involves energy. The atom then is the seat of energy, and it is capable of developing it to a very limited extent in certain phenomena,

and the potentiality is enormous. Raùio-activity is due to an enormous store of energy within the atom itself. The energy of radio-activitY is intra-atomic. 1 This in tm-atomic energy then is motion. This is a remarkable scientific deduction and marks an epoch in thought npon the nature and potentialities of matter.

The old view of matter and energy \Vas that they were two things. Energy, we now see, is intra-atomic. This is Sweden borg's view. He traces matter to its origin, and finds it in motion. Every del'ivative from the points has motion necessarily and in trinsically in it. The fil'st elementary particle, as we have seen, is an atomic system, and Jineally derived from the point, which is absolllte motion.

The active which forms the interior of the elementary particle consists of nothing but motion. It is a perfectly active force. vVe quote the author's own words here. "If in a moving body the velocity is the greatest possible, then its energy of acting will be the greatest possible. If the entity, which is acted upon and which thus acts, possesses any weight, then its energy is allgmented in proportion to its weight; although

the degree of velocity is cnableù to supply \\'hat is deficient in mass." 2 This most perfectly active force, then, is the centre of the atomic system, or elernentary pal'tic1e, and, thel'efore, we think we are completely justified in asserting that in Swedenborg we tind the principle of intra-atomic energy implicitly, although not explicitly stated.

A further significant fact in the philosophy of Swedenborg is the way in which he deals with the question of magnetism. He assigns a distinct element to the phenomena displayed by the magnet. ln his previous investigations he confesses that he depended on Ü ]JTioTi considerations; but here he enters a domain "vhere actual experiment and observation are available.

1 See Duncan, J'he "VelO Knowledgc, p. 174. 2 Principia, vol. i. p. 140.

liv INTROD UCTION.

And he adopted what was practically a wise course; he dl'ew

his deductions from the extensive experiments of Musschenbroek

contained in that writer's work, entitled, Physiccœ Experi­

mentales et Geornetricae.1 "There are no experiments with the

magnet," he says, "more convenient for our purposes than

those which have been lately given to the world by the very learned and sagacious Pieter Van Musschenbroek, who has

been so ingenious in the mode of conducting his experiments. In examining, therefore, the phenomena of the magnet, and

comparing them with the principles we have already laid

clown, l shall quote the words of th is highly experienced

author." 2 His quotations cover more than a hundred and

fifty of the physicist's experiments.

Considerable attention had been given to the magnet and

its phenomcna for more than a hnndred years before this

period, Dr Gilbert, of Colchester, having pu blished ft work

entitled De Jlfagnete as early as the year 1600. Although

the subject has been extensively handled by scientists,

the magnet still seems to be involved in considerable

rnystery.

Every magnet is surrounded with a magnetic field. This

field is constituted by lines of force. Faraday attributed to

these lines of force a real existence; for they were to h im

mure than a mere question of mathematics; and he gave as

evidence of the existence of these lines of force the classic

experiment of iron ftlings spread on a card placed above a

magnet. A good deal of attention has been given to these

lines of force by physicists. They indicate in the first place

the direction in which magnetic forces are acting; but this does

not take us very far. Experiment shows that these magnetic

lines of force have a very definite position in regard tu the

magnet, and that they can be very accurately mapped out.

By the cutting of thèse lines of force, electric currents are produced. Theil' relation to the magnet must be an

intrinsic one; but ",hat is their constitution or structure? 1 Fnblished in 1729. 2 The P1'ineipia, vol. i. p. 275.

INTRODUCTION. Iv

Maxwell regarded them as axes of rotation in the ether.

This seems ta be about as far as physicists have arrived in their conception of the meaning of iines of forces around the magnet; but nothing in physics is more demonstrable than the existence of this attribute of the magnet.

Now Swedenborg was perfectly aware of this interesting and beautiful phenomenon; and in l'he Principia he has an accurate series of finely executed diagrams of magnets and

their lines of force. Such a philosopher was not likely to allow this feature of magnetic phenomena ta pass without inventing a theory. In working out his principles he had conceived the existence of a distinct element caned the magnetic element, wherein lie the causes of the wonders of the magnet. His conception is that in the magnetic sphere,

what are now designated lines of force, are actually axes around which vorticles, or what we venture ta term atom­

systems, move with great velocity, the connection and union of these vorticles, atoms or electrons by their pales giving rise ta the phenomena of magnetism. The phenomena of attraction or repulsion of pales of opposite or sirnilar

llailles he explains by the coincidence or non-coincidence of the vorticles gyrating in spiral paths round their centres. The similarity of this theory ta modern views is very remarkable indeed, and is perhaps the most striking of

all the views he has advanced in its agreement with recent

science. But we will enable the reader ta judge from Swedenborg's

own words. "For magnetism itself," he says, "consists in the union of the vorticles within and without the mass, and

in the confines between the two. The more reguJar the arrangement, within limits, of the mass the more regular is the arrangement and conjunction of the vorticles within the mass. Thus one is connected with another in a continuous series;

and an are disposed together more conveniently into one sphere; a contiguous extense is formed round about frorü one pole ta the other, and vorticles in connection with one another

Ivi INTRODUCTION.

everywhere enclose the mass, bracing it round, as it were." 1

The following words are supplementary to the above. " In the sphere of the magnet," he says, " there are spiral gyrations or vorticles. In every vorticle round the magnet there is an active centre. In every vorticle there are probably minute

paTticles mo'Ving ab01d the centTe and Tevolving 1'o'and a.n a:JJis." 2

These axes of revolving vorticles, we take it,' are the lines of force to which we have referred ahove. The chairman of the science section at the Swedenborg International Congress, referring to the molecular constitution of the magnet or cL

magnetized body, saicl, "With respect to the molecular constitution of th~ magnet, Swedenborg was clearly the anticipator of the theory attributed to vVeber. In this case his diagrams and explanation are very clear and might have been written for a text-book to-day." " The modern theOl'y," he continues, " as expounded by Professor Ewing of Cambridge, is that every molecule of a piece of iron is by nature a magnet, but that in an unmagnetized l'OÙ the particles have their poles turned in every direction so that they neutralize one another, and, in consequence, they do not procluce any external field of force." 3

Let us now quote what Swedenborg says in order to show the striking coincidence of his opinion with the above. " By the application of the magnet and iron," he says, " we observe that in the structure of the iron aH the effiuvia which are perfectly or partiaily free are disposed into a regular arrange­ment and that the iron is thus rendered magnetic. It is for this reason that from a regular arrangement of the parts within the iron magnetism exists." 4 " No increase of weight is produced in iron by rubbing it against a magnet; but the smallest parts of the iron are driHed into a straight line,5 and being partly loosened by rubbing against the magnet, are only turned round and bl'ought into a definite order."

The PTineipia. vol. i. p. 250. 2 Ibid. vol. ii. p. 153. a J. R. Rendell, B.A., in his addl'ess, Tmilsaetions of the International

Swedenborg Cong1'ess, 1910, p. 49. • The Principia, vol. i. p. 205. 5 Ibid, 350.

l

INTRODUCTION. Ivii

ln this connection Swedenborg gives two diagrams which, as

lVIr Rendell says, " might do dutY to-day in Professor Ewing's

work entitled j}Iagnetic Induction in Iron and ot1wr Metals."

vVe hrwe now followed Swedenborg throughout his corpus­

cular philosophy, and we shall presently see the reason why he

has taken us through a long and invol ved discussion of finites

and elementaries. From the very beginning his intention has

been to show how our world-system has been evolved. As we

have seen, he labonrs to explain his theOl'y of the origin of

matter as a preliminary to placing before us his conception

of how matter became realized in stars and planets, and

the phenomena with which we are familiar. Others had

already worked upon the subject, but Swedenborg stands

alone in the way he attacked it. If he has not given I\S scientific theories capable of a measure of proof by

ex periment, at least brilliant flashes of genius irradiate

his pages in his forecast of many modern ideas. He, in

fact, deals with the pre-nebular state of matter in a way

both original and suggestive. Dr Hastie was apparently

unaware of the nature of Swedenborg's speculations when he

wrote the following: "It was l'eserved for the nineteenth

<.:cntury to take up the ultimate problem of the pre-nebular

condition of matter. ... This ultimate problel1l, indeecl, has

only been taken up of late years, and we are just beginning

to reach some tentative solution of it. lt evidently

involves the fundamental question of the genesis of the

chemical elements, the formation of material particles, the

constitl\tion of aH matter, and the mode of its primaI distribu­

tion and arrangement in space." 1 On the contra!'y, Swedenborg,

cutting out a way for himself in an obscure and speculative

region, endeavours to account for the genesis of matter as

necessary to his nebular hypothesis, his aim being to explain the origin of suns and worlds. As we shall elldeavour to

prove, when we come to his ultimate issue, he \Vas the fil'st

1 Professor P. 'V. Hastie, D.D., Kanl's Cosmogony, translator's preface, p.89.

Iviii INTRODUCTION.

in the field with a bold and remarkable nebular hypothesis. But before we proceed to state his case it is necessary to re­view some of the main hypotheses that have been given to the world from time to time. Leaving ont of account sorne of the crude but, brilliant theories of certain Greek philosophers we find that Descartes was the first tü deal with the cosmological problem. He held a vortical hypothesis by which he tried to show that whirling movements arose in the primordial nebu­lous matter. By this means the great bodies of the visible universe came iuto existence. To quote Professor Svante Arrhenius' desé~'iption of Descartes' hypothesis: "God has created matter and its movement. There are tluee elements in the universe: out of the first, the luminous element, the sun and the fixed stars have been made; out of the second, the transparent, consists the Heaven; and out of the third, the dark, opaque and reflecting, consist the planets and the comets. The first element is composed of the smallest particles, the third of the coarsest particles. In the beginning matter was distributed as uniformly as possible. Movement induced closed orbits about centres in which the luminous matter was col­lected, whilst the second and the third matter was whirling round. Of the dark bodies some possessed sopowerful a movement, they were of so great mass and had drifted so far away from the centre of the vortex that no force could retain them. These bodies have passed from vortex to vortex, and such a.re the cornets. Bodies of smaller mass and of smaller velocity with the particles of the second element were endowed with the same centrifugai force; these are planets." 1 Allowing for the obscurity which may be induced by condensing so COlll­

plicated a subject, the hypothesis of Descartes is crude and fanciful. It lacks the element of reasoned consistency, and that ultimate rounding off which grips and convinces the. mind.

His theOl'y contains no prevision of future developments, no anticipations of discoveries to come. Yet his views for a

1 The Life ofthe Universe, vol. i. p. 104. The reader should consult Descartes' Principia Philosophicac.

lix INTRODUCTION.

long time held sway over his contemporaries and philosophical sltccessors. Of course his contributions to physics aud the cosmological problem had theü' place in the history of thought, and as Professor Rastie remarks with sorne truth, "The first

form of the Nebular Rypothesis is to be found in Descartes' principles of philosophy published in 1644.1 « The vogue

of Cartesianism," says a writer, « contributed notably to the overthrow of the authority of Aristotle, already broken by thinkers like Galilei and Bacon, and thus rendered men's minds more ready to receive new ideas; in this indirect

way, as weil as by his mathematical discoveries, Descartes probably contributed something to astronomical progress." 2

After Descartes came Swedenborg, whose views will be discussed presently, and following Swedenborg, the next

name in the history of cosmology is that of Georges Louis Le Clerc Buffon,3 author of the celebrated HistoiTe NcduTelle, published in 1745. Re supposed that the planets of our system originated from collisions between

the sun and comets. From the nature of the impact he accounted for the movements being ail in the same direction. Tremendous heat resulted from the impact; and he deter­

mined from incandescent iron balls what would be the probable rate of the cooling of the planets respectively. The sun wouId ultimately cool down. His theory met with criticism from Laplace. Professor Arrhenius thinks that

"Buffon's exposition weil deserves El place next to that of Laplace." 4 But while Laplace's theory deserves the name of a Nebular Hypothesis, Buflon's assumes the existence of the sun

and a comet ; and he further 8ssumed an impact between the sun and a comet, which has never yet been proved to have occurred.

vVe now come to Immanuel Kant. This distinguished thinker and philosopher was born at Konigsberg in Prussia, April 22, 1724, tl1fee years before Newton's

1 Kant's Cosm.ogony, Intl'oànction, p. 64. 2 ArthlU' Berry, ~LA., A Short History of Ast?'onomy, p. 209. 3 Born in Burgundy, 170ï ; died ut Paris, 1ï88. • The Lije of the UniveTse, vol. ii. p. 136.

lx INTRODUCTION.

death. He early applied himself to the study of theology, but turned by inclination to the study of philosophy, mathematics and physics. His Geneml Histo?'y of Nat1we

and TheoTY of the Heavens, 01' an Essay on the Gonstit1dion and

l.fechanical Origin of the Whole Un'iverse tTeated accoTCling to

lVewtonian principles,l was pnblished in 1755 at Konigsberg and Leipsic. The reader will be good enough to make a note of this date as we shall have a particular reason to refer to it later. Kan~ is bes~ known by his pUl'ely philosophical works, which have somewhat overshadowed his earlier treatise. He entered upon this field with a success that indicated at once a remarkable genius for speculative problems. vVhether his cosmology, which has attained such notoriety, was original to him in its fundamental ideas we shall have to examine when we come to deal with Swedenborg's point of view. The estimation in which his cosmological speculations are held we shall show by quotation from some allthorities of note.

Professor Hastie has translated Kant's Allgemcinc Natu1'­

geschichtc und Thco1'ie des Himmels, and written a learned and exhaustive introduction. This writer has the highest opinion of Kant's work and theory. He could hardly have expressed himself in terrns more eulogistic than the follow­ing: "Kant's scientific achievements are original, great, anJ end uring in all their relations. He was, in this connection, the historical snccessor of Copernicus, Kepler, and Newton; the true founder of physical astronomy in its widest range, and the interpreter of its highest spiritual significance. "\Ve are but beginning to understand the greatness of his conceptions as he shines upon us again, full orbed, in all his lustre, after long eclipse; and all the science of our age may still gather ne\V strength and confidence from his bold thoughts and fruitful suggestion. There can be no doubt that he \Vas specially endowed with the peculiar giÎt of the scientific mind, and that he used it to the noblest pUl·pose." 2

1 AZlge'll~eine Naturgeschichte 1tncl Theorie des Him.mels. 2 Kant's Cosmogony, Introduction, p. 98.

INTRODUCTION. lxi'

While fully endorsing the above words we would remark that they would have been som~what modified as regards Kant's cosmological views had the author of them been more

fully informed upon the true history of the nebl1lar hypothesis. Kant, then, is highly praised by Professor Hastie and others for

his cosmological theory. What is that theory ? He postulates a pre-nebular matter. In his own words, "1 assume that in the beginning of all things, all the matter composing the sun the planets and comets, must have filled the whole space in which these bodies now move." 1 By some means the particles of \vhich this matter seems to have been composed \Vere

attracted towards a centre, which is now the sun. TIy the collision, these particles would be driven into closed paths. Further collisions wouId take place, and finally, by succes­

sive aggregation, the planets were formed and revolved about the sun.2 " Kant's assumption," says J. B. Stallo,2 "is

common to ail l'ecent forms of the nebular hypothesis that have fallen under my notice-they all postulate a diffusion of the en tire mass of the sun, planets, comets, and satellites

constituting our planetary system throughout the planetary space." 3

One defect in Kant's theory seems to us to be the assurnp­

tion of particles primal'ily existing without any principle of motion and without any definition of the nature of the particles. Further, how ultimate vortical motion of particles COllId

arise by the gravitation of these primordial particles towards a centre it is not easy ta conceive. \Vhatever difficulties of conception are invol ved in Kant's cosmogony, his theory seems not to have lost its influence, if we are to believe Dr Hastie's ;,vards. Writing in 1900 he says: "Kant's Cosmogony Hever

1 10h nehme an, dass ail Materie, daraus die Kugeln die zu unsercr Sonnenwelt gehoerell, aile Planetcn und Korncten bestùhen, im Anfang aller Dinge in ihren elementarischell Grundstolf a.ufgeloes't, den gallzen Raum des \Vcltgcbaendes erfuellt haben, darin jetzt diese gebildeten Koerper herumlaufen."-Natm·, geschichte des Hinnneis.

2 Sec Professor Svante Arrhenius, The Life of the Universe, vol. ii. p. 138. 3 Ooncepts of j]Joclern Scienee, p. 281.

lxii INTRODUCTION.

stood so high in the estimation of the scientific world as it

does to-clay." 1

But Kant's name seems to have been destined to be over­

shadowed by that oE the distinguished astronomer and mathe­matician, Pierre Simon Laplace; 2 for the nebular hypothesis

is now associated with his name. " Kant," says Sir Robert

Ball,3 " outlined with a firmness inspired by genius that nebular

theory to which Laplace subsequently and independently gave

a more definite form, and which now bears his name." Laplace

supposed that the material now forming the sun and planets

existed in a nebulous condition and extended to the limits of

our solar system. The planets were formed at successive

limits by condensations of this nebulous matter. Arrhenius

says: "Laplace starts from the assnmption of a glowing mass

of gas which from the very first was in vortex motion frorn

right to left about an axis passing through its centre of

gravity." 4 Dr Hastie contrasts Kant and Laplace's systems

as follows: "Kant starts from the primitive nebula in the

universe ; Laplace from the nebular dise of our solar system

already in rotation. Kant makes sun and planets arise out of

certain regions of space through gravitation; Laplace makes

masses and rings detach themselves from the central body,

through centrifugaI force." 5 Another writer puts it in this

way: "In 1796 Pierre Simon Laplace brought forward his famous nebular hypothesis of a fire-mist which once stretched

from the centre of the sun to at least as far as the outermost

planet of our system, and which as it cooled and contracted

threw off planets as nebulous equatorial rings, which rings

again eventually cooled into globular masses and formed

planets." 6 We will give the reader the opportunity of reading Laplace's words by quoting them in full. He

1 Kant's Cosmogony, Introduction, p. 1. 2 Son of a small farmer, born at Beaumont in Normandy, in 1749. 3 The Earth's Begi:nnings, p. 6. • The Life of the Universe, vol. ii. p. 144. 5 Kant's Cosmogony, pp. 7S, SO, quotation from A. J. von Œttinger. 6 R. C. ::Ifacfie, ::11.11.., M.B., C.M., Science, 11Iat/er and InLmortality, p. 117.

lxiii INTRODUCTION.

remarks: "From a consideration of the planetary motion, we are brought to the conclusion that, in consequence of the excessive heat, the solar atmosphere originaUy extended beyond the orbits of aU the planets, and that it has necessarily contracted itself within its present limits. In the primitive

state in which we have supposed the sun to be, it resembles those substances which are termed nebulœ, which, when seen through telescopes, appear to be composed of a nucleus more or less briUiant, surrounded by a nebulosity which, by con­

densing on its surface, transforms it into a star. If aU the stars are conceived to be si11lilarly formed we can suppose their anterior state of nebulosity to be preceded by other states in which the nebulous matter was more or less diffuse,

the nucleus being at the same time more brilliant. By going thus far back in this manner, we shaU arrive at a state of

nebulosity so diffuse that its existence can with difficulty be conceived. We may therefore suppose that the planets were formed at its successive limits, by the condensation of zones of vapours which it must, while it was cooling, have abandoned in the plane of the equator." 1

Laplace is supposed, according to J. B. StaUo,2 to have been

unaware that the hypothesis had been advancBd by Kant. There is no evidence to the contrary, but he may, for aU that, have been aware of a previous view; for he had a fine conceit

of himself. In spite of the difficulties which modern scientists suppose to be involved in Laplace's theory considered in detail, there is a refinement about his suggestion which renders it

more plausible than Kant's. The materia prima of our solar system in a highly attenuated form extending throughout the

lirnits of our planetary system, cooled and contracted, forming at successive limits the various planetary bodies. This seems to differ from Kant's theory fundamentally in this: (1) That the diffused nebulous matter is limited to our planetary system, while Kant's appears to be extended throughout space. (2) The

l Note vii. at end. Tl'anslated by Dr Hastie. 2 Concepts of i}Iodern Physics, p. 280.

Ixiv INTRODUCTION.

planets and sun are formed by the cooling and conclensing of

attenuated hot nebular matter; Kant's assumes a kind of

cosmic dust from which bodies grew by successive collisions.

A more ùetailed examination of either view would be beyond

our purpose; but we have placed the theorics of these two

distillguished thinkers befol'e om readers for reasons that will

shortly appear. The nebular theory, then, is generally supposed to have taken

its form from these two great men; but before we examine

this point, it may be weil to state that the nebnlar hypothesis,

as generally accepted to-day, may be put as follows: The

matter now constituting the ulliverse formed into stellar, solar

and planetary systems \-vas uniformly diffused t.hrough space.

By the action of forces this diffl1sed matter became divided

into large attenuated spheres which began to rotate. As these

spheres cooled they slowly contracted, and this contraction led

to an increase in velocity in conformity with the mechanical

la\\' known as the law of "the conservation of areas of

momentum." Sir Robert Bali says : " That a fire-mist such as

the solar system required did once exist. must sUl'el)' be

regarded as not at ail improbable so long as we can point

to the analogons nebulœ or fire-mists which exist at the

present moment." 1 Modern opinion is, therefore, still in

agreement with the underlying idea of Laplace's theory. 'l'he

same authority writes upon the importance of the nebular

theory as follows : " That three different men of science, Kant,

Laplace and Herschel, approaching the study of perhaps the

greatest problem which nature offers to us from points of view so fundamentally different, should have been led substan­

tially to the same result is a relllal'kable incident in the

history of knowledge. Sm'ely the theOl'y introduced nnder such

auspices and sustained by such a weight of testimony has the

strongest claim on our attention and respect." 2 In this high

eulogy of a theory and its origination Sir Robert Bail has

omitted to give the credit to its real propounder; this

1 The Ea1·th's Beginnings, p. 269. 2 lbid. p. 12.

lxv INTRODUCTiON.

omiSSIOn, however, we shall shortly proceed to rnake good;

but in the meantime it is highly interesting to find the nebular

theory receiving the support of so high an authority as the one we have just quoted.

Other theories have been mooted to explain the evolution of solar systems, notably the meteoric theory advocated by Sir Norman Lockyer. The latest and most novel of theories yet advanced is the impact or grazing theory of Professor

Bickerton, for many years professor of physics and chemistry in Oanterbury Oollege, University of New Zealand. This

theory is based on the appearance and disappearance (If

new stars and the phenomena associated with variable stars. He thinks that his them'y accounts for both of these, and he

extends it to explain how the solar system ûl'iginated in a deep grazing impact of two suns largely gaseous. If this theory could even be verified by evidence, the existence of

grazing suns would require to be accounted for. Professor Bickerton is so fascinated with his theory that he makes statements with the assurance of one who has full evidential proofat hand. For example: "The two most noted novae of late years were NO'CCi A7wigae and NOVCi Persei. The new star in Auriga indicated a velocity of about a third of that indicated by the new star of Pel'seus, this later new star being both more

brilliant and more transitoIT Hence we conclude that the Auriga collision was a deep graze of small suns, and the Perseus collision was a slight graze of very massive suns." 1

Professor Anhenius also favours a collision theory. Now Swedenborg, contemplating the solar system, and

endeavouring ta account for it, assumes that this can be done by starting with the origin of matter, as we have endeavoul'ed to explain at some length above. The basis of his conception is motion. Motion results in the coming into existence of an undifferentiated substCintin priTf/;(i. By the differentiation of this we have finites, and arising hom these, actives; and he brings us successively to a vast plenum of what he designates as

1 Seo his Birth of Wo·r/cls. e

lxvi INTRODUCTION.

actives of the first finite; that is, of the substantia lJTi1na.

This plenum he calls the solar space, and it consists of

extremèly attel1uated matter.1 " Originally," he says, " there was a universal chaotic condition common to the ~lUn and

the planets, in which the origin of aIl things was latent." 2

This chaotic condition of this diffused attennated substance we

should now call nebular matter. ,Vhatever view may be

taken of the original state of things, whether meteoric or no t,

the final analysis brings us to ft nebnlar state as preceding

the evolution of a solar system. Indeed, the enormous

Humber or nebuhB now known to exist, whether spiral, ring

shaped, or in a more extended condition, gives (L pretty strong

proof of the nebular origin of suns and worlels. "The nebulm

which show only the spectra of permanent gases, like

hydrogen, or produets derived from carbon, must constitute,

according to several astronomers, the first phase of the evolu­

tion of celestial bodies. Hy condensing they must form new

stages of matter which end in the formation of stars." The

same ,vriter remarks again: "If the view set forth in this

work be correct, matter must have successfully passed through

very different stages of existence. The first of these calTies

us back to the very origin of worlels, and escapes al! the data

of experimeut. It is the chaos of ancient legends. What

was to be one day the universe was then constituted of only

shapeless clouds of ether." 4 " Here in the nebnlm," says Sir

Robert Ball, "we find, as it \Vere, substance in its most

elementary shape of widest possible diffusion from which

worlds and systems, it may be, are yet to be evolveel." 5

The chaotic or neblliar condition having been evolved we must

now su ppose that the motion, passing on in every stage of this

evolution, sets up movement in the vastly extended nebular

matter, giving rise to a gyration round a centre forming a

vortex which carries round with it ail the surrounding material.

l See The Jl1~inol' Pi'incip'ia, p. 63, 2 The P1'incipia, vol. ii. p, 178. 3 Dl' Gustave Le Bon, 'l'he Evolution of 11fcrttci', p. 30S. • Dl' Gustave Le Bon, 'l'he Evolution of Natter, p. 314. 5 'j'he Earth's Beginnings, p. 50.

lxvii INTRODUCTION.

This vortex Swedenborg designates the" solar space." This

is the stage to which l'le are brought in his theory, and

we shaU now see the reason why he treats at such length

of actives and finites evolved from points and carryil'lg

motion with them as an inherent and original quality. "The

solar ocean," he says, "seems to consist of the actives of the

first and second finite. For it is these actives that are the

causes and origin of aU the ulterior changes and compositions

which occur in our nascent world.! These actives l'lere in a

constant state of motion at the centre of the vortex." StiU

aUowing Swedenborg to explain himself we quote as follows:

"That the solar ocean existing in the middle of its vortex is

the fountain of aU the motions which take place between the

parts constituent of its world is, l imagine, quite clear,

as also that it is, as it \Vere, a perfectly active centre around

which the smaUer and larger parts are whirled in a perpetuai cUITent." 2 In the earlier treatise entitled The .Mino?'

P1'incipia, formil1g part of the second volume of the work

of which we are specially writing, Swedenborg, five years

before, wrote as foUows upon this point: "The solar ocean

originated among particles in a most perfcct state of l'est.

In taking its rise it increased and became a kind of vast sea.

The particles first uccumulatcd in one place incited motion

amollg the surrounding particles and set up a gyration of a vortical nature." 3 This gyration of an active centre com­

pressing the snrrollnding material caused, what he designates

actives, to become passive finites. These at length formed a

compact sphere around the central gyrating body. These

finites, he sap;, "formed an immense volume and crowded round and enclosed the sun in such a manner as to fOl'm an

incrustation." 4 This sun wouId seem to correspond to the

central part of a spiral nebllla, of which the photographic plate has given us countless examples. Upon this point he

further remarks : " vVe can therefol'e concei ve of no solar space

l The Principù" vol. i. p. 206. 2 ibid. p. 224. 3 The jl:[inor P,'incipia, p. 382. • The Pl'incipia, vol. ii. p. 180.

[xviii INTRODUCTION.

without surrounding finites or elementaries. If, therefore, th8re is a solar space, and in its middle the most perfect activity, then, according to our principles, 1t could not, in the

primordial state of things, be surrounded with any other than the finites of the first active, compressee! al! round inta a narrow compass by the action of the space." 1 At this stage in Swedenborg's theory of the evolution of world-systems an impartial student will see a remarkable resemblance to the modern development of the nebular hypothesis. The evidence of the photographie plate rnakes it quite clear that a vortex

movement at sometime arises in the \Videly diffused nebular material impartillg ultimately a gyration to the whole mass resulting in a central body and offshoots therefrom. A careful study of photographs of spiral nebulœ will, we think,

bear out our contention. We gladly acknowledge that in his work, TfTorlds in the }'la7cing, Professor Arrhenius

has given a fair and succinct statement of his conception of our author's theory when he says, " Swedenborg assumed that our planetary system has been evolved under the formation of vortices from a kind of chaos solm'e, which had acquired a more and more circulating motion under the influence of internaI forces, possibly akin to magnetic forces." 2 But while there are undoubted difficulties in Swedenborg's theOl'y, as

there are in al! others, it seems to us, that a comparison between this view and the cosmogonies we have pm'posely sketched above, is distinctly in fa vour of Swedenborg's, not

only because of its relative simplicity, but because it is the result of antecedent considerations which take us back to a definite origin, that origin being motion, on the basis of which nature is now being illterpreted by scientific men.

But now let us notice a further stage in the evolution of a world system according to Swedenborg. The solar incrusta­tion by virtue of expansion under the influence of the gyration of the central portion final!y undergoes disruption, collapses, forms an equatorial ring around what is now the sun, and at

l The Ptincipùt, vol. i. p. 225. 2 Page 205.

lxix INTRODUCTION.

length difierentiates into planetary bodies. His own words are: "This incrusting matter being endowed with a continuaI circular motion round the sun, in the course of time removed itself fnrther and further from the active space; and, in so removing itself, occupied a larger space, and conseqnentIy became gradually attenuated till it could no longer cohere throughout, but bnrst, in sorne part or other. . .. The zodiacal beit formed around the sun burst and formed planets of spherical form." 1 The stuùent will be able to snbstantiate this by the study of nebulœ in the photographie plate. Some of the spiral nebulœ actually show masses which have been broken off from the body and present the appearance of worlds in the making. It wOllld seem then that modern observation pretty weIl confirms Swedenborg's theory. The photographic plate has the advantage of presenting a nebula for leisurely study, and such a record pronounces in favour of Swedenborg's theory rather than those of Kant, Laplace, Lockyer, Arrhenius, or Bickerton. The following words of Sir Robert BaU seem to us to bear precisely on Swedenborg's theory and to substantiate it in a remarkable manner: "The great spiral nebula-near the Great Bear-may be considered to exhibit at this moment a system in actual cvolution, the central body of which is certainly thollsands of times, anù not improbably millions of times, greater than the sun. It is manifest that the evolution has reached an advanced stage. In the great spiral many portions of the nebula have already become outlined into masses which, though still far from resembling the planets in the solar system, have, at least, made some approach thereto." 2

And another astronomer in speaking of the wonderful nebula Andromeda, says : "The rifts seen in the photograph mark the separation between the central nebula and a ring thrown off from it, seen in perspective; and we sec actnally in the sky the state of things which Laplace suggested in his famous nebular hypothesis-a central nebula, which in rotation

1 Th~ Principia, vol. ii. p. 183. 2 The Ea'l'th's Beg~Îmings, p. 195.

!xx INTRODUCTION.

throws off a series of rings, sorne of which break up ta form satellites." 1 vVe could quote much more from different writers

to the same purpose; but there is no need to do this in the face of the facts we have placed before the reader.

But now let us follow Swedenborg still further in our investi­gations. 1'aking the earth as an example of the l'est of the planets, he tells us that when, in the breaking up of the belt

round the sun, the earth had been sent spinning on its way, it began to describe a spiral path, marking out an ever increasing ol'bit, and continually withdrawing itself from the

central body. He perhaps falls into error in relation to the period during which the earth reached its orbi t, bnt he undoubtedly states the matter approximately. "From what we have already stated," he says, in the chapter on the

progression of the earth, "It is evident that the earth had

already travelled a considerable distance from the sun; that as soon as it began its course freely through the vortical region, it hegan to rotate on its axis, and revolve round the sun; that at first it describecl only small circles, then gradually larger ones, according as it reached a greater distance from the sun. At first the years were only of short duration. In the course of time the cl uration of its years was gradually extended un til

they finally reached their present limits." 2 He says again : "1'here was a time when the earth in completing its year occupied only a few of our present days." 3 This is Et necessary

outcome of his theory; and here again we are glad to be able to quote Sir Robert Bali on this very point. After arguing the question at some length he says, "l'hus we look back ta a time at the beginning of the present arder of things when the day was only SOlUe three or four hours long." 4 And our author says in a later work re-echoing his eadier view: "1'here was a time when the earth moved over the disc of the sun like a spot." 5 But before we leave this point we

1 Prof. Herber·t Hall Turner, Model'n Asti'onomy, p. 236. 2 Tite P"incipia, vol. ii. p. 268. 3 Ibid. p. 284. • Time and Tiele, p. 76. 5 De CllU~l et Amorc Dei.

INTRODUCTION. Ixxi

desire to call the reader's attention to the interesting fact that

Swedenborg vizualized his theOl'y; he drew a series of remark­

able and interesting sketches to illustrate it, a task accomplished

neither by Kant nor Laplace, we believe. The representations

are ingenions, and give the reader a general, if rough idea, of what he meant to convey.

vVe now come to another interesting poin t in Swedenborg's

Oosmology. The planets themsel ves threw off satellites jnst

as the sun had cast off the paren t bodies, and the moon like

the earth must have taken a spiral path in attaining its orbi t,

and been originally much nearer the earth than it is at the

present time. Swedenborg's theory benring on tlle planets is,

then, consistent also in its application to the satellites. Here

again we are able to adduce the opinion of modern

astronomers, arrived at quite independently of Swedenborg's

view. Sir Robert Ball says: "It has been snpposed, and

there are some grounds for the supposition, that at this initial

stage of earth-moon history the 1110011 materials did not form

a globe, but \Vere disposed in a ring which sllrrounded the

earth, the ri11g being in a condition of rapid rotation. It \Vas

at a subsequent period aceordingly that the substances in the

ring gradually grew together, and then by their rl'lutual

attraction formecl a globe which ultimately consolidated down . into the compact moon as we now see it." 1 The l'eacler will

see a striking analogy between this feature of a moon-ring

round the earth and the great radial belt round the sun in

Swedenborg's theory. The same author says again: "lt is

now known, mainly by the researches of Prof. G. H. Darwin,

that in all probability the moon was originally a part of the

earth, and that a partition having occnrred while the

materials of the earth and the moon were still in a plastic state, a small portion broke away to form the moon, leaving

behind the gl'8ater mass to form the earth. Then nnder the

influence of the tides, which ruay agitate a mass of rock, as

the moon once \Vas, just as they agitate an ocean, the moon

1 Time and Tide, p. 96.

lxxii INTRODUCTION.

was forced away and was ultimately conducteà to its present orbit." 1 The point is more fully elaborated by the same

authority as follows: "Let us uow look at the moon and

examine where it must have been during these pn,st ages.

As the moon is gradually getting farther and farther from us

at present, so looking back into the past, we find that the

moon was nearer and neal'er to the earth the further back our

view extends. In fact, concen trating our attention solely on

essential features, we may say tbat the path of the moon is a

sort of spiral which winds round the earth gradually getting

larger though with extrcme slowness. There was a time

many millions of years ago when the moon was only

100,000 miles away. Nor can we stop our retrospect; we

must look further and further back, and follow the moon's

spiral path as it creeps in and in toward::; the earth, until at

last it appears actually in contact with that great globe of

ours." " Surely," he continues, "the tides have then led us

to the knowledge of an astounding epoch in our earth's past history, when the earth is spinning round in a few hours, and

when the moon is, practically speaking, in contact with it.2

Nothing more conclusively in agreement with Swedenborg's

general principles, and particularly as shown in the diagrams

illustrating it, could be imagined than the statements containcd

in the above quotations, we therefore take it that our author's

anticipations of modern resnlts are hereby pretty well vindi­

cated. We have brought the reader thus far in the study of our

subject; but before we pass to one or t\VO other points

of interest in Swedenborg's deductions, we wish to examine

the claim to priority in regard to the three chief cosmologicftl

systems that we have had under discussion.

We have already shown by quotation from authorities

that a nebular hypothesis in sorne form or other is considered

as thoroughly established. To Kaut is almost unanimously

l The EMth's Beginnings, p. 254. 2 Ti1np, and Tide, p. 77.

lxxiiiINTRODUCTION.

ascribed the origin of the theory. "Kant," says Sir Robert

Bali, "outlined with a tirmness inspired by genius that nebular theory 1,0 which Laplace subsequently and inde­

pendently gave a more definite form, and which now bears his name." 1 J. B. Stallo, comparing the claims of Kant and Laplace, says, "But the truth is that the nebular hypothesis in the form in which il, is now generally held is due 1,0

Kant." 2 Neither of the above writers mentions Sweden­

borg in this connection. .Either they ignore his views, or have no knowledge of them. And Professor Hastie, who

published in 19°° an important work specially devoted 1,0

Kant's cosmology, mentions Swedenborg in passing, and

with evident want of knowledge of his system. In fact, Swedenborg has been generally left out of account by astrollomers who have written on cosmology. vVe have, however, recently noticed some interesting exceptions. Professor Arrhenius, the celebrated Swedish Physicist, in

his Introduction to the Latin reprint of Swedenborg's Cosmologica, has given him his right place and aisa

in his recent work The Life of the Uni'L'eTse. Professor Sollas, in Harmsworth's Histm'y of the World, says, "lt was Ilot until the middle of the eighteenth century thal,

the reign of evolution began, and attempts were made 1,0

trace the history of a planetary system from its source as a primeval nebula on mechanical grounds. Swedenborg was the pioneer in this direction." 3 Another writer,

J. Morrison, the astronomical editor of The JVm'lcl Almanac1c,

1910, in an article on Earthquakes, properly gives Sweden­borg the credit. "The cosmogony of our salaI' system rests on the nebular hypothesis orst profounded by Sweden­

borg, but not generally accepted in his time; it was, however, subsequently revived and partially contirmed by the researches of Sir William Herschel. At a still later date il, was examined by the celebrated Laplace, and il,

1 The Earth's Beginnings, p. 6. ,2 Concepts ofModern Physics, p. 280. P. 12.

lxxiv INTRODUCTION.

is erroneously known as the nebular hypothesis of Laplace. It should, however, in aIl justice, be called the nebular hypothesis of Swedenborg." And Iastly, an astronomer

writing lately on the priority of Swedenborg, says, "1 imagine that very few among us realize the position held by Swedellborg in connection with this matter." 1

It is evident from the above references that scientific

mell are becoming better informed on the point at issue, and that Swedenborg is likely in time to come into his own. It is only fair ancl just that a great thinker and philosopher shouid have that place assigned to him in the history of though t which is properly his due. We will now bring to a focus the lines of evidence bem-ing on Swedenborg's priority which give conclusive proof of the fact which we bave set out to establish. The testimony

of incontrovertible dates will put the matter beyond eavi!.

1729. Swedenborg writes a work, now called the ilfin01'

Principia, in which the main points of his cosmological theory are outlined. This important document remained in MS. until reeently.

1734. Swedenborg publishes his PTincipia in which his theory is definitely stated and illustrated with

diagrams. 1745. Buffon publishes his Histoire nrlt1/relle.

1755. Kant publishes his Natuml Ilisto1'V of the Heavens.

1796. Laplace issues his Système du, il1oncZe. Kant was ten years old when the Principia was published,

and therefore when the German philosopher wrote his Histm'v of the Hecwens, Swedenborg was sixty-seven years old, and apparently either knew nothing of Kant's work or \Vas too much ab-

l Letter of Ml' A. n:I. W. Downing, D.Se., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., ta the Joumal of the Bj'itish Astronomical Associution, in reference ta the paper on Swedenborg us " Cosmologist read at the Swedenborg International Con­gress, 1910.

INTRODUCTION. Ixxv

sorbed with other functious to give attention

to it.

Swedenborg's claim, then, is fully established by the above dates, and he stands out as the first cosmologist of real significance. But whether Kant owed his idea to Sweden­borg is a moot point. It is certain that he was acquainted with some of Swedenborg's works, but whether he had studied

the Principic~ it is impossible to say. After careful study we are driven to the conclusion that as there are important differences between the cosmology of Kant and Laplace, so the system of Swedenborg and that of Kant are so fundamentally

diffcrent as to have little relation the one to the other. The reader has the outlines of the two conceptions before him and can therefore judge for himself. 'IVe now leave this matter of

priority, as completely substantiated, with a final quotatiou from Professor Nyrèn. "It cannot be denied," he says, "that the essential part of the neblliar hypothesis-namely, that the

whole Solar System has been formed out of a simple chaotic

mass, which first rolled itself together into a colossal ball, and subsequentIy, by rotation, separated a ring from itself, which then-during the continued rotation, broke up into

several parts, and finally conLracted into planetary masses, was first expressed by Swedenborg. 1t shouid further be observed that he has, in all probability, given his hypothesis the more correct form, that the planets were formed out of broken-up rings, not, as Kant supposcd, immediately

out of conglomerations formed from the original mass of vapour."l

We have not yet comc to the end of Swedenborg's anticipations of modem conceptions, and we must claim the rea<1ers' attention while we examine one or two other points.

Swedenborg advanced a brilliant idea of the nature of the universe as a whole. He held the view that "The whole

1 Vie1'te7jaM'sckl'ift cler Ast1'01wmischen Gcsellschaft, 1879,

lxxvi INTRODUCTION.

visible heaven is one large sphere, and its suns or stars, together with their vortices, are parts of a sphere connected one with another in the way we have mentioned." 1 And again, "The common axis of the sphere or stany heavens seems to be the galaxy, where we see the greatest number of stars. Along the galaxy all the vortices are in a rectilinear arrangement and series and cohere as to their poles.... The other solar or stellar vortices afterwards proceed from the axis and are bent in different directions, but nevertheless all have reference to the axis.... In the Milky Way lies the chain and magnetic course of the whole of our sidereal system.2 On the basis of this we must imagine the stars arranged in an orderly manner over

the surface of a sphere, closely grouped together apparently in the galaxy and more sparsely scattered over the sphere as they recede from the galaxy or Milley Way towards the galactic poles. Swedenborg speaks of the galaxy as an axis, but he would seem to mean by this tlJat the Milky Way is a kind of equatorial ring engirdling the sphere and forming the basis on which the sphere is built up, the galactic pales being the imaginary terminations of the axis through the galactic equatorial circle. Moreover, as each star is the centre of a world-system 01' smaller sphere, he regards aU these systems in the Milley IVay as connected by theil' poles, somewhat like the vortices in the lines of force around the magnetic. All the other systems scattered over the sphere have their axes or pales c1irected towards the galaxy. Therefore, he says, " the other solal' or stellar vortices after­wards proceed from the axis and are bent in different directions." 3

It must be admitted that this is a magnificent conception, indicating a mental grasp of the nature of the universe to which there was no parallel among his contemporaries. No scientific man appears to have noticed this brilliant idea, and hardly one seems to be aware of the fad that Swedenborg was the first in the field with a conception now generally accepted

l '{he Principia, vol. ii. p. 156. 2 Ibid. p. 160. 3 Ibid.

INTRODUCTION. lxxvii·

by astronomers. Here is the evidence. "Thomas Wright of Durham," says Professor Hastie, " was the first to propound the idea that the stars are not scattered without order or connection in space, but have a systematic arrangement or constitution, like the solar system, whereby they are aH bound in to one universe, unity and connection." 1 Dr Hastie, as usnal, is ill informed upon the genesis of this question. As a proof that Kant was not a student of Swedenborg's P1"incipia, we may observe that he \Vas unaware that this wonderful conception \Vas contained therein; for he seems to have met with the idea in Wright's wode. Ml' Madie says "lt is interesting to know that Kant was inspired in his brilliant speculation by a summary in a Hamburg paper of a New

Them"y of the Heavens by one Thomas \Vright, son of a Durham carpenter." And Kant's oIVn words, quoted by Dr Hastie, are as follows: "1 cannot exactly define the boundaries which lie between Ml' Wright's system and my own; nol' can l point out in which details l have met'ely imitated his sketch and carried it further." 2

This Thomas Wright, M.A., published his work in 1750, sixteen years after Swedenborg's Principia. The book is very rare, and hardly any of the writers who refer to his theory would seem ta have read it at first hand. There is a copy of it in the British Museum Library. 1t is a curious blend of scientific speculation, bad theology, and poetical quotation. vVe give here the words in which he states his theory, "How absurd it is to suppose," he says, " one part of the creation regular and the other irregular, or a visible circulating order of things to be movecl with disorcler, and a part of an endless confusion, is obvious to the weakest understanding, and consequently we may reasonably expect that the Via Lactea or Milky Way, which is a manifest circle among the stars, conspicuous to every eye, will prove at least the whole to be togethel' a vast and glorious regular production of being ou t of the will and

1 Kant's Cosmo[}ony, Introduction, p. \xvi. 2 Science, :/I1atte1' and lmmortality, p. 116.

lxxviii INTRODUCTION.

fecundity of the eterual infinite, one self-sufficient cause"

(Letter vi. and end)'!

This theory has been taken up by astronomers. Herschel

collected nnmerical data and workec1 out in detail the conse­

qnences of this fundamental hypothesis.2 N ewcornbe elaborates

the theory, and says that the stars increase from the galactic

poles to the Milky ,Vay. "The stellar system," he remaries,

" is lmilt np \Vith special reference to the Milky vVay as a

founc1ation." 3 Lastly we will q llote Professor Arrhenius, who

says, " The suggestion is thrown out by Sweden borg that the

Milley \Vay played in the stellar universe the same part as

the rotational axis of the sun within the planetary system.

According to this notion the sllns with their planetary systems

would lie grouped about the great axis of the universe, which

would l'un through the Milky 'Vay." 4 Here agaill we see that

Swedenborg was first to gi ve to the world a most brilliunt

conception; but as in other matters he has Hot been allowec1

to bear the palm. Dr Hastie in his enthusiasm says, "Thomas

Wright is only now receiving a belated justice at the hands of

contemporary English writers upon science." The recognition

of Swedenborg's merits and the acknowledgment of his

extraordinary genins is becoming, slowly but sUl'ely, an accom­

plished fact, and we believe that Dr Hastie's words, with

another name substituted, will find fulfilment in the conrse of time.

'IVe will conclude our observations on this point by quoting

\Yords bearing on his brilliant theory of the universe, so

majestic in their sweep, and so remarkable in their conception

that they deserve a place in the history of scientific ideas.

1 The full title of this work is: "An original Theory or New Hypothesis of the tfniverse. Foundcd upon the Laws of ::\ature and soh'ing by rnathematical principle~ the General Phenomena of the Visible Oreation and particularly The Via Lactea comprised in Nine Familial' Lettcrs fmm the Author to his Friend. And iIIustrated with npwards of Thirty Graven /lnd Mezzotinto 1)lates By the lIIasters. By Thomas 'Wright of Durham. Lonùon. MDOCL."

2 See His/ory qf Ast7'onomy, p. 334, by Arthur Berry, lILA. 3 Sicle Lights on Ast?'onmny, p. 38. • The Life of the Unive j'se, p, 116.

lxxix INTRODUCTION.

" New heavens, one after another," Swedenborg says, "and new creations may arise in endless succession. How many myriads

of heavens, therefore, may there not be-how many myriads of world-systems, 1'here ma)' be innumerable spheres or stany heavens in the finite uni"erse, and the whole visible heaven is perhaps but a point in respect to the universe." 1

It was in 1729, as we have before stated, that

Swedenborg wrote The Nino?' Princil)irt; this he left in MS., and it has no\V been translated. In this \Vork many remarkable ideas are to be found, besicles those we have had occasion to refer 1.0 in our rernarks. One

1.0 which we now desire ta cali attention is undulatory pressure. It is now established that light exerts pres­

SUl'e; by means of such pressUl'e the sun drives minute

particles even out of his system. Dr Poynting deals \Vith this subject in his little \York entitled The Pressw'c of Light. He tells us that light ean be shown by experiment

to exert pressure. "It is just a hunelred years," he says, " since Thomas Young killed the corpuscular theOl'Y of light and founded in its place the theory that light consists of waves, but there \Vas no reason at that time to suppose that the waves could press, and sa experiments ta cletect light­pressure ceased for nearly a century." 2 In 1873 Clerk

Maxwell enunciated his electro-magnetic TheOl'y of Light, a theOl'y now ulliversally accepted. His calculations on light­

pressure showecl that strong sunlight falling perpendicularly against a black surface exerts a pressure of about two-hundred­thousandth of a grain on a square inch, Now light is

produced by waves or undulations, and we might cali the pressure resulting therefrom undulatory pressure. Dr Poynting says, "11. is interesting 1.0 know that whatever kincl of waves we imagine, so long as they have the properties which we observe in light, these waves must press against the surface from which they start, and they must press against the surface on which they strike. They must, in fact, carry

1 The Principia, vol. ii. pp. 161, 162. 2 P. 15.

[xxx iNTRODUCTION

momentum with them just as surely as if they \Vere moving

particles on the old corpuscular theory. The fundamental

idea of the proof is, that a train of waves is somewhat like a

cam pressed spiral sprillg. The waves contain energy." 1

Singularly enongh, words almost similar ta the above were

written by Swedenborg one hundred years aga. "Undula­

tory pressure," he says, "is the cause of sight, light, and

coloUl'. It extends from the sun ta the earth. There is

in light nothing which cannat be explained by the l'nies and

mechanism of undulatory pressure." 2 "Vith slight reserva­

tians, these words are sa remarkable that they might almost

be supposed ta be a quotation from a modern text- book on science, and particularly since he believed that there is an

all-pervading medium or ether. As a matter of fact it is

pretty weIl established that pressure does extenc1 from the

sun ta the earth, and that by means of radiant pressure that

body "drives the finest particles altogether away from his

system." 3 Let us then quote again from Swedenborg: "That

an undulation from the sun," he says, "and pressure from

the same can be maintained throughout sa great a distance

as ta our earth arises from the perfectly regular arrangement

and connectian of the particles." 4 This infercnce Swedenborg

drew from his à priori principles, for there were no means of

experirnentally proving it in his day. It \Vas not a guess

but a true inference from the theory on which he \Vas working

in the earlier treatise. The electronic theOJ'y of matter which

has displaced the old solid atom idea, and to which the views

of Swedenborg so nearly approximate, as we have shawn

above, fully substantiates the conception of radiant pressure.

ProfessaI' Arrhenius refers ta the qnestion of radiant pressure

in his book the Life of the UnÙ"erse. He refers therein ta

Maxwell's wonderful prediction of the, amount of radiant

pressure, and he states that it was he himself who showed in.

1 Dr Poynting, The Pnssnre of Lighi, p. 2l. 2 The l1[ino1' Prindpia, no. 130. 3 The Pi'CSSU1'e nf Liglti, p, 82. : The Jl[inor Principia, no. ] 29,

lxxxi INTRODUCTI01V.

1900 the importance of this new universaI force. Further,

the explanation of the Aurora Borealis is now based on the

phenomena prodnced by radiant pressure. Electrons emitted

by the sun, as the result of the light-pressure exceeding

the attraction of gravitation exercised on such minute

partic1es, are driven throngh the space of ninety-three millions

of miles into our atmosphere. vVhen these minute bodies

enter the earth's magnetic field, they follow the lines of force

in spirals towards the poles. On their way certain gases are

electrified, causing thern to phosphoresce, and thus give rise to this wonderful northern phenornenon.

While writing these words it is reported that a new

star has appeared in the constellation Gernini. Vlhen

first seen it was estirnated to be of the fourth magni­

tude. On March 19th, according to Dr Rambaut, Radcliffe

Observatory, Oxford, this star had already begun to wane.

New stars have frequently been noted by astronomers;

and the phenomena presented by thern has been explained

by opservers in various ways. Dr Bickerton's theOl'y, ta

which we have already referred, tries to account for the fact

by a collision between two suns. Lockyer considers the

phenomenon to be the result of collision between meteoric

showers. Huygens explained it as arising from the near

approach of two gaseous bodies. Tt is said that observation

has shown a tendency in a new star to develop into a nebula.

In August 1901 photographs \Vere obtained of a nebulosity

round a new star in the constellation Perse us, showing

remarkable condensations. Tt is interesting to observe here that Swedenborg notices

the remarkable fact of the rise and \Vane of new stars. "\Ve

111erely mention his theory to show how he tried to account for

the phenomenon. The vortical centre of nebulous matter

becomes incrusted; the sun-centre is obscured and becornes

invisible; then the disl'uption takes place, the planetary

bodies are thrown off, and the new star becomes visible. The waning of the light may be due in sorne \Vay to the decrease

f

lxxxii INTRODUCTION.

of energy after the dü;rnption of the incrusting nebulous

matter. Swedenborg's words on this point are as follows:

"Stars have been kno\Yll to COme into view, and after a

lapse of time to grow obscure and become invisible: then

again to become visible, and again obscure; so that either

they disappear altogether, or else, unless some neighbouring

stars should in the rneantimc occupy their vortex, remain

permanently in sight. Here then we see the planets actually

imaged forth to the eye. We see, as it were, the same in­

crustations arising from the compression of the circumfinent

elementary parts, and veiling over the star or sun to which

they belong; we see also their repeated dissipations and

separations. Astronomy is full of evidence of phenomena of

this kind, and continues to this very day to offer ta the eye

these representations of the chaotic condition of which we have

been speaking." 1 Our author here quotes from David Gregory's

AstTonomiae Physùxe et Geomet1'icae Elementa 2 in which thore is

a full account of the new stars that had appeared up ta that

date. The \Yords that follow the quotation are remarkable

as indicating the cause of "dead suns." "From these state­

ments it is eviden t," he says "not only that stars are seen to

come into view in the heavens, but that afterwards they form

around themselves another element, and in course of time

become incrusted; that in this state of incrustation, being

situatec1 among sa many neighbouring stars that are arranged

in their own sphere in regular order, they are unable ta bring

any vortex around themselves to perfection, and consequently

always remain in a state of suspended forlllation; that, there­

fore, they become incrusted, continue in their state of incrusta­tion, and tllUS remain concealed from view." 3

The fm'ther discussion of this and other questions would

take us beyond the limits of this Introduction, and now we

leave it, havil1g come to the end of our task. And we venture

to believe that su fficient evidence has been adduced ta show

l The Principia, vol. iL p. 19l. 2 Published in 1ï02. 3 The Principia, vol. iL p. 194.

INTRODUCTION lxxxiii

the remarkable charaeter of Swedenborg's c1aims, his brilliant inductive capacitr, his far-reaching perceptive power, and his extraorc1inary illsight into problems which led him to auticipate some of those moùern conceptions which are now regarded as triumphs of thought and research. Although his achievements were practically ignored by his contemporaries and have been neglected by succeeding generations, ret we venture to designate bim the greatest genius of his age and the Democritus of the eighteenth century.

ISAIAH 1'ANSLEY.

TRAN8LATûR8' PREFACE.

b the year 1734 Emanuel Swedenborg issued his great scientific work, Opem Philosophica et l11ineralia, in three large folio volumes, the size of the type page being 91 by

5~ inches. The first of these volumes is entitled Principia

Rern1n .Naturalimn SÙ'c .Nov01'mn TentMninwrn Phœn01nenc6

l11undi EleJnenta.?'is Philosophice ExpliCCtndi.

Since his death two manu8cripts on the same subject have come ta light. They were first reproduced by photolithog­raphy, and in 1908 a finely executed transcription of the original Latin was issued under the auspices of the Royal

Swedish Academy of Sciences, the editor being Ml' A. H. Stroh, M.A. The present work comprises a translation of

these three treatises. The Principia Re?'1tm N atumlÙlm was first rendered. ioto

English by the Rev. Augustus Clissaid, J\'LA., a clergyman of the Anglican Church, in 1845, and published by W. Newbery,

6 King Street, Holborn. It has been out of print for many

years. Of the posthumous works, the larger one, now called the

j',lino1' Principia, is translated for the first time. Of the shorter manuscript, entitlecl a Snmmary of the P?'incipia, a version from the pen of Ml' A. H. Stroh was publishecl in America in 1904:, under the auspices of the Swedenborg

Scientific Association. The translation into English of scientific treatises written

sa long ago is not un easy task, for it is very difficult ta ente)'

into the spirit of an age so distant from our own and 50

scie ntifically clifferent. Ta-clay, technical terms in physic,; and cosmology are sa clear and definite that we ~ cao ha)'dl}

lxxxv

[xxxvi TRAN5LATOR5' PREFACE.

compare them with the somewh8t vague expressions of a past

age. To-day a physicist writes of acceleration (,~), force

(ML) (MU) (MU)T2 ,work 1'2·' power T3' having the co1'1'espond­

ing definite mathematical formulœ in his mind. But in

Swedenborg's day, though Newton's PTiiwipia was available,

there was no such definiteness of vocabulary, and the word v18

had in consequence to do many c1uties. Indeed, it is statec1

in the PoplûaT Encyclopœdia of Newton's PTincipiŒ that "not

more than two or tluee of his contemporaries were capable of

unc1erstanding it, and that more than fifty years elapsed before

the great physical truth which it contained was thoroughly

understood by the generality of scientific men."

It is very probable that if the modern vocabulary were

uniformly inserted in the English version, the reader might

infer the existence of conceptions that were not in the author's

mind. 'Ve have been very careful to give the nearest equiva­

lents to the author's expressions, and we have not even

attempted to modernise his multiplication of degrees (of arc)

by degrees. Some readers may question the usefulness of printing the

tnathematics on pp. 121 and 129 and the lllass of figures in

connection with the determination of the magnetic meridian

in Vol. IL, for the mathematics are incomplete and unsatis­

factory, and the predictions have not been fulfilled. vVe have,

however, gone over the tedious calculations, and ventured to

correct a few e1'1'ors in the logarithms that were probably due

to the printer. The main arguments, however, with respect

to the cosmos are independent of the mathernatics, and we

doubt whether any mathematician of his day could have given

correctly the equation to the curve he tries to describe. l t

was, however, felt best to print the works as they issued from

the writer's pen; it would have been a difficult task to select

portions for issue. The reader now has the whole of the

TRANSLATORS' PREr"/lCE. iXXXVli

\\'orles before him, and can judge of their merits more justly

than if selections had been arbitrarily made.

vVe have omitted certain diagrams found in the original

editioll, for ta these no l'eferences are ta be found in the text.

On p. 1 ~ l we have called attention ta difficuhies in the

mathematics of the spiral curve postlllated by the au thor. NI l'

Very, of the Astrophysical Observatory, of Westwood, Mass.,

U.S.A., in a valuable appendix, discusses this question at

length and provides the necessary solution. He also critically

examines other ma.tter::; in the work, adding thus a valuable

llIeans for the study of it.

vVe have been assi"ted by many persans in our labours.

IVe cannat speak tao highly of the help gi v:m by Ml' Very.

Prof. C. H.. Munn, of the Ryerson Physica.1 Laboratory of the

University of Ohicago, kindly read the proofs of the first

volume, and gave valuuble hints as ta the second. The Rev.

y Sewall, D.D., of vVashington, and Prof. Enoch Price have

also greatly assisted in the work. The late Hev. James Hyde

spent much time and labour at the British Museum in verify­

ing aH the references ta ail the authoritics mentioned or quoted

in the work. He also compiled an appendix of biographical

notices, and compiled an index of names of writers mentioned

in the volumes. The whole of the work has been done jointl)' by the

undersigned. The first volume \Vas translated b)' Ml' Rendell

and the second by~lr Tansley, who is responsible for the

l11ino?' P?'incipia and the two sections that follow. Bath

translators collaborated in carrying out and completing their

labours. JAMES R RENDELL.

ISAIAH TANSLEY.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 1.

PART 1. PAGJo;

PR EE'ACE� xcv CHAP.

1.� The means leading to True Philosophy, and the True Philosopher 1

lI. A philosophical argument concel'l1ing the First Simple of the world and its natural things ; that is, concerning the First natural point, and its existence from the Infinite . 51

rIT.� A philosophical argument on the First or Simple Finite, and its origin from points 79

IV.� A philosophical enquiry concerning the Second Finite, and the manner in which it seerns to have originated successi"ely frolll the Simple Finite. Also, general observations on its co-existent, which may be called the Active of the First :Finite; and on the manner in which it is geometrically deri"ed from the First and Simple Finite 106

General observations on the coexistent of thi, Finite, which we calI the Active of the First Finite 130

'". Obser"ations specifically on the Active of the First Finite; its origin frOlll the First Simple Finite; its motion, figure, state, and other attributes and modifica" tions, showing that this active 1s one, and constitutes the sun of our system; that it also forms the first elementary particles� 134

Wh ether there is any active belonging to the point; and if so, what is its nature?� 154

YI. The First and most U niversal Elementof the worlel-system, or the First Elementary particle compounded of finites and actives; its motion, figure, attributes and modes; its origin and composition from the Second :Finite and the Active of the First Finite; it constitlltes the solar and stellar vortices 156

A geometrical discmsion of the form,� and a mechanical discussion of the arrangement and motion of the parts and of the compound, in Finites, Actives, and Elementaries 189

Jxxxix

xc CONTENTS.

CTIAP.

VII. The Actives of the Second and Third Finite l'AG":

197

The Actives of the Third Finite 206

VIII. The Thircl Finite or Sllbstantial 211

IX. The Second or Magnetic Element of the ",orld; that is, the next Elementary particle composed of third finites and of the Actives of the Second and Thircl Finite. Its motion, form, attributes, ancl modes. This Element, together with the former, constitutes the solar vortex, nnd is the one which principally contriblltes to the phenomena of the magnet 216

X. The existence of the sun and the formation of the solar vortex 224

PART Il.

1. The canses and mechanism of magnetic forces 2:33

II. The attract.ive forces of two or more magnets, anù the relation of the forces to the distances­

.A priori, or from fi l'st principles The same argued a posteriori or from experiments;

Musschenbroek's experiments Experiments i.-\'.

268

274 279-284

III. The attractive forces of two or more magnets when their pales are alternatecl-

A priori, or from first principles Musschenbroek's experiments, vi.-viii.

288 289-291

IV. The attractive forces of two magnets when their axes are parullel, or when the equinoctial of the one lies upon the equinoctial of the other-

A priori, or from first principies Musschenbroek's e.xperiments, ix.-xii.

292 294-296

V. The disjunctive and repulsive forces of two or magnets when opposite pales, or those of the name, are applied to each other-

A priori, or from first principles Musscbenbroek's experiments, xiii.-Xv.

more same

297 :304·311

VI. The 11ttractive forces of the magnet and of iron­

A priori, or from first principles Mllsschenbroek's experiments, xvi.-xxii.

312 318-341

VII. The influence of a magnet upon heated irOll­A priori, or from first principles Musschenbroek's experimellts xxiii.

342 :344-346

CONTENTS.

CHAP.

VIII. The quantity of exhalations frOl1l the magnct, and their penetration throngh hard� bodies-

A priori, or from first principles Mllsschenbroek's experiments, xxiv.-xxviii.

IX. Various ways of clestroying the power of the magnet: and� chemical experiments made with it-

A priori, or from first principles Musschenl!l'oek's experimellts, xxix., xxx. (twelve

processes)

X. The� friction of a magnet against iron, and the force comnlllnicated-­

A priori, or from first principles J\1usschenbroek's experiments, xxxi.-xliv..

XI.� On the attractive force of a magnet acting upon several pieces of iron-

A priori, or from first principles J\Iusschenbroek's experiments, xlv. -cxxviii.

(Method of arming magnets, 464-467)

XII.� The action of iron and the magnet upon the mariner's neeclle; and the reciprocal action of one needle llpon another-

A priori, or from first principles lIIusschenbroek's experiments, cxxix.-cxxx.

XIII. Other methoc1s of making iron magnetic-Ji.. priori, or from first principles MllSschenbroek's experiments, cxxxi.-cxll·i.

Appendix

XCI

P.\Gf;

347 351-:371

:372

:376-409

410 410-433

434

43;j-509

510 f>1 ;)-518

519 523-543

544

SERENISSIME PRINCEPS

LUDOVICE RUDOLPHE,

DUX BRUNSVICENSIUM ET LUNEBURGENSIUM, ETC.

AN1iIQUIS ritus fuerat, si aliquis ülorum ex numero Deus votis

annlleret, sive thure arm ejus injecto litaret, quod voti sui

compotes facti vel solverent quod voverant, vel sertis, verbenis,

ct vittis aras ejus cingerent: sique opulenta fuisset domus,

quod bidentes ad altaria ejus mactarent; vel annua vel men­

strua vota solennesque pompas ducerent; si vero pauperes

essent Lares, quod aliquibus farris aut thuris fiavi mieis foco

altaris ejus injectis, devoto mugis animo et mussitante simul

ore, sacra facerent, et ei grates agerent, et pro exiguis illis

donis, ut iternm vota sua seeundaret, precari ausi essent: verbo, secundum rei familiaris sortern et fortunam, templis

ejus tanquam sui tutelaris, et inter numerum deorum maxime

faventis, propitii et secundantis, honores instaurabant, et altaria

donis struebant. Ipse, cum ante duodecim quod exeurrit annos,

Vestrre Serenitati aliquas micas hujus farris sive tenues pagellas

rudis et incomtm Minervm porrigere ausus sim, lœte recordor, quod illis visis, tamell annuere et favere dignatus sis; quod

eum mihi voti secundi argumentum fuerat, hinc, sed ignoscas,

seeundum ritum antiquorum, ad aram Tuam redeo, et quamvis

non divites honores templis indicere, bidentes niveos mactare,

et Tibi pompas dueere queam, usque tamen acerram jam thure

ejusdem generis sed pleniorem in grati animi pignus porrigere ausim; quumque litaverint olim mieœ tantummodo illius farris

porreetœ, spero id iterum, aeerra pleniore jam muneri votivo xciii

XCI. DEDICATION.

ob~attt: permitte ergo, ut opusculum hoc Principiorum nov­

onan plenum Te ut sui Tutelarem adoret, ntque Philosophia

hac nova, ante Tuas aras, Tibi sacra et votiva, quum melioribus

donis operari nequeo, veniat. Non orbem literatum latet,

qu:tlis Minervœ et literarum ejus Cultor et Amator sis; qnalis

cultorum ejus Tutela et Favol'; his fretus, propius propinsqne

ac<.edere et veniam poscere ausim, et ut votis allnuas, precari ;

si iternl11 annuis et faves, voti secundi faustüisima auspicia

ennt. Vive Serenissime Dux tot annos, quot in templis et

ad aras pro annis et saInte Tua vota reddnntur: quod

de:'Totissime precor

SERENITATIS VESTRLE

PCl'humillimus cuItaI'

EMANU EL SvVEDENBORG.

PHEFACE.

A SU~lMARY OF OUR PHlLOSOPHY.

l FEAR lest, at the very threshuld and outset of our philosophy, especially its First Part, my readers should straightway be deterred from proceeding further, when they meet with views which appear strange and different from those generally 1'e­

ceived; and also such unusual terms, as Finite, Active, Elementary; tenns as yet unknown in philosophical works ; that is, which are not applied to mechanics, geometry, and the elementary wodd. For this reason it will be requisite for me to give, by way of preface, a summary of our work, and a key to its contents.

Every one, from the light of reason, may see that nature, conforming to principles of geometry, is ever pursuing a most simple course, a course peculiar to herself, and truly rnechanical. He may likewise see that all things in the

world arise from what i8 uncompounded, and therefore from a single fountain-head and a primitive cause; that this primitive cause enters into the various things that are caused (a truth which necessarily fol1ows, if further entities are to be derived from those which have already been brought into

existence); also that there cOllld have beeu no other cause than the one which had proceeded by descent, as it were, from its first parent or simple. This cause, therefore, must be latent in the first simple; and there must enter a similar cause into the first entity derived from it. Now since the

worId deduces its origin and subsequent increments, by means of a connected contiguous series, from the primary or

xcv

XCVI PREFACE.

single end through intermediates to another end; and since

there must be present a cause, and indeed an efficient and

active cause, before anything can be produced in a series; it

follows that there must be a passive, an active, and as a

product from both, a compound, or elementary. If therefore

there is anything of a composite kind, it must consist of two

principles; a passive and an active; without these nature herself

would be, as it \Vere, in a state of celibacy, destitute of progeny,

without a derived entity, without any new efficient, without

effect, without series, without pbenomena; in a ward, without

worIds. l have therefore tried to show that in the Finite,

which is the first in successive derivation from the Simple, is

contained each principle, bath passive and active, from which,

by the accession of a contingent or physical cause, arose the

Composite or Elementary; and further, that in every deriva­

tive, whether Fillite, Active, or Elementary, there always

coexists a similar cause, and consequently a similar power of

producing an effect, Damely, from the one into the other;

thus, as it \Vere, from one power into anotber, from one degree

into anotber, and sa on farther and fal'ther. So also in the

derivatives there is latent a principle similar ta that which

exists in the primitives; in composites a principle similar ta

tbat whicb exists in simples; in effects a principle similar ta that which exists in causes; conseguently also that nature in

her kingdoms, and espccially the elementary, is in the cause

and in the effect simultaneously: sa that from known

principles of mechanism, under the guidance of geometry and

by the analytical faculty of reasoning, wc may, from an effect

visible and posterior, safdy draw our conclusions not only with

regard ta effects invisible and priaI', but with regarù ta the very

entities whieh are active and passive; indeed, ta the very cause

which is latent in aIl.

l wish then, in a few \Yards, ta give a sllmmary of the

whole philosophy ; and in sa doing begin from the first Simple.

l make therefore the following statements :-(1) In a Simple

there is an internaI condition tending ta a spiral motion, and.

!'REFAC~. XCVl]

consequently thero is in it a similar endeavour to produce it.

(2) In the first Finite that results from it, thore is a spiral

motion of the parts; it is the same in the other elementary

Finites, in ail of which thore is thus a similar priuciple.

Cl) From th is single cause there arises in every :Finite a

progressive motion of the parts, an axillary motion of the

whole, ancl if there is no obstaclo, a local motion of tbe whole.

(4) If there is a local motion, thora arises an active, similar

to the agent proc1ucing it, and differing only in degree and

dimension. From this it is clear tha.t wc admit of entitios

only of a threofold degree, namely, Finites, Actives, and Com­

posites, or Elementaries, which are compollnded of the two.

\Vith respect to Finitos we say that one is generated by the

other; and that ail tho Finites of the class thus arising, are

very similar to one another, and differ ouly in degree and

dimensions. Ronce the fifth Finite is similar to the fourth ;

the fourth to the third; the third to the second; the second

to the first; and the first to its own proper Simple: so that

ho \rho knows the nature of one knows the nature of aIl. So

also wo say, that Actives are vory simil:u to one another; that

the fifth, fourth, third, second, and first Active are ail of the

same nature; diifering only in dimension and degree, in the

same way as Finites. That Elementaries also are similar to

one anothor, since they aro compounded of the Finite and

Active; the Finites occupying the surfaces, the Actives the

interiors; that conseCluontly the first, second, thirLl, fourth, and

fifth Elements are all similar to one auother; so tha,t he who

le nows the nature of one knows the nature of aIl. We say

that in every Finite there are tlll·ee motions, namely, a Pro­

gressive motion of the parts, an axillary, and a local motion,

if there is no obstacle; nor am l aware that in these extromely

simple entities any other natllraJ motions can be assigned; or,

if we grant the motions of these entities, which no rational

person would deny, that any other COll Id be assigned more

conformable to nature. "vVe remark further, that ail these

motions procced from one fOllntain-head, or from one and the

g

XCVIII l'RF:F/lCE.

same cause, namely, from a spiral motion of the parts. This

motion, b()cause it is most highly mechanical, is also the most

highly natural; being that in which, as is weil known, the

whole potency of nature and al! mechanical force is inherent.

And if it be granted tbat motion is the cause of things, then

no other motion can be admitted than that which is most highly

mechanical and geometrical; for, frOl11 its centre to its circum­

ferences in space, a spiral is a coutinuous thing, tending to the

circulaI' in ail its dimensions; and as such it cannot possess in

itself anything but what is rnost highly perfect, mechanical,

and natural in its motion; being Loth as to the situation of

its parts and as to its motion most highly geometricaJ. In a

Simple, however, in which tbere can Le nothing substantial to

be put in motion, nor any medium in which motion can exist,

we must conceive that instead of a mechanical and geometrical

motion, snch as there is between parts and in some medium,

there is, as it were, a total or pure motion, that is to say, a

state and an effort hellce arising from a similar toward a

similar gnasi motion; in wbich the one only cause and

primitive force tbat produced aH the entities subsequently

existing is latent.

Because in al! its kingdoms the visible world is so

di versified, and consists and su bsists in a series of parts

successively and simultaneously arising, it cannot possibly

have its termination in the same point in whicb it had

its beginning; thlls it cannot possibly have its termination

in its own first or mediate series or line of progression,

or in its first or second part. 'Vere this the case, there

would be no series in existence, neither would there be

any ends; because there would be 110 distinctions into

intermediates; consequently no element to constitute vor­

tices; none ta constitute ether or air; nothing ta constitute

tire; much less anything to constitute the innumerable

parts of the mineraI, vegetable, anù animal kingdoms; in

a ward, there would be no world. Tberefore I endeavour

to demenstrate that the first Finite derives its origin From

j'REFA CE. XCIX

tue Simple; the second Finite from the first Finite; the

third from the second; the fourth from the thircl; each

being attended by a cause similar to that which exists

in the primitive Simple, and which passes, by successivc

derivatioo, into the Fin ites. In this way l show that a

series of Fini tes thus springs from a Simple, or from thc

first Finite, in succession to the fifth :Finite. These nve

finites have a mutual relation to one another, are similar

to oue anothor, and differ only in degree and dimonsion,

01' in their relation to each other according as they are

raised to successi vely higher powers or degrees. Again ;

because ail Finites can become Acti ves, or porfonll gyres

from a like inhering and accompanying force or cause, that

is to say, From a spiral motion of tlle parts; and because

they can pass aIso into a local motion, provided there Le

space and 1I0thing in it ta oIrer any obstacle; it follows

therefore that there Inay be a fivefolcl series of Actives;

an Active of the first, second, third, fourth, and fifth

Fiuite points respectively; and at length that by Uleans

of the last or fifth Active, the fire of our system may pass

into atmosphere. The same reasoning is true witl! regard

to the compounds or elementary particles, which l hold

to consist of two principles, namely, Actives aUlI Finites;

the Finites occupying the surface, the Actives occupying

the interiors. And because there is thus a series of Fi.nites

and of Actives, there will also be a series of Elements

such as the first or most universal Element, the second or

Maguetie 01' Vortical Element, the third or Ethereal Element,

the fOll1'th or Aërial Element; before the elernentary

kiugdom with which the world is fllrnished has yet been

fully completed. ABd since every single particle of eacll

Element is elastic, encloses Actives, and possesses the faculty

of passivity and activity; thercfore the first Element encloses

within it the Actives of the first Finite; the second, thc

Actives both of the first and second; the third, the firl>t

Elementary par'Lides; thc fourth, both the first and secona

c PREFACf~.

Elementary particles; the two latter Elements participating

in each principle, although they enclose Ilot l'cal Actives

but Elementary particles. For the Elernentary particles

are not only passive but active; they are eonsequently

dastic, and arc movable with respect to particles and

volumes. The motion and mechanisln of their volume

depends IIpon the motion and mechanÎsrn of their particles;

although they [tl'e not mobile and olastic in the samo

degree as the enclosed first and second Elernentary particles

from which they recaive their elasticity. 'l'bus we show

that the l<:lements also differ in degrees and dimonsions,

progrossing eqllally witb the Fillitos, etc., in a certain order

alld succession.

The series of these several subjocts will bo fOllnd in the

work itself, as 1'ol1ows :-The means of attaining to a true

phiJosophy. The first simple or first llatural Poillt. The

tirst Finite. The second Finite. 'l'Ile third Finite. The

fOl1l'th Finite. The fifth Fillite. The pme lIIaterial Fillite,

or VI/ater.

With respect to the Actives, the series is as follows :-­

Tho Active of tbe Poillt. Till' Active of tho first Filiite.

The i.\.ctives of the second and thinl Finite. Tite Actives

of the fomth and firth Finite, or Fire.

\Vith respect to the Elements, the series is as follows:­

'J'lie first or rnost uni"ersal elellleut. The second or Magnotic

Element. The third Element, or tlle EtlJür. The fOl1l'th

~Iement, or tho Air. The fifth prOlluct similar to the

Elements, or Agueo'us Vapollr; ",here we final1y slJOw, that

in every drop of \Vatel' is contnilled every single tbillg which

hacl hiLhcrto existell ['rom tlJÜ first Simple, as also t11€

whole class of Finitcs, Actives, and Elell1elltarics; conse­

quentl)' that in a, sillgle drop of water the whole Elementary

worhl both visible and invisible is present.

Now since canses anel things callsed are simibr to each

ol,her, althollgh they elitrer in dc:gree and dimension, it

fol1ows that nature is always similar to herself, anù cannat

PREFACE. Cl

Le dilferent in the larger system or elementary kingJorn

from what she is in the less; in the maeroeosm from

what she is in the microcosm; in a volume from what

she is in a particle; hence the quality of the volume may

be seen in the elementary partiele and in the volume the

q uality of the pal'ticle. From this we infer that the sun

consists of the Actives wbiclt fi l'st originate, or those of

the first and second Finite; particularly since it is the

canse of al! the sn Lsequcnt changes, the prime mover of

things; because other things could not have successively

existed except from the tin;t Actives, vr the solar spacc

consisting of thetn. Therefore that the solar vortex and

the vortex of the other stars consists of the first and

second, and consequently of the most universal, Elements.

That the sun itself, iu the formation of its vortex, being

surroundcd with a crust of Finites of the fourth kincl,

was thlts the original chaos of the eurtb and the planets;

and since this crust cnclosed within it the sun, or the

space conslsttl1g of the Acti ves of the first and second

order, while the fourth Finites occasioned a pressure from

without, snch a chaos could rcsemble 110 other than an

elemelltary particle; in whicb, in the same way, tbe Actives

exercise a pressure from within, wbile the Finites or Passives

ocenpy the surface. lt was th us by a proeess of the most

si mple kind tbat nature prod ueed a cllaos, from whieb she

afterwards brought fortb the cartbs; beiug thus similar to

berself in her greatest as well as her srnallest prod uetions.

That consequently t,be eartb, when just proJuced, and uear

the sun, eonsisted of the fourth Finites, aud possessed in

a larger system, like the Fiuite in the smaller, a motion

of its parts, an axillary motion, and also a local motion;

so that in itself it was the representation of a large Finite;

and as to its local and annual motion, the representation

of a large Active; that thus both in the earth and in

the other planets we lllay see what is the quality of the

Finite and wbat the quality of the Active in its minute

cii l'REFACE.

boundaries; and also in the chaos what is the quality of

the elementary particle. These subjects however must be

referred to in the work itself, where they ure treated of

under the following heads:­

The existence of the SUll and the formation of the solar

vortex, Part 1., Chap. x.

The cornparison of the stan'y heaven wi th the magnetic

sphere, Part Ill, Chap. i.

The diversities of worlds, Chap. ii.

The universal chaos of the sun and planets, and the

separation of its substance into planets amI satellites,

Chap. iv.

The vortex surrounding the earth, and the progresslOn

of the earth from the sun to the ci1'cle of its o1'bit,

Chap. xi.

The paraùisaieal state of this earth, and the first man,

Chap. xii. ln the course of these chapters it will be seen what are

the vc1ocities, periodic times, anel eentripetul tendencies of

the pbnets at their respective distances from their own sun;

also what is the cause of the eccentricity of their Ql'bits.

Row the en,rth passed thwugh innumerable changes 1efo1'e it

arrived at its orbit or steady course: how these challges were

as innumerable as the orbits through which it passecl, or as

the different distances of these orbits from the su 11, and its

different ùegrees of velocity in its al111ual anc! diul'l1al rotation;

in a word, how every day and hour it unc!erwent sorne new

change from the sun itself to the course of its orbit; how it

was requisi te for it to unclergo these coun tless changes, before

it coulù be fully perfected, or be made to consist of so

many series of things arising simultaueously anù suecessively,

or be enrichcd with so many entities as to be complete in ail

its kingc!oms, mineraI, vegeta1le, and animal, or couic! cherish

seeds, unfolc! and expanc! thern, and thus in so delightful and

varied a manner adorn its own surface. In this state of the

earth, while revolving upon its axis and rotating round the

CIII PREFACE.

sun more rapidly than aL present; or while, in consequence of being nearer its parent sun, it meted out shorter c!ays and years; we show how it must have been under the influence

of perpetuaI spring-a season most peculiarly ada pted to

the process of begetting and procreating; without whilch, no seeds could have grown, nor any vegetable or animal pro­ductions have originated.

"Vith respect to the magnet and its forces, the reader is

referred to the whole of the Second Part of our treatise; where l attempt to demonstrate tbat its force arises from the

motion of the first element and of the second or magnetic, out of which arc formed the solar and also the planetary vOl'tices. 'l'hat its magnetism consists in effiuvia, which arc

of such a nature as to be moveable ronnd their own axis; and that tbese, when set in a gyrating or spiral motion, act

as the subtile element which IVe call magnetism; consequently that from these rotations arise litLle vortices and connections

of these vortices from one pole of the magnet or its sp here, to another pole; and that it is in this manner that magnetism

arises, as also its conjullctive force when similar effiuvia per­vaùing any other body are brought near it. 'l'hat the magnet

itself as such, in regard to its interior texture, consists of a

rectilincar or regular arrangement of its parts, extending from one polar side to the other; and tbat hence a sphere is

formed extrinsically, connected on both sides with its axis by a mechanical necessity. 'l'hat the effiu via or forementioned

parts are nothing but what belongs to iron, and that iron is rendered magnetical when those parts are brollght interiorly, by friction against iL magnet, eitber into a rectilinear or any

other regular position. We show, moreover, that the declinatiou of the magnet

arises from the situation of these same particles of the first and second Element, or of the same element of which the vortices round the sun and the car th are formed; and that

the magnet is directed into that same situation with its sphero in which the very particles themselves of the fore­

civ PREFACE.

mentioned element are. That these elementary particles,

becanse at the same ti me they create a vortex l'mlnd the

earth, must necessarily take a spiral course extending from

one pole of the ecliptic to the other, and that honco ariso the

anomalies of magnetism.

See the Second Part of 'j'he Principia on the causes of the

magnetic forces.

'fhe attractive forces of two or more magnet.s.

The attractive forces of two magnets when their poles are

alternated.

The attmctive forces of two magnets wllen their axes are

paralleJ. The repulsive forces, when similar poles are applied ta

each other. The attractive forces of the mn,gnet and of iron.

The influeuce of the magnet upon heated irou.

The quantity of exhalations from the magnet, and theÏr

penetration through hard bodies.

Chemical experiments macle with the magnet.

The communication of the magnetic force to iron.

The attractive force of the magnet as exercised U pOIl

several pieces of irou.

The influence of irou and the magnet upon the mariner's

neeelle.

The various modes of rendering iron magnetic.

The declinations of the magnet as reduced by cal­culation.

Tables of observations of the declinations of the magnet 111

different places and at different times.

The causes of the declination of the magnet.

Calculations of the declination of the magnet, in differen t years, at London and l'aris.

Tables of the declinations of the magnet at Paris, from the year 1610 to 1920.

Calculations of the eleclinations of the magnet at Rome, at

the Cape of Good Hope, and othel' places.

cv PREFACE.

The starry heaven, showing that it is similar ta the mag­netic sphere. For each is compounded of elementary particles of the same kind, especially adapted to vortical gyres, and being as it were barn and made mechanically for this motion.

h

THE PRINCIPIA.

PART 1.

CHAPTER 1.

THE l\IEAKS LEADING TO TRUE PHILOSOPHY, AND

TlΠTRUE PHILOSOPHER.

IF there is a proper connection between the mind and the organs of its senses, or in other words, if man is truJy rational, he continually aspires after wisdom. The soul desires to be instrncted by means of the senses, and to continually exercise its perception from them, as from something dis­tinct from itself; while the senses desire to exercise their perception from the so.nl, to which they present their objects for stud}T. Thus each performs and contributes to the same common operation, and tends to one final result, the wisdom of the man. For this purpose a continuaI connection exists between the soul and body; for this purpose also reason is added to the senses, and hence the desire for wisdom becomes the special mark and characteristic of man. Unless, however, he is eager to attain a knowledge which lies beyond or above his senses, he is not truly rational, nor is there a due connection betlVeen the senses and the souI. The senses and their varions organs can apprehend the phenomena of their world but grossly, and in an imperfect measure. There are no animaIs except man which possess any knowledge beyond that acquired by the senses, and by their organs disposed in the pia mater of the brain. They are unable ta penetrate further;

1 A 1

2 MEAN5 LEADING TO

and, from want of a more subtle and active power, cannat refer the abjects presented ta their senses ta a higher or more definite origin. But if we refer the abjects, or the operations

of the world upou our senses, not ta the soul and its reason, but ta the same origin aR animaIs do, wc are not wiser than tbey. The sign that we desire ta be wise, is the \Vish ta know the causes of things, as weIl as to investigate the

secret and unknown things of nature. lt is for this pur­pose that we eonsult the oracle of the rational minel, and thence await 0111' answer; that is, we wish to acquire a deeper wisdom tban tbat which is attained by the senses

alone. But he who wishes ta reach the ,jnd, must desire also to

provide tbe means. Now the principal means which lead ta truly philosophieal knowledge are tluee in number­experienee, geometry, and the power of reasoning. First, then, let us aseertain whether, and in what manner, we have

the power, by these three means, to gain knowledge Ci prio?'i, or to reaeh the fartbest boullelaries of human wisdom with

respect ta natural and physieal things. By pbilosophy we here mean the knowledge of the

mechanism of our world, or of whatever in the world is subject ta the laws of geometry; or which it is possible to unfold to view by experience, assistec1 by geometry and reason. U nder the ru le of geometry are the tlll'ce king­doms, the minerai, the vegetable, anel the animal, and, if it

be permitted to add another, the elemental. The mineraI kingdom cornprehends everything in tbe worlel of a bard, material, and terrestrial kind, wbether it is metallic, stony, or sulphurous, and everything else, either fixed or fluid,

which cannot be describeel as vegetable or elementary. The

vegetable kingdom eomprehends everytbing which springs out of the minerai kingdorI1, and wbich adorns the surface of the earth by its growtlt and vegetation. 'Ehe animal kingdom comprehends whatever depends for growth upon the vegetable kingdom, but whieh lives in vil'tue of possessing sorne kinel

TRUE PHILOSOPHY. 3

of souL The elementary kingdom comprehends ail those substances which are fluid of themselves and by their own nature, every particle rejoicing in and thriving by its own peculiar motion and elasticity. A gronp of these constitutes an element, such as air, or ether, or others still more subtle, which we shall hereafter investigate in the course of our P1'incipia.

U nder the empire of geometry, and under the mechanical laws of motion, we place the whole mineraI as weil as the vegetable kingdom, and indeed the animal also with respect to mechanical organs, muscles, fibres, and membranes; or with respect to its anatomical, vegetative, and organic rela­tions. But with respect to the soul and its various faculties, l do not think it possible that they can be explained or comprehended by any of the laws of motion known to us ; such indeed is our present state of ignorance, that we know not whether the motions by which the soul operates on the organs of the body are such as to be reducible to any mie or law, either similar or dissimilar ta those of our mechanics. The elements by which the earth is surrounded, and in which it Roats, acknowledge mechanism and its laws to be as it were peculiarly their own; sa intimately i8 mechanism associated with the elements, that it owes its very existence to them; and indeed the method by which they are set in motion and actuated, is mechanism itself, which is thus both conceived and born of the elernentary kingdom. Since then the elements called air, ether, as weil as others of a still more subtle nature, are naturally and peculiarly subject to geometry and mechanism, we can explain them by the assist­ance of expcrience, the known laws of motion, and geometry. In this first division of our Principia we treat, in part gener­ally, and in part specifically, of the elements; of their origin from the first and most subtle, to the last which surrouncls the earth; also of the motion of the elementary particles, their form, and the l'est of their properties or essentials of

their nature.

ll1EANS LEADING TO4

Tt is an arduous attempt to explain philosophically the hitherto secret operations of elementary nature, far removed as they are, and almost hidden from the perception of our senses, and to place, as it were, before the eyes those things which nature herself seems to have withdrawn from view and of which she has dellied us knowledge. In this ocean I would not venture to spread my sail, without having experi­enee and geometry continually present to guide my band and control the helm. ,Vith these to assist and direct me, I think l sball be safe in approaching and, voyaging over this ocean. For geometry and experience are, as it were, the twin stars by which one's way may be directed, or which show the way by their light ; for of these it is that we stand most in need amid the thick darkness which envelops both elemelltary nature and the human mind.

1. By experience we mean the knowledge of everything in the worlel of nature which is capable of being received by the senses. This definition embraces everything, whether in the elementary kingdom, or in metallurgy, chemistry, botany, anatomy, etc., in so far as we can ascertain the manner in which it affects the senses or acts Πposte1'io1'i. These things may ineleed he termed objects of the senses and phenomena, drawn from the great storehouses of Datural things.

Let it not, however, be imagined that any experience, or this knowledge derived Œ poste?'iori, and confined only ta one man, or even to one age, is sufficient for the purpose of exploring the hidden paths of nrtture. Ta crown the in­vestigation with success, we require the experience of many ages; from one age ta another experience will increase, till we have snch a store of information as will supply us with phenomena and experiments calculated ta explain any part or 3.ny s8ries of the operations of nature.

The sciences, which have now for about a thousand years been addillg ta our experience, may at this day be said to have sa far advanced, that the enquiry into the secret and invisible things of nature need be deferred no longer. For

5 TRUE PHILOSOPHY.

an infinite number of phenomena is already known, capable of leading us up ta this point; and besides, the writings of so many ages are extant, which will sufficiently aid us in an a priori investigation, and deduction from the fjrst principles of things. ,Vith respect ta elementaries we have an ample wealth of experiments in regard ta the ether, air, fire, water, and the magnet; and if we reckon those also which have been made in metallurgy and chemistry, where nearly aU the elements are called forth, and llsed for the solution and condensation of bodies, we think that the world is at this day sufficiently instructed for our purpose.

In fact, there is no need for that innumerable variety ·of phenomena which some deem necessary, in order ta acquire a knowledge of natural things. We require ta make use of the more important only, such as bear directly and immediately upon the point, and whose reference ta our mechanical world and its powers is not tao remote. For by them we may be led first to complex, and ta us, general principles; thence by means of geometry, and ailled by the leading phenomena which lie intermediately between the two, we proceed to particulars; then, by a chain of conllection, ta the more simple; and thus at last ta the most simple, ta the fountain-head, in proceeding from which they have gradually become more and more modified. The remaining mass of experiments, which are either farther removed from the first source, and thus from the first and simple mechanism of the world, or which are merely collateral, and not in the same direct line of descent, are not sa essential; indeed, they would tend rather to divert the mind into a different course, than lead it onward in the great high road of our investigation. The reason is that there is a countless variety of phenomena that are very remote from their origin, and which reveal no path leading ta it but through manifold intricacies and mazes. Nature, branching out into such varieties of modification in our world, may be compared ta the arteries and veins of the animal body; these, when

6 MEANS LEADING TD

nearest to their com mon fou ntain, the heart, have considerable

breadth and magnitude; but become divided in their course

into smaller and smaller ramifications, and final!y into the very smallest, and even into ramifications which are like

in visible filaments and capillaries. If you are ignorant of

the fountain-head and origin of the blood which flows

through these arteries and veins, and yet wish to explore

it by means of experiments, you would scarcely commence·

with the smaller capiUary vessels, and there make many

dissections, so as in the mind to trace them from one branch

to another. In so laborious a pursuit you would most

probably be diverted from your track into other arteries

and veins, and thus remain long perplexed and misled by

their numberless intricacies before you could reach the great

and regal aorta. Nay, by such a plan, a still further source

of error, and consequent removal from the heart, might arise

in the section throllgh fl-rteries into veins, while aiming at

the contrary direction. Nature may be also likened to a

labyrinth; if you are in this labyrinth, the attempt to

wander through al! its windings, and to take note of al! their

directions \Vould be fruitless; for in this case the puzzle

would only grow the more inextricable, you would only

pursue your footsteps in a circle, and when most elated

by the prospect of emerging, come to the selfsame spot.

And so if you would reach with ease, and possihly by the

shortest road, the exit of the labyrinth, you must reject

the senseless wish of exploring aU its iutricacies; ratber

planting yourself at sorne intersection of its paths, strive

to ascertain somewhat of its general figure from the circuitous

route yon have already trodden, and retrace, if advisable, some

of your steps. Thus may you easily ascertain the way leading to its olltlet, and there obtain the clue to direct

yüu throngh aH its mazes; and when you have familiarised

yourself with their plan, you may throw aside even the

clue itself, and fearlessly wauder about in the labyrinth

without it. Theil, as if seated ou an eminence, and at a

7 TRUE PHILOSOPHY.

glance snrveying the whole labyrinth which lies before you, how will you smile in tracing the various wind ings which had baffied your judgrnent by maniîold and illusive inter­sections! But let us return to actual phenomena, and leaving similitudes pass on to the subject itself. By tao great an accumulation of phenomena, and especially of those which are very remote from their cause, you not only defeat the desire of laying open the hidden operations of nature, but plunge yourself more and more deeply into a maze, where you are perpetually drawn aside from the end in view, and misled into a contrary region. For it is possible that many things of seemingly opposite natures may exist from one and the same origin; from the same first cause exist tire and \Vatel' which are contrary to each other, and likewise air, which absorbs them both. Thus we are confused by their contrary and heterogeneous natures, and by their endless variety, and we may form a very diffuse and in­distinct notion. After the experience of so many thou­sands of years, if a person should be importullate, and desire still further knowledge, confessillg that in these respects he is still needy and ignorant, it is no wonder that he ShOllld be unable to arrive at the knowleclge of munclane things so as to reason from principles and causes; for were he possessed of the greatest possible accumulation of facts, they wauld only serve to increase the difficulty of attaining his end.

In the state of ignorance in which we are at the present day, we gain knowledge only through experience; not merely our own individual experience and that of our own age, but the experience of the wbole learned world and of many ages. When we have learned from our teachers what the learned world has discovered, we are individually enabled to add new experience of our awn, and thus continually to become more enlightened. l affirm, therefore, that at this day we are made wise only by meallS of experience; nor can we arrive at wisdom by any other path. It is impossible to receive

8 iJfEANS LEADING TO

knowledge immediately from the sonl; man attains it only through the medium of organs and senses. The first fountain of knowledge springs from these, and it is by means of the connection existing between them, and the faculties of reason and judgment, that we acquire a perception of abjects; that is to say, it is only by means of experience acquired by organs, and transmitted to the mind, that we can become wise. The means, therefore, of ail our wisdom is to be found in experi­ence ; without this the human race would be barbal'ous, merely animal, and irrational. Suppose a person, clestitute of education, left wholly to himself with wild beasts and apes, or advancing to manhood without the society of uny animal­What kind of brute would he be? What intelligence would he enjoy from nature? vVhat would be the operation of his higher aura, or mind, on the organs of his body; or, at a riper age, what would be the operation of the organs of his body on his mind? Man is made and formec!, and distinguisheJ from the brutes, solely by education; in the process of which the organs, \\'hich are intermediary between the mind and the hody, being braught into exercise, are, as it were, cultivated and fashioned; and exercise so arranges the elements enclosed in the small membranes and organs, as ta enable the most subtle tremors and motions to pass and repass througbout them, and opens, as it were, those secret and intricate ayenues which lead ta the most subtle and active entity of our nature. It is by means of this that the oracles of the rational mind are disclosed. From experience we have received ail our sciences. By experience we know how ta discharge the duties of a citizen, and ta live \Vith others in moral society; \\'e learn ta be prudent; we learn ta be philosophers. By experience we acquire the arts of war and of constructing fortifications; we learn ta train soldiers so that each individual of himself, con­jointl)' with the battalion, and the battalion with each indi­vidual, is enabled to stand securely against the attack of the enemy. We learn by experience to construct ships, to build houses, to cultivate fields and gardens; arts which were first

9 TRUE PHILOSOPHY.

conceived from experience, and thereafter practised, at­tained perfection in later ages. Let us instance the sciences of metallurgy and chemistry. Metallurgy, which commenced in experimental knowledge many ages before the flood, con­tinued its progress until it attained the excellence it now possesses; so that we now fully understand how the hardest rocks can be penetrated; how shafts of different kinds can oe driven even throllgb l110nntains, passages bored to the bowels of the earth, and its metallic veins opened and ex­plored; how laboratories and furnaces shollid he constructed for the purpose Cif extracting and sl11elting the better part of the ore, and how the metal is afterwards to be made into bars and shaped; with many other particulars which relate to the hidden course of the vein, and the formation of the l11etal itself. These discoveries are all owing to that great instructress experience, who seems to have been the more ingenious in regard to this art, and the more desirous of learning it, because it produces sil ver and gold; to which l11eans all things are obedient which procure livelihood and honours, and which, upon that account, so intensely interest mankind. From experience we learn the vast science of chemistry, or the art of decomposing ores and of separating metals, and aU the constituents of vegetable nature, by both the dry, and the wet method, as it is caUed; holV sulphur, spirits, oils, and liquids of various kinds, may be produced by means of tire or a solvent; how the lighter parts, and likewise the heavier, and metallic substances, dissolved by the solvent, may be separated in the liquid itself, and made to sink to

. the bottom, or ascend to the surface; how flame and lire are to be controlled, and to what degree of heat a body which can be reduced by it should be subjected; or how a slow fire wastes bodies, or a iitronger and fiercer one descends deeper in to their structure, penetrates into their inmost and hidden things, and divides and separates them into parts. But this entire science is the offspring of experiment. We are in­debted to experience therefore for aU our knowledge, wbile

ro 11:fEANS LEADING TD

experience itself is indebted to the senses, by means of which objects are subjected to the rational activity of the mind, and thus we are finally enabled to acquire wisdom. In proportion,. therefore, as the sources of experience are the more abundant, and the better disposed and distributed throughout the

organs; in proportion as the intermediary organs are more· exact in their harmony, and better adapted in their form; and in proportion as a more elevated path is thrown open to the most subtle principles of things by series and continuity, in the same proportion man may become wiser. But, after aH, alas! what is our wisdom ?-truly such as what is finite is to what is infinite ; and in respect, therefore, to the wisdom of the Infinite, nothing.

The reason why we must acquire knowledge by means of experience, and investigate the nature of objects and set them in a distinct point of view, by subjecting them to the

operation of the reasoning faculty, is, that we have an active and most subtle principle and soul, to which phenomena can be submitted; whereby we are enabled, through the com­

parison and series of many phenomena, to form a judgment respecting them; and, by considering tbeir uniformities, simi­larities, analogies, and analyses, to discover their causes by geometrical and rational investigation. Man is distinguished from brutes by reason alone; in otber respects we are mere

animaIs and organized forms. vVe have senses like those of brutes, and we have an interior structure not unlike theirs: our sole distinction cOllsists in tbat invisible or reasoning faculty, that more subtle active principle, to which we can more inwardly refer objects, and consequently perceive them more distinctly. It cannot be denied that there is a connec­tion between the organs of the senses and the soul, and tbat

the motions of the organs of the senses can be in a moment transmittèd to the soul by means of that connection; it is equally certain that those motions thus pass out of a grosser medium into a more subtle one, and that these media are in contact and sllcceed one another in order. For if the

II TRUE PHILOSOPHY.

motions irnpressed on the organs are instantly perceived in the

sonl, and if the organs of the senses are of a grosser substance

than the soul, it follows, that all perception passes out of a

grosser into a more refined medium, by mean:'l of a connection

and of a contigllity existing between them, and thus arrives

at that rnost active principle which is the primary and ulti­mate constituent of man. 'vVe can form no idea of this per­

ception in the so111, but by comparing it \Vith the elements.

For there exists a primary and a most subtle element, and others

that are successively more gross; thus tbere are air, ether,

and others. If the particles of a grosser clement should by

any means be disturbed, either individually or collectively, so

as to experience either an undulation, or a tremulation, or

any othel' kind of movement, such movement wonld pass out

of this grosser medium into the more subtle one. If these

media were in such close contiguity and connection as ta

fonn together one volume, then the motion arising in the

grosser clement or medium would be more sensibly felt in the

more slIbtle one. 'The tremulatioD of one particle, or of its

surface, in the grosser medium, might cause a kind of undula­

tion among the particles, or in the volume, of the more subtle

medium: and if media and elements of a still more subtle

nature were present and intermixed, the same motion which

was tremulous in the first might be undnlatory in the second,

and cause a local motion among the particles of the third.

Therefore, when a motion passes from a gros:'ler medium into­

one that is more subtle, it becomes successi vely more sensible; and if more sensible, then more distinct. 'vVe are distinguished

therefore from brutes by this, that their perceptions do Dot

penetrate to so subtle a medium as they do in mail, but that

they stop as it were midway, where perception is not sa acute

and less distinct. Let us suppose the organs of the senses to

be mecbanical, and formed ctccording to the mechanism of the

motions existing in the elements; let us suppose that. there

are membranes which are acted upon by waves of the air, or

the ether; let us suppose also that these membranes arc of

12 MEANS LEAD/NG TD

different kil1ds, either grosser or more subtle; let there be a bard covering, a soft one, and one still more subtle; for we see that an things, ooth in the vegetable and animal kingdom, go out into ramifications, which become more and more subtle tin they arrive at the highest degree of tenuity, as is the case with the muscles, the nerves, the veins, and the mem­branes. If, therefore, a motion arises in a grosser membrane, and passes into one that is more subtle, the effect will oe exactly the same as in passing from a grosser into a more suotle medium. If the media or membranes oe so contigllolls and in such mutual connection, that a motion impressed on that whi.ch is grosser can be in~talltly perceived in that whieh is more sllbtle, then the least motion in the grosser oe­comes greater and of a higher order, in the more subtle, and consequently more easily perceived and distinct. Tbat the membranes percoive, is a very common form of speech amollg anatomists. But let us leave these subjects, from whieh we only mean to infer that we ought to be instructed by the senses, and that it is only by means of the experience conveyed from them ta the mind that we are able to aequire knowledge .and thus become wise.

1 have observed, that man is perfected by exercise, and that the organs which are intermediary oetween the senses and the mind are formed by constant cultivation, and that without cultivation and exercise those organs \Vould oe closed, as it were, and consequently man would be like a brute. The very slowness of his progress from infaney to man­hood, contributes in a very fundamental and essential manner to the forming and opening of such organs or motions in the most subtle membranes; not to mention the construction of the orain itself. Fo.r we do not arrive at adolescence till after fifteen or twenty years, or more; whilst the largel', stronger, and more muscular animaIs, arrive. at maturity in between three and five years. In the meantime, our organs are yielding and soft, like wax, and are thus enabled to receive the natural and simple

13 TRUE PHILOSOPHY.

motion of the elementary world, and to accommodate it ta themselves in et graduaI and orderly manner; so tbat whilst they consolidate, the traces and elements, or forms aod changes, of the motioos they are exposed to, can be fashioned withio them. The reason is tbat, while the

parts are being adjusted to one aoother and increasing in size, they grow hard by degrees. If, therefore, during this interval, the parts wbich as yet are weak, tender, and easily

affected, are agitated by perpetuaI and long-continued motions, their tender texture, being thus constantly in motion and agitation for a long time aud always acquiring form during its growth and expansion, is rendered very pliant and impressionable to the innumerable different motions of this description. But on the otller hand, if an animal arrives

sooner at maturity, and its parts are fixed very quickly

with respect to one anotber before they are accustomed to s1.lch motions, they must be rendered more rigid, and become in a manuer hardened; and so the more subtle parts, and those which are nearer to the most simple, afterwarcls yield with clifficulty tu the motions impressed, and afford no passage throllgh tbemselves but what is gross and obscure, just as if the impressed motion had to pass through a thick covel'ing; for the greater rigidity and thickness of the coverings of the organs and membranes renders them leHs compliant to subtle tremors. The longer, therefore, an animal is in arriving at maturity and the full tension of its parts, the more open will the passage to its most subtle organs be­come, the thinner will be the coverings of its membranes and parts, the more compliant to the motions impressed on them, and the more oumerous the ramifications into which it will extend; consequently, the more perfect will the animal become, provided the means which can perfect him are employed; which consist, as was before said, in perpetu­ally calling his faculties into use, cultivation, and motion,

by meaus of education. Now, althollgh we acquire wisdom by experience alone,

MEANS LEADING TO''4

it does not, therefore, follow that they are the wisest who are

the most experienced, or who retain a great deal in their memory; l affirm only, that they are capable of becoming

wise, and that experience is the means which leads to wisdom.

For experience, considered merely by itself, is knowledge, and

-not wisdom; it is only the threshold and entrance by which

wisdom may be approached. ,He who has knowledge, and

is merely skilled in experiment, bas taken only the first

step to wisdom; for he only knows what is posterior, and

'is ignorant of what is prior; thus his wisdom doe;; not

·extend beyond the organs of the senses, and is unconnected

'with reason. He who desires 1.0 be wise is wise from both.

In the state of ignorance in which we live, experience is

·a kind of phantom, a mere counterfeit which appears like

wisdom. At this day they are reputed the wisest who

bave the greatest experience; by making a display of it

-they are immediately regarded as persons of acute judgment

and refined perception; and the more so, if they have

eloquence and their words are weIl chosen anù arranged;

still more so, if they know how to captivate the ears of

their auditors by sweetness and melody of voice and

accent.. But those alone arrive at the goal of true wisdom

who not only possess a very great store of experience, but

have alsa their organs so formed and disposed, from the

,senses even to the soul, by means of exercise, and 50 \Vell

and closely cannected and arranged, that whenever required,

they can addllce from their treasllres of experience sllch

inst.ances, and such only, as are sllited to the immediate

purpose; by the similitude, analysis, and comparison of

which they are enabled ta l'eason clear1y, and by a chain

of argument to arrive even at the causes of the subject

of enquiry, or at the tbings antecedent and prior to it.

But experience taken by itself, as 1 have said before, is

not wisdom. A painter who possesses colours and c1yes,

and can draw lines with them, is not, therefore, master of

his art; nor is a manufacturer of instruments capable, on

15 TRUE PHILOSOPHY.

tbat account, of skilflllly touching the strings of a barp and producing barmony. He who possesses a large library of books is not necessarily a man of learning, Bor does he,

for tbat reason" deserve the laurel, fol' his \Vit may pro­bably be very gross and very dnll. Or, if we consider the matter more closely and interiorly, the historian who has turned over a multitude of books, anù has learnt from them the fates and vicissitudes of the ages, and the lives and exploits of a11 the heroes, is not on that account wise, and

worthy of being raised to official ernioence; that is, he is

not, from that fact alone, an able member of the common­wealth, and more deserving than others to be seated at the helm. He ought to have the ev.ents and exploits of former times so arranged, by means of his organs and the various chambers of bis memory, as to be able, on every occasion, to refer to such historical circumstances as most resemble and are analogous to the case in hand; and these, as if spontaneously, and no others, ought to present themselves to bis reasoning powers. Nor is he even then wise, unless he has previously penetrated, by rational pbilosophy, into causes ancl principles; so that he may aftorwards be

able to argile upon the present circumstances from causes and principles, or from reason and a pTioTi, and to fo1'm more certain conclusions by a cbain of inferences; and, having his cOUIlscls clerived from such a source, may be

able, by the timely adoption of proper measures, to provide for the welfare of the State.

H, theJ'efore, fo11ows, that he who retains al! the natural experience of the worlel laid up in the storehouse of memory, is not on that account a philosopher, and capable of knowing the causes of things, and of reasoning CI, priori; for to do this, he must know how to digest a11 things analytica11y by means of geometry amI rational philosophy, and must possess the faculty of reasoning philosophically, which consists in a certain arrangement and form of the organs, as connected \Vith the rational faculty, produced by continuaI cultivation and

.ft' MEANS LEAD/NG TO

nse. Tt is th us that a man may first become a philosopher, and penetrate into the causes of things, and afterwards from causes speak by means of experience.

Hitherto we have treated of the first medium leading to philosophical wisdom, or the 'knowledge of the mechanical or organic world; we now proceed to the next.

2. The second means leading to wisdom, by which the

secrets of invisible nature may be unlocked and revealed, is geometry and rational philosophy; by means of which we are enabled to compare our experiments, to set thern in order analytically, to reduce them to laws, rules, and analogies, and thence to elicit sorne thircl or four th thing which was unknown before. Experience alone cannot unfold or disclose

anything, and reduce it to its more simple parts; it cannot so arrange facts that resemble one another as to discover what was unknown by observing its similarity to what is knowLl; for this is the office of reason. But to retain many

things in the memory, and afterwards to form theories or con­clusions respecting things unknown from their resemblances and analogies to such as are known, and thus to speak from a ('hain of experiments, is a method of attaining wisdom at once familial' and natura!.

The whole wor/d itself, elementary, mineraI, and vegetable, and also the animal kingdom, as ta its anatomical organisa­tion, is a pure system of mechanism. The science of mechanics itself with ail its powers, geometry with al! its

figures and quantities, and philosophy with its resources of reasoning sprang solely from the elementary wor/d; they are the ofl'spring of the elements of which they were conceived and born. The science of mechanics is the law of nature herself as she acts and moves in the elements; and it is according

to this that her parts have their motion both in the simple and compound. Without the elements and their regular disposition and motion, no mechanism could exist. As,

therefore, the science of mechanics is the law of elementary nature, it cannot be denied that the war/d itself is suitably

TRUE PH1LOSOPHY. T7

governed by its laws and rules, anù tbat the whole is a mechanism; a fact which becomes the more evident when we observe that nothing can be in et state of motion with­out obeying some mechanical law. If motion is supposed, both the figure of that motion must be supposed, and also its space; consequently, if there are figure and space, as weIl as motion, the whole is mechanical, and is subject to geometrical laws. The very attributes of motion, figure

and space, because they cleave to it, are geometrical. However small a body may be, it is geometrical, because it possesses figure and quantity according to its o\Vn dimen­

sions. It may al50 be considered as subject to the laws of proportion in itself, because there is distance between its limits, and betweell one point of that distance and another there is proportion. The case is the same in other instances. Thus not only motion, but every finite thing in a state of

l'est possesses attriblltes wbich are purely geometrical. Geometry, therefore, accompanies the world from its first origin, or first boundary, to its las t, and is im;eparable from it; so also do the principles of mechanies, though they might be different in a world differently formed, and in elements differently formed and arranged; and thus, although there may be innumerable worlels, nothing can exist in any finite

world which does not depend upou some mechanical principle, and a similar principle of geometry must be common to them aIl. Whoever supposes the \Vorld to be constituted in any other

way, must take refuge in occult qualities, tbat he may conceal his ignorance and preserve his reputation as a philosopher in the learned worId. He whose mind is weil formed cannot deny that the world is composed of elements; that elements are composed of particles; that particles are composed of spaces and forms; that particles of definite form are the result of motion, and of situation suited to such motion;

and that motion and situation have their proportions. As ail things in the world which possess motion and limits ..

are mechanical, it also follows that the smallest natural things, lB

18 J.l1EAN5 LEADING TG

as weIl as the largest, flol\' in a mecha,nical order, and that the

smallest ancl largest are governed by similar mechanical prin­

ciples. And though the particles of the elements are invisible,

and in a great mensllre elude the observation of our senses,

yet, as they are fluent and bounded, they are geometrical, and

must f10w and sllbsist in a mechanical manner. The case

must be the same both \Vith the objects that are \Vithin, and

\Vith those that are beyond, the sphere of our vision. That

the equilibrium and motion of the greater bodies follo\\' the

·common and kno\\'n la\\'s of mechanics, is clear from the case

of the very gre<-ttest. vVe see it to be the case in the vortex of our sun, in the planets, in the earth, in the satellites that

l'evolve wlthin the boundal'ies of the greater vortex and move

elliptically through their propel' orbits \Vith perfect regularity,

exactly as would smaller bodies if they \Vere made to revolve

in a similar orbit. These immense masses are governed by

the same law, or the same centripetal and centrifugai tendency,

as is observable in small bodies that are made in ]1ke

manner to revolve round their centre. A similar proof is

affol'ded by the animal kingdom a180 ; in the case of whales,

elephants, ancl other animaIs; tendons, nerves, muscles, and

fibres are observed to move the feet, arms, fingers, and the l'est

of the organs of the whole body. In certain animaIs we see the

b]oo<1 and fluids flow ancl return tbroùgh the large and small

arteries and veins, and by their proper clucts and vessels;

and either, as in plants, pl'oceed ta certain fixed boundaries, or

continually retrace their steps. "'IVe also see how the lungs per­

form their alternate movements, like a pë.ir of bellows, according

to the inspiration and expiration of the air. That ail these motions are mecbanical, our eyer; are witllesses, for the nerves,

fibres and mnscles, ail properly formecl and adaptecl to the re­

spective movemellts, lie open to view; wbence we are enabled

to învestigate these mechanical and hydraulic machines them­

selves, to handle, as it were, these original motive powers,

and to demonstrate tbat they ail depend upon mechanical

principles.

TRUE PHILOSOPHY. '9

'l'he same observation is true of the organs of the senses.

For it is known that the undulating air flows into the ear,

and occasions in its covering or tYlllpanum a motion imitative of

itself; that it afterwards continues the same motion throughout

its malleus, incus, cochlea, and cbannels and instruments of

sound, toward the interior parts; so that the undulation of

the air seeIllS to have formed such a mechanism of its own,

that it may be recei veJ and transmitteJ farther toward

membranes of the same kind lying within for the reception of

sensation. What a wonderful mechanism is to be seen in the

eye, where there are so many coverings, so many humours and

little f-ibrils, so many nerves leading from them towards the

interior pal·ts-by means of which wbatever is received from

the ether in the eye, insinuates and propagates itself therefrom

in a mechanical \Vay towarùs coverings of the same killd in

the meninges, anJ thus more and more deeply: so that the

ether seems to have formed in the eye a mechanism of Its

own, by which its undulations can be received, aod be farther

transferred toward the interior parts. till sensation is experi­

enced. These con trivances alld minute machines, IIIost

exactly formed, according to the l<LWS of mechanics, fol' the

reception of the modes of motion of the ail' anJ ether, we

can view, examine, and investigate in ail their parts, and sec

their very membmnes and coverings extended, as it were, from

the interiOl' of the !Jead to the light of day, in orJer that the

elements may be able to act immediately upon them, and

more speedily COll vey the impressed motions thence towards

the interiors, by first gradually affecting the coverings of

the same kind, and then such as are smaller and more

sensitive.

From these observations we may conclnJe that the ù,uimal

body is governed by mechanical law, and, as will now be

demonstra.ted, that the same kind of mechanism is found in the smallest allimal as in the largest. For there are anirilalculœ

so small as to escape the observation of the keenest eye, and

to be discoverable only by the aid of lenses and glasses of very

20 MEAN5 LEADING TO

smail aperture: yet these, diminutive as they are and beyond

the limits of our vision, have feet, legs, and other members, which are moved in the same manner as those of great wh ales and elephants; they have lungs which inhale and exhale the

air; tbey have a heart which sends some kincl of blood through their little frames; they have sight, and probably hearing, consequently t,hey bave coverings and membranes, which are extended and expancled from within the head

toward the cye and ear till they come in contact with the

element itself; they have humours, fibres, and vessels receptive of the motions of the elements, by which those motions are transferred toward the coverings and membranes that

are contained witbin this little animated point; they have also their desires, pleasures, gratifications, love'.', parturitions,

and the emotions of their animal spirits. :N ow as there is the same and equally ingenious mechanism in the smallest animal body as in the greatest; and as the former seems, on account of the more subtle texture of its membranes, to·

possess quicker and more perfect motions than those wbose bodies are grosser (for the srnaller animalculre are in a manner nearer to the more subtle and simple elements); wbat other conclusion can be drawn than that nature is the same, is like hersclf, and is governed by similar mechanical laws in the smal1est finite things as in the greatest? Thus also in respect to the elements; if they have motion it must be by means

of partic1es, consequently they must be made up of particles ; and the particles of one element must have the particles of another element within it and without it, with which it must be in contact and in equilibrium. But this will be ex­

plained in tbe course of the work; l only wish to state here, that in these invisible and very small elementary tltings there is the same kind of mechanism as in the greatest; that it is the same in wbales and the smallest insects, in a vast world and a little revolving globe.

If geometry is considered, it will be found ta be always like itself. For if there is space, it is always accompanied

21 TRUE PHILOSOPHY.

by fonn; if there is motion, form too is al ways inseparable

from it; if several spaces and forms are imagined, tIJere

will always be a ratio between those spaces and forms;

there is the same ratio between the greatest numbers as

between the smallest; as for example, there is tbe same

between 100,000,000,000,000 and 500,000,000,000,000

as there is betwecn lOO,OOO,o~,ooo,ooo and lOO.OOO,o~o,ooo,ooo' The case is the same with the differences in the infinitesimal

or differential calculus; that is, there is the same ratio

between (clx) and (dy) as there is between the integers

themselves (:r) and (y), tbough (dce) and (dy) are differences

nearly equal to nothing. 'l'hus also in hidden nature, or the

smallest corpuscular existences, the relative motions among

the smal1est elementary particles cannot differ fi:om those

among the greatest masses in the same configuration,

unless there are present other bodie" outside which can

cause sorne dissimilarity. l t is only that which i8 not

finited or bounded that is out"ide the laws of geometry;

but as soon as anything is limited uy boundaries or

motion, Of' both, it is immediately connected with form

and space, and comes under the empire and control of

geOlnetry, which has for its subject whatevel' has boundary

or form. The mechauism of minute things is better, purer,

ami more conformable to rule, than that of things which are

large and intricately compounded. Fol' in minute things the

weight, circumference, snrface, and fOl'ln are less; their modi­

fication, whicb is tbe cause of change, is less; and consequently

there are less dissimilitude, fewer points of contact, and less

friction; thns in minute things there is llothing to prevent

the wboJe from being geometrically put in motion-a circum­

stance which cannot be hoped for in great bodies, for the

reasons j ust mentioned. As nature operates in the world in a ll1echanical manner,

and the phenomena which she exhibits to our senses are

subject to their proper laws and rules, it fol\ows, that nature

cannot thus operate except by means of contiguity and con­

22 MEANS LEAD/NG TO

nection. Th us the rnechanism of the worlel consists ln

contiguity, without which neither the world nor its

mechanism cOlllel exist. U nless one particle were to

act both upon another and by means of another, or

the whole mass, by al! its particles, were to act as a unit,

anù at the same time at a distance, nothing elementary,

capable of affecting or striking the least organ of sense,

could exist. Ever}' operation takes place by contiguity.

\Vithout 11 perpetuaI connectioll between the end and

the means, there wOllld be no elell1entary nature, and no

vegetable and animal natures thence originating·. The

connection between ends and means fo1'ms the very life

and essence of nature. For nothing can originate from

itself; it must originate from sorne othe1' thing; hence tbere

mllst be a certain contignity and connection in the existence

of natllral things; that is, al! things, in regard to their

existence, must follow one another in successive arder. Thus

al! things in the worId depenc1 for their existence on one

another, since the.re is a connection, by media, from ultima.te

to ultimate, whence al! things have respect to their first

SOllfce from which they exist. For if al! things had not

respect ta their first source, but only to some intermec1iate

link, this intermec1iate woulcl be their ultimate: but an

intermediate cannot exist but from something prior ta itself,

and whateycr exists fl'om something prior ta itself cannat be

the ultimate, but only an intermec1iate; for if it were the

ultill1ate, the worlel would stop short at this ultill1ate and

perish, because it would have no connection with its proper

ultimate by something antecedent. These rema1'ks have

reference to the subject of existence. "YVith respect ta the

subject of contingencies, or modes and modifications, which

exist both from 1Iltimate, simple, and intennediate sub­

stances, these must be continuons and mutual!y connected,

depeneling successively on one another from one end ta the

other. Th us must aU things, both those which are essential and

those which are incidentaI, necessarily have a connection \Vith

TRUE PHfLOSOPHY. 2}

their first ~ubstantial principle; for they proceed ~olely t'rom

simple 01' compound substances; and as the~e substances

depend for their existence upon one anotber, it foUows that

the modifications related to those substances must be de­

pendent on the same connection.

We sec then that there is contiguity in aU thiugs, and that nature prod uces them by means of the connect.ion from

one end to the other, of both substances and causes. Wbat­

ever is first produced by such connection must continue to

subsist by the same means. We see in plants that t11ere is

:.1 connection between the root itself and aU the extrernities,

and every least part of the extrelllities; that there is a

connection between the intermediate stem and the little

twigs and leaves, by infinite filaments stretching from one

shoot, branch, and ~talk, into another, and thu~ affording

hidden ways and passages for the continuaI reception of

nourishment. It is in ~uch contiguity that vegetation itself

consists; and the life of the plant afterwards continues in the

same contiguity and connection; the part where it ceases no

longer grows, but withers and dies, and drops useless from its

stem.

The case i5 the saille in animaIs; parts cover over parts,

and grow by contiguity. Both the nervous and membranous

~ystem is coherent and contiguous. There is no part in the

whole animal to which the fibres, muscles, veins, and arteries

do not extend; no fibre, that is Dot derived and ramified

from some larger nerve; no nerve, that does not proceed

from the medulla spinalis or oblongata and its coverings; and

uo vein, but what originates from that great one which flows

immediately from the heart. The medulla aud its coverings,

with which the nerves are connected, are in contiguity with

the very membranes of the whole brain; its grosser coverings

are contiguous to its more subtile ones; the dura mater 1.0

the pia mater; the pia mater to the more subtle parts; aud

thus the contiguity is continued tiU it arrives at those simple active substances, from which aU motions or affections can

24 MEANS LEADING TG

afterwards refiect and expand themselves ta the most sllbtle

principles of ail. It is, therefore, manifest that there is a

continuai connection of the \Vhole body \Vith its lI1inutest

parls. If the connectio\l with any part \Vere broken, that

part \Vould no longer partake of the life of the l'est of the

body, but \Vollld die, having lost its contiguity. If a connect­

ing part, med iating between the grosser and more subtle

motions of the body, \Vere to be broken, something like death

wonld seize that part. Hence also the poets have comlJared the life and fates of man to a continuous thread woveu by the

Fates, and they feigned that if this thread \Vere anywhere

severed, his life wou Id also be cut off and ail the series of his

destinies.

But to return to our elementary world. If we admit

~ontiguity, we immediately have causes for every occurrence;

but if there be no cOlltiguity, nothing can occur in the world,

because there is no cause for its happening either in one

manner or in another. The canse and reason of ail effects

and phenoillena is to be found in cOlltiguity and cOllnection.

If this princi pie of contiguity of nature \Vere to begill to be dilllinished and fail, the world, as tu the phenomena existing

in it, \Vould fail and pant as it \Vere for breath, and be

reduced to its last extrcillity. Thus ail things depenJ on

sOlllething contiguoW:i to them, as the body depends on life,

heariug on the air, sight on the ether. The equilibrium of

ail things in the elements depends also on contiguity. The air itself could not undergo and communicate pressure accord­

ing to its altitude, nor could it force IIp the mercury in the

barometer to indicate the approaching weather, unless its

particies \Vere contiguous to, and rested upon one anather,

and unless the pressure and weight of its lowest particles, or

those nearest the earth, were lJalanced ily those which are

above the clouds; neither could any particle of air expanJ itself,

nor could there be so exact a proportion betweeu tbe ùegree of

its expansion and the superincumbent weight, without the

contiguity, continuous action, and consequently equal pressure,

25 TRUE PH.lLOSOPHY.

of the surrounding particles. Nor could the air vibrate so

-distinctly and harmoniously, and actuate the drum of the

ear in a manner conformable to itself, and operate as it does

in every direction, unless there were contigllity. ,Vithout

the existence, from the sun to our globe and to the eye,

of more subtle clements, the particles of which are con­

tiguous to one another, the eyes could not behold the

sun; there would be no Jight, and no sight or perception

of light; but as the eye sees and perceives objects at a

distance, it is clear that there is a contiguity between

itself and the sun, the stars, and the planets. In short, no

reason can be assigned for any phenomenon, unless we admit

contiguity or connection; for no phenomenon can exist,

except in something contiguous. The conclusion, therefore,

is, that the mechanical world depends upon contiguity and

cOllnection.

l'hat there is a connection and contiguity in the elements,

appears also in men and animals, who are constituted, and in a

mêmner formed, according to that connection and contiguity of

the elements. In sorne, the connection of things existing in

the elements appears to be natural, for aU the harmony in the

elements answers to the connection of thcir organs, and so

a corresponding harmon)' is felt in their organs without any assistance from mles: for to some men and animals the

mechanism of the world is natural, or is familial' to them

by nature without any other instructor. 'l'hus wc tind the

hearing delighted by harmonious sounds and the concordant

vibration of musical strings. Musical harmony has itself also

its own rules and its own geometry: but we have no need

to learn this; wc have it in the car itself and the organs of

hearing, which are in harmonious coherence. \Ve are ex­

hilarated, affected, entranced by harmollious and concordant

sounds; but discordant sounds give us pain. For sound when

harmonious, glides on into the soul as it were spontaueously by

means of the connection between the two, and with an even

stream; but when it is discordant, the connection is immedi­

26 MEAN5 LEADING TO

ately distmbed and distorted, and the sound does not arnve

at the soul witbout giving pain. It is from the same cause

that sorne persons are musicians by nature, and know im­

mediately how to accompany their voice with an instrument,

or an instrument \Vith their voice, without a master; although

music, like ail other things in the worlel, has its own geo­

metrical rules and proportions. The eye, a180, can feel

whether a thing be harmoniously formed or not; if it is,

and its mechanism is weil arrangecl, the soul is immediatcly delighted through the eye. 'l'bus the eye discerns wh ether a

tree is growing and flourishing in a mallner to give us a

sense of beauty and delight; whether the ornaments of a

garden conform to the ru les of art; whether certain mixtures

of coloms harmonize weil; w hether an edifice with its parts is

constructed according to rule; whether anything is beautiful

and, therefore, clelightful; whether the face of a man or of a

virgin is finely formecl or not: and ail this it does without

knowing the l'nIes in conformity with which beauty consists;

alth011gh, nevertheless, beauty has its proper rules, and consists

in a conformity and harmony of parts. As, too, tbere is a like

connection and harmony between the eye and the minci,

therefore whatever is harmonious immediately fiows, with

even course, ta the mind, which it exhilarates alld expands;

'l'hile ail things that are distorted, and not in conformity,

occasion it a certain violence.

vVe have still more striking tokens of barmony in the other

senses, as in the slDell and taste, by which latter sense alone

we can discover whetber the parts of a substance be angular

or rouncl, or what is their form and figure. The mechanism,

therefore, of some things is natural to our senses. As brute

animaIs also are formed accorcling to the connection of the

worlel and its elements, so also the organs of their senses

are in like manner endowed with a connection and harmony similar to that of the elementary world itself; hence there are

indications, in many of them, of a certain natural mechanism. vVe see the spider construct her webs in a geometrical manner,

27 TRUE PH1LOSOl'HY.

c1rawillg radii from a centre, and binding them together III

polygons and circles; and she places herself in the middle, and lies in ambush for her prey. ,Ve see the beaver buiJd bimself a house, neatly fitting one beam to another; exactly like an arcbitect who proceeds by geometrical principles and rules. We see birds build their nests, in various ways, of boughs, straw, reeds, earth, and clay, so that it wouId be scarcely possible to bllild them better by the ru les of art. They know how to give a round form to their nest, to attach it to the' caves of buildings or boughs of trees, to contrive

. supports for it, and ta unite together its parts so as to leave in the middle a cavity lined with chaff or feathers, withill

which in soft repose they may lay their eggs, and pass the perioc\ of incubation. Bees form for themselves hexagonal cells of \\"ax; and there are numberless other instances. These instances may suffice to point ont and confirrn the existence of a natural mechanism; for the senses are formed

in accordance with the mechanism of the elementary worlel,

and everything is in agreement with the senses which suits the continuity of their structure.

But though the world is mecbanical and composed of a series of fi nite things wh ich originate by means of the most varied contingents; and though the world, being of such a

nature, may, with the aid of geometry, be explorec\ by means of experiment and its phenomena; it does not, therefore, follow that ail things in the world are subject to the government of geometry. For there are inullmerable things that are not mechanical, nor even geometrical; snch as the Infinite, and whatever is in the Infinite. Geometry treats only of finite and limited things and of the fOrIns and spaces originating from these, together with their several dimensions; but that which

is Infinite 1S beyond and above the sphere of geometry, being regarded by it as its origin and first beginning. For the finite rAcognises that its origiu is in the' Infinite. ViTithout

the Infinite the finite could neither arise nor subsequentl)' subsist; and to this every finite refers itself, even geometry

28 MEANS LEADING TG

also. Geometry, therefore, is itself subservient to that

most vast Infinite, t'rom wbich as from their fountain-head such

an infinite num ber of finite things emanate, and owns that

tbere is nothing in itself either similar or analogous to iL

There is then an Infinite, which can by no means be geome­

trically explored, because its exi"tence is prior to geometry, as

being its cause. There are also many other things, the

nature of which, though they originated from the Infinite, and

began ta exist together with the world, has not yet been dis­

covered by allY geometry or any rational philosophy: for instance, that intelligent principle which exists in animais,

or the soul, whicb, together with the body, constitutes their

life.

vVe may perhaps learn the mechanism of tbe ol'gaus, and

may kllOW how they are moved by muscles, tendons, fibres,

and nerves, by the feet, arrns, and other members; how the

undulating ail' is recei ved by the membranes and instruments

·of the ear, and is represented within tbe chambers of the

brain by means of sounds; we may also come ta kuow how the

ether exhibits a mode of motion of itself in the eye, and ruus

through the tissues of its nerves till it reacbes the meuinges

of the bl'ain; how a motion extends and expands itself out of

a grosser into a more suutle medium, and thus arrives more

distinctly at the rnost subtle membranes. Perhaps, too, we

ma)' kllow how a motion is received by some subtle active

principle, and how it does not and cannot relax its tension

till choice bas determined it into act by meaus of the will.

vVe also see every emotioll and mode of the soul exhibited

mechanicaily in the uody. But after ail, what that intelli­

gence itself is which is iu the sou l, which knows and is able to

determine, which kno\\'s and is able to choose, and to let one

thing pass out iuto act and not another, we are obviously

ignorant. For it does not consist merely in the relation or re­

action of motions proceeding from grosser llledia, through such

as are more subtle, to that contexture of active principles where

perception takes place; for this exists in the elements every­

TRUE PHILOSOPHY. 29­

where, yet there is not, on this account, an intelligent prlnciple in everything belonging ta the elementary world. In the souls of brutes, tao, there are the indications of a kind of intelligence. Birds kno\\' ho'" ta fonn their nests according ta just proportion and mechanical rule; they kno", how ta

deposit their eggs, t.o sit upon them, ta hatch and l'ear their infant brood-functions that are variously performed by various species according ta the difference of nature in their tender

offspring. Other animaIs are aware of the approach of winter and make timely provision against it. Ants throw up their hills, and diligent.ly carry and store up in them snch things as ought ta be under shelter during the win ter. Bees know ta suck honey and wax from f1owers; to construct hexagonal cells, and ta store and fill them np ",ith honey. The eider

ones know how to send out their offspring ta forlU new colonies; to kill their useless companions and drones, and to cut off their wings; in a ward, they know how ta make provision that they may not perish with hunger in the winter when no sustenance is ta be found; not ta mention otlier marks of their prudence and natural intelligence. \Ve see the spider construct her artful snare ",ith crossing Enes and bincling circ1es, and then Iying in the midd le, sa place her feet as instant1y ta feel on which thread of her web the boaty has

fallen. What marks of prudence excite our wonder in the fox! What artful frauch and cunning tricks cloes he practise ! \Vhat wonders of a like nature are observable in innumerable

other animal::;; and a1l f10wing naturally from a grosser kind of sonl. But what is the nature of this intelligence, pertain­ing ta the active being of animaIs as an inherent quality, geometry has hitherto been unable ta discover; and we are yet ignorant whether the laJws ta which it is snbject are similar ta those of mechanics; although it cannat be cleniecl ta have laws, because it has an orderly connection, and is

natura!. In the soul of brutes there is sorne idea of this intelli­

gence; in man it is more distinct and rational; in the

.MEAN5 LEAD.ING TG3°

Infinite it is infinite, and infinitdy surpasses the comprehen­

sion and sphere of the highest rational intelligence. Tbere

are also many othe1' things which OCClll' in the worlel that

cannot be called geometrical. Thus there is a rrovidence

respecting all things, which is infinite in the Infinite, or in

the Being who is provident in the highest degree; and there

f0110ws thence a connection or series of consequents, according

to which all circumstances are determined and arranged, by

causes and the causes of causes, toward a certain end. vYe

sce from experience, and Ct poste?'ùYI'i, that tbere is such <1,

connecti.on of incidentals, from causes, and their results in

proclucing a given end; but to know the nature of this connection, Cl p?'iori, is not witbin man's province or th,:J,t of

geometry. 1'here are also innumerable other things whicb wc in vain endeavour ta explore by geometry and Π2Jl'im'i; as,

perhaps, the nature of love. vVe see, a poslerim'i tbat it has

its consistence in the connection of things; that the exercise

of love independently of the organic body is antecedent to

corporeal pleasure; and, l>eing conjoined in the animal with

intelligence, prodllces everything which C,tn concIuce ta the

preservation and perpetuation of its kind. The ancients re­

gardecl love as being of great importance, attributing to it tbe

production of the universe; and many will assert that traces

of intelligent love are to be found in plants and inanimate

objects. Them is probablyan infinite nllmber of other things,

of wbich we have no knowledge and wbich yield no obedience

ta the known laws of mechallics. Hence we ma)' conclude,

that there are qualities in the soul that are still very remote from mecha,nical apprehension: so that, even if wc knew ail

the mechanism and geometry of the visible worlel, of animal

organization, of plant life, or any other departmellt of nature, there is still an infinite number of things of which we are

ignorant.

But since intelligence in the soul is not mechal1ical, but

only the mode in which the soul operates, we next enquire

wbat that is in the sou1 which is not mecbanical, and

31 TRUE PHILOSOPHY.

what is its essential rational and intelligent principle which is not subject to known laws. The rational principle in the

soul does not consist in knowing many things which the

world naturally exhibits and presents to the senses; for this

knowledge has reference to the world, the senses, and ex­

perience. The rational principle does not consist in knowiug

the figures and spaces in which motions tenniuate; for this is

the province of geometrical science. The rational principle

does Ilot consist in knowing the proportion between figures

and spaces, and the other rule~ and proportions of motion, by

which the worlel acts and proc\uces its phenomena; for this

belongs to nature, meebanics, science, and philosophy. But the rational principle consists in knowing how, and at the

same time in being able, to arrange into such order and con­nection the reasons known l'rom the wodd, so as to vieil' tllèir

analogy ; yet this presu pposes an active principle, or a certain

force, impelling iuto motion ail those things wbich inhere in a

similarly orderly manner in its organs; that is, it presupposes

a sou1. The rational active principle derived from this, COll­

sists in knowing ho11', and in beiug able, actually to elicit from

analogy a third or fourth truth previously nnknown. A

subsequent rational principle consists in oeing able to form

a certain series and conucction of sach l'casons, consisting of

things known and unknown in succession, till it distinctly

arrives at the end it has in vieil'. To accomplish this, aU

the sciences must co-operate with reason; as geometry,

mechallics, rational philosophy, together with aoundant ex­

perience. The rational principle in the soul, therefore, is the

continuaI amdysis of those things which inhere in the same

orderly manner in its organs. These observations may suffice respecting the second mcans

of arriving at a mechanical knowledge of the secret things of

nature; we now come to treat of the third means, or the

faculty of reasoning. 3. The third meéms by which we may anive at a true

philosophy in cosmology, and at the knowledge of hiddün

32 MEAN5 LEAD/NG TO

nature, is the facnlty of reasoning. Let experience and geometry he given; that is, let a man possess the utmost store of experimental knowledge and be at the same time a skilful geometer, and yet suppose him to be deficient in the faculty of reasolling correctly, or of comparing the several parts of his knowledge and experience, and presenting them distinctly to the soul; he can never know the mysteries

and in ward recesses of pltilosophy. Knowledge without reason, -a vast mass of things in the memory without judgment to separate and clearly distinguish them, and without the

talent of deducing the nnknown object of inquiry from certain known data, by means of a rational or geometrical analysis-in a word, the possession of the means without the faculty of arriving at the end, does DOt make a philosopher'. the maids of Parnassus will not entwine any laurel-wreath, plucked from the sacred bill, arollnd the brow of him who is destitute of this talent. The faculty of reasoning correctly,

and of arriving at the end in view by the proper means, which are experience and geometry, is the characteristic of the rational man. But a like faculty of reasoning is not given, and at this day cannot be given, to aIl. There are sorne who are unable to attain to it through some defect of nature; being deprived of it from the first moment of their birth by disease or congenital fault. We see chilclren born into the fOl'm and likeness of their parents; with the sam€ face, that is, with the signs and marks as if of the same face; the same disposition; the same situation and arrange­ment of their organs; with much the same faculty of reason­ing as their parents; and inheriting their very diseases, which in tbis case are called hereditary. Some also, by defect, are born blind, or deaf, or idiots, having the brain of improper weight, dimension, or form, who, therefore, are able to acquire nothing, or very little, of the faculty of reasoning, by any use or practice; for their organs cannot be so disposed as to a.fford a distinct communication of motion from the senses to

the soul and its reason. A passage may, indeed, be open to the

33 TRUE PHILOSOPHYo

more Rubtle interiors, but it is one that is irregular, indistinct,

imperfect and dark. There are others who labour under no natural defect; but who, having been deprived of the advan­tages of a proper education, and, being without experience, have been nnable to acquire any talent for reasoning; the \Vay that leacls from their senses to the soul may be comparec1

ta the passage of rays through a very dense medium and through a cloud to the eye; their animal motions do not arri ve distinctly at their acti ve prineiples, but stop, as it were, in the middle of their course; the forms of the motions, as

in other living things, seem scarcely able to travel any further, because the organs are not yet fashioned, as it were,

by use and cultivation, that is to say, have not yet become

contiguous to, and conjoined with, their more subtle life. The organs are indeed potentially there, but require exercise to form and fit them for use. But when, by experience and knowledge, they are adapted to motions and tremors of every kind, there are then innumerable things inherent in them,

which, by sorne active principle or motive force, are cap­

able of being brought forth into act, and so arranged as to gi ve their possessor the capacity to reason, or to display the operations of his rational faculty. U nless a motion can penetrate successi vely, by means of con tiguity, from grosser things toward those which are more subtle, it either stops

in grosser or mediate th ings, or passes into a state of

obscl1rity. In proportion, therefore, as a man's store of experience is greater, and its disposition and distribution through the organs are more peI°fect; in proportion, also, as the harmony of his mediate organs is more exact, and their form better adapted to the conveyance of every kind of tremor or vibration, and in proportion as the passage is

more deeply opened, in series and continuity, to the most subtle things of ail, so mllch the wiser may the man

become. Tt \Vas said above, that the facllity of reasoning is acquired

by cultivation, or, that we are rendered rational by exercise le

3.+ MEAN5 LEADING TO

and education; and likewise, that we lTIay becorne more

rational in proportion to the length of time through which

we aclvance to maturity, or in proportion to the number of

years which are required to form and consolidate the organs.

But we treat of this below. But that the natme and quality of the faculty itself

may be cleady unclerstood, it must be observed, that our

knowleùge and experience must be so arranged and hal'­

moniously diffllsed throughout the organs, that immedi­

ately on the approach of any active principle or power, aIl

those things so arranged that are of a sirpiiar nature, should

immediately vibrate and l'un as it were to meet it, and

present themselyes to the soul simultaneously; but no others,

except obscurely, by virtue of their connectioo. IL is as if

there were a hundred musical strings of equal length and

tension, one of which being moved or struck, al! the others vibrate withont being touched, l'lin as it \Vere together into

the same sound, and present themselves at once in concord ta

the ear. This being pl'emised, it fo11ows that our wlsdom is

proportionecl ta the a.cqnisitions of our memory.

Suppose, then, that the means are ours, that we have

acquired the power and facllity of reasoning aud have brought

it into actual operation, we may arrive at true philosophy,

or may be able by the aid of experiments to speak and treat of

the phenomena of nature from their causes; in fact, we may

arrive at the very fountain-head from which al! things that

appear mysterious are derived. 'Vith respect ta the kno\V­

ledge of the clements, which is the chief subject of discussion

in the present volume of our Pri?'wipiŒ, l confess tha.t it

appears ta be of the most secret nature, being remote and

incapable of being perceived by the senses. Nevertheless, the motions of the volumes in the elements are perceptible to

our sight and hearing. Thus elemcntary nature places before our eyes the most diverse phenomena, by which, as by sa

many tokens, she seems tü reveal herseIf; now sporting haU

naked before our view, nolV concealing herself; yet by her

35 TRUE PHILOSOPHY.

phenomena ever displaying her image to observation as in

a mirror. For we see that aH things are acted upon and put in motion according to laws; that they all fiow from the

motion and arrangement of smalt bodies of different forms in mu tuaI contact. If, therefore, experiment and geometry are callec! to our aid, l have no doubt, under their auspices and leadership, that we can arrive at some knowledge of the things in our world that do Dot appear to our sight; especially since elementary nature, as just observed, is perpetually sporting so beautifully before our senses, and entertaining them with her illusions, always showing her face hall' unveiled to geometers and philosophers. Let us then call the proper

l1leans to our assistance, and we shall probably arrive at the true causes and knowledge of things occult. Unless, however, principles be formed with which experiment and the phenomena of our world agree, geometry also adding its calculus, they are ta be regarded as the mere fictions anù dreams of a delirious mind. But if our principles agree with cxperiment, and are a.lso confirmed by the test of geometry, then it may be per­mitted us to liken them to truths, and to declare them to be a legitimate offspring. How t'ttr this may be affirlll ed of my Princ'ipia, i t is for the reader to deciele.

4. By a true philosopher, we understand a man, who, by the means above treated of, is enabled to arrive at the real causes and knowledge of those things in the mechanical worlel which are invisible and remote from the senses; and who is afterwards capable of reasonillg Œ lY1"ioTl:, or from first prillciples or causes, concerning the woriel and its phenomena, both in physics, chcmistry, metallurgy, anù ail other sciences or subjects which are under the government of mechanical principles; and who can thus, as from a central point, take a sUl'vey of the whole munùane system and of its mechanical and philosophical laws. For the lllechanicai worlcl of nature is not unlike a spider's web, and natural philosophy ma)' be compared to the spider herself. The spider choases a situation which will permit her to fasten her threads ta the

36 MEANS LEADING TG

various parts of surrounding objects; the radii whicb Hhe­draws sbe then causes to meet in a certain centre, and these she ties and connectH together, at various distances, by circles and polygons; her design being to bring all the parts of the sphere which she occupies into contact with one another.

Then betaking herself to the middle or centre, she so plants her feet on the threac1s or rac1ii, as to be able to perceive the smallest particle that may alight on any of the mdii at any distance; so the creature snares her food, and while thus lying in n,mbush, she knows immediately whether anytbing has come into her web, and feels into what part of it the prey has fallen; for by tbat very tlu'ead and no other, she darts out instan tly and seizes her entangled victim,

Now nature hel'self closely resem ble:; tbis spicler's web; for she consists, as it were, of infinite ra<.1ii proceeding from a,

certain centre, and connected together, in like manner, by

infinit~ circles and polygons; so that nothing can happen in one of them which does Dot immediately extend itself to the centre, and from this it is refiected and distributed through a great portion of the fabric. It is by such contact and connectioll tbat nature is able tn perform her operations, and in this her very essence consistH; for wherever this contact is interrupted, wherever a thread of the web is broken so as to dissolve the connection between the centre and its circum­

ferences, there nature herself cease~ and terminates. Natural philosophy is capable of taking ber station, with nature herself, near this centre to which ail natural things have reference, or where 11,11 the motions or affections of ail tbe surrounding parts are concentrated. She is capable of in­stantly knowing and feeling anything that occurs in the

peripheries, what it is and whence it cornes; and is able to explain to nature her companion the reasons why the phenomena occur successively, and by a kind of necessity, at a definite distance, in a definite manner, and in no otber. In a word, she is able, from the centre, to take a simultaneous view of her in finite circu mferences, and survey ail her

37 TRUE PHILOSOPHY.

'illundane system at a glallce. She does not therefore take

up her abode in the mere outward circumference, or like a

fiy entangle herself with great labour and effort more and

more in the web and become the prey and sport of her own wisdom.

Were it possible,. by such means, ta bring ta light the

nature of the elemen tary, and afterwards that of the metallic,

vegetable, and finalJy that of the animal kingdom, how great

woulù be the advantages which the world would reap from

the discovery! For if we knew Π]J1'i01'i the causes of the

things in these kingdoms, and \Vere able to speak of them,

commencing from the same princip~es and Cll,uses from which

nature herself brings forth and manifests her phenomena,

every one might then know the abjects which she has in

view; every one lUight then give responses as from the

inmost recesses and from behind the veil of nature's temple;

every philosopher would be a Themis or Apollo, that is, would

know ail the phenomena that could exist, and would hold the

vastest sciences in a nut-shell. But if any one is content with

devising principles, and is so indulgent to his imagination as

not to look for the evidence of them in geometry and their

agreement with physical facts; or if he forms ta himself a

distinct theOl'Y for every series of phenomeua, and for every series of experiments contri ves new links of connection, and,

wben hi::; fragile ties give way, endeavours to restore their

coherence with clumsy knots-such a one can never be ad­

mitted to these oracles. Surely nature will look at him and

laugh at him as a bungler who wastes his time in ùreamy toil;

or as an infant wishing to build nests in the air, to provide

them with eggs and there to hatch young; or as a simpleton

employed in making for himself \Vings of wax, vainly regard­

ing himself, not as Icarus, but as Mercury-ambitious of

directing his flight towards the sun-and believing, as the

poet sings, "1 muy not thwart

The prompting god, that bids these lips disclose Oracular the secret of the skies,

38 MEANS LEAD/NG TO

The scheme anrl plll'pOSe of the Mind Suprcme, And ail the mighty mysteries, hidden long From earlier quest." 1

No man seems to have been able to arrive at true phila­

sophy, since the age of that first of mortals who is said to have been in a state of the most perfect integrity, that is to say, who was formed and made acc ording to ail the art, similitude, ancl scheme of the world, before the existence of vice. Ail who are governed by a right mind, aspire after, incleed, are intensely desirous of arriving at the same degree of wisdolll, as at something which has been lost. But how far it is possible to succeed none but the true philosopher can see; he who is only in part a philosopher, or who wishes to be repnted one, ma)' imagine himself ta have arrived at the

goal, and even ta have proceeded beyond it; although his wisclom is mere foily.

The reason wh)' man in a state of integrity was made a

complete philosopher, \Vas that. he might the better know how to venerate the Deity-the Origin of ail things-that Being who is ail in aIl. For without the utmost devotion to the Snpreme Being, no one can be a complete and truly learned philosopher. True philosophy and contempt of the Deity are two opposites. Veneration for the Infinite can nover be separated from philosopby; for he who thinks himself wise, whilst his wisdom does not teach him to acknowledge the Divine and Infiuite, that is, he who thinks he can be wise without a knowledge of and veneration for the Deity, has no wisclom at aIl. The philosopher sees, indeed, tbat God governs His creation by rllles and mechanical laws, and that the RouI governs the body oy rules and mechanical laws; he may even know what these are; but ohe nature of that Infinite Being, from whom, as from their fountain, ail things in the world derive their existence and subsistence-and what is the nature of that Supreme Intelligence \Vith its infinite mysteries -he in vain strives to know.

1 Ovid's 11JctCtmo?'Phoses, Lib. xv. Il. 144·147, tl'3.l1s1ated by H. King.-Tn.

39 TRUE PHILOSOPHY.

'Yhen, therefore, the philosopher has arrived at the end of ltis studies,even supposing hirn to have ë1cquired socompletea kno\\'­ledge of allmundane things that nothing further remains for him ta learn, he must there stop; for he can never know the nature

of the Infinite, of Supreme Intelligence, Supreme Providence, Supreme Love, Supreme Justice, and other infinite attributes. He will, therefore, acknowledge that in respect ta this supremely intelligent and wise Being, he kno\Vs nothing; he will there­fore most profonndly venerate Him with the utmost devotion of soul; and that veneration, from the mere thollght of Him,

will cause his whole frame, or membranous and sense system, from the inmost to the outermost principles of its beillg, reverently, yet agreeably to tremble.

As nature is the beginning of the changes that OCCLU" in the world or natural universe, or as nature is the motive or active force, or collection of forces, it follows that the world is

dependent on nature and in separable from it; and that the world is nothing without nature, and nature is nothillg without the \Vorld. But Infinite existellce is still Infinite existence independently of the world; no conception can be

formecl of a world without Illfinite existence; it is everything and it is universal in the \Vorld. 'Ye see then that without the \Vorld nature cannot be, but that the In finite cau, and

that the Infinite Being is capable of being separated from the worlel. We see also that aIl things were produced by the Infinite, that the \Vorld was created by Him, and \Vith the

world nature herself. Nature is only a ward which connotes aH the actuating forces proceeding from the first motion of the

Infinite till the world \Vas completed; with this first motion it begins; and as this is produced Ly the Infinite, 50 also is nature. They, therefore, are mere children, and have reached scarcely the first threshold of true philosophy, who

ascribe to nature the origin of ail things. to the exclusion of the Infinite; or who confound the Infinite and nature

together; when yet the Jatter is only an effect, or thing caused, the Infinite being its Generator and Cause. Nature,

MEANS LEADING TO4°

however, when once prod uced, may be called the generator and

cause of the world, in so far as aH things afterwards suc­

cessively exist by derived motive forces anù modifications.

Yet it cannot be called the first cause: for no other idea can

be conceived of the first motion or mode, than that of an

immediate production from the Infinite; therefore this moùe

cannot oe cnJled an attribute or the essence of the Infinite,

the essence of the Infinite consisting in Itself alone. Nor can it

be denied that the Infinite existed before the world, (which

,vil! be the subject of our second chapter); neither can this

mode be a mode of the Infinite; for no such thing can be

said or predicated of the Infinite except by way of eminence; but it is an immediate production from the Infinite. It

fol1ows, therefore, that nature, beginning from such motion or

mode, is a tbing caused and produced.

Now as al! nature together with the whole worlJ, is the

work of God Himself; as ail contingent circumstances, before

the world \Vas produced and completed, are to be nscribed

solely to His wisdom; so also, in case He should be pleascd

by other contingent causes to display new phenomena, whether

Foreign and contrary to the natllre of our world, or in conformity

with it,yet :;uch as cannot be produced by any other active

principle than the Deity-to the same Infinite Wisdom must these also be ascribed. Th us true philosophy leads to the

most profound admiration and adoration of the Deity; nor

can anything he found to diminish, but an infinity of things to

increase, tbis admiration. As when a man sees that ail things

are from the Infinite, and that in cOlllparison with the Infinite

he hirnself, as a finite being, is notbing; when also he sees

that ail his oIVn wisdom and philosophy, in comparison \Vith

the Di vine wisdom, bear the same proportion as the finite

to the Iutinite-that is, as nothing.

Neither does true philosopby detract from the credibility of miracles, ail things being ascribed to the divine omnipotence,

as the origin of the worlù, and its formation by various means

and successive changes. There is no contingent mean,

41 TRUE PHILOSOPHY.

tending to the perfection of the world, which is not a miracle.

The world itself is a miracle; whatever exists in any of its

kingdoms, whether in the animal, the minerai, or the vegetable,

exists by a miracle, because it exists by a contingent mean,

which, by a series of others, is terminated in the Infinite itself,

as in the first cause of ail cOl1tingent means. For it cannot

be denied that intermediate causes and changes proceed

successively from the Supreme Being, who produces ail things

perfectly, and cond ucts them to their destined end. Now

what He thus produces by contingent means and causes,

cannot be said to be contrary to the order of universal nature,

but according to it; and although something may appear

which does not agree with the nature of our world, or there

may be phenomeua not consistent with the mechanism of our

world, yet even in this case they must exist from certain

causes, which, like the world itself, derive their origin from

the Infinite alone. And relatively to the mechanism of our

world, it is a series of miracles alone that could produce

one such phenomenon or miracle; similarly wben returning to

its first origin and cause bycontrary contingent means, it

would be by a series of miracles alone; that is, supposing our

world to remain the same as before tbe miracle took place.

Ail things which exist in auy other world, were they to

occur in our own, would be miracles, as being contrary

to its laws of motion-to its order of succession and

modification; although prod uced according to the order

·of nature, and in their own world quite natura!. In sbort,

if a miracle exists, it exists from the Infini te; if from tbe

Infinite, it exists by means of causes. There may also be

miracles which agree with the mecbanism of our world, and

others which are foreign to it; but neither can be produced

but by some one or other active intinite principle, of which

we can form no idea, and, consequently, cannot understand its

cause. But probably yon may wonder why l affirmed, at the

beginning of this chapter, that ail our wisdom or true philo­

42 MEANS LEAD/NG Ta

sophy must be acquired by the use of means; and that the

way ta reason and tbings priaI' is 1.0 be opened by experience

and posterior things; thus, that our body and externai senses are

our only teachers and leaders, leaving but little 1.0 the mind,

from which, nevertheless, as its fountain, all reasoning must

proceed, or ta which ail things must have l'eference; con­

sequently, that the millCI of itself, without the use of means, is

nnable to give any instruction or din'lction to its body. 1

will, therefore, draw a picture of the two states of man; first of his state of integrity, which was most perfect, and then of

that perverted and imperfect state in which we mortals live

at this day. From sucb n cornparison ie will probablyappear,

that i1. is only by the use of the means above mentioned that

the way ta the most subtle active principles can be opened,

and that this way can only be prepared by experiments.

To b~iD, then, with man in bis state of integrity and COlll­

piete perfection. ln such a man we may conceive that thel'e

\Vas snch a complete contiguity throughout the IJarts of his

system, that every motion proceeding with t-\, free course from

his grosser parts or principles could arrive, through an unin­

terrnpted connection, at bis most subtle substance or active

principle, there being notbing in the way which could cause

the least obstruction. Such a man may be compared to the

world itself, in which ail things are contiguous frorn the sun

ta the lowest part of our atmosphere. Thus the motions about the sun, or rays, proceed with an uninterrupted course,

and almost instantaneously, by means of contiguity, through

the more suutle or the grosser elements, tbrough etber 1.0

the air, till they reach the eye and act upon it, by virtne of such connection, as if they were present; for contiguity

occasions the appearance of presence. When, therefore, the

most subtle active principle of man, by the providence of

Gad, c10thed itself \Vith a body, and added, by degrees, parts

upon parts, ail the motions in the most subtle elements which

were present would necessarily move or affect that extremely

impressionable and tender substance, and would gradually

43 TRUE PHILOSOPHY.

imprint themselves and their own mechanism upon il. Sa also would the motions in tiJe grosser elements, such as the air; for this, always moving and undulating around it, and perpetually acting upon the same substance, would also form to itself something similar, and, by its continuai motion, cause itself, as in the case of the other elements, to be received within. The same would occur in regard to whatever \Vas fluent in

the air \Vi th a more unequal motion, for the atmosphere is always stored \Vith tlJe effiuvia of plants, etc.; tbis, therefore, by its continuaI contact, \Vould form its o\Vn mechanism in

the sense of smel!. In a word, during the growth of the very tender parts possessing motion and life, every motion that 'l'as perpetually present must nocessarily have left indi­cations of itself, and must consequently have naturally formed

its own mechanism, so as after\Vards to be received still more interiorly, but in the same manner as in the yet tender substances.

The man thus formed, in whom ail the parts ",ere co­ordinated to receive the motions of al! the elements, and te convey them successively, when received, through a contiguous

medium, to the extrelllely su btle active principle, must be

deemed the most perfect and the first of ail men, being one in who111 the connection of ends and means was continuous. In a short time so perfect a material and active being would

by the senses alone become posse'ssed of ail the philosophy and experimental science natural to him; for whatever could present itself to his senses, would immediately flow, by con­nection and contiguity, to his extremely subtle and active first

principle. Thus whatever presented itself to the eye would immediately flow, through the minute membranes set in

motion by its undulations, to those successively more subtle, til! it arriveù at the most subtle principle. The case wonld !.Je

the same with motions occurring in the sense of sigl1t, smell,

and tas te ; these operations wonld also be most easily trans­mitted to the extremely subtle principle, through the medium

of the sight, and the harmony of the several senses. As,

44 MEANS LEAD/NG TG

tberefore, the whole man \Vas constructed according to the

motions of the elements, and those motions were capable of

arriving, without interruption, through a medium so con­

tinuous and elastic, at the extremely sllbtle active principle,

-what conclusion can we draw but tbat such a man must

have possessed the most complete, perfect, and distinct faculty

of reasoning; tbat all tbe mllndane system or motions of the

elements must have become familial' to bim after a little

contemplation and experience; that every relation of their

motions, being impressed upon all his organs as it were

naturally and from his tender infancy, would be felt with

perfect regularity from his external parts or senses to his sonl ;

and that the souJ, being furnisbed with such a body, wOllld

naturally be so well acquain ted with geometry, mecbanics,

and the ~undane system, as to be able to instruct hel'self without a master, from the simple contemplation of the pheno­

mena of nature and the objects of sense. Sucb a man would

be capable of taking his station as it were in the centre;

and surveying from thence the whole circumference of bis

system at a single glance, he would be able to llnderstand

th ings actually before him, as weil as all other things in

detail, both in regard to those that bad occurred, and those

likely to happen. Let us now consider the perverted and imperfect state of

man into which we are born at this day. In this state we

cSee that nothing can be fully known without the use of

means; tbat notbing can penetra te to the ultimate active

principle, or to the soul, except by means of continuaI experi­

ments, by the assistance of geometry, and by the faculty of

reasoning acquired from both; we see that the way which

leads to this most subtle and intelligent power is almost

entirely closed, and capable of being opened only by continuaI

cultivation and exercise, that is, by perpetuaI experiment and the practice of philosophizing, and by the faculty of reasoning

thence acquired. vVe see that even then tbe way is not, as

it was in a state of integrity, so open, as to preclude the

45 TRUE PHILOSOPHY.

necessity of continuai experirnents, by means of which, as things constantly present in the memorj', ail motions or affections may be remitted to the most subtle principles of our organism, and the passages thus kept as it were constantly permeable and open. For the nature of man's state at this day. and its unlikeness to his former state, are well known; how possessed he is by affections quite foreign to rationality: how contioually his organs are acted upon by thern; how his interiOl' structure has suffered violence from vices, so that the connection between his more subtle and grosser structures is drawn asunder, distorted, and rendered less contiguous than before. What power the affections of the body, as pleasures and cupidities, have over the fine membranes, is well known from experience; for they are able to induce their own affections on the fibres, muscles, and nerves, both the more subtle and the grosser. They are able to distort them; their impression appears in the grosser and external appearance of the face, for we often see the counten­ance disfigured by thern and totally changed in a moment. What then must he the effect on the membranes and more subtle parts, or on those mediate membranes and fibres through which an affection is gradllally transmitted to the most subtle active principle ? In these parts are the organs leading to the most sllbtJe principle. If then tIJese are continually disturbed, they are totally disfigured and dis­torted; consequently, the Datural connection, which beforc was perfectly regular, is severed or broken.

Now bodil}' pleasures, lusts, desires, and vices of this kind have almost filled the whole man. Increasiog with time, they pass from practice into habit, and from habit become so com­pletely spontaneous as to govern the will itself; in othe!' words, lusts at length take possession of the will and with­draw it from the control of the reasoning sonl, so that at length man is capable of scarcely any voluntary action but what proceeds from these emotions and desires, and is frequently without the consciousness of rationality. ,Vhen

46 MEAN.';; LEADINC; TO

the will is thus agitated byalmost nothing but innumerable temptations and enticements, the consequence is that it arranges ail the organs that are intermediary between the body and the mind, with their series ILDd structure, iuto the likeness of its own emotions, or into it,s o\\'n form ; and when

tbeir structure is thus rendered wholly subservient to the seductions of the senses, it can no longer be inclined and moved by the mind, except \Vith difliculty and irnperfectly. Such an organization, acquired by indulgence in pleasures and depraved emotions or appetites, is also left by the parent

as an inheritance to bis children; for we often see children resembling their parents in their t'ace and external form, and

it is equally common to observe in thcm a similarit)' of mind, that is, a disposition more prone to certain lust" than to others. Children, therefore, are born and formed also after the interiOl' countenance and likenes:; of tbeir parents; and

thus the whole assemblage of the orgalls that mediate between

the body and the minci, is, from its rudiments, or from the womb and the cradle, formed after that of tlle parents,

tarnished with the same stains, full cf the same cOlTllption, and rendered naturally, and, as it were, radically disobedient and unresponsive to the most subtle modes or modifications,

alld tremors or vibrations of the mind, and hence is slow to rccei ve them.

As then these disorderly emotions of the body have occupied almost the whole man, amI have also taken possession of the membranes in which the mediate motions take place, it is no wonder that at tbis day the facult)' (,f reason is onl)' ta be acquired by the use of means, and tbat it is not possible ta arrive by reasoning at the most subtle substance or principle, without the aid of analytiCc'tl rule:- similar ta tbose of geometry ta be taught us by a maste!". These hodil)' emotions and vices, whicb seem to have dOlle such injury ta the mediatiog organs, are Dot unlike those very dense and dark c1ouds, wbich, intervening between fhe sun and the eye,

deprive it of tbe use of light, although some rays still penetrate

l'RUE PHILOSOPHY. 47

through the clouds, not in regular order, but with confused

refraction; hence, when the sky is thus overcast, we are deprived of the contiguity of nature, and are unable ta c1iscern

the firmament and the sun itself. Such a cloud, as it always

overshadows our heaven, can be dissipated only b)' suitable

means; but as some traces of it, either inheritecl or acquired,

will alwa}'s remain, so must our use of the means fol' its dis­

persion be constant. That vices and lusts not only disturb,

but also destroy, the natural connection of the organs and

modifications that leu,c1 to the reasoning faculty of the soul,

ma}' be illustrated by example. Anger and an intemperate

excitement of the body so dissolve this connection as to

render a man irrationaJ, utterly incapable of reasoniug, insane,

and more like an animal than a rational being. Look at the

·effects of intoxication. How it takes aw,LY from the soul al!

use of reason-al! power of aualysis! Thus the connection is

broken, so that nothing but a confused object is presented by

the organs to the soul; no difference is eliscerned between

things like anel unlike; but ail, both like and unlike, rush on

with the activity imparted to them, and present them con­

fused to the soul. The case is similar \Vith ail the passions,

when they exceed the bonnds of moderation.

l have saicl that, in his state of integrity, man \Vas master

·of al! philosophy or \Vorldly knowledge, and this too of

himself, by virtue of the perfect mechanislll of his organisa­tion, that is, by nature; and that, being furnished with s11ch

excellent senses, nothing could be concealecl l'rom him, becallse

he was formed responsive to al! the motions and operations of

the world and nature. l have saiel further, that nothing

could exist in the worlel l'rom the regular connection of CRuses, which \Vould not instantly flOIV, as throllgh il most

clear and pel!uciel medium, \Vith a certain sensation, to the

minel; that is, that aIl the sensations of each of hi~ organs

would penetrate to their most subtle principle, without delay,

confusion, or obscurity. But when every modification iu the

worlel, of whatsoevcr kind, hael thus arrived at its ultimate, or

48 MEAN5 LEAD/NG TG

at his soul, it necessarily 1'01l0ws tbat his knowledge and attain­

ments would stop tbere, and that he would regard and venerate,

with a most profound admiration, those other countless things

that exceeded the bounds of his intelligence; that is to

say, that most vast Infinite-.infinitely intelligent, infinitely

provic1ent-which begins where man and his nnite faeulties,

intelligence, and providence, terminate: he would see tbat in

this Infinite ail things have their being, and that from it aIl

things have their existence. As, therefore, ail his sensations

thus necessarily penetrated to their ulti mate seat without any

intervening obstacle, and there settled into a most profound

veneration, it follows that this perfect man's veneration of the

Deity was equal to his wisdom, and as constant as the action of his senses; we may, therefore, conclude, tbat the more

profound the wisdom, tbe more profound will veneration be. Further, no one couic! better know and acknowlcdge the in­

finite grace of the Deity, than that first and wisest of men;

whence it f01l0ws, in the same manner, that he loved the

Dcity supremely; for when we greatly respect any one,

acknowledging at the same time the benefits and favours

received from him, especially when we are intimately

associated \Vith him, we are secretly impelled also to love

him. "vVe may, therefore, conclude again, that the wiser a man

is, the greater are his veneration for, and love of the Deity.

His delights wholly terminate in the love of God-a love

which exhausts and replenishes aIl sense of delight. AlI the

delights of the worlJ, resulting from its variety, are nothing

unless the mind also partakes of them; for no human

delights can be real, without the participation of the soul,

since the more refinec1 delights are lacking : and the delights

which the body and soul are capable of enjoying together are

not genuine and true unless they have sorne further connec­

tion, and terminate in the veneration and love of God, that is,

unless they have reference to this love and ultimate end, in a

connection with which the sense of delight most essentially

consists.

49 TRUE PHfLOSOPHY.

It may, therefore, be very reasonably infetTed, that the delights of the first man consisted in this; that the end of the delights which he derived from the contemplation cf a ,,"orld so perfecto and pleasing 1eft to him and posterity in succession, and from the agreeable perception, by means of his senses and organs, of the motions existing in all the elements, was the love of the Deity. 8upreme veneration and supreme love of the Deity could not exist without the supreme worship of Him. What we venerate and love, that we worship; for the utmost degree of veneration conjoined with love must be active and operative, and must extend to the will and actions. As no other desires occnpied the whole man \vhen in such a state, no others could l'ule his will; for the will is ruled by the inclinations and desires of the soul and body; neither couId he bring anything into the will, nor cOllld the will bring anything into act, but what was applicable to the supreme adoration of the Deity, and to the gi ving to Him thanks full of veneration and love; for these are the delights to which the man who was master of himself and of all his delights and desires wOllld wholly devote and apply himself. For what could be more delightful aud volllntary, in such a state of mind, than to ascribe perpetuaI honours to a Being, supreme, incomprehensible, and so closely bOllnd to Him by love-to pay to Him unceasing vows, to wol'ship Him with constant praise, secure always of His favour and acceptance? Therefore the wiser a man is, the more will he be a worshipper of the Deity. From the same reasoning it follows that God must have loved such a man supremely; for love is not only reciprocal, and according to connection, but is also greater in its prior degree, and becomes less in a derived degree.

But the contrary to aIl this must necessarily take place in a man not in a state of integrity, and in whom the connection has perished. Such a man has not the wisdom, the veneration, and adoration of the Deity we have described ; and as bis knowledge of the Divine benefits and grace is

ln

,0 MEANS LEADING TO TRUE PHILOSOPHY.

also irnperfect in proportion to his lack of wisdom, so neither can he have such love. In a word, he cannot have any such veneration, adoration, and love of the Deity, as that of the wise first man, unless he receives thern from another source, that is, immediately from grace. But whatever veneration, worship, and love may exist in a man so changed, .and in whom the connection is broken by vices and lusts, they can never be unaccornpanied by fear, because he never can be without cause of fear. Neither can love be supposed to exist in God towards man, after the con­nection is broken, but, instead of love, justice. Man's having cause for fear implies justice in Goù. It is, therefore, agreeable to reason to conclude that there would have been no love in God towards man in his ul1connected and dis­continuous state, but only justice, had not the Infinite and Only Begotten for this cause become Man, in order that in Himself as a NIan, and consequently throngh a certain COI1­

nection with Himself, He rnight restore a connection with the Infinite in those who are like Him.

CH AP TEH II.

A PHILOSOPHICAL ARGUMENT CONCERNING THb; FIRST SIMPL~

OF TH~ WORLD AND ITS NATURAL 'l'RINGS; 'l'HAT I8,

CONCERNING THE FIRST NATURAL POINT, AND IT8

EXISTENCE FROM THE INFINITE.

ΠNo rational and intelligent philosopher can deny that the first entity \Vas produced from the Infinite, as weil as the l'est in succession, or ail the parts of which the world is composed. For the world cannot exist from itself, because it is finite, and consists of parts; neither can these parts exist from themselves, because these also are finite, and consist of their parts; nor again can these latter, for the same reason. In short, nothing that is finite can exist from itself, that is, without purpose and a cause. For there must also be a reason why it was finited in this \Vay, and -if! DO other; or why it has reached this lill1it, and no other. In other words, nothing can exist without a cause, save the Infinite. The Infinite alone exists withou t a cause, or from itself; nor does it consist of parts. 'l'bus the ultimate cause of things terminates or begins i.n the Infinite, that is, in Him who exists of Himself, and who consists not of parts; so that from Hirn finite things must of necessity have proceeded. What is fini te, therefore, takes its origin from what is infinite, as an effect from its cause, and as a thing limited from what is in itself unlimited, yet having the power to limit ail other things. Whatsoever was produced of a fini te nature, could not be finited by itself; nothing finite can exist by i.tself, because it must be finited before it exists; and if so, it must be finited by something else;

5'

52 THE FIR5T NA TURAL POINT.

therefore it follows, that a finite must necessarily exist by that which has the power of finiting it, and which of itself is infinite. In a word, it is most evident from rational philosophy, from the light of nature and the intelligent sonl, as well as from the Sacred Scriptnres, that the first entity, as also other entities in successive deriva­tion from it, of wbich the world is built up, and by which it is connected together, \Vere produced by and from the Infinite.

Rational philosophy itself recognises a certain connection and succession, both in the original existence of things and in their subsistence; nor can it terminate its idea concerning the existence, succession, and series of tbings, except in what is simple and unlimited, 01' in that which may be said to have only one limit. With respect to the existence of things, sound philosophy teaches us that tbings which are mnch compounded take their origin from things less compounded; the less compounded from those which are still less so; these from their individual substances or parts, which are least of ail compollnded, or least of al! limited; and these again from things simple, in which no limits can be snpposed, except one; fi'om which circum­stance also they are calleel simples. But ",hence is this simple, in which only one limit is to be conceived? And whence its limit? It cannot exist by itself; for there must be something by which it may exist, if it has a limit, if it is simple, or if it is capable of giving origin to two or more limits. Extending the inquiry, therefore, by the samo philosophy we rationally proceed to the con­clusion, that such a simple derives its existence from the Infinite; but that the Infinite exists of itself. Again, if we contemplate the successive progression of causes, it is rational to conclude that nothing fini te can exist without no cause; that things which are much compounded, or which consist of many individual parts, neitber could be compounded, nor could subsist, without Il cause by whicb

THE FIRST NA TURAL POINT. 53

they were compounded, and on account of which they remain so; for a cause always precedes, and afterwards accompanies that which exists from it. The individual parts of such a composite must in like manner be compounded of, and lmbsist from, indi vid ual parts still smaller ; and these again, by the order of their succession, from things simple; but still things simple can neither exist nor subsist from themselves. vVherefore there must be an infinite something; there must be something in­finitely intelligent, which not only purposes but also executes its designs; which must be both the power which can create and the active agent which does create all things that exist. Therefore, composite things derive their origin from simple oues; tbings simple from the Infinite; and the Infinite from itself, which is the sole cause of itself and of all things.

l have said that ail finite things came into existence successively; for nothing can be at once such as it is capable of becoming, except the Infinite. Everything finite acknow­ledges a certain mode, by which it is what it is and nothing else; a mode, by which it is of such a form and no other ; a mode, by which it occupies such a space and no other. In a word, all finite things are modified; and therefore they acknowledge a mode prior to their modification, and according to wbich it takes place; they acknowledge also a time in which they \\"ere so modified. Hence nothing is at once what it can become except the Infinite. Ali finite things must necessarily undergo different states successively;" but not so the Infinite. And thus we perceive, that aH things except the Infinite have their modification, but that in the Infinite there is no such thing as development, simply because He is tirst and the original cause of ail modifications. Hence also it follows, if nature consists in the modification of things,

that the Infinite is the origin and the author of nature. Thus does rational philosophy first acknowledge something

prodllced from the Infinite, and sorne simple as the origin of

54 THE FiRST NA TURAL POINT.

entities not simple. This first entity, or this simple, we bere calI the natural point. @ Geometry itself also acknowledges a certain simple and

primary beginning of its existence; and this it cal!s its own or mathematical point. Geometry recognises that a point is something simple, since it does not kllOW how to limit it either in figure or in space. Hence it declares that it is without extension and indivisible; and yet that it is of such a nature, that by its motion, lines, areas, and solids can be generated; that by its motion, and multiplication into itself, finally spaces may be filled; and tbat by its motion the successive derivations and parts exist by means of which things are limited and bounded. In a word, geometricians ascribe the origin of al! tbeir figures and bodies to such a point, yet not as belonging to the science itself, because that is incapable of defining it in a geometrical manner. Thus geometry seeks for its origin beyond itself: deriving this point not from itself, but from rational philosophy. Now since the world consists of finites only, and since it is geometrical and mechanical, therefore, like aIl finite and geometrical things, it acknowledges its origin to be in a point, which is the same as the natural point of which we are now treating.

@The Holy Scriptures themselves also give us plain informa­tion on this subject, and teach us that the world was created by God, or by the Infinite; that it was created successively; that it was created in time; and that the Infinite is an Ens in itself; that it is Being which is; that it is al! in ail, that it is universal; and further, that it is allowable to contemplate it a 2JOSÜJ1'ior·i, or from effects, but not a prim'i, or from reason. And whatever is confirmed by Holy Scripture is in no need of confirmation from reason, from rational philosophy, or from geometry, this being already sufficiently implied in the fact of con firlllation by the Infinite Himself. Q Rational philosophy wil! not admit that anything can be

or exist without a mode; and since a mode in limited, finited.

55 THE F1RST NA TURAL POINT.

or in physical things, consists solely in the variation of limits, i t, therefore, follows that nothing can exist without motion. Whatever is devoid of motion, remains such as it is; what­ever is at l'est, produces nothing. If anything is to be produced, it must be prodllced by a mode or by motion; if anything is to be changed, it must be changed bya mode or by motion; whatever cames to pass, dOEs so by a mode, that is, in physics, by motion. Without motion or change of place, or more generally, without a change of state, no new existence, no product, no coming to pass can be conceived; that is, nothing is capable of existence or change, except by motion. It follows, therefore, that this first simple entity, or point, \Vas prodl1ced by motion; and since the cause of production is in the Infinite, it follows also that this simple or natural point, was produced by motion from the Infinite. @ If then it is admitted that the first simple was produced

by motion from the Infinite, we are at the same time bound to suppose, that in the producing cause there was something of will that it should be produced; something of an active quality, which produced it; and something intelligent pro­clucing it thus and not otherwise, or in this particular manner and in no other; in a word, something infinitely intelligent, provident, powerful, and productive. Hence this first point couic! not come into being by chance, nor by itself, but by something which exists by itself; in which something there must also be a kind of will, an agency, and an understand­ing that it should be produced thus and no otherwise. There must likewise be some foresight, that the product shol1ld be successively modified in a particular way and no other; and that by this series, certain particular results, .. and no others should arise. Ail this must of neces­sity have been in some way present in this first mode and motion: for in this particular and first motion of the Infinite, things future and coming to pass can be considered in no other \Vay than as if they were present and already in existence.

56 THE FIRST NA TURAL POINT.

@ Since, therefore, l'le have traced the origin of the simple, or first point, ta the Infinite, from which it is derivec1 by means of motion, l'le may now c1efine it thus :-That it is a simple and first entity, existing from the Infinite by means of motion; and thus that, in respect ta existence, it is a kind of medium between wbat is infinite and what is finite.

vVe shall now proceed ta consider and expiain, distinctly and particularly, whatever concerns the origin of the first point, together with its attributes and essential properties. (j) Let us return, for a few moments, ta the positions

alreadyadvanced. With respect ta tbe essential of the first simple, l rnaintain, that this natmal point is the same as the mathematical point, or the point of Zeno. For the world

is geometrical or mechanical; nature modifies itself by the laws of mechanism, which are its own laws; wllerefore the the same beginning is ta be assigned ta the worId, as ta geometry. 'l'he same point is the first of the worId, because it is the hrst of geometry; or it is the first of geometry, because it is the first of the worId. Geometry is the law and essential attribute of every indi vid ual fiUbstance in the worId, or of the whole world; and mechanism is the mode by which the worId acts or is acted upon; hence the point is cornmon ta bath, because bath flow from the same origin. Thus each acknowledges a certain entity existing before itself, and out­side of itself, l'Illich it considers as a kind of seed, from which it was conceived, and by which it afterwards exists and subsists. 8ince, therefore, bath geometry and the wodd are derived from the same origin, the same seed, and the same parent, l'le must conclude that they bath proceed from the same point, the differellce consisting in this, that the latter point, or that of the \Vorld, is called the natural point, while the former, or tbat of geometry, is called the mathematical point.Œ'L'his point is a simple eotity, and iudeed sa very simple,

that nothing can be more sa, because that which is simple

57 .THE FIRST NA TURAL POINT.

admits of no degrees. The Infinite itself, from a geometrical point of view, may be called an entity, yet only in an eminent sense; but that which first exists by motion from the Infinite, becomes an entity because its essence consists in motion. It cannot be said of the Infinite that it is the first simple; for there is a great difference between what is infinite anJ. what is simple; the one being the cause, and the other the effect. That which is simple, as it has one limit, cannot be the cause of itself, but must acknowledge its cause to be in another, which has no li mit, and which is the cause of itself. 'Therefore, if they are distinct in themselves, one must be priol' to the other. N either can the same be predicated of the simple as is predicateJ. of the simple of the infinite; nor the same of the simple, which may of the infinite; where­fore this first product of the infinite must be that simple entity, which is to be acknowledged as the first simple of things finited, and as the cause of the first limit among such finites. Nor can it be a finited simple; for this must cOllsist of two boundaries at least, without which it cannot be called a finite: but this subject will be more fully discussed in our next chaptel'.l That it is, therefore, a simple, appears from this, that nothing can exi:;t in a more simple state than that which primarily and immediately proceeds from the infinite, and which first exists in the infinite, prior to the possibility of its existing in any nnite, or among things finited; also that it is the origin of the first boundary of the finites, from which all others are afterwards successively derived. Now siDce composites acknowledge their origin ta be in some simple, and since nothing can exist of a more simple character than the point of which we are now treating, we conclude, both from the consideration of its existence from the infinite, and from the existence of things nnited by it, and also from the nature of the thing regarded in itself, that this point must be a simple entity.

It follows, therefore, that it is iD no respect compounded,

l Chal" iii. ; l'roI'. g,-Trs.

58 THE FIRST NA TURAL POINT.

finitec1, or limited, because it is simple; except tbat it may be saiJ to have only one termination or limit. Since

it cannot be denied that a simple entity onght to be con­

sidered as the origin of entities not simple; that there must be one limit before there can oe two; one boundary before several; it must also be admitted, tliat a relation between

such boundaries first exists, when one is succeeded by allother. But if the one which precedes another is finited, and if it

contains within itself several smaller boundaries, it follows, that there is no final ratio nor can there be, except in that which has one limit only, and that it exists before the tirst substantial or finitec1 boundary. When therefore. two things are given, one must be given; when several limits are given, there must be one limit; in short, according to, ail the facts of the case, wherever there i:-; a finite, tbere

must be something not finited ; wherever there is a composite tbere must be a simple; wherever there is a body, there must be a point of that body; and since there must be such a point before there can be limits, boundaries, and a body, it may hence also be said to possess one limit. Nevertbeless this point has in itself sometbing analogous and similar to what exists in things linJÏtec1, because it consi.>ts in motion; and although pure motion does not necessarily require any­thing substantial as the basis of its existence, there still

pertain to it both form and space, which are attributes of motion. And thus there must dwell in the point sorne

relation of figure or space to i ts motion; or to whatever is analogons or similar to motion in it; this entire allalogy or

simple relation makes up the essence of the point. (Q) Since this point has only one limit, it follows, that it

is the first entity and seed of things finited. The Infinite cannat be said to be the first entity and seed of things finited, except so far as it is their cause, and the efficient power to bring them forth; such a first entity must be produced from the Infinite, in order to be of the character here intended. Erery seed must acknowledge its autbor, its

59 THE FIRST NA TURAL POINT.

producer, or cause of its production; for it cannot he self­produced: it must, therefore, acknowledge Him to be its author, IV ho exists of Himself. Hence it cannot he said that the Infinite is the first seed of things fiuited, except so far as it is the cause and efficient producer of such an entity and simple point, or so tar as something of infinity if; admitted to enter into the pure motion of this entity aud simple point.

Q.2! Nevertheless this point is a kind of medium hetween the infinite and the fini te. For it is through the medium of this point, that finite things exist from the Infinite. This point is a medium both as to existence and as to origin ; for it first originates from the Infinite, and then gives origin to things finite. On the one hand it acknowledges the Infinite, and on the other the finite; thus it stands between the two, and looks as it were both ways, having respect as weil to the vast Infillite, as to the vast finite; and in

reference to its existence, may be said to participate in the nature of both. It may be compared to Janus with two faces, who looks two ways at once, or at both universes. On one side is the pure Infinite, into which no hllman mind is able to penetrate, or in which it cannot discover either a least

or a greatest, both being completely unknown, and of thel1l­selves identical; on the other side is the finite alone, to which we may have access, through the medium of this point, which partakes in a manner of the nature of both. By this point,

as by a door, we are introduced into the world; we are admitted into a kind of geometrical field, where there is ample scope for the exercise of the human understanding. As soon as, through the medium of this point, an entrance is found into the finited universe or the world, man instantly begins to have a knowledge of himself, to perceive that he is something, that he is finited, mechanical, and even a machine;

that is, by this point we are introduced inta the world, and into its law, that is, into geometry, which could have no existence prior to the existence of the point. Nature itself

·60 THE FIRST NA TURAL POINT.

also commences with this same point: to this it is indebted for its birth, that is, for its conception and birth; and From this it first receives what may be called its life, and its forces under their several modifications. vVherefore the world begins with this point, and with the world nature itself; or, nature begins, and the world with nature. On these grounds this point may be said to be the medium between the Infinite and the finite.

@. This point is produced immediately from the Infinite. With respect to existence, as was said before, one precedes the other; with respect to cause, one is the cause of the other; with respect to mode, one modifies the other, this other not being capable of existing without a mode; and with respect to subsistence, one subsists from the other. Now in relation to existence, it is evident from reason that the Infinite must have existed before the point; in relation to the cause, that the Infinite must have been the sole cause of motion in the simple or in the point; in relation to mode, that the Infinite, by means of motion, must have produced the first simple or the point; and in relation to subsistence, that all finite things, thus produced, subsist from the same cause and mode. Since, therefore, the Infinite in respect to existence precedes, it f01l0ws, that as an antecedent power it might have existed, and might still exist, without such motion as that above supposed. And since it was the cause of motion, it f01lows also, that it was in ~ts power either to be, or not to be, the cause of such and such a particulaI' effect. Similarly, since motion was the mode by which the point came into existence, there can be no mode in the Infinite, unless indeed the will that something should exist by a mode be so called. Thel'efore, since ail fini te things, which exist by such a cause and mode, are in their nature distinct from the Infinite, it follows that the first motion, which is the essence of the point, was immediately produced From the Infinite. W fil cannot say that the essence {lf the Infinite consists in motion, motion being rather the

THE FIRST NA TURAL POINT. 6r

offspring and production of the Infinite, and indeed its im­mediate production; unless perhaps we indnlge the thought, which nevertheless is evidently outside the sphere of reason, that the motion, which takes place in the point thus im­mediately existing from its source, is afterwards in separable from the Infinite, becallse there is motion in the nniversal Infinite; in which case WE: may infer, that snch motion, although it is not the essence of the Infinite, is yet not inconsistent with its essence, because it manifested itself in this manner.

@ This natural point is pure motion in the whole Infinite; and consequentl." it is pure and total motion, a motion which cannot be thought of as geometrical. When we lay down the position that the first motion exists in the Infinite, it is absolutely necessary that such motion should be considered as pure and total; there being nothing which i8 capable of bounding it; nothing, by reason of which it may be said to be mixed; nothing which admits of degrees; so that it cannot therefore be thought of as velocity. Ail motion. which is mixed, or which i8 bounded by degrees, supposes some­thing substantial, capable of motion or of modification; but the motion of which we are now treatillg cannot admit of any such thing, because it belongs to the Infinite, and exists in the infinite; for which reason also, in consideration of its producing cause, the motion must be supposed to be pure, and in comprehensible by the powers of geometry. But as it is not strictly geometrical to say that there can be pure and total motiGn, wllen no such motion is found in things geometrical and finited, a doubt on the snbject may possibly present itself to the readel"s mind; yet if you will grant, what indeed cannot be denied, that there is an Infinite Entity, and that finite things were produced from the Infinite, what other conclusion can be rationally drawn from these premises, than tbat a first mode did exist? And if so, reason dictates that it could exist only in the Infinite, and not in any finited medium. Rence, if it be granted that the Infinite is a

62 THE FIRST NA TURAL POINT.

producing cause; and if a mode or motion, as an effect produced, be likewise granted; then it mllst also be conceded that there is a pure and total motion. For that which alone does or can occasion t.he motion to be not pure, and not total, but mixed, is the finite itself, which, according ta our hypothesis, is not yet in existence. Therefore, since this motion must have existed in the Infinite, and before the birth of finites, it follows that it must also have existec! before the world, and before its established laws, that is, before mechanism and geometry; thus it cannat be thought of geometrically, but rationally. And though we cannot think of such motion as geometrical, we are not ta conclude that it is nothing; although it has no rel!1tion or analogy with fillite motions.

A simple cannot he thought of geometrically; yet it is not on that account nothing. The Infinite cannat be thought of geometrically; yet it is not on tha.t account nothing. A finite, in respect ta the simpIe, is as nothillg. A fini te, in respect to the infinite, is nothing, because there is no ratio between the finite and the infinite; which is the reason why it is said that what is finite is notbing in respect to the in­finite. Still, however, what is infinite: pure, total, and simple, is not to bE: regarded as nothing; although respecti vely it may equal nothing, and thus cannat he geometrically con­ceived. Rationally speaking, if there he a composite, there must be a simple; if there be anything extended, there must be something not extended; if there be anything mixed, there must be something pure; if there be a part, there must be a whole; that is ta say, if there be a mixed and partial motion, there must be a pure and total motion. Pure motion may therefore exist, but not in space, or in a medium consisting of finites, or among finites.

13: This motion presupposes nothing substantial by which '"-'

it may be said to exist. In the Infinite there is nothing substantial, nothing capable of modification, as in finites. But since motion is not inconsistent with the Infinite, the

63 THE FlRST NA TURAL POINT.

Infinite may be considered not only as the cause and pro­·ducer of it, but also as eminently its modifier. Renee, as there is in the Infinite nothing substantial to be modified. there if; no motion but what is pure.

But sincc pure motion exists neither geometrically nor mechanically, it must, therefore, be of sllch a quality, that neither degrees, nor momenta, Bor anything of velocity can be assigned to it; all we can say of it is that such motion actually exists in the whole Infinite. Yet the Infinite is utterly ineomprehensible; hence an idea of this motion as existing in the Infinite beeornef; still more iucomprehensible. For if you were to multiply the greatest finite, or the whole world, by the infinite, the result would be nothillg, since no fini te, whether cOllsidered particularly or generally, bears the smallest proportion or ratio to the infinite; but every­thing finite vanishes by the comparison, or becomes nothing. Row then are we to conceive of this pu rity and totality in motion? Certainly in no other way, if geometrically and rationally understood, than as an internai state or effort toward motion. For if in the whole motion there are no steps in space, no moments in time, and thus no velocity; and if again there is nothing substantial, as before observed ; what else, accordiug to every hurnan notion or idea, can result thence, but effort? When we understaud space simpl)' as it is, and consider motion as pure and apart from time, in such case the motion must be instantaneously present in ever,\' part of its own space; and thus it will be like effort itself: for in effort not only is motion everywhere present, but with it also its force, direction, and velocity. This effort towards motion may also be called internai state.

But to prevent any confusion or misapprehension in our ideas concerning motion, effort, and state in the simple, which, as hitherto used, appear to be mere terms, entirely s.part from, and foreign to, every law of geometry, so far as they are said to belong to things simple, l will now endeavolll' to explain the subject by means of geometry,

64 THE FfRST NA TURAL POINT.

figures, and compounded motions, and thus in sorne measure

fix our ideas. For example, let us suppose the parts or minute particles of a body, which are perfectly alike, to be

moving among one another; and let us further suppose that the cause of the motion is within each particle; it will hence fo]]ow, that by continuing their motion for a sufficient length

of time, they will be brought into a situation conformable to the motion and figure of each, when they will hegin as it were

to link themselves together; and in this state they will be found to be in the situation suited to their peculiar motion, whicb situation is that of the whole composite body, or its internal state. But the cause of motion, since it remains in each individ ual particle, and no single particle can be l110ved withaut a]] being l110ved together, therefore becomes common, anJ pervades the whole; so tbat by reason of it al] strive and

conspire together to produce one corn mon and unanimous motion. Tbis is what we meau by effort. Thus we have

first the motion of each individual particle; then the state of aU together, which is the internaI state; and thus effort.

Let us now return to things simple, and see wh ethel', by the aid of the motion, state, and effort in geometrical

substances, as just above described, we can form any better ~onception of the motion, state, and effort, which take place in things simple. In a simple tbere are no parts or individual corpuscles which can Le moved: but since there is in it a cause of motion, as before observecl, we must, therefore, form an idea of motion without parts or individual particles, like an effect from its cause; and this can be thought of in no other manner than as a pure and total motion. Rence there can result no disposition of parts, nor can any other state arise by means of position, tban such as is inherent in that per­petu2.1 motion; consequently, neither can there arise an effort from any other source than motion. It fo]]ows, therefore, as motion is destitute of parts, that motion, internai state, and effort in the simple, may be considered as one and the same thing; when yet in finites they are different from

THE FIRST NA TURAL POINT. 65

one another, becallse in these there is a motion of the parts, and conseqlIently a mixed motion. BlIt if the reader still doubts, and does not yet comprehend what motion is without something substantial, or what is meant by pure and total motion in the simple, l would observe that it is its state. Should this appear equally to require explanation, l say that it is its effort leading to a kind of motion; and if this be not satisfactory, then l add that it is aIl these taken together. l cannot give a c1earer and fuller explanation of the interior nature of the simple, unless indeed the following may be so considered-That in things sllbject to geometry there can be neither state nor effort without motion; similarly, in things that are beyond the reach of geometry, that is, in things simple, there can be neither state nor effort without motion; yet there is this difference, that in things geometrical they are distinct, and one is the cause of the other, while in the simple they are not distinct, but one is coexistent with the otlier, and all together present one simple mode, and constltute a simple entity.

@ This point cannot be conceived as having extension; it is without parts, and consequently indivisible. If there is in the point nothing substantial to be moved; if the motion is pure, not mixed with anything substantial, and not arising from it; or if there is an effort tending to motion; it follows that it must be destitute of parts, there being nothing of the kind in sucb motion or effort; for parts presuppose the existence of things substantial put into motion, of which they necessarily consist. If the point be without parts, it must also be indivisible; for to divide would be to anDihilate it. In reiipect to its own motion, it may be said to have a kind of extension; hut, considering tbat there is nothing substantial in it that can be moved, that it cannot be divided without annihilation, that it has only one limit, and is thus a simple, it must be pronounced to be without extension. For everything limited originates from something not limited; every tbing fiDited from something Dot finited, or from a simple; eyery

lE

66 THE FIRST NA TURAL POINT.

thing extended from something not extended ; just as numbers arise from unity, and unity from what is least in our concep­tion, or next ta nothing. @ Neither can it be said ta fill space, unless it be spaee

understood as simple. If the point has no extension, but is of such a quality as to give ris€: ta extension, it follows also that it does not occupy space, unless it be space understood as simple. For since it possesses only one limit, because it is a simple entity, and this one limit iDcludes no space, it cannot, in reference ta things finitéd and varionsl)' limited, be said ta be a space; but in respect ta that pure motion, from which it originates, something of space may be attached to it in idea; yet only by analogy, and in the relation of an attribute.

@: The point cannot be said to be endued with figure, unless the figure be llnderstood aS simple; and this cau only be eomprehended hy a certain allaIogy and similitude, whieh it bears to its own motion within itself. As its space must be understood as simple, sa likewise must its figure; for of whatever kind is the space, of sueh is the figure, the quality of the space consisting in the figure. N ow since the space must be conceived as simple, and considered as a limit or as one boundary ta finites, in the same manner also must the figure be conceived; that is, in respect to the figures of finited spaces it must be understood as simple. For the largest figures, which we will suppose ta be circular, have many or very extended points of contact; smaller figures have fewer or less extended; and the smallest or sim pIe figure may be said to have the smallest points of contact, or such points understood as simple; and thus it may be ca11ed il, simple figure. As for example, let us imagine innumerable circles round the same centre; and let radii or diameters be drawn at every angle from or through the centre, cutting a11 the circles; the greatest eircle will then give the largest arc to the angle; the smaller eircles, or those nearer the centre, will give smaller arcs; and the eircle nearest the centre will glve the least; but the centre itself will give none. Still however a

67 THE FIR5T NA TURAL POINT.

conception must be formed of its figure, by analogy, with

reference to its effort or motion; for motion creates space,

and consequently figure; motion cannot exist without space

and figure; anù whatever there is in motion is present also

in effort. Yet in itself, and in respect to the motion of

which it is composed, something analogous and similar to

what exists in things finited must be conceived.

@ Figure thus cOllceived is most perfecto Since effort

may be cOlltemplated after the manller of motion, what.ever is

in motion is also in effort; and since there is nothing in

motion which did not previously exist, and is iu effort;

therefore, instead of the term effort, we shall in the following

pages substitute pure or total motion. Nothing then can be

more perfect than the figure which is produced from the

purest motion, and which exists in the Infinite. And if sl1ch

figure be most perfect, ail entities of a like kind must also

bear an en tire resemblance to it. In the Infinite there is

nothing unlike itself; nor is there anything of dissimi­

larity in pure motion. DissimiJarity is produced by limita­

tion, by the blending and conjunction of several things;

also by multiplication, division, geometr)', and the mode or

modification of similar things. For the more an entity is

modified, so much the more is it rendered unlike anotber

entity; dissimilarity increasing in the things modified in a

continuaI series. Since then this first point is not yet

modified, and since it derives its origin from no other source

than from the Infinite, and from pure motion, nothing of

clissimilarity cau be supposed to enter into it; for ail

dissimilarity, whether of the least or greatest degree, is pro­

duced b)' modes, which multiply in series, and which increase . .ln successIOn.

Ci§--: In respect to quautities, or when geometrically con­

sidered, this point is as nothing, or escapes the imagination.

For although it is the origin of so many and such great

finites, yet in tbings finited and geometrical it will be equal

almost to nothing.

68 THE FIRST NA TURAL POINT.

(19': Nothing can be ascribed to this point, which is aRcribed '-..:­

to a composite, except by way of analogy; seeing that it is absolutely simple, unmixed, pure, and the first primary. But since it is of sllch a nature, that it must be contemplated as immediately proceeding from the Infinite, and yet existing before any finite, and so must be considered as non­geometrical, although it resembles what is geometrical, inas­much as the latter is produced by it, like always begetting its like; l could wish that some other person, capable of the task, would favour us with a better idea of the subject. For my own part, l would willingly give up further consideration of the first entity, to which something of infinity adheres, and proceed to the finites treated of in the following sections, in which the point will be found to be more clearlyeluci­dated; but to prevent any interruption in the thread of our principles, we will for the present continue the enquiry already begun. Let it then be observed, that whatever is present in effort, and does not yet exist in act, cannot be termed geometri­cal until it so exists; but still in every entity exerting an effort there is something similar to geometry, and to actual motion.

@ In its pure and most perfect motion are contained ail those things, both active and passive, which bonnd things fini te, and continue to do so throughout ail their series. That the essence of the point consists in motion was observed before, and will presently be more fully illustrated. Now since its motion is most perfect in its naturè, since it has the po,yer of creating something very like itself, and since from this point ail Bnite things originate, therefore it must also contain everything finited, and everything which exists through a long series of finites, both acti vely and passi vely. For since it is the one only entity which gives existence to finites, there must be included in its very effort and motion everything that is modified throughout any series, or that is capable of still further modification, together wi th ail the propertieR of self­modification, such as we finc! actllally existing in the world.

69 THE FIR5T NA TURAL POIJVT

For unless the point or simple consisted in an effort toward

motion, and also in motion actually produced, nothing could be conceived to be in it that is efficient, active, and pro­

ductive; there would be no cause in it that could produce

any effect, any active or living power; and yet it is in real

actnal motion alone that the cause of ail existence lies con­cealed. If a simple were imagined to be void of ail internai

motion, it would be something inert, or a mere atom, of itself

altogether passive; Gor could anytbing new ever exist or

spring up arnongst such inert substances or atoms, unless

indeed an extraneous motion were immediately introduced

among them, which yet must have its cause in some active

entity. For if tbis simple produces anything, and if it is

something active which produces, then there must be motion,

and this motion must be in the point itself; that is to say,

there must be, not effort, but action. If any one were dis­posed to represent the first simple as destitute of internai

motion, he must in this case stop short at this first simple, and

finite the whole world in that simple and its atom. @. 'V\Te now come ta inquire analytically into the nature

and quality of the form of this simple point, and inta the

nature of its space so far as it has respect to motion. For if

there is effort toward motion, tbere must also be fOl'm, there

must be space, and other attributes and essential properties,

whicb, according to geometry, belong to motion.

Since this motion, in which the point consists, is an effort

toward motion, or what amounts to the same thing, since it is

pure motion, not existing in any medium of finites, but in

the Infinite, ils form must neèessarily be absolutely pm'fect.

Pure motion, or motion in the Infinite, cannat produce any­

thing imperfect, or unequal; but whatevel' is produced by it

must be absolutely uniform and perfecto If the form of the

motion is absolutely perfect, it must necessarily resemble a circulaI' form, for there is nothing in the nature of finite things

more perfect than this. But since the point consists purely

of motion, sa that this point, alld pure motion, and an

70 THE FIRST NA TURAL POINT.

effort towards motion, are one and the same thillg, it fo11ows that motion mllst exist everyw here in the poiut. If an absolutely perfect form is circular, then the absolutely perfect figure of the motion above described must be the perpetu­

a11y circular; that is to say, it must proceed from the centre

to the periphery, and from the periphery to the centre. If therefore the motion be perpetua11y circular, from the

centre to the periphery, and reciproca11y from the periphery to the centre, or if it be equally diffused throughont, it must necessarily be a spiral, which is the most perfect of ail forms. In the spiral there is nothing but what partakes of a certain kind of circular form; and nothing within it is put into motion but what takes a circular direction. The motion ad vances perpetually to a circle. The spiral motion

may be said to be infinitely circular; every motion round the

centre is a circle; its progression towards the periphery is circular; in a word, in ail its dimensions and in every sense it is circular. Perpetuai circulation is Iike a perpetuaI spiral;

hence the most perfect figure of motion, as weil in effort as in act, can be concei ved to be no otber than the perpetuaI spiral,

winding, as it were, from the centre to the periphery, and again from the periphery to the centre; thus it is a flowing spiral motion continua11y returning upon itself; which is not only the most perfect of aU figures, but aiso the best adapted to the nature of finite things.

If we su ppose the most perfect figure of motion to resem ble the perpetuaI spiral, and the point to be a perpetua! effort toward the spiral motion, and thus the most perfect and uniform entity, it follows from the Iikeness, which may be traced between it and tbings subject to the Iaws of geometry, tbat it has a centre, and also peripheries, or a centre with un­Iimited peripheries. This motion must therefore have its centre in effort, and it must have a periphery. These may be con­sidered as the attributes of a motion perpetually spiral and returning upon itself, or of one which occupies space from the peripheries to the centre. But since this internaI motion in

THE F'IR5T NA TURAL POINT. 7I

the point and its figure can he understood only in the way of analogy and resemblance to the things which exist in finites, its mechanism can be more satisfactorily il!ustrated from the finites ta be treated of in the sequel.

Seeing then that it is a pure motion, without anything sub­stantial to move, and that it flows iuto the spiral, or perpetuai

gyres and complete circles, we cannat conceive that there is in the point any such actual f10wing out and in, from centre to periphery, and back again, as there is in finites, but only an

effort tending ta such motion, and a figure very like it. Now as pure and total motion, or effort, admits of no degrees of velocity, but generates from itself the first degree, moment of time, and li mit in velocity, that is, generates velocity not yet brought forth into act, therefore it cannot be said that such motion f10ws from the centre to the periphery, unless it be understood that it is in the centre and in the periphery at

the same moment, and thus imtantaneously present in every part of its space. Hence, if we would amuse ourselves by a play of ward s, we might say, in regard to the point, that its motion is in the centre when it lS in the periphery, and in the periphery when it is in the centre; thus that it is al! centre, and al! periphery; or that it consists, as it were, of perpetuai

peripheries; and that, with respect to the presence of its motion, the centre and the periphery are in a manner one and the same, both together constituting this point.

But geometry can neither express Lhe effort toward this

motion, nor descriIJe its figure, except by similitude. It is incapable of giving any demonstrations; for while it is with­in this point, it ackllowledges itself to be not yet finited, not yet, as it were, put fOt'ward, or brought forth, in short not yet anything, but only about ta become something; and in tbis state it lies as it \Vere in embryo till matured ; that is, it cannot as yet be analysed by finite terms or limit.s, whicb neverthe­less successi vely arise from this ovum. Since therefore this

point can receive no adequate geometrical demonstration, we must have recourse ta the principles and axioms of rational

ï2 THE FIRST NA TURAL POINT.

philosophy, and instead of the point substitute an entity, and

so proceed to its investigation by the attributes proper to

sueh entity, No\\' if we take a rational view of this meta­

physical entity, we shall fjnd it to be of such a nature as to

consist of only one limit; it is not properly limited; it is not

finited; but it is that from which things limited and com­

pounded are derived. It is a sOll1ething which cannot be

geometrically resolved; it is that, to whicb, and beyond which,

no science can possibly extend. It is simple; an,d yet, being of a productive nature, it is active, consisting in' effort toward

motion; which motion, were it to take place, would he pure

and total, or the same and everywhere present as it is in the

effort. In tbis lies eoncealed all that quality whicb is capable of bringing into act finite things, together with aU their

modes and contingencies, and even of producing the world

itself. Thus, unless motion were in potency and in effort, it

won la possess no power or ability to bring into act those

things which are really produced, and which together eon­stitute the worlel.

@: But while there is merely an effort tOlVarels motion in

the point, we have as yet nothing actua1. Inertia, force, and

effort, without motion in act or effect, is like something inert,

passive, and clead; which, by rueans of local motion, or the

transition of effort into aet, becomes active, living, and efficient;

thus from a mere eause it becomes operative. It is with

great propriety, therefore, that IVe inquire, whlLt is the lJature

of tbat effort? In otber words, into wbat kincl of motion, or

into wbat figure of motion, bas such an effort a tendency to

put itself fortb, if there is uo obstacle in the way ? For it

is well knolVn, tbat in effort there are present both force and

determination, direction and velocity, with aH the essentials as

\vell as attributes of motion. Tberefore, before anything can

be produced, effort must pass into ad, like wbat is formai

~nto Wh,Lt is real; and consequently tbe point \Vith its effort

must so pas" into motion. Since then total motion, or that

whicb is internai, tends. to a figure most perfectly and purely

THE FIRST NA TURAL POINT. 73

mechanical, that is, to the spiral, we hence obtain an idea of the internai state of the point; by which internai state we

perceive the quality of the effort as it presses forward into

external motion. The real determination and direction of

active or local motion is solely owing to the figure by wrlich this effort exists. l t was before observed, that the figure is

perpetually spiral, proceeding from the centre to the periphery,

and reciprocally from the periphery to the centre; by and according to which form it is inclined to direct every effort,

and, as it were, to aspire to active and Jocal motion. For if

there be an effort tending to motion, and if a similar quality exists in effort as in motion, there will exist by similitude,

figure, and space. For example, if there is an effort tenJing directly from one extremity to the other, a rectil\inear motion

will ensne in that direction; but if the effort, by the forrn

which it assumes, revolves round some centre, in this case a

circulaI' motion will be the result. But flot only is motion

determined into form, it is also directed by effort; and thus

whatsoever does or can exist in motion, is previously to be

found in effort. The form, therefore, in effort, of which the

simple consists, is spiral, in agreement with what has been already advanced. From the 1'orm we may now concluJe as

to the kiml of motion into which the effort l'uns.

l say then, from the mechanism and geometry of the

internai spiral motion there arises first a kinù ofaxillary

motion; afterwards a progressive motion of ail the spi rais

round their poles; and lastly, from the axillary and progres­

sive motion, if there is full liberty, and there is no contact,

another or local motion in agreement wi th the former, and

indeed tending into perpetuai surfaces. But as these subjects

cannot be geometrically treated, and still less demonstrated,

without having recourse to sorne finite body or particle, con­

sisting of parts and indi vidual substances, and in which those

parts and individual substances becorne arranged into a posi­

tion and a spiral form, like those which the effort assumes

in the point; so by the methoJ here proposed we shall he

74 THE FIRST NA TURAL POINT.

able to obtain a mechauical and oeular demonstration, tbat sucb an arrangement or disposition of the parts or individllal sub­

stances begets and produces not only a common axillary

motion, but also a progressive motion, conformable to the

position and series of the spi rais ; and in addition to this,

provided there be full liberty, and no contact hinders, a second

or local motion, Ly which the surfaces are truced out. As

the point consists not of parts, it cannot so well undergo

geometrical examinatiou, explanation, investigati?n, and dis­

section, we shall, therefore, proceed to the consideration of

finites and actives, in which the mechanism of the same

motion will be gradually presented to view. We shall after­

wards demonstrate by experience, and likewise by the laws of

mechanism, that in the point, or in the effort of the point, lies

concealed the whole power, both active and passive, of mechanically producing, in jllst order and in regular succession,

all finites whatever, or the world at large, both with respect

to its smaller and simple parts and its greater and com­

posite unes. Geometry, therefore, and mechanism, in relation

both to the parts and to the whole of a body, and also in relation

to the world itself, consists in this, that the first figure of

motion, state, and effort, is spiral; and tbat by virtue of such

a figure there sllcceeds a motion of the whole composite, or an

axillary motion; a motion of its parts, or a progressive

motion; and lastly, from these, a local motion. Such is the

sum of our whole work and of its principles; and such the

cause of all the parts and composites in out mechanical world.

~3: As the subject here treated of is the point, or the simple entity of things natura.l, we cannot in proof of our

theory adduce any experience and confirm our principles hy

it. In subjects so extremely minute and simple we have no experience and no phenomenon; no motion presents itself to

our selises, until we betake ourseIves to tbings variously

finited and much compounded, and thus to a series of com­posites connected with one another, which, taken collectively,

75 THE FIRST NA TURAL POINT.

represent our world; and thus exhibit their phenomena in a

\Vay adapted to the mechanism and connection of finite entities, yet not by simple, but by variously compounded motions. On the present occasiolJ, therefore, while treating of the point, nothing in the way of experiment can be pro­duced by which the truth of our principles may be confirmed or tested. We can only observe, that nature, which is a motive force, has neither the tendency nor the capacity of

fiowing into any other figure of motion more freely than into the spiral; by which figure also its whole velocity is conveyed with the greatest freedom and facility tbrough ail its gradations; and to which, in like manner, it appears to have

applied aU its mechanical energy and power. 24} Still, however, it follows from reason and experiment,

that motion is the only \Deans by which anything new can

be prodnced. :Motion itself, which is merely a quality and a mode, and nothing substantial, may yet exhibit something

substantial, or the resemblance of what is so, provided there is anything substantial put into motion. If any small body is moved in the direction of a line or a circie, there is immediately produced by the motion the semblance of a line or a circle; although there is nothing substantial in it, except that I;maU body in the place which it occupies. If the motion

were to proceed in a spiral figure, or by continuous spires spatially from the centre to the peripheries, a body of a round form could then be imagined; and yet there would be nothing substantial in the whole of this space, except the single particie, which makes aU that space ta be substantial in which it moves, or where it is present. If now the motion be very rapid, so that in a moment the body is present in innumerable places, during that moment it makes ail that space substantial, wherever it is present. By motion alone, therefore, something resembling what is substantial can be produced, and it cannot be produced without some other means. Motion itself represents something thus multiple and aggregated; and there would also actually be a multiple or

76 THE FIRST NA TURAL POINT.

aggregate arising solely from motion, were not moments of time present in the velocity. If now the times of velocity were the least imaginable, the least would also be that which \Vould distinguish such a kind of substantiality or modification from a positively substantiated form, owing its existence to

an aggregate of small bodies. On this account also geometers suppose a poin t to be the origin of geometry; from this poin t they deri ve th eir lines, areas, and solids; but they add also a motion or fluxion of the poin t or points. They COIl­sider a point without motion to he iIlcapable of anything, however small, toward the production of a !ine, because the point is destitute of length and breadth; but by its motion

they can form every dimension of a body. In the differential calculus, or the analysis of infinites, they likewise avail them­selves of a kind of fluxion, from which they obtain their figures, and the relative proportions of those figures. In a word, it is a natural or physical truth, that things finite are generated by fluxion and motion, and that without this nothing which is the subject of geometry could exist.

'- 2~: Seeing, therefore, that we are now brought to the con­sideratioll of finites, and are, as it were, introduced into the mechanical world, l propose in the following pages to proceed to the exposition and demonstration of our principles in the following order. First to explain for what reason and in what particular manDer a posterior finite, eotity, or particle, derives its origin from a prior one, whether by motion or by any other mode and contingency. Then to give a definition of the entity, finite, active, or particie, both in general and in

particular terms, also to examine in a circumstantial manner, as we did in relation to the point, ail the attributes, essential properties, motions, figures, spaces, and other qualities, belong­to that entity. After this l shall take a geometrical view of the subject, and endeavour to see how far we may safely indulge in philosophical reasonings and arguments concerning this entity. Experiments will be adduced as witnesses, if any are to be found; by which means we shall be able to ascertain

77 THE FIRST NA TURAL POINT.

whether the truth of ex periment does or does not accord with the truth of geometry. For a thing may be geometrically and mechanically true, but may not yet be confirmed by experiment.

There is a geometrical connectioll of finites even in worlds quite different from one another; but still the same pheno­mena do not therefore exist in ail; for there may be various kinds of geometrical connections, while only one kind is adapted to the perfection of one and the same world. Lastly, 1 will show the connectiotl of every finite, active, or elementary particle, from its first point and origin; so that it may be evident whether or not ends and means bear a mutual respect to each other and in ",hat manner.

Having no other end in view, and being influenced by no other desire, than to be able ta arrive at the knowledge of

things by the most simple and correct method; in arder ta discover truth, 1 do not see that we are at liberty to pursue any other course than first of all to lay down our philo­sophical principles, and then ta explain them, particularly in reference ta the very small and most minute parts above referred ta; that we may be able ta discern the nature of their form, motion and other modes and attributes, together

with the true cause of their origin ann existence. After this we shaH add an analysis of the whole, that we may see more clearly whether ail the particulars do or do not separately

and distinctly square or coincide with one another; that is,

whether or not our principles are capable of receiving fuller evidence and demonstration. We shall then proceed ta experiments, or ta phenomena, by which nature in a manner renders herself visible ta us, and presents to our view her ultimate figure or external features. Hereby we shall be enabled, ta see whether the principles which were at first the work of imagination, and after wards found ta be geometrically tru e, are alsa confirmed by actual experiment. Lastly, 1 shall endeavour to trace the connection between preceding and subsequent principles when they are thus geometrically and experimentally exhibited before us, in order that we may

78 THE FIRST NA TURAL POINT.

thereby discover whether anything new is produced which did not previously exist; and also whether ail things proceed in successive order geometrically and physically, and thus necessarily from the first entity. If this course and method is pursued in our endeavours to find out the laws of our world, it may be faidy presumed that we are treading in tbose steps which alone can lead to the discovery of the secret things of nature. Yet, should any person perceive in the principles here laid down only what disagrees with experience, or with analytical geometry; or should he be able to point out any­thing imperfect or defective in them; if he will have the kindness to communicate the same to me, l shall receive his hints with gratitude. For truth is but one. Truth is my single aim; and if any friend will educe from his treasury of knowledge a juster and truer representation of the subjects in hand, his kindness in so doing will be esteemed a most acceptable service. Since then nature can be searched out in this and in no other way; and since we are admitted into its interiOl· recesses by this, and by no other gate; on these grounds l hope for the favourable opinion of the critical reader, who, l trust, is inclined ta direct all his attention to this simple entity, and to enter fully into the discussion of the first natural point and to look leniently upon the things he would criticise. But let us proceed in due order with our work; and l have no doubt the subject-this natural point-will receive additional illustration in the following pages.

THE PRINCIPlA OH

THE FIRST PRINCIPLES OF NArrURAL THINGS

TO WHICH AHF. ADDED

rrHE }\!IINOI{ PRINCIPIA AND SUMIVIARY OF THE PRINCIPIA

llY

EMANUEI-l S'VEDENBORG

TltANSLATED FIWM THE LATIN llY

JAMES R. IŒNDELL, B.A., AKII

ISAIAH TANSLEY, B.A.

WITH AN IKTRODUCTION BY

ISAIAH TANSLEY, B.A.

AND A FOREWORD BY

l'IWFESSOR SIR WILLIAM F. BARIŒTT, F.R.S.

VOLUME IL

THE SWED]!JNBORG SOCIE'l'Y

(INSTITUTED 1810)

BLOOMSBURY STIŒET, LONDON

1912

o z "

CONTENTS OF VOLUME II.

PART II. (contimœcl). CHA~. PAGE

XIV. The declination of the magnet, calculated upon the fore­going principles 1

Tables of magnetic declinations 14-54

Halley's Map, Musschenbroek's remarks on 54-56

X V. The causes of magnetic declination . 57

XVI. Calculation of the declination of the maguet 69

PART III. 1. Comparison of the starry heaven with the magnetic

sphere 151

n. The diversity of worlds 162

III. Resul11ption of the philosophical argument concerning the fourth fini te, and its origin from the second elemen­tary pRrticle 170

IV. The univer~al solar and planetary nebular maLter, and its separation into planets and satellites 172

V. The ether or third element of the world 195

V1. The fifth fin ite 224

VII. The air or fourth element of our system 226

VIII. Fire, or the actives of the fourth, fifth, and following finites 235

IX. Water, or the plU'ely material finite . 255

X. Agueous vapour, or the fifth element of the world 261

XI. The vortex surrounding the earth, and the earth's pro­gression from the sun to the circle of its orbit 269

U. The paradise formed upon our earth, and the first man 280

Conclusion 289 y

,'J CONTENTS.

THE JVlINOR PRINCIPIA. PAGE

1. A philosophical theory concerning the ol'igin of natul'al things 297 ---~ The infinite as well as the finite motion of the first natural

point generates the line, the surface, and the solid . 300 3. The motion of the natural point proceeds by means of cÎl'c1es , :306 4. The motion of the natural point proceeds by a circulaI' spiral,

that is, by a spiral line, whence arises figure, or the primary partic1e 307

5. When the natural point moves in a spiral mannel' ovel' the sphere, there is a space around the poles whel'e this point does not come 309

6. This movement ol! the natuml point ma}' aisa bring an equator into consideration 311

7. The line which cuts all those spirallines at right angles, forms a kind of ecliptic, and this ec1iptic has a definite or fixed node or intersecting point with the equator 311

8. The passage of the point along the ec1iptic takes place at equal distances, but those distances may be greater or less accord­ing ta the velocity of the motion 313

9. This natural point will return ta the same place in the ec1iptic only after an infinite number of revolutions ; and this is the reason why a persistent and, as it wcre, continnous surface is formed 316

10. This flow of the natnral point is continuous and everywhere equal . 317

Il. This movcment of the point cannat be designated either motion or l'est; but it has something common to bath 319

1:2. A single point can of itself give rise to a surface; sa also several points togethe l', if they move in the same circ1e and in the same way 320

13. If several points, however, move in another circ1e of the same sphere, in such a way that they cross the ecliptic at- the same time, but not the same degree of the ec1iptic, then they can meet in the polar circle, especially if one point is near another 321

14. Points having a common centre do not easily meet, but they flow uninterruptedly in the same surface; and if they do not come into contact when they have described the first circle, then they will never meet :322

15. If al! the circ1es consisted of an infinite number of points, those circles with their points could not be urged into that gyration or spiral, unless one point moved another from its place; consequently they could not mcet unless the points in any circle stood apart from one another . 322

CONTENTS. Vll

PAGF.

16. If the points are eccentric and the distance of the centres is equal ta or less than the diameter of the sphere which is descriLed, it may happen that one point will more or less come into contact with another; they also may never meet . 324

17. Points sa alTanged will caille into contact sometimes more frequently, sometimes more rarely . 327

18. Varions consequences follow from the collision of the points. 328

19. If the centres are slightly llloved forward with respect ta one another, it then follows that all the points will Le snLject ta disturoance, and that the figures will oe rearrauged :~29

20. If in the equator of each circle the points directly meet, no change in the figure will arise; Lut there will oe a sudden alteration, as it were, in the same 331

:H. If the points meet, they llllltually recede aceording ta the angle at which they meet, that is, in that direction ta which the line is drawn, which is midway Letween the line j oining the cen tres aud les tangen t . 332

22. The median line along which the point reccdes frOlll its pl'evious position is the tangent of another circle. If a perpendicnlar Le dtawn hom this tangent it will pass through the centre of a new cil'cle, which the saille point deseriLes. By such impacts eircles cannat ùe descriLed at a greater or less distance chan a semi-diamct.er, unless they are moved fal,ther l'l'am the point of another circlc . 335

2:3. The primalT motiou is aLsolnte motion, and it is spiral hom the centre ta the circnmference, sa that in that motion the position of the pales is infiuite and the gyration is infinite ; and the motion is that pertaining ta a most perfect gym­tian; whence must arise that other spiral motion, which has Leen descriLed in the preceding pages 336

24. The Howing natural points cannat Le said in the primary statc ta Le transferred from place ta place . 341

25. If there he a certain sphere of activity and the flowing points arc eonfined ta that sphere; or, if there he a particle ta which the predicated points are confined, then they cau Le said tu l'est in definite ways, and ta Le tl'ansferred from place ta place ln definite ways 342

26. A point with its quiescent centre may Le called a particle of the first kind, or a primary particle 343

27. The pal'ticle of the second kind is the point f10wing with its centre along spiral circles 344

28. The third particle is formed, exteriorly, of points, or particles of the first kind; interiOl'ly, of enclosed fiuent points, or particles of the second kind . 344

viii CONTENTS.

PAGY.

29. The fluent points at length, by their own motion, surround themselves with a surface consisting of points of the first kind 345

:30. The surface of the third particle that has thus originated, at length acquires the same degree of velocity as the included fluent points; the superficial motion cannot be more than ~~ 3~

:31. The motion of the surface, or of the third particle, is the same as the motion of the illcluded point, that is, it is a spiral motion 347

32. In the surface of this impelled particle, we have polar position, an equator, an ecliptic, a uniform progression along the ecliptic, and so forth . 348

:33. The enclosed fluent points, or the particles of the second kind, follow the motion of the surface, and are forced round spirally even ta the centre 350

:34. The enclosed points as far as the centre are together drawn into a spiral gyration ; but the points more remote from the surface do not then follow or obey this motion; but gradually retract themselves, while the point at the very centre itself simply tums itself equatorially 351

35. The fluent matter that enters does so through polar cones as far as the centre, and remains in the centre. 354

36. In this particle there is something of a centripetal and vortical nature :356

:37. In this particle let there be a perpendicular from the centre to every part of the spherical surface, and a horizontal line wherever any part is carried through any circle parallel to a circle at the centre or the surface. The progression of any part along the said perpendicular, or a greater or less progression toward any cl efinite circle parallel to the surface, when the motion is spiral, is motion from place ta place, otherwise there is l'est :358

38. The primary or superficial particles are ulso carried to "the surface of the polar cones 360

39. The matter at the $urface can be whirled as far as the centre near to the walls of the polar cones, that is, from both directions 360

40. The centre may increase considerably from the surface matter, and thus the particle be contracted as ta its surface 361

41. If tbe sphere at the centre is somewhat small it will be carried along the equator as though round its own axis; but if somewhat large, and the matter is fluent, it will move very nearly indeed along the circle at the equator, but still there will be some striving of the motion toward the polar segment 361

CONTENTS. IX

PAGE

42. As long as the effort toward the l'oies persists the central small globe cannot be exactly spherical, but it will be elliptical 362

43. vVhen the surface matter flows into the centre, then the form of the polar cones is somewhat changed 364

44. The surrounding matter, or that which is enclosed in the same way by the walls of the polar cones, may tlow to the centre or to a certain distance l'rom the centre 364

45. The heavier matter seeks the centre and the lighter the surface, whence the sphere is differentiated in snch a way that the heaviest material settle5 at the centre, ",hile the lighter gradually recedes from the centre 365

46. The polar cones may also be filled with fluent material ;365

47. The motion of the matter in the polar cones is a spiral motion round the axis toward the centre, where it is terminated in the circle whose diamcter is perpendicular to the axis ol' the pole ' 365

48. The axis in the polar cones throughout its whole length is the seat of a centripetal tendency 366

49. In the polar cones the revolution is more rapid near the centre than at a distance therefrom, bnt yet the motion itself is slower. 367

50. There is a certain centripetal tendency along the axis as l'al' as the centre; but it is less than in the sphere itself . 368

51. Lines parallel to the axis terminate in a triangle at the centre. 368

52. A heavy body in the polar cone falls to the centre along a parabolic line; and a light body ascends by the same line . 369

53. The lighter matter separated l'rom the central globe can be carried toward the surface of the sphere, but not beyond the sphere except through the polar cones 369

54. The light 01' fluent matter enclosed between the surface and the central globe will enter or go out by the l'oies, and nowhere else; but the heavier matter will remain in the central globe, nor can it pass out by the l'oies or by any other way :370

55. This third l'article can undergo contraction and expansion, and, indeed, merely by contact with the adjacent surfaces; for there is nothing to impede such contraction or ex­pansion, whether it be the surface itself and its texture, or the enclosed points 371

56. Although the l'article is smaller, yet the same velocity remains in the surface; and in respect to the revolutions of the surface they are more frequent in the smaller than in the larger l'article :374

x CONTENTS.

l'AGio:

57. The smal1er the particle the greater its inituence upon the central small globe 375

58. The wltole slll'face may become a kind of globe 376

59. The central globe without a surface and enclosed mobile matter loses its own mobility; nor Itas it any but what it takes up from the motion of the neighbouring pal'ticles :376

60. It was shown that between the part,icles of the third kind mobilc matter 1Iows or particles of the second kind ; SO, also, olltside the particles of the third kind, particles of the second kind flow and are moved 376

61. If particles of the third kind undcrgo contraction 01' dilation, still tlle same quantity of Huent matter is required both within amI witllout . :377

62. The fluent points 01' particles of the second kind, fol' various reasons, may be brongh t together in to one [place] and sepa­rately form a kiml of volume, which globe can also he very greatly expallded and increased :378

6:~. The sun and stars had this origin 381

64. Sucll a sun or star ma)' perish and disappear :383

65. The originant sohll' source referred to urgcs into a kind of gyre ail the surroLluding matter, wltich consists of particles of the third kind. This gyre becomes greatcr and greater according ra the increaec of the originant source. This spiral motiotl, however, is near titis souece; bnt il, ter­minates vemotely therefrorn in a motion almost circulaI' along the ecliptic :384

G6. Around ail the partieles of the third kind there is a kind of smaH sphere eonsisting of points of tlte second kind 387

67. Whatever particles of the thircl kind aee joincd up with their o\\'n splleres, or in whatel'er way this takes place, they nevertheless al ways main tain their polar situation, nol' can they be di,-erted from it in any way without returning to the same sitnation - 389

68. Pole cannot be conjoined with pole except at the distance of the sphere around the pole 389

69. Particles of the thircl kind can be conjoined only about the ~~~ 300

70. The motion of the great or nn iversaI vortex proceo;ds along the ecliptic :393

71. The alTallgement of the pal'tieles varies accol'cling to the distance froll! their ~ouree; the ecliptic, changing the situation of its own pole, consequently changes the points of contact not only with the equator, but also with the ecliptics of the more remote particles. The same happens in the motion of the larger vortex 394

CONTENTS. Xl

PAGE

72. In the motion of the large vortex there is a certain pressure between the particles, which is less at a greater distance from the sun, and greater at a less distance :396

n. By reason of the aforesaid pressure the particles of the third kind suffer diminution, the surface lapsing into a kind of central globe, ln consequence of which a particle of another kind arises; this is here designated a particle of the fourth kind 397

74. The greater the distance from the sun or source, the smallel' is the size of the central globe, and the greater the surface, and contrariwise 398

75. The smaller the particle of the fourth kind, the greater the number of rcvolutions its surface describes in the same time 399

76. The smaller the surface of the particle of the fourth kind, the grcflter the motion of the central globe; this motion follows the equatorial circle . 399

77. Ail motion in the surface of a particle of the fourth kind tends toward the centre and aets upon the sUl'faee of the central smail globe 401

78. The sphere around thc compressed or smfliler particle, or that of the fourth kind, is greater than that whieh encompasses the non-compressed particle, or that of the third kind, con­sequently it ean be deflected from its own p01ar situation and that of its ecliptic only \Vith very great difficulty 402

79. The central smail globe remains in its own equilibrium, and must be said ta be without motion, although it revolves along the equator 40:3

80. N ear the source of motion, or the sun, the compression is still greater, and the entire surface l'uns oft' into a smail globe, so that there is a sruail naked globe, without a surface apart therefrom; this is the particle of the fifth kind 403

81. The smail globe or particle of the fifth kind is so smail that matter of the second kind can exereise no force upon it, but the spiral gyration perishes with the l'est of the qualities, which come under consideration with regard ta the particles of the third and fourth kinds 405

82. This globe of the fifth kind is so smail, that the environing points are unable ta impart ta it a spiral motion 406

8:3. This smail globe has the same weight as the particle of the thlrd kind ; and a volume consisting of particles of the fifth kind, or small globes, is very heavy . 407

84. This great compression existed in the beginning of things, before the salaI' vortex was perfectly formed 408

85. The particles of the fifth kind cannot be in equilibrium with the particles of the third and fourth kind 410

XII CONTEN7:S.

PAG";

86. The sun in the beginning of things was covered with a crust consisting of such particles, and was, consequently, ob­scured; this was the origin of solar spots 411

87. In the meantime the sun i8 increased by attenuatec1 matter, or that of the third kind, until the disruptec1 crust separates 412

88. In the crust previously mentioned, or in the volume of the partieles of the fifth kind, there fio1l's a considerable amount of attenuated matter, or that of the partiel es of the second kind 413

89. Matter of the second kil1c1 acts upon these pal'ticles of the fifth kind, in the saille way as it does upon panieles of the fil'st kind, and drives them into those surfaces, thus begin­ning a new particle, which we call a particle of the sixth kind . 415

90. Although the partieles of the sixth kind have in the beginning different magnitudes, nevertheless they turn out to be equal when the}' form one volume . 4"16

91. Particles of the sixth kind are larger than those of the third kind, but the}' may be compressed until they attain a similar magnitude 417

92. Theil' motion is also spiral, and they have two poles, through which the attenuated matter, or matter of the second kind, Hows in and out 41 ï

9:3. The particle of the sixth kind has llluch in common with the particle of the third kil1d 4Hl

l:l4. In the interstices of these particles of the sixth kind fiow particles of the fonrth kind, together with attelluated mattel' 418

%. The vortices cOllsisting of attenuated matter maintain them­sel ves with difficulty in the position around the particles of the fonrth kind. and al'olllld those of the sixth kind 420

96. The particle of the sixth kind has its own pales and polar canes through which the attenuated matter f10ws in and Ol+t, as is the case with the particle of the third kind 421

97. The particles of the sixth kind pl'eserye their own polar sitna· tian and are lllutually in contact in the circles para!lel to the ecliptic; but the interstitial particles, or those of the fourth killd, cannot do this if the larger particles or those of the sixth kind are moved 422

98. The interstitial pal'ticles, 01' those of the fourth kind, cannat easi!y be dellected ta the poles of partieles of the sixth kind . 423

99. Particles of the sixth kind cannat be conjoined ronlld the pales 424

100. The vortex of the eal'th consists especially of particles of this kinc! . 424

CONTENTS. xiii

PAGE.

101. The vortex of our earth by a kind of revolution, and then by the circle of a definite ecliptic, gradually withdrew from the sun to its present distance 425

102. This volume receding gradually from the sun has a spiral motion in its farthest part, and, consequentl)', forms poles . 42\1

103. The motion round the centre, 01' the motion of each central globe takes place along the eqnator . 432

10'1. Motion in the beginning of creation was more rapid than afterwards, and, consequentl)', the )'ears and days passed more quickly ; but the motion of the terres trial vortex was already definite and fixed, so that it could only be challged by the will of God 433

105. The motion is more rapid the further it is removed from the centre or from the earth ; but, nevertheless, one revolution can be described about the surface of the vortex, while several may be described in the same time about the centre 438

106. With a given motion from tlle periphery to the centre, a kincl of vortex arises, the flux of whose particles tends to the centre, and consequently a centripetal tendency arises in our vortex 440

107. The particles contained in this vortex, in consequence of this motion and centripetal tendenc)', put on varions elementary properties 441

108. The particles of the sixth kind rested upon one another in the vortex, and gave rise to a gradually increasing pressure toward the centre 442

109. The radii, which are saicl to be perpendicular in this vortex, rio not proceed in a straight line, but l'un in a CUl've 443

11 O. The gyration of the terrestrial vortex may be mOl'e trul)' called l'est than motion 443

Ill. :Matter consisting of particles of the sixth and fourth kind flows in through the poles, by which the wunt of that matter around the earth is snpplied . 444

112. In the beginning of creation the pressure arouud the equator was far greater than at the present day, and consequently watel' from the earth's equatol' \l'as carried to the poles, where it stood at a greater height at that period 445

113. Particles of the fonrth kind, which in the vortex of the earth flow between the particles of the sixth kind, also suff'el' compression in the vortex through the centripetal tendency, as also pal'ticles of the sixth kind 446

114. The undulation proceeds very rapidly in surfaces of the thircl, fourth, and sixth kincl of particles, but with a dilferel1ce of rapiclity in each class of these pal'ticles 447

XIV CONTENTS.

PAGF.

115. Vibration can he imparted ta several points in the surface at the same time, these points either cohering or being mutually separated, and yet the vibration so imparted may proceed regularly 450

116. The attenuated enclosed matter reacts and, consequently, the vibration is gradually diminished 451

117. An undulation is a greater amount of vibration conjoined with the motion of the centre 452

118. A certain undulation ls set up in the sola1' vortex and also in the planetary v01'tices by the sun's motion . 452

119. Particles of the third, fourth, and sixth kind are particnlarly suited to take up und ulatory motion and communicate it to neighbourillg particles ,[5:3

120. An element which is subject ta an impact, or caused to take up an undulation, does not undulate throughout the whole of its path, but only in that place where it has a detiuite opening, or where there is no obstacle that can resist the undulatory pressure . 456

121. Aronnd the origin of motion there is some undulato1')' motion, but then it is merely pressure which l'uns out again into undnlato1'Y motion where the pressure ceases 457

122. There are greater and smaller undulations, or degrees of undulation of very diverse kinds 458

12:3. The difference in the undulatory pressure is proportional to the distances . 459

124. If the undulatory pressnre is propagated according to the general pressure of the vortex, it would seem to be aug­mented according to the ditferences of the volnmes into which it tends ,1,60

125. The undnlatory pressure of the elements differs from their general pressure 462

126. Undulatory pressure is at once arrested by an OppOSillg obstacle, nor can it get behind it, unless it can pass directl)' through its pores. The undulatory pressure is reflected at the incident-angle by any abject which it cannot regularly traverse. 463

127. There may be many thousands of such undnlatory pressures ln onc volume, nor will one impede another; but each pressure will complete its own undulation when the oppor­tunity is given 4ô5

128. Particles may be variously reflected from solid bodies, if they are of 1'egular form 467

129. The regularity of the pores in opposing bodies is the cause of thc passage of an undulation; inegularity in this respect leads ta the confusion and disappearance of undulations '.68

CONTENTS. xv

PAGE

130. This und ulatory pressure is the cause of sight, light, and colour 469

131. Undulatory pl'essure affects the smaller particles which f10w between the larger elementary paroticles; and it js none the less exerted although the larger elementary particles f10w between 470

132. If an undulation is deflected by some abject, and, even if it tends in another direction, still the eye can only conceivEl it as proceeding toward itself in a straight line; by such pres· sure vision is very largely, but natura11y, subject todeception 471

133. A body existing in an element with smaller particles is amplified, if seen by the eye which exists in an element consisting of Im'ger partieles ; and the amplification takes place accordiug to the difrerence between the particles in the media, aud contrariwise . 472

134. A body in water or any other Iiquid has less appareut eleva­tian when the eye and the abject lie in the same perpen­dicular; but more when the eye and the abject are situated in a Hne that forms an angle with the surface 474

135. Great pressnre or nndulation in particles of the fourth k;nd gives rjse ta a sma11 pressure or undulation in partieles of the sixth kind. On the contrar)", a small pressure al' un· dulation in particles of the sixth kind gives rise ta a great pressure or undulation in particles of the fourth kind 475

136. A slight pressure al' und ulation in particles of the fourth kind canses merely a vibration in pal'ticles of the sixth kind ; or a vibl'ation arising in partieles of the sixth kind sets up an undulation in particles of the foul'th kind 476

137. Vibration in particles of the fourth kind cannat impart any vibration ta a particle of the sixth kind 477

138. The surface of a particle of the sixth kind, by reason of com­pression, may betake itself ta the centre, aud there form a sphere, and become less and less, whence there arises a particle of the seventh kind . 477

139. A eompressed particle can llndergo expansion, and the smaU globe at the centre, as ta either the whole or part of it, may pass ta the periphery . 479

140. A volume consisting of particles of the seventh kind be· cornes heavier the more the particles are cOlUpressed ; and in consequence of the difference in weight and magnitnde, it gives rise ta different characteristies 483

141. A pal'ticle of the seventh kind can be eompressed ta snch a degree as ta become nothing but a kind of sman globe, that is, it can be compressed into a quite smaH globe, which will be slUaU in eomparison with particles of the s]xth and seventh kinds, whence there arises a partiele of the eighth kind • 484

2b

XVI CONTENTS.

[tA GR

142. 'Vhen a particle of the seventh kind becomes compressed into a small globe or into a particle of the eighth kind, which takes place at the centre of the earth, partiel es of the four th kind remain enclosed among such small globes. 485

143. From the motion of the particles of the fourth kind among the partiel es of the eighth kind there arises a spherical body (bulla) which constitutes a ne\\' particle; this we de­signate a particle of the ninth kincl ; it is the saille as the air particle 485

144. Air, or the particle of the ninth kincl, is subject to exterior pressure by tlnee forces, that is, by particles of the fourth, seventh and ninth kinds. But interiorly it is under pres· sure of particles of the fOl\1'th kind, which are more cam· pressed than the partieles of the fOlll'th kincl which exert pressure l'rom without 487

145. Although an air particle undergoes compression, and by compression becomes less and less, still it retains its spherical form, and preserves its own motion alllong the equally compressed particles . 489

146. The surface of the air particle is moved intelTuptedly by interior particles of the fourth kind, but by neighbouring particles most advantageously along the equator; and in the air particle there is a double motion 491

147. If a particle of the ninth kind sutrers compression, the com· pressed surface l'ails toward the interiOi' parts, and, by enclosed matter of the fourth kind, it is formed up iuto new, but small particles 492

148. These new enclosed particles that have originated l'rom sur· face matter of the air particle, are carried now toward the centre, now near the surface, according to another motion of the air particle 495

149. When the air particle expands, then these enclosed particles also expand and are dispersed, and return to the expanded surface of the air. A portion of them does not sutrer dis­pCrSil)ll lluless the air particle is dilated to the arnount of pressure tu which these particles are subjected 495

150. Because the air exerts pressure accorcling to the height of its column, therefore its particles are more expanded in the higher parts of the atmosphere than in the 10IVer. Never· theless, the air particles may he much expanded in the lower regions of the atmosphere, and yet a column in the upper region of the atmosphere may exert upon them the same pressure as that hy which the neighbouring particles are contra.cted by great pressure; and the contrary 498

XVII CONTENTS.

PAGF.

151. If a particle of the ninth kind is tao greatly expanded, its surface may be c1isruptecl ; bllt the surface matter set free and c1isruptcd will pass into the surfaces of other particles of the same kind 500

152. There may be particles of the ninth kincl in the midclle and lowest region which dill'er bath in weight and size; but still, after an interval, they may gradua11y become equal in bath weight and size • 501

153. Inequality of forlll in the tc11urian vortex, arising [rom un· equal pressure of the circumfluent matter, gives rise to inequalityof the moon's motion, the ebb and flowof the sea, ancl also ta varions states of the air and i ts storms 502

15'1. The particles of the ninth kiud arE, subject to an unclulatory pressure.i ust as are the pal'ticles of the sixth and seventh kind . 507

155. The greater pressure exerted on particles of the ninth kind the greater the clifliculty of vibrating 508

156. The particles of the ninth kincl posscss considerable elas. ticity, and also aptitude for vibration 508

157. A sma11 vibration in particles of the ninth kind sets up a certain but minute vibration in particles of the sixth and seventh kincls, also a considerable vibration in particles of the thircl and fOUl,th kinds, and the contrai')' 509

158. Undulatory pressure of pal'ticles of the ninth kincl is re· fiected. . 511

159. Refraction also takes place among these particles of the ninth kind, but it can rare]y be ohserved . .• 511

160. If a particle of the ninth kind be sa compressed that the greater part of its surface is trallsformed into small enclosed partic1es, sa that the enclosecl matter of the fourth kind is fol' the lHOSt part taken possession of by these, then a new partic]e will come into existence, which is designated a particle of the tenth kind; this is the water particle 512

161. The particles which arc enclosed in this particle of the tenth kind are various]y expanded by the matter of the fourth kind ; and a]so the nearer they are to the centre, the more are they compressed, ancl the contrai')' 513

162. Particles of the tenth kind cannot he further compressec1 516

163. During this period of the creation of particles the earth would seem ta have been nothing but ocean. Subse­quently, however, after various changes, dissolutions, movements, and compressions of partic]es, a definite sub­stratum came into existence, and the waters of the ocean became partia11y encrusted 517

XVlll CONTENTS.

PAGE

164. As a result of their inactivity and of the excessive pressure tü which theyare subject, particles of the tenth kind may be broken up .. 518

165. Tbe arrangement of elementary particles, as also that of particles of the tenth kind, is such that oue particle is able ta pass through the interstice existing between four other particles, above, below, and laterally, and ta be the subject of movement intel'luittently . 520

166. The mobility of these particles of the tenth kind depends on the mobile eharacter of the circumfiuent matter of the seventh and fourth kinds 521

167. 'rh!" pm·ticles in this position exercise pressure proportionate ta the altitude 522

168. These particles at every altitude, exercise pressure equally and laterally in every direction, bath above and below; and, indeed, in proportion ta the height from the surface . 522

169. The pressure exerted by particles is proportionate ta the base and altitude whatever the base may be, whether large or small; and whatever may be the number of the superincum­bent particles . 52;3

170. If an abundance of matter of the fourth and seventh kind 110ws between the particles under consideratiou, or those of the tenth kind, then they will be again expanded into sinall spheres, or a new particle, which is designated a particle of the eleventh kind, or the vapolll' particle. This encloses matter· of the seventh and fourth kincl, and has air extel'llally . 52:3

171. Vapour, or a particle of the eleventh kind, may undergo contraction or expansion, and its surface become either denser or more attenuated 524

172. A volume of particles of the eleveuth kind, or vapour, has the maxim mu of expansion . 525

1n. 'rhere is another kind of spherical particle which has no p.ower of expansion 527

174 The volnme of elementary particles endeavours ta act npon' certain smail spheres whatever the particles, although they may be irregular in form, provided they are separated and rçtain their Huency 527

Appendix on fire 528

CONTENTS. XIX

SOJ\1E POINTS BEARING ON

'l'RE Fn~ST PRINCIPLES OF NATURAL 'l'RINGS.

PAGK

2. Comparison of the general ontology and cos1llology of Christian - Wolff with my first principles of nature 531

3. Definition of the natural point. 532 4. The attributes of the point, continued . 533 5. The motion and form of this point [)34

6. The geometry of the point 537 7. The metaphysics of the point 538 8. Row subsequent differentiations may take place; in a word,

concerning the point. 538 9. Definition of the first particle 539

10. The active of incalculable l'apidity ol'iginating from the point; let this be treated at the end of the section, or the fourth particle 540

Il. The order of the particles 541 12. Nature is like a spidel"s web 541

SUMMARY OF 'l'RE PRINCIPIA

OR

'l'RE FIRS1' PIUNCIPLES OF NATURAL 'l'RINGS.

PART 1. CHAP.. PAGE

1. The means leading to a true philosophy 545

II. 'l'he first simple of the world 551

III. The first or simple finite 554

IV. The second finite 556

V. The active of the first finite constitutes the sun, besides forming the first elementary particles 558

VI. The tiret and most universal element of the world, which constitutes vortices 561

The form and other characteristics of the above-Illentioned entities 566

xx CONTENTS.

CRAP. PAGE

VII. The actives of the second and third finites 568 The actives of the thircl finites 569

VIII. The third finite 570

IX. The second or magnetic element of the world 571

X. The existence of the sun and the formation of the salaI' vortex 572

PART II.

1. The causes and mechanism of the magnetic forces . 574

II. The attractive forces of magnets and the ratio of the forces ta t·he distance 579

III. The attractive forces of two magnets when their pales are alternated . 579

IV. The attractive forces of magnets when their axes are ~~W 500

V. The repulsive forces of magnets, when opposite pales, or pales of the same name, are applied ta each other 580

VI. The attractive forces of the magnet and iron 582

VII. The influence of the magnet upon heated iron 582

VIII. The quantity of exhalations from the magnet, and theil' penetration through hard bodies . . 582

IX. Chemical experiments \Vith the magnet 58:3

X. The friction of the magnet against iron 584

XI. The attractive force of the magnet acting upon several pieces of iron 585

XII. The action of iron and the magnet on the mariner's needle, and the reciprocal action of one needle upon another 585

XIII. Other methods of rendering iron magnetic . 586

PART III.

1. Compal'ison of the starry heaven with the magnetic sphere 587

II. The diversity of worlds 590

III. The fourth finite 592

IV. The universal salaI' and planetary chaos 592

V. The ether or third element of the wortd 594

XXI CONTENTS.

CBAP. PAGE

VI. The fifth finile • 601

VII. Air, or the fourth element of the world . 602

VIII. Fire, or the actives of the fourth, flfth, and following fmites 602

IX. Water or the purely material finile . 607

X. Vapour or the fifth element . 608

XI. The vortex sUIToullding the earth and the progression of the earth froni the sun to the circle of ils own orbit 610

XII. The paradise on our earth and the first man 613

Appendix A: Notes on Swedenborg's Principia 615

Appendix B: Biograpbical notices of the principal aut.bors

ci~ 6~

Index of subjects 645

Index to Musschenbl'oek's experiments 660

Index of authorities . . 662

Index to the Minor Principia 665

CORRIGENDUM.

Vol. ii., p. 406, paragraph 82, 7'C(ul fifth fOl" fourth.

CHAPTER XII.

THE PARADISE FORMED UPON OUR EARTH, AND THE FIR8T MAN.

'VE have thus briefly described the way in which our earth surrollnded itself with ether, then with air, and lastly with water; we have shown that as soon as it began its journey, it revolved on its axis, and also at once round the sun; and that from its infancy, therefore, it began to measure out years and days. We have explained how its revolutions were at the bcginning more rapid, then in process of time slower, till, in arriving at the orbit it now annually describes, it attained its slowest motion. Here we left it, surrounded with water without a shore. Not, however, to leave it to the lawless ftuy of 8, flood, wc here resume the subject, and explain in a few words in what manner shores were now added; that is to say, how it was that dry land was acquired; how the waters superinduced upon themselves a crust, which not only coerced them within given limits and kept them within an enclosure, but also how ail that we now flnd in the vegetable and mineraI wor'!ds was cnabled to enter into the crust; ho\\' heaven also not only deposited its sceds in this crust, but also gave them germination and expan­sion. This, however, we shall explain but briefly, since the subject is one which strictly belongs to a treatise on the minerai and vegetable kingdoms. Not to forsake the earth then in its state of inundation, we shaH ncxt in order briefly enquire into the origin of the minerai kingdom. With respect, therefore, to the incrustation we have mentioned, it is to be observed :­

1. That this crust was formed upon the \Vatel' by the dis­solution of the parts in the water, and the interjection of nnites whi~h emerged to the suriace, and formed upon the water a crust

:::30

281 PARA DISE.

which continuaily increased by an addition of parts one under another.

It would be a tedious task to explain everything relatij1g to the origin of hard bodies composing the terrestrial crust from its bottom to its surface; we may, however, observe thus much in general, before treating of the minerai kingdom,-that from the operations of causes very diversified, as also at various distances from the sun; from the immense variety of changes which the earth underwent in its journey from the sun, first at a more rapid, then at a slower rate, first in the immediate presence of the sun and under its rays, then at a remoter distance; that portion of \Vater which was of looser texture, and the parts of which had from various causes been set free, occupied the interstices of the othel' portions of water, and so together \Vith these emerged to the surface, aceompanied by fourth and fifth finites which mingled themselves with them. From these arose compound entities of different forms, \Vhich produced a crust, as also other entities flo\Ving freely, because adapted to the interstices of the water, and giving rise to a variety of phenomena. On this subject, however, we have here said sufficient.

2. The earth undenvent innumerable changes before arnvmg at its present circle or orbit, that is ta say, changes as numerous as the circles it completed, or the different distances of these circles from the sun; as numerous also as \Vere the degl'ees of velocity in the course of its annual and diurnal revolution; in a word, every day and hour it underwent some new change, during its journey from the sun to its present orbit.

The number of changes it experienced, therefore, may be con­cluc1ed from this, that when issuing from its chaotic state it \Vas nt first naked, and was so near the sun as to appear comparatively diminutive, yet able to look closely into the vast solaT ocean; that afterwards every hour, day, and year it receded to a farther distance, al1d in relation to the immense solar disk became smaller and smaller, because subtending a continually less angle; that it thus \Vas in a less degree bathed in the solar rays. The farther it recedec1 the less became its relative size, and the greater

282 l'ARA Df5E.

was the c1iflerence of manner in which the solar beam was receivec1 on its surhwe. Bvery moment it was changing its place and its distance from the sun; so that the sun could act upon it when it was near in a manner different from what was possible when it was farther off, and with variety, every successive moment. 'l'hus every instant it was undergoing some change in its relation to the sun, which was, as it were, ever changing, producillg, and vivifying everytl1ing in its vortex. Similarly it was ever under· going some change as to the elementaries fJowing round it, which near the solar centre are subject to a greater degree of compression and a more rapiel motion than when farther from it; so that what in the first instance these elementaries Ullitecl, they at othe1' distances either dissolved or united in a c1iflerent manner, and the contrary.

'l'he changes the earth experienced are evident ~lso from these further considerations; that it was at first entirely uncovered, then after this enveloped with ether, and in this state received the solar heat in a diflerent manner from what it did beforc, and in a manner again continually differing in proportion as the sphere of the ether became larger and larger; that it afterwards becamc envelopec1 with air, the column of which grew continually higher, and thus was capable of being set in motion in a different manne1' when it was low from what it could when it was high, and in ways differing from eaeh other at c1iflerent distances from the sun. When finally it was surrounded with wate1', it then assumec1 a still different state, and in t,his state also received the rays of the sun in various ways, differing according to its distance from the sun. Its states were also varied first by its more rapid, and aftcrwards by its slowe1' revolutions on its own axis; by its completion of longer and shorter years, which varied according to t.he variation of its motion, and, consequently, according to the temperature of the newly-formed ether, air, and water, or to the seasons, sv that the earth must necessarily have ulldergone a variety of new changes. '1'0 this we may add, that at every new distance its ecliptic was different, its equator being exposed to the sun in one place more directiy, in another more obliquely,

283 l'ARAD/SE.

just as we see in planets nearer to the sun and farther from it ; in which cases different zodiacs a~e traced, aceording as the different solar or proximate vortices more or less alter the direc­tion of the axis; in tills case, therefore, the seasons of the year must have been constantly dissimilar, sneh as the winters, sum­mers, springs, and autumns; the frigid zones also could not always have been frigid. In a word, it is impossible to enumerate the various changes which the earth must have necessarily ex­perieneed before it had reached its final destination. From al! these consiclerations, however, we are at liberty to infer that the system of our earth must have undergone innumerable changes before it could have been fully completed, and have consisted of so many series of things simultaneously and suc­cessively arising; or before it could have been enriehed with so lUany things as would suffice to supply the minerai, vegetable, and animal kingdoms; before also it could have received its seeds, unfolded and expanded them, and so dclightfully and va,riollf.;ly ac10rned its own surface.

3 During that state of the earth in which its revolutions round the sun and its rotations upon its own axis were more rapidly performed. or when the earth measured out shorter days and yeaTs, the whole surface of the earth enjoyed perpetuai spring­a season the most highly suited to the purposes of generation and procreation. Without this perpetuai spring no seeds would have germinated, nor eould the various subjects of the animal and vegetable kingdoms have been produced.

That our earth formerly measured out days and years of shorter duration than the present seems to be eonfirmed by the age of our first ancestors; for we learn from Seripture that the lives of some extended to eight or nine ages, or tha t they lived to sec ten and even thirteen generations of their own families, and that it was but a slight thing for them to live from one ta three ages. If, however, the earth at that time performed its annual l'evolutions more rapidly, and if it measured out a year to its inhabitants within the space of a few of our present months, they lllight in this case bave lived through several ages, when yet

284 PARAD/SE.

the duration of these ages, or the greater number of birthclays occurring in one life, might not much have exceeded in duration a single age in the present day; whence they might be said rather ta have lived a great number of years than ta a great age; for if they could have reckoned as many summers as the inhabitants of Mercury or Venus, the number of their years \Vould be greater

than ours, but the duration itself equal. Could the antediluvians, therefore, now make their appear­

ance amongst us, their surprise \Vould be awakened by the shortness of our spring and the length of our autumns and winters; they might perhaps chide the length of our aI1llUal revolutions and complain of growing old before they had fulfllled their wonted number of years. But this b.v the way.

Tt is evielent from what we have stated, that there was a tiIlle when the earth in completing its year occupied only a fe\\' of our present days; on arriving at a greater distance from the sun, in completing its year it accupied the space of our present month ; afterwards two months, then three, and sa on successively till as the years lengthened they reached their present duration. Thus the planets which are nearer the sun reckon their yea,rs br our months; while those which are farther off extend the dnration of their year sa as ta make it comprise several of ours. Tf Satum divirled its year into twelve months, a year of our earth woulel not equal two weeks of Saturn; the nearer, therefore, planets are ta the sun the shorter are their years, the shorter, therefore, are the seasons of the year, and in this case a summer would scarcely

last the length of our month, neither would an autumn or winter ; as saon as the summer had commenced, autumn woulel supervene, which woulel be as rapielly followed by winter ; thus after fi brief interval summer would return \Vith ail the produce of its plant life, and the operations of nature \Vonld observe the briefest cycles. The summer, therefore, could not infuse an)' warmth into the earth which was not saon dissipated by the supervening autumn and win ter ; neither could the winter (sa rapic1ly suc­ceeding the summer and hence tempered by its lingering \Varmth)

PA RA DISE. :l8S

occupy the zones with its cold, without the rapid return of spring and summer dissipating these chills.

The duration of the seasons thus being shortened, they would become as it \Vere confounded, and collectively would form only one perpetuaI spring. Moreover, if the lengths of the days and nights were extremely short, the heat of a summer's day infused into the earth would become dissipated by the cold of the night and the cold of the night by the heat of the day. In this case the vernal temperature wonld be the same as if a thermometer were appended to a cylinder and the cylinder rapidIy rotated before a fire; in which case the spirits of wine in the thermometer wouid rise to no higher degree than temperate, unless the motion were too rapid. In this manner then the earth once enjoyed a per­petuaI spring, as indeed was maintained by the ancient phiIo­sophers, who \Vere guided only by the light of reason, althongh the cause of the vernal duration was a subject of which they were ignorant. Ovid, therefore, makes the following beautiful allusion :­

"The Golden Agil was first :-whenFaith and Right Were honoured, by no law enfoœed with fear Of pain or penalty Spontaneous earth, unwoundecl by the stroke Of share 01' hanow, gave them aH her store. Content with food unlaboured, frmt they plucked Of <}rblltus, 01' 1Il0untain-strawbeny.

Amidst etel'llal Spring, the gentle breath Of Zephyr fostering cheered the llnSOWll flower~.

Earth gave her corn llnplollghed, and, year by year, Unfallowed, whitened fresh with plellteolls grain. 'Vith flood of milk and nedar l'an the streams, And from the oak the honeyed gulcl clistiHecl." 1

Again the poet, when signifying that the seasons were shorter than they are now, observes ;­

" 'Vhen-Saturn clown to dal'ksome TaI,tarus hurled­.Jove rulecl the world, the Age, of Sih'er cal1eel, SlIcceeelecl, worse than that of Gold, but far Before the time of ta wny BraSE.

l.lIela>(W7ï)1I0SCR, lib. i., 11. 89, 90, 101·104, and 107-112, translatell by H. King.-l'i·S.

28ô l'ARAD/SE.

'1'\\"H8 Jove the limit., of the pl"imal Spl"ing Contmcted, and, with change of ,easons fonl", ,\Tinter, and Suml1lcr, Antnllln va.l"iable, _"IlHl shmtened Spring, tilled out the furnished l'l,al"." 1

Virgil : ­

"1 would believe that even ,ndl were tlle day" that (la\\"ncd at th~ hl"st opening of the ne\\"-cl"eated wOl"ld, ~l1ll1 sneh the conrse they kept ; 't\\"aS ~pl"ing-tillle thcn, the mighty globe was passing a season of ~I)["ing, ami the Eastern galc" rcstl"ain~d t heil" win Ll"Y blasts." 2

Alcimus Avitus : ­

" Km winter here hcld his altcrnate l"cign ; ~Ol" aftcr wintcl" chills shane bnming" SllllS ; .... But hel"e soft spring her constant l'eign maintained ; Unknown as yet the mthless southern blast. And evel" undel"neath the dew.v heavens Into clear ait' thc gathel'ing mist dissolved.":l

The ancient philosophers, in their references to this pcriod,

thought that paraclise was sitllated in sorne higher region than

that occupieel by the surface of the earth at the present day,

so that they would seem ta have imagined that the earth \Vas

nearcr the sun; and so Plato in his Phœdo (§§ 109, 110) speaks

of a certain ethercal earth. Hesiod 4 mentions the garc1en of the

Hcsperidcs beyond the ocean; Moses also tells of a fiery fiamiug

s'Nord separating the first man from paradise. 5 Thus the whole

globe \Vas ac1ornec1 with a kind of paraclise as the result of a con­

tinuous spring time; all nature was in her illfancy, sportive

and smiling. This \Vas the time of the golden ages, wheu accord­

ing ta the philosophy of the ancients the gods \Vere barn. l'hen

Flora and Ceres reclinec1 eternally on the earth upon thcir grassy

couches. Dianft with hcr nymphs \Vent through cvery wooel.

Jupiter, Phœbus, and the rest of the gods, lived in claily inter­

course with men, and celebratecl their loves in every grave.

Pinto came forth from his Tartarean shadows into the light of

clay, and carriecl off Proserpine; and Venus with her son Mars

concerned tl1emselves \Vith love and battle.

),[etamorl'lIoscs, lill. i., 11. 1]3-118.-7"i'8. , Geoi'ljica, lib. ii., ll. 33G-:3'39, tr:llls1atcc! uy ,J. Lonsdale an-:l S. Leo.-T". ;j Poc-mcrt('." lib. i., "De Iuitio r\lnndi," lI. 2]8, ~19, 222-~2J.-T,'s.

• 1'hcoljOdÙI , Il. 214-21G.-Ti's. ., Genesis iii. 24.-1'.. .,-.

l

PA NAD/SE. 2Sj

Ra.d not an uninterrupted spring surrounded the em·th, the earth through aIl its changes could never have received tl18 seeds of things, nor have prolonged its existence for sa long a time beyond the age of iufancy, after having received life, as it \Vere, in the \Vomb of its mother; a kind of continuous spring was, therefore, the most efficient and almost the only means br wmch things could have been generated.

At the very time of creation it was eommanded that the soil should bring forth its seeds; the seed its tender shoots and fruit; the sea its fish; and the earth its animaIs; not ta mention other things which show that the Omnipotent l'roduced and perfected the world by the use of means, whieh we may reasonably believe ta have been those innumerable changes and that continuous spring by which alone the various objects of the world could have been brought into being. And how wonderful is it that the earth briugs forth her seeds, which not only l'roduce shrubs, and fiowers, and herbs, but also continually reproduce themselves! How wonderful is nature also in the alùmal and vegetable

kingc1oms! Thus, although perpetuaI spring hegan gradually to leave the earth and recede far off, although winters and unequal autumns succeeded, yet aIl things continued thcir life as when they cnjoyed a constant vernal temperature. Vve cannot but be moved, then, with a feeling of amazement, wonder, and adoration in the contemplation of aB these signs of the infinite l'are and prudence of which the)' arc the clearest ·l'viùenees.

When, therefore, this globe beeame fertile iu, beautified by, and adorned with plant life, and animaIs of all kinds had COlne into existence, then the first man was introduced into paradise, created to enjoy aIl the harmony of tIle visible world. He was made ta be partaker of a more subtIl' or rational aura, in order that he might know how to render the worlel around him still more perfeet, by accomplishing that wmch could be effecterl only through the medium of a living and rational agent endowed with il, material body, a being able to enjoy the charms and varieties of nature, and become wise that he lUight venerate, 1m'e, and

288 PARAD/SE.

worship that infinitely wise God who is the Author and Builder of the universe; and whose better and more refined nature, though clothed with a material garment, might aspire cven to heaven itself. Oh! man, how happy, thrice happy thy destin}', born to the joys both of earth and of heaven !

CONCL USlON.

INDULGENT reader, l have now placed before you a sketch of my philosophical principles, which reach from the first simple of our world ta the ultimate compound, from the smaUest invisible to the first visible thing, and, therefore, to the paradise of our earth; principles connected throughout, as l think, from one end to the other by intermediates. Whoever aims at laying down principles, and yet does not begin from the simple, and proceed in order to the last, cannot, so far as l am aware, perceive any just connection between them. For he who stops short in inter­mediates only, does not perceive the end of the series either on one side or the other, much less does he see whether these ends have relation to each other, or whether they are connected by intermediates. This was the reason which induced me to for­mulate a complete system.

That the principles here laid down are of the most simple nature, any one may see, and that they have consequently a perfect similarity to one another, in agreement with what we observe in the phenomena of nature. From the light of reason every one may perceive that nature acts with the utmost simplicity; that aU the various things in the world have been produced from one and the same origin and cause; that this cause continues on through every derivative. In the simple itself is that one sole cause; it is latent in the first derived entity, or in what l have caUed the fini te ; indeed in this one finite are the two principles of nature, the active and the passive, from both of which the composite elementary exists; consequently in derivatives there is latent that which is in primitives, and the same is the case in regard to compounds and simples; in regard to effects and causes. Thus nature has her residence always in the cause,

,892 T

CONCLUSION29°

and reappears in every efiect; whoever, therefore, seeks for her in the efiect, will be able to find her in the cause.

Since then nature acts by the most simple laws, it may be well to o:ffer a brief summary of the whole of my philosophy. Let us begin from the first simple. 1. In the simple the internaI state is a tendency to a spiral motion, and, consequently, its endeavour or efiort is of a similar kind. 2. In the first finite arising therefrom there is a spiral motion of the parts, as is the ease also in the other finites, so that there is a similarity in all the finites. 3. From this single cause there results in every finite a progressive motion of the parts, an axiUary motion of the whole, and, if nothing prevents, a local motion also. 4:. If the motion is local the actives arise, one similar to the other. 5. From finites and actives arises the elementary, one similar to the other, and di:ffering only in degree and dimension. It is, therefore, evident that 1 conceive the existence of only three kinds of bodies, namely, finites, actives, and the compounds of these, or elementaries.

With regard to finites, 1 have stated that one is generated from the other; that aU the finites thus arising are perfectly similar to one another, di:ffering only in degree and dimension; that the fifth finite is thus similar to the fourth, the fourth to the third, the third to the second, the second to the first, and the first to its simple; so that he who has learnt the nature of one wiU have learnt the nature of aIl. In the same manner the actives are aU perfectly similar to one another; the fifth, fourth, third, second, and first, being aU of the same nature, andlike the finites, difier· ing only in dimension and degree. The elementaries, moreover, are similar to one another, being compounded of the passive and active, or of the finite and active, finites occupying its sur­face, and actives its interior; hence the first, second, third, fourth, and fifth elements are aU similar to one another, and he who ha" learnt the nature of one will have learnt the nature of aIl.

1 have stated also that in every finite there are three distinct motions; a progressive motion of the parts, an axiUary motion, and, if nothing prevents, a local motion; that, so far as 1 am

291 CONCLUSION.

aware, these are the only motions in nature; or at least, if the motions of bodies be granted, it cannot be denied by any rational being, that of aU others these are the most highly adapted to the operations of nature. 1 also state with regard to these motions. that they also proceed from one and the same source or cause­the spiral motion of the parts; and that since this motion is most highly natural, it is also most highly mechanical, being ·endowed as we know with every possible mechanical potency and force; and that if it be granted that motion is the cause of things, no other motion can be granted than the one which is highly mechanical. In the simple, however, since there is nothing -substantial in it capable of experiencing motion, we must instead of motion conceive of state, or of effort arising thence, as it were, from one such motion to another such motion; a state in which the sole cause and primary force of aU the things which sub­se(]uently exist)s latent. The whole of our elementary philosophy consists of these principles, ofwhich we have here given a summary.

The reader may obtain a fuller view of tbese principles by taking a cursory glance at their exposition, beginning from the point and tracing them to the end. In propounding these principles, 1 do not seek to gain the favour of the learned \Vorld, nor do 1 desire renown or popularity; 1 wish to make these things public, led only by the love of the truth. To me it is a matter of indifference whether 1 win the favourable opinion of aU, or of none, whether 1 gain much or no commendation ; such things are not objects of regard to any one whose mind is bent only on truth and a true philosophy. If 1 should happen to gain the assent or approbation of others, 1 shaU receive it only as an indication that 1 have pursued the truth. 1 have no wish to persuade others to lay aside the principles of various iUustrious and talented men and adopt mine. Tt is for this reason that 1 have not referred to the philosophy of any partic­ular writer nor even hinted at his name, lest 1 should seem ta wound his feelings, impugn his sentiments, or detract from the praise which others bestow upon him. If the principles 1 have advanced have more of truth in them than those which are advo­

292 CONCLUSION

cated by others; if they are truly philosophical and in agreement with the phenomena of nature, assent will follow in d~e time or its own accord. And, should l not gain the assent of those who have already embraceo. other principles, and can no longer form an impartial judgment, still l shall gain the assent of sueh as are able to distinguish the true from what is untrue, if not in the present, at least in some future age. 'l'ruth is but one, and will speak for itself. Should anyone desire to impugn my sentiments, l have no wish to oppose him; but should he desire it, l shall be happy to explain my principles and reasons more at large. What need, however, is there for words ? Let the thing speak for itself. If what l have said be true, why should l be eager to defencl it ?-surely truth can defend itself. If what l have said be false, it would be a degrading and silly task to defend it. Why, therefore, should l make myself an enemy to any one, or place myself i.n any opposition to him ?

l cannot conclude, however, without referring to the name of Christian von Wolff of our age, who has given so much attention to the cultivation of his intellectual powers, and who has so much contributed to the advance of true philosophy by his various scientific and experimental researches. l refer more particularly to his Philosophia Prima sive Ontologia,l as also to his Cosrnologia Generalis,2 in which he has formulated various rules and axioms to guide us in our progress to the attainment of first principles, a perusal of which has served very considerably to confirm my views; although the principles laid down in the present work bad been worked out and committecl to paper two years oefore l had an opportunity of consulting his works. In the revision of the present volume l acknowledge myself much indebted to his publications; so much so, that if anyone will take the trouble to compare the two, he will fincl that the principles l have here advanced and applied to the world and its series, almost exactly coincide \Vith the metaphysical and general axioms of this illustrious author. We cannot but acknowledge, therefore, in

J Pllblished at Frankful't and Leipsic, li30.-T'I'S. " l'llblished at Fl'ankful't and Lcipsic, li31.-1''i'S.

CONCLUS/ON. "93

the words of this learned writer, " That in philosophy we must grant a place to philosophical hypotheses, so far as the)' prepare the way to a clear discovery of the truth." Again: "Science can make no progress without freeclom to philosophize." Again: " Full liberty must be granted to aIl who philosophize in a philo. sophical manner, nor have we any reason to apprehend from such a liberty any danger either to religion, to virtue, or to the State."

THE [MINORJ PRINOIPIA; OR

THE FIRST PRINCIPLES OF NATUHAL THINGS

DEDUCED

FROM

EXPERIMEN'rs AND GEOl\'IETRY

01:

A POSTERIORI AND A PRIORI

A POSTHUMOUS TREATlSE BY

EMANUEL SWEDENBORG

TRANSLATED FROM THE LATIN BY THE REV. ISAIAH TANSLEY, B.A.

THE [NI IN 0 R]' P il l Ne 1PIA.

1. A. PHILOSOPHIC.-\.L THEORY CO:NCERNING THE ORIGI:N m' :NATURAL THINGS.

For a long time it has been a, subject of discussion with the learned whether natnral philosophy, throughout its whole extent, is based on the same fundamental prineiples as geometry, that is, whether nature as given to us by the Supreme Will is simply geometrical, or, to use a freer term, is entirely mechanical, or whether all the operations, phenomena, and elements of nature proceed by a kind of meehanism, and like that which we have long known and been familiar with through geometry. Some take a negative view of this, but others assent to it, because almost all the constituent parts of figures, masses, stable bodies and forms are invisible, anù have not yet been revealed by experi­ment and rational investigation; consequently they eonsider that sorne of the philosophers of our country take refuge in the same ideas as the aneients, preferring to resort for an explanatioll to occult qualities, and to eonceal their ignorance under fallac:ious conceptions rather than to bring that to the light which they foresee will be disproved by the learned of a subsequent age. But others maintain, and try to prove, that natnre is wholly and entirely meehanical, and that everything that takes place among invisible partides proceeds geometrically, acknowledging that the only differenee is that which exists between greater and less. For they think that nature acts in the same way in the least things as she does in the greatest; and they l'est satisfied to prove this by examples; seeing, as they do, the same eharacteristic of analogy and law when they deal with vast quantities as when dealing with infinitely small ones. For these reasons they desire that nothing in nature should be

'97

298 THE JlINOR PRINCIPlA.

considered occult, except where phenomena have not yet come to our knowledge through the understanding and experiment.

Since, therefore, in things of a larger kind, and apprehensible by our senses, nothing has hitherto been found to exist that does not acknowledge geometrical rules, and as aU nature is visible, l consequently know not whether it is permissible to take refuge in something of an occult nature, and in a quality other than that which is based on exact philosophical principles. l also know not whether the human mind can rest in, and, in a way, acknowledge a theory which is based upon a mechanism either different from, or ampler than that which has long been made known. In order that the truth may be more evident, l desire to deal with those first principles which have been set forth both by experiment and geollletry, that is, a posteriori and a priori. l, therefore, fully hope that it will be seen, whether the mind ought to be content with occult qualities, or with those that are plaeed, as it were, in the light of geometry. Those who desire to search out the matter will find that natural philosophy and geometry have the same origin. If, according to our thesis, it is true that there is nothing in nature that is not geometrical, then the origin of nature and geometry must be acknowledged to be the same.

In geometry the mathematical point is the primary entity. From this arises the line, as a result either of an infinite series of points, or of their motion; then from this stream an area is de­rived, and from this again a solid body is said to originate. And thus geometry takes its rise from a formless and imponderable point as if from something unknown. Geometry can describe the nature of the point only obscurely by means of words. lt cannot be said at all to have substantiality, since it gives birth to the line, the area, and by manifold motion, a solid. But it is regarded as unknowable, and non-conceptual, in order that some­thing capable of being known may be arrived at, as is the case with respect to differences in the calculus of infinities. Geometry, however, is not in fault, sinGe the primary entity is hardly capable of being defined except by bare words; it cannot be visualized.

299 THE MINOR PRINCIPlA.

If we wish ta think of the nature of the world before its exist­ence or creation, when as yet there was no matter, nor even the point, by whose movement or fiow, the line or the solid could arise, then we must conceive it as being absolutely empty, or that in the place of the world there \Vas a kind of immense void in which there was nothing whatever that would seem capable of giving rise ta matter. At that time such a point fiowing of itself or from another, could scarcely be conceived, or anything finite. Consequently our philosophy or reasoning concerning the beginning of things ought to go still further back, and consider whether in that absolute void something may not be comprehended that could give origin or birth to some entity from which the hne, the surface and the sohd might be produced.

If a kind of void be granted in which nothing existed that could move in a material and geometrical sense, much less produce anything, then it must be entirely infinite, and have existed befor(geometl'Y; this was primitive nature which obeyed no geometrical laws, such as they are knO\nl to us. Geometry had not yet been conceived or born, since the point which could fiow or move mechanically did not exist in nature. In this state even our mind is blincl; there is nothing hel'e except what is infinite and surpasses OUT comprehension. Nor does the matter seem capable of being expressed in any other way than this, that the beginning of l'egulal' and geometrical nature was an immense void, and that the primary origin was only infinite motion in an infinitel:,- small point. But in using such an expression we seem to tl'ifie with words, since we cannot form a conception of infinite,motion, apart from something moving or moved, nor of such motion in an infinitely small point where there is no space, in which case two infinites mar here be supposed - in motion, the infini te of veloeity, and in place, the infinite of smallness. But because sueh infinity cannot be apprehended geometrically, we must consequently have recourse altogether ta something of an infinite kind, and a self­originating nature, or a Supreme God and prime moyer must be aeknowledged, who is without any geometrical attribnte or

300 THE lvflNOR PRINCIPIA.

qualit'{. who aJone is greatest and least infinite motion, and who by His own infinite motion in an infinitely small place gives rise to the point from which geometry has its commencement and origin, and according ta whose mIes the whole of nature then acts

\Ve, therefore, carry our reasoning through these infinities up to a certain primarily existing entity or point. FOI' we can only define this point as having Ol'iginated from infinite motion in an infinitely small space; consequently from sueh infinity some­thing definite existed, that is, the first natural point, from which ail other things derive their origin; and together with this very point geometry, or nature bounded br geometrical laws, was born. This point seems to be something between the infinite and the finite. It participates both of infinite nature, which has no geometrical mIes such as our world has, and also of geo­metrical nature. By means of this point one is permitted to enter, as it were, throngh the door into the presence of that nature which appeals to and is adapted to our senses. That from something infinite the finite can arise is proved by the infinitesi­mal calculus; and geometry also acknowledges the fact, that from the motion or infinite fluxion of points something of a finite charader is determined, whether it be the Jine or some­thing else. The science of physics also which regards matter as infinitely divisible proves the same.

2. THE INFINITE AS WELL _-\S THE FI~nTE :YIOTION OF THE FIRST

NATURAL POINT GENERATES THE LINE, THE SURFACE, AND

THE SOLID.

We assume this natural point to be almost the same as the mathematical point. This is the beginning or primary entity of lines, consequently of figures, and thus of the whole of geometry. It is the primaI'}' entity of the lines that exist in nature, and, consequently, of solid bodies, and of the whole of nature. This is defined as non-infinite or as partaking of both. But how thL" was able to generate the finite has been stated in the preceding paragraph. It is not for us to cletermine how, from infinite things, something finite can be produced; but since nature, or

THE IJRINCIPIA.

INDEX OF SUBJECTS.

.1CTION OF IRON AND 'l'HE 'MAGNET UPON 'l'HE ~IARrNER'S NEEDLE, L, 510. AC'l'lVES may f10w within one and the same space without collision, 1., 143, 144.

Actives, innumerable, may occupy an exceedingly la.rge space, as the solar one, or an extremely small one, L, 147. Actives occupy space; they perpetually act upon the adjacent finites, 1., 149. Actives are beyond the sphere of the most subtle sense, L, 152. Actives have no dimension; an infinite number of them may be present in one space, L, 155. Actives, their action within the elementary pal'bcle, L, 167. Actives perpetually acting on passives, produce a third body, I., 157. The form of motion by which their surfaces are described, L, 193. Actives suppose a space into which they may project themselves, 1., 199. Actives of the same kind always f10w with the same velocity, L, 202. Actives must be enclosed by finites; and in their enc!osed space they have nowhere upward or downward directions~L, 204. Actives act merely by form, velocity, and mass, 1., 205. Actives themselves are not elemelltary particles, 1., 205. Actives are simila:r to one another, II., 236.

ACTIVE, THE, OF THE FIR5T FINITE, there is nothing substantial in, L, 139. lt has no dimcnsion; is an entity, everywhere present, filling the whole world in its smallest spaces, L, 155. Actives of the first. fini te, thcir motion and velocity, L, 138.

.1C'l'IVE, 'l'HE, OF THE POINT. The point may become an active, but dcscription ofit omitted; it is a point impelled inta motion by its own internai forces. 1., 154.

ACTIVE, THE, of the first substantial is the motion of one substantial runnillg into circ!es and into local motion, L, 138; of the second linite is the same as the second fini te put into a free sta,te, L, 198. The second active is larger than the a.ctive of the first fini te, 1., 199. The active of the second fini te possesses a greater momentuID than that of the nrst nnite, 1., 205. Thc third active consists of 10,000 01' 1,000,000 first substa,ntials, 1., 207.

ACTIVES OF THIRD FINITE, properties of, L, 206-210. The spaces between the particies of the third linite are so large that actives of the lirst. may flow into them, 1.,209.

AC'l'lvE :F'ORCE, the first finite possesses the same active force a..; the point, L, 86. Active force consists in local motion, 1., 185.

ACTlvE FonCE AND l\fASS, proportion between, L, Ill. ACTIVE AND PASSI\'E. Unless there were two elltities in thc world, one aetiyc

and the other passive, no elementa,l'Y could be produced, 1., 133. An active and a pa-ssive are essential to the existence of anything elementa,ry, 1., 156.

ACTIVES AND PASSIVES in arrangement, shawn in diagram, 1., 158. AIR, without, there would be no ~mduL,tioll, II., 164. The air originated in

successive arder, II., 227. AIR PARTICLES. Theil' surface consists of fifth finites, and wit'\ün of first

and second eiementa,ry particies, II., 227. Theil' formation a.nd nature, II., 229-234; are larger than water particles, II., 259. Air and ether pa,rtic!es a,re similar as to their surfaces, II., 227, and have a "imilar origin and form, Il., 227.

645

646 TH!:' PRINCIPIA.

ANCESTORS, the lives of, according to i'->cript.nre. extended to eight or nine a.gos, and \\'hy, II., 283.

ANGER and intemperate oxcitcmcnt of the body, their disintegrating effect, L,47.

ANDJALGULA, movemont, of, ,ubicct to meehanislU, J., 19. ANIMAL T\.1NGDOM, THE, what it comprises. L, 2. Animal kingdom takes its

rise from the two other kingdoms, II., 165. ANDlfALS, ho\\' distinguished from man, L, l, 10, 1L ANTEDELUVIANS, mentioned, II., 284. ARISTOPJHNES, quoted, II., 175, l!H. ARISTOTLE, his view on the orginal forll1f1tion of nat,ure, II., 174. ARR ANG KllENT, motion always precedes, 93. Arrangemonts of parts in

the fonu of mot,ion, 1., 94. ATTRACTIVE FORCES, THE. OF '1'WO OR ~roRE MAG NETS. 1., 268·273. ATTRACTIVE FORCES O~' '1'\\'0 MAGNE'1'S, 1., 288-289­ATTRACTIVE FORCES OE' TIrE MAGNET AND OF IRON, L, 312·318. BECŒlING, not.hing is at once what it can beeolUc except tho lnfinitc, J., 5:~.

BELl', THE, fOl'med around the sun had a rotatory motion, II., 184. BODY, the llnimaI. ,\ mechanism, whethe.r in large or small a,nimals, 1., 19.

The motions in the subtle elemcnts and thc a,tmosphere impressed thcir mechanism llpon t,he hody; ail parts of the body ll'ero .finally coiil'dinated to receive the motions of the elements, L, 43.

OASSIOPBA, IL new ,tm' in, appeared in 1572 and continued till1574, II., 192. CAUSE, Ilothing can exist without cause, exoept the Infinite, 1., 51. Nature

l'osides in thc causc, IL 290. Like cffects will folloll' like ca,uses, 1., 229. The will to know the canses of things is a sign of a desire ta be wise, L, 2.

CENTRE OF CRA VITY, THE, in a spiral is not in the oentre of the system, L, 99; a particle progl'esses in like manner as the centre of gravity, 1., 100. The centre of gral-ity consists in motion, L, 117. The centre of gravity is in the plane of thc ecliptic. not in tha,t, of the equator; motion of, 1., 137.

CHAOS, common ta the suu and planets, II., 178. O\'id, quoted in l'cga,rd ta chaos, II., 190.

CHE)lISTRY and experienoe, L, 9. C'rRCULAR, the eircultu' forlU is the most peJ'feet" 1., 69. No figure more

perfect than the circulaI.', but it, is the pcrpetually circulaI' or spiral, I., 90. The propcrtie., of the circulH!' .figure, 1., 115.

CONNECTION, THE, between ends and means fonns the very life and essence of na ture, L, 22.

CONTIGUIl'Y, the mechanism of the wodd consi,t, of; and by means of it, el'cry operation takes place, I., 22. There is contiguit,y in all things; illustrated from the veget.able and animal kingdoms, L, 23. It is the key to causes, L, 24. The equilibrium of ail things in the elements depends on contiguity, 1. It cause8 the appearance of presenoe, 1., 42. Ali thingR are contiguous floom the 8un ta the bottom of the atmosphere, J., 42. Elementary nature exists and consi~ts in contiguity, 1., 176.

CO~YEXI·I'Y. a sign of perfectly equal pressure, I., 161. CORPUSCLES can move a volume of ether, but not a volume of ail', rI., 219. CREATIONS, new, may ".rise in endless succession, n., 162. The solar Cl'l"t

was not nnlike an elementm'Y particle, II., 182. The crnst round the sun cOllsisted of fomth finit~s, and had a circulaI' motion. II., 181, 182.' The process of oollapsing and forming: a belt, or crnst, and finally taking the fonu of globes, II., 18:3, 184.

647 INDEX OF 5UBjECT5.

DECLINATION OF THE ilLAG:\ET. Tahles of ohsernd ions of. from \l'ork by Athanasius Kueher, II., 14-2n; in Acla ]l;rudilonl11l, :{(J; in Christ,ian Wolff's AlIe";wnd niUzlichc 11er.mc/i.e. :l2, :~:~; taI_en at· Paris, :~:). :~4; London.:N; Bt'rlin. by Kircher, :H; in the 13altic, afi: in voyage~ to FT lIdson\ Ba.y, :~ii·:l9 : obsel'\'ations contained in Jliscellanca Our iosa , an.40; taken hy Feiiillt\e, 41; in the South Sea, 42, 4:1; by No,;l, 43, 44; in oca of Slindil., 4,1· : in Ethiopic Oceans, 45, 46. 4D, 50; recol'det! in liisloire de l'Ac(rdbm:e Royale des Sciences, 46. 47; taken by Captain HonssHye, ,n; eonta.ined in Tf is/oiTe de l'Acadimie Royale des Sciences, 48, 49; on the eo,"st of Aft'iea..50; tn.kl'n by Comma.nder de La Verune, 01; hom nitml'ier's NCle Voyage round the Wodd, 51; dest'.l'ihel1 in the ]JiBloire de l'Acadrlmie de.> SC'iences, 52, 5a. Dec1inution of the magnet, calculatcd at Lonùon fol' the .vears 1722, II., fHl.80; 1700, /;0-82; 1692, S2·84; 1735, 84·R5; at:Pari" lolO, 86·RS: 1620,88·90; l(j:~0, !J0·D2; W40. n:~·u;;: 16:;0. Do·97; 166:;.97·]00: ](;70,100·102: ](;80,102-104; J(iDO, 104·[U.;; 1iOO, 107-LOO: 1710, IO!)·] Il ; li20,1l1.II:L 1730,113·116; 1740,IHj·I'li; 1750,118-120; ],(;1\]20.122; 17iO. 122·12:3; 1780, 124-12(;. Tahles of declinntions at ]Jo'H!on and l~al'i"

127·1:32. Calt:ultttion of declinn tion at Home. 1(;70, ] :~;1·1 :~:j ; Umlliborg, 1672, 13fi·137; OH voyage to Hudson's Straits. 1721 and li2;';. l:l7·I:IO; :->obalù hlands, 1.707, 1:~!l·142: Cape of Gootl Hope, 1600. .l42·14fi; l(ii5, l-1c:;.147; 1720, 147·149.

DELIGHT:> of t,he first mail, uatme of. ùesel'ibcd, J., 4n, DIPPER}]"'TIAl, CALCUL"S refened to. 1.. 21, 7(;. DrSJUNCTIVE A:<ll REl'liLSn'E FonCES Of' 'l'\\'O vH .ll0In~ :lIA01ŒTS, 'l'JŒ,

l., 297·304. DrSSBm,AJ<I:L'Y is [)roùuecd hy lin,itatioll. multiplicatioll, di\"Ïsioll, geometry,

and modification; in the point thero is llO dissimilal'ity, .1.. 67, ..\ri~es frolll modes, l., 110. It implies Îlliperfectioll, il., J51.

EAR AN]) J.!;YE, THE, differenecs bet\\'eell action of. IL, 2:l3. K'R'l.'H. each. in a \Vorld-svstem. in its infallov, \\'onld be ,imilar to OUI' 0\\'11,

J L, lti3. Âxillary motion' of the cal'tiJ. H.: l!)iî, The carth is 11 single I.arge finite, TI., 200. Consequcnces of the ùiul'nal Illotion of the eMUl, IL, 201. Onr earth, (lJ'igin"lIy haèl '" nniforlll monotony of a,ppeHmneo, II.. 22a. The changes that may "wait. the mllth, 11., 25:J. The cH"th, on it.s Wl1Y to its orbit, Il.. 25;). The em'tlt was earried rOUllù (.Iw sun by the stre:Ull of the solul' '-ortox, II., 272. The earth, sliITollncled only \l'ith ether and air, II., 2:;5. The earth fOl,'med a vortex roulld itself, n" 2,2. 'J'he Cl'u.st. of thc cartlt formed lIpon the \Vat.el', JI.., 280, :l.lotion of the earth ill its pas,;age from the snn, II., 274. The carth underwent innumerable changes before ani\'ing at its present circle or orbi!. II., 281. Once the emt·h was neal' the sun, lI., 281. The ea.rth wa.s at· fil'st entirely ullco\'ered, t,hen cll\'eloped in etber, tholl ill ail', then SUITolHlded with \l'a,tCI', 11., 2R2. JI. is impossihlc to cnumcmte the changes of the l'arth lIntil il' l'eaehed its finHl destination, .LL, 2R:t rn completing it; yea.l· the earth onco oecupied only a te\l' ot our ùay,;, II,, 284.

EDUCATION. lllan distinguishcd ff'()1ll the "ru te" "y l,duelltion "Iolle; whaL takes place in thc process, 1., H.

EFFORT, wlmt is mcant }n', L, ()4. 1.[ there i., cHort towurd motioll, thcre must ill~o he form. 1., 5!), ln effort thero are pn,"cnt force <l nd dt'terlllinatioll. direction and volocity; and effort mllst: PHS; into <lct bcfore anything C>ln he produccd, 1.. 72. Effort tending to motion gi "CS l'iso lo figure and 'pace; cxamplcs. J .. 73. \\'h,llc\-cr does or cau cxi,;t iu Illotion i,; p,'e\'iollsly to he

643 THE PRINCIPIA.

found il1 cffart, J., 73. The effort of a ccrtain Humùer of paTticles joine<1 togcther is inta " !'ight li nc, J., D6.

EFFLUVIA. or particles w!lcn fl'ee, ca.nnot Le quie~cent; they forlll active centres, ctc.. L, 247. A hard body throngh which effiuvia cau flow is magnetic. J.,24n. The effiuvi<1 round a magnet, l., 248. The greatcl' part of the cffiuvia of iron 01' steel is magnetic, l., 26:3. The atmotiphcre is ladeu with effiuvia, J.., 269. !rOll. like al! othcr metals, abound, in interior ,paees in which flow cffiuyin. :r., :317. :\Teither fhune nOr heat can interfere with the gymtion of <'ffiu\'ia., l., 342. Effiu\ia lie enclosed within thei!' Oll'U yorticles, l., 348.

EGYPTIA:<S, the philo;;ophy of the, coincides with the MOtia.ic philosophy, H.,178,

ELASnCITY, the perfeet ela;;tieity of the ;;urface of the fil'it clemeutal'Y, L, W:j Elastic.ity and mo\'ement of partieles, L, 17H.

ELECTRICn'y, how prodllccd, II, 219. Electricity depeud~ npon the vibra. tion of the small and subtle parts of a body fl'om whieh effiuvi" pl'oeeecl, putting the ether alone in motion, II.. 221.

EUnI'ENT, the First, L, 156·189. The first elcment is the lllOtit uuiversal of our solar vortex, and is a eontigl\ous medium betwep.n the eye and the sun as well as al! the stars, L, 182, 187. The first clement is the origin of ail sub· sequent elements; c;onsi:;t~ of the smallest parts, :md ean be present where no other element ean, J., 187: by means of it ail things in the stan'y stysem appear, as it werc, l'resent, L, 188. Elements arc eomposed of l'articles; particles are eomposce! of spa.ces anu figtll'es, l., 17.

EI.EMENTAL IV:<Gno)!, THE, what it comprises, 1., 3. ELE)IENTAL NA'L'CRE, dîftieulty in cxplaining operations of, 1., .{, ELEMENTAllY PAlll'lCLE, TIŒ :FIIIST, the surface of, is in a 1I10St perfeet

equilibdum ane! balance, l., 162. Hs snrfaee is most pcrfeetly impressiona.ble. l., 163. lt is, thcrcfore, masl; highly elastie, l., 164. Thc elementary l'article is the ligure of cla.sticity, L, 166. The finites forming the surface of n.n element,w)' part.icle nre connectee! together in a eontiguous series, and arranged spirally. l., HiS. A "hange of state in one finite in the surfaee of an elementary l'article e'llIse" a change of ôtHte in another throughout the whole snrface, 1., Hm. l'rom one elenwntary partiele there may exist many aeti\'es. 1.. 171. The clementary particle, eousisting of finites and aetÎl'es, may be compressee! ane! expa.n<led, l., 171. The elementary I,,"rticle may eeasc to be so, a.nd beeome a ne\\' finite. l., 17;j. '.l'he finites in the surface of the elementary par· tide eH,nnat beeome aet,ive, l., 170. In the elementar)' partieles there may be presenteu every po.;sihle degree of elastieity, L, 170. ...1.11 that had pl'e.existed is latent in the e1ement,u'y pa.rticle-t,he enbire world system, 1.. 188. .ln regard t.o figure, elementary partides arC similar ta finîtes anel actives. 1.. I!l3; their centre of gra"ity is in the surface and in the plane of the eeliptic, 1., 194. Elementary Jla.Lticles may be expandecl 0,. eompressed, and losc: t.heir ele­menta.l'Y na,! lire; how this takes pince in regard to them in the ;;olar vortex, 1.. 213·2:14. Withollt a termination in elementaries. IlOthing coulu exîst, J., 2W. The second clement"",y p"rtiele~ eonsist of thi,.d finites, and of the acl,ives of the secone! ane! first finite, anel arc hU'ger than the first; they originate neal' the sol;},. oecan: they have an axil!nry motion. 1.. 218,219. The seeone! clementary particlc has, exceriorly, first elementary particlcs, and interiorly, actives (lf t.he first ,end second finite, 1., 210. Jn the second elementary partiele, there is e~'eryt"l-lil1g in the worle! that ha;; hitherto aL'isen from the l'oint, J., 22:3. Elementary pal·ticles re~el1lble a. bubble, L, 234. The most subtle elelllcntary particles penetrate the texture of hare! bodies, l., 240. The

INDEX OF SURjECTS. 6-+9

arangement of elementary partieles Hround iron is cliametraL 1.. 513. Elementary partieles are most highly eompressed nea·r the solar active spa ce, II., 179. Elementary partieles are enclosed in other partieles, n., 202. Ncm­t.he sun elemental'Y partieles are in the highest clegree of compression. II., l!)Ç).

EMANATION, a sphere of, perpetually goes forth from iron, l., 510. EN'l'ITY, the Fu'st., wa,s procluced from the Infinite, I., 51. There i. an lll­

finite Entity, l., 61. The metaphysieal entity, Or point, cousists of onl)' one limit; but things limited are derived hom il.; il. cannot be geometrically resolved; il. is simple, yet active, eonsisting in effort toward motion. L, 71. In every entity thel'C are an equH.tor, an eeliptie, meridian", and other pcr­pendienlar oireles, L, 94.

EQUILIBR1-UNl in different cOllneetions, L, 161. Attributes of equilibrilllll ; essentials of equilibrinm present in the first elementary partiele, I., 161.

";TllER, without, there would be no light, II., 164. Doctrine of thc ether, or the phenomena eaused hO', II., 219. How the ether 'l'as formed and t.ook its rise a.ll over thc earth's surfnee, iL. 200. Ether penetra tes ,tH bodies, II., 221. J~ther and air arc silllilar a, to their surfaces, Il., 227. Ether ,md air partieles ha\~e a silllilar origin Hnd form, n., 227. Thc ether ('in'llbre;; in water, II., 258. ~8THEREAL PARTICLES interpene·trate the clemest li'lllilb and abo (laJUe;;.I ..

347. How ethereal particles differ from the first amI second elernentaTY lli\rtieles, IL 201. Etherea.! IJartieles are both active and passive: are 'pherienl in fonl1, ane! in contumal motion, Il., 202. Ail etheJ'e<tl partiele i, more compressed a t the suriace and more expallcled al. the centre, IL, 20:3. How ethp-renl particles differ from elemelltary particles, n., 204. Ten"ioll of etherenl l'articles, II., 20G. The etherenl l'articles havc n pel'petual ùentrnl motion, n., 209. The surface of an ethereal particle may bc doubled, triplet!, or multipliec1 in varions way", II., 210. The etherea.! particle in highest degree of compression, is oeeupied from surface to centre by slllall spheres, Il., 211. Elasticity of ethereal partieles, II., 211 ; exerted equaHy in aH directions, II., 212. The motion of a volnme of ethereal particles is the same as the rnotiolL of the l'articles indivie!ually, Il., 213. Diagram of a.u etheroal partiele, II., 215. ]~ther jmrtieles ean permeate the interstices of water, II., 259.

EVAPORATION, water, mereury, and all other liquids c\-aporate nt the "UrÏ<IC'e, IL, 199.

EXERCISE, man perfeeted by exercise of the senses, 1., 12. EXHALATIONSFROlVl THE JIAGNET, 1., 347-350. EXPERIENCE, its nature: it must extelld 0\7er many age" L.·.l. Knoll'·

ledge gaincd only throngh experienee, I., 7. Ail the sciences are from experi­ence, L, 8. The reasoll why knowledge must be aequired byexperiencc. L.. 10. Profitable use of experienee, L, 14. Experience and wisdom, 1., ]4. Ex­perience considered by itself is knowledge, not wisdom. L, 14.

EXPERIMENT, knowledge and experiment only first stop 1.0 wisdoll1_ L, 14. A thing may be geometrienlly and mechanieally truc, butnot .l'et confirmee! by experimcnt, 1., 71. The worth of eXlleriment in regard to ethcr. or fire, wu ter, und the rnagnet, 1., 5.

EYE, THE, action of. deseribed; the mecha.nisrn of the eyc formed by action of thc ether, L, 19. Connectioll and hnrmony between the eyc and th" mind, 1.,26.

FIN1TE, nothing finite can exist trom itself, 1., 51. What i, finit<' ul.ke,; its origin from \l'bat is infinite; point argued, L, 51. Whcmver therû is a finite, there must be something finited, 1., 5R. The simple fUlitc is prOc!t1cf'd from

6)0 THE PRINCIPIA.

poillls. 1.. ï9. A finite eUJl originate onl,v by means of motion among points, L., 79. The simple finite defined, L, SO. One linite proeeeds sueeessi\'ely From unother, J., 116. A finite linked \Vith others in a series possesses only an axillar,v and progressive motion, L., Hl. The partieles in a finite are ûmilar to one nnother, in rega,rd to form, arrangement ;Ind motion, J., 189. The form of il nnite il!ustrated, 1., 190-191. From pnre finites nothing proeeeds hut what is similur to them, lil7. _-\.I\ the finites are perfectly ~imilar, L, 212; Il., 23ü. AIL finites may become actives, II., 188. Finites round the snn would thl'oW into ,ha.dow the "'hole worlel-system, n., H,1. Finites of e\'ery pOW(,1' "ml dimension may hecome actives. II., 2:~;').

Fr.NrTE, THE FrnST, is the least substancc. Tt arises immecliately from the points hy motions. In the whole worlel there is no othel' snbsta,nce but this, 1.. 81. It is thcfin;t snbstanoe, J., 82. The figure of the first finite is the !\lost pcrfeet. L, 83. The first finite origina ted hotu the motion of thc points among t hem­selves. I.. 84. Thc first finitc in l'olation to thirlgs mnoh finited ,(.11~1 corn­poundcd is, as il. WPI'C, llothing, L, 89. Il. is t,ho bOllndnry of ail other finites, L 89.

j<'rNITE. THE SECOND, 1., 106-133. The second linitc derivcs its ol'igin trüm the tirst aJl(1 Icast sllbstantial, 1.. lOi. Thc second finite consish of iirst and least slIbst..mtials, 1.. 107. Thc s('conc1 finite, definihon of. T., 108. It is not divisiblc into ,wything smallcr than t·he simple finites of which it. consis.ts, 1., 10U. No finite is smaller tlJan, L, lOV. Its lIgure i~ similar to t.hat, of the li l'st substa.ntial, L, 109. The \-elocity of the second finite is less t.han that of the fir,t linit.e and wh)', 1., Ill. 'l'he cOl1nection of tho second linite with the lirst, 1., 129. The second finite took its origin in some \'olul\1e of snbstantia.b \\'hiùll wprü in cont.aüt with one another, L, 132. The 'H;tive of the sCDondfinitc l'Ilns int,o surfaces, L.. 19!.!.

FIl\ITE, 'l'HE THLRD, cousist.,; of second iillites, 1., 212. FI~ITE, Trm FOURTH, II., 170, 171. The central globe of the earth consist. of

fOl1l'th finitcs, II.. 253. FDfI'l'E, TUE FmTH. In this point is raiscd to the fifth power ,tuc! henDe is eou­

siderable in mass, II., 241. Actives of t,hc fifth finite entcr into the structure of tCI'I'l'stTia.1 bodies, II., 24:3. The a,ctiY(~ of the fifth finite is the cause 'llld origin of atlllosphoric lire, Il., 240. How t,hc fifth linitc originn.ted, II., 224, 225.

Fnm. without, ail things woulel he tm'pic!, elevoid of motion and life, IL, 2;3;'). FLUXlOX AND .\10TION, if is a na.t.nru\ and physical truth that things Jinite

are gencratecl by. L, ilî. FOlWE, the primitivo in the point, causes onc finite to cxist from anot;her

suel'l'i'si\'cly, L, 1V8. Tho modilication of active force eonsists in ve\ocit,y, 1.. Ill. The proport,ion of activc force and ma,;s, I., Ill. ~atul'e i, a motive forec. variously modifieù, 1., 228.

Fomr AYD .\fO'J'HlK insepal'able, 1., 20. GALAXY, THE, i~ the common axis of tho sidereal heuvons, along the ,;"lux)'

ail the vorticf's aTe in il rectilinem arrangement and series, Il., 160: relation of ot.her ,toilai' \'ortices to the galaxy, II., 160.

GEOMETHY. threc kingdollls undel' the l'Ille of, J., 2. Cieomotry and rahoual philosophy are the second means leading ta wisdom, L, Hi. Geomet.ry aCl'om­panie~ the world from ifs fil'st boundary ta its last, 1., 1ï. Things not {inited or bOLlnded are out.side geomctl'Y, 1., 21. Geomctl'y and the world del'ivcd frolll the ~ame ol'igin, 1., 56. 'l'he la w and cssential attribute of every substance in Hw worlù, is geometl'Y, .1., 5ü. Geometry begins with the lirst Iinit.e, L 82. Geomet,ry reYLli.res at lea~t tln'ee b()undal'ic~ to determine anything by analy,is.

INDEX OF 5UBjLCT5. 6Sl

1., Il;,. Every finitc thing in a st,tte of rcst pos~cs:;c:; altribllks whioh are pUl'ely geometrioal, 1., 17. The principle, of geometl'Y are tho same in every worl.d "ys tem, n., 167.

GYIM'I'TONS may tl'<\\'el from various centre, eithor \\"ithcnt 01' \Vith in tlte sphere of another, L, 242.

HALLJ,Y'~ MAP, Musschenhroek', remarks on, n., 34-,,6. HAR)TON\: in the senses il/nstmtoe! by references to the ,eusos ,..nel actions

of mon and animais, 1., 2G, 27. HEAT, cause of, II., 219. Heat is an intense central motion of the parts of

ail' or cthcr, IL, 247. HEAVENS. ail the, ho\\"evel' man)', howe\'er "'lSt, yet, being bnt finite, do not

amount even to a point in comparison \Vith the infinite, II., 161. New heinens onc nher the; othor muy arise, II.. IG2. vVhen hea vens boeome .old lUlU fall into deCily, infant hcavcns and carths may come into existenec, II.. 163.

H ELIX, 'rirE, exorcises tho powcr of a lever, L, !l2. RIPPARCHUS, according to Pliny, observcd a new star, II., l()2. IGNORANCE, infitùto Hüngs of which we arc ignorant, 1., :30. IGNUS FATUUS, is merci)' motion extending the volume of the ether, without

any rigid cxpansion of its particle.s. INCIWS'J'ATION, finitcs fOl'lned an inerust<ltion l'onnd the SUll, H., 188. INER'J'IA, force and effort wit.hout motion in aet 01' effcet, is like something

inert, passive, ami dead, L, 72. IN'FANCY, slowncss of progro>s from, to manhood, rea·son for, J., 12. I1ŒI~ITE, that whiûh ioi, i$ beyond the spllere of geometr'y. L, 2·7. The

Infinitû \Vitllout the finite (Jan neither arise nor subsequently subsü,t; is prior to geomctry, 1., 28. No conception can be formed of a. world indepcndent of the, 1., 3U. The Infinite exi~ted before the worlel, 1., 40. The In.fi.uite does·not consist of parts, 1., 51. The Infinite is slLbjeût t.o no modifica­tion, 1., 53. The Infiuite couId bc 01' not be the cause of snch and such a particular effect, 1., 60. The Infinite C>1nnot be thought of geometrieally; t.here is no ratio bctween the Infinite and the finite, 1., 62. The lnfinitc is ntterly incomprehensible; overything vanishes by cOlU]xlTison with, l., G3. III Ilny compound 01' simplo substance there is nothing bnt the Infinite, 1., 82. The Infinite i> t.ho cause of tho whole filùto wodd and nlli"erse, li., 151. The Infinitû i,; il unity in which greator or less can have no existence, and in \\"hich there are sünnltaneously aU t.hings that ever can be, II., lii1. III the Intinite, the grcatest and least entity are one and the s",me, II., 152.

INFl.~ITE BEIXG, THE, the philosopher in vain stri \'es to know the natnrc of, L, 38.

INFDIITF: BXISl'ENCE is exist,ence independently of thc world, 1., ;19. INTELLlGEXCE, what it is in the soul, we aTe ignorant, 1'., 2·8. A kind of

intelligence in the souls of brutes, illustrated, 1.,29. In the Iniinite.int,eILigence is infinite. 11l1d infinitely surpasses the comprehension and spherc of t.hc highest rational intelligcnce, 1., ;10

IRa:>. ThcTe is notLing tndy iron which is not magnelie. L, 2(j;3. How iron "ecomes magnctic, 1., 264. Partiel(Js of iron fOllnd in almost cvery kind of ,oil, in rivcTs. tountllins. plants, 1., 24(;. Conjnnction of iron with the magnet hy moans of spheres, 1., 264. A magnct dra wn ovcr iton ca,uses its parts ta A5;,ome a. regular arrang0111cnt, I., 412. Once irou is Inagnetiscd, it ca.nnot, hy further fri(Jtion, be fnrther lI1agnctiscd, 1.,413. The spllere of emanat.ion Mound il'on ex tends to H eOllsidemble distance, 1., 510. ~\faking irOll magnetic, L, 519. 1.rOIl is rcndcrcd lllagnetil, br strctching and hellcling. L, ,i21. Iron filings,

65 2 THE PRl.:VClPIA.

thrown into a definite ordcr by a magnet give an image of what takeô plac" in i.ron, r., 544. The presence of iron causes the mariner's needle to devia.t.e from ib true magnetic meridian, II., 2.

KINGDO~I, the animal, what it comprises, L, 2. \Vhat the vegetable killgdom comprises, L, 2. \Vhat the mineraI kingclom comprises, L, 2. What the elemental kingdom comprises, L, 3.

KNOWLEDGEgained only through the medium of the senses, 1., 8. Knowledge without reason does not make a true philosopher, 1., 32. Knowledge anel experiment only the first step to wisclom, L, 14.

LIGHT, procluces fonns and images of things, II., 219. Light i, ohe result of motion diffused from a given centre through a contiguons mcdium. II.. 2] 9.

LIGHTNING, its natnre and action, II., 252. LnuT, there must be one limit before there are 1,'1'0, 1., 58. LOCI in spiral motion, L, 93. LONGITUDE, knowledge of, still uncertain, II., 9. MAGNET, THE, the sphere and vorticles of the magnet a.lways ,wcompany

one another, 1., 253·254. The aotion of the magnet on iron brings the part.s of the iron into a straight line, 1., 350. Iron conj oined \Vith the magnet by means of spheres, 1., 264. The sphere of the magnet differs according to its form, 1., 269. The attractive forces of magnets vary according to distance, 1., 271. The difference in attractive force of magnets, when thcil' axes are parallel, or when in line, L, 294. \Vhen two or more magnets are applied to one another with the same poles opposite, then a single s1'hcre ariscs having two l'oIes one at each end of thc magnet, L, 303. Arrangcment of "orticles a,ronnd the magnets of same opposed poles, shown by diagram, L, 298, 304. Why heat alters action of the magnet on ITon, L, 343. The magnet loses its force and the rectilinea.r arrangemcnt of its parts under influence of heat, L, :3i2. The friction of the magnet against iron, 1., 410. The magnet cannot CoOl· municate its forcc to iron beyond a certain depth, L, 414·416. The force of a· magnet may be greatly augmented by application of an armaturc, L, 434. ln the magnet there is a type and image of the heavens, a world system in miniature, II., 153. In every vorticle round the magnet there is an active centre; similarly, in every vortex in the 11eavens, Il., 153. In the sphe,'e of the magnet there are spiral gymtions or vorticles; and in the sidereal heavens there are spiral gyrations 01' vorticles, n., 153. In every yorticle round the magnat there are prohably minute particles moving about the centre amI revolving round an axis; similarly, in the heavens, II., 153.

,\'!AGNETTC BODIES defined, 1., 245. Bodies of every forl11 al'e llllLgnetic, provided the elementary magnetic l'articles CMl pass through the pores, L, 246. l\!agnetic bodies ha.ve rectilinear interstices, 1., 247.

MAGNETIC DECLINA'l'ION varies in every place, and lIndergoes allnlll11 mlltation, IL, 1. Chief causes of difficulty in making observations of magnetic declination, IL, 2. Observation of magnetic de~lination ·mil.Y be wrong, unless the altitude of the pole and the latitudc of pla.ces he a.ccllrately obscrved, Il., 7, 8. Near the pole, 01' at some degrees distant, there can exist no directive force of magnetic cleclination, IL, 7. .\IlIsschenbroek, qlloted on magnctic declina.tion, II., 10·13. );Iagnetic declination varies ne",rly c,-ery hOllr and minllte, Il., 12; see also DECLINATION OF THE l\!AGNET .

.\IAGNETIC ELE)IENT, THE, fills the spaces between thc l'articles of ether, 1., 348. Jt, flows a.lways in a rectilinea.r, paI'allel, or perfect.Jy reguhr "-lTange· ment, 1., 520. 'l'he l'articles of the magnetic element hecome perpendicnla.r near the pole, II., 4. The magnet,ic element. is made visible by mngnetic

INDEX OF SUBjECT5. 6;3

experiment.'<, II., 57. Partieles of the magnetie element are slnA.ller and larger, II., 57. The magnetic element exists chiefly in the solar vortex, II., 58 The influx of the pàrticles of the magnetie element is a,t the south pole. II., 59. The stream of these tends from t.he south~ ta the north pole il'. a spiral manner, II., 59.

l\fAGNETIC EXPERIMENTS m,d Sweclenborg's principles, I., 234. :MAGNE'rre FORCES, causes and mechanism of, L, 233-267. MAGNETIC POLE. The north magnetic pole moves more quickly ronnd the

north pole of the earth than the south magnetie pole. Tl., 60, Il. completes it,s circle ronnd the north pole of the em'th within 386 years and from west to east. The magnetic poles cannot retmn to their original position for 5400 years, II., 60. Angular distance of the nOl'th magnetic pole from the meridio.n in yeal' 1720, II., 61. The magnetic poles are in motion and pcrform n eert,ün rolK'ttion aronnd the poles of the earth, II., 60.

MAGNETIC SPHERE. The ;l,xes of the vortieles nrp. pamllel to t,he maglletic sphere, L, 255. The magnetic sphere eOllsists of elementary pal'ticles bent into the same armngement as thatin which the point, ROll' in the figul'e (11), 1., 256. The magnetie sphere with it." vort,ieles is a type and ,mali image of the stan'Y he<wens, L, 256. The magnetir; sphere about one pole is not, similar to that about anothel', 1., 288. lt ean flo,," freely through 'lir, ether and \Vatel', 1., 347. Il. remaius at.tll.ehed to the magnet by the gyrA.tion of the \'orticle;;, 1., 349. lnnumerable magnetic spheres m<1;1-' intersect withont intcrferonce, 1., 512.

NIAGNETISM consists in the union of vorticles within and withont a mass, or hard body, T., 250. M:agnetism in t,he samc stonc ariscs hom various causes, J., 268. Magnetism consists of an element 01' effim'ia mOl'e subtlc than those of electl'icity, II., p. 221. Il. is oommunicatcd to iron, 1., 410.

MAGNETISI:-lG IRON, by inRuence, L, 520. The magnetisl1tion of il'on illustmted, L, 266-26ï.

MAN, how distingllishcd from brutes, L, 1, 10, Il. ~ian, in a state of lntegl'ity described, 1., 42. In a stnte of integl'ity uy the senses alone man bec'tme possessed of ail the philosophy and expN'imcntal sciences na,tur" 1 to him; and how this took placc dcscribed, r., 43. In a st,ate of intego'it,y man posscssed the most complete and perfect faculty of reasoning, 1., 44. Man in a perverted statc described, L, 44, 45. In fi state of intcgrity man loved the Deity supremely, L, 48. The first of man's dolights dcscribcd; his \'cneration of the Deity, and God's 10\'e for him, 1., 49. No love in God toward 11H10 in his state of non-integrity, !mt jnst.icE;' L, 50. Thc nl1tlll'O of t,hc first nU"l introduced uüo Paradise, IL, 287.

J1ARINEU'S NEEDLE and magnet, action of one upon i1nother is by Illeans of sphercs. L, 515. The ma,riner's noedle elevii1tes frOnt its truo magnetil: meridian in the presence of iron, II., 2. The mariner's lleedle may bc oaused to deviate by a clmnght of air, II., 3. If not properly set, the mariner', needlc will not give true indications, II., 3, How the ll1A.riner's needle is aetcd upon by the magnet,ie element, II., 61. Why the declination of the ml1riner'~ necdle is so difj'ereot ail the worlel over, II., 62-68.

MASS cannot be attributed to the t,hird finite, 1., 208. MATHEMATICAL POINT, THE, and geomef,I'Y, 1., 15,1. MA'I'URITY, influcnce on length of arl'iving al., 13. MEANS. Given the proper rneans, we shall prou'l bly a l'l'i\'e a,t the true ca,u;;es

and knowled!le of thillgs occult, 1., 35. M.ECHANICAL. Motions aud funchons in animais a"e mechanical; the saille

is tt'llC of the ol'g'tns of t,he senses. 1., 19.

654 THE PRINCIPIA.

MECHANICAL A~n GEOJ,lETRlCAL, innurnernble things that ure no t, l" 27. YIECHA)."'!CAL POWER, ail, is inherent in spiral motion, L, 104. )lECllANICAL rRiNCIPLES. The smallest as weil as the largest thillgs are

governerl by thern, I., 18. '\lEcHA"''lOS, the science of, is the law of elementa.ry nature, I., 16. The

prineiplcs of mecha.nies might be different in '" world differently formed, 1., 17 . .\IECllANISM horn of the element,tl kingdom, 1., :3. 'l'he world a pure system

of mcehanÎsm. 1.. 16. }Ieelu,nism is thc mode hy which the worlel aets or is aeted lIpon, I.. 56.

3ilECHANISM, :NATURAL, illnstrated by hahits of the spider, the beu\'er, bird~ lbnd i.Jees, r., 27 .

.\lETAT.LURGY and experienee, 1., 9. MTNERAL IÜNGlJOM, 'l'HE, wha.t it comprises. l .. 2. )flRACLE, the world itself is IL, 1., 41. )llRACLES, ail things whieh exist in any other worlel, wer'e they to oceur

in our 011'11, wOllld be miracles, 1., ,n. }IOlllJCIED, ail fiuite things arc modified or are subject to mocles, T.. .33.

Evcrything that happens takes place hy modification, I., 79. The greater the nnmbcr of modifieations of thil1gs successive, the more perfect tl]() "'orld, II., 165. )IOMENTu~r is proport.ionecl to the mass an,I veJocity, 1., 151. nIOSAIO PHlLOSOPHY in some mensure eoincid"s with the aneient philosophy

of the Egyptians, TI.. 17R. MOSES,. quot.ed in refereoce to cosmogony, TI., liS; a.nd in regl\.l·d t.o the

abyss, JT., ] 91. ~f01'ION. Nothing is in a sta.te of motion wit.hout obeying some mechnnical

law; the attributes of motion are figure and spacc. J., 17. Whatever is to be produced mnst. be prodllced by ,t mode or by motion; ail modification must l'e8ult from motion, L, ,")1'>' ln the fi!'st. motion of the Infinite, th.ings future were present and already in exi~tence, J., 5i5. Motion is t,he offspring of the Infinite, L, 61. Pure and t.ot,'11 mot.ion cannot. be thought of geometric­ally, L, UI. Described, 1., Gl. Cannot exist in ,pace, 1., G2. Pure and t.ota! motion is an int.erna! effort towa.rd motion, not \'e1oeity, apart from space aud time, 1.. 6:3. ~'Iotion is c1cstitut.e of parts, L, U4. J, stat.e, 1.,65. The m'ltion of the point is the most. perfect in its na.tnre, 1., G5. In real actua! mot·ion alone lies concealcd t.he cause of ail existence, J., 69. The motion in which the point consists 18 a.bsolutely perfect., and the fonn of the motion is circulaI', 1.. G9. Motion exists e.\·erywhere in the point, J., 70. Pure and t.ota.! motion admits of no de~rees of \'elocity, bnt generates it, L, 71. :::ipiral motion must. have its centre in effort, and Illnst ha.ve ;t periphory, 1., 70. The foz'm of motion is the perpytually circular, ,ma therofore spiral, 1., 70. .·\xillary anc1 progressive motion, 1., 7:3. Mot.ion, which is merely a 'luality and a mode and noth.illg substantinl, may yet exhibit somet.hing subst.antial, 1., 75. Motion in goomet.,ry fOl'ms evcl'è' dimension of a body, 1.. 76. The entiro oause of motion among l'oints must be in the point itself, 1., 80. ,Vhatever is withollt motion must be cliss.ipated of its own accord, L, 85. Similarity of motion in a poin!. to tha.t in Il finit'), J., Ri'), 86. In interna.l motion alone consist.s t.he power of bringing forth sequents into acts, l" R7. Spiral motion must he reciprocal, 1., 92, 93. In spiral motion t.here a.re two poles, 1., 93. Progressive motion among parts, J., 97; follows the ecliptie, I., 98. lu internai mot,ion in 'L simple or particle, t.hel'e is a power of putting it.self in mot·ion which is inherent. 'and permanent: consequences of the absence of this power, 1., DR ~'Jotion gi\'es

655 INDEX UF 5UBjECT5.

both figure and "pilee, and limitat.ion, 1., lOï, lOS. 100. ,\Iot.ion in LIIü ,;illlple is aboolnt.ely pe,.fect.. L, lJ;'). .-\ ~Ilrfa<:e may Lé rop"of;cnted b.v motion; illns· t.ratod, r., 130. Ll local motion re~id('s ail motive and act.i"e force, J .. J:\!J.

'Vithout. local motion no aeti"ity ean bo ooneol'l1ed, 1., 14·1. Every being. whet.her ln'nte or man, is impelled by intel'nal motion only, L, J;;~. l ""('gntar motion rcslllts t'rom intervention of dissimU<\r partieies, T., Z10. HO\l' '·0I't·ie<11 mot·ion arises, 1., 181. Motion in <\ ,'olume of ]l<tl'tiele., is aec;ording hl motion of indiviclunl parts, L, Z:36·Z3ï. MOLioll among fil'st olementary and nwgnetic part.icles is diffnsod in o\'ol'Y direetioll t'rom ('ontro to ciroumferenees. f.. ~:37.

SpiralaI' ,'orti('nl motion. illllstmted, L, 2:38·240. .'-[otion hetween mngncti(' part.icles run.-; ronnd a centre in il spiral direet.ion, T., ~:l!). 'l'hem 1l1;':V be as many vorticles as centres of motion, L, 241. \V<\,'es of motion and tl",i!' intel'. action illllst.ra.ted,. 1., 241.!\Jotions, progressi'-e, axillary, and locaL L. JOI. J\lotion of two pJa.netary bodies in the solar vortex cakillat,ed, TL, 27G. ;\11)tion and form in,eparnble, L, 20.

JlUNJ)A~ΠSYSTEM. One \'ortex with il.> aeti\'e centre constitl1tes olle he,,\on. or one Innn<'J:nlC l''ysteul, 11., 155.

:ll'U.';ICIASS DY NATURE, \l'hy some pel'sons arc. J., 2(;. :llu~SCHENDROEK q1I0ted on ma~lletic cleelina tion. !1., J0·.1 3. SA'l'URAL POINT, the First, 1., ijJ·7A, ~,'TUHE and her modifications c:ompared in eOl11plexity to the nrteries ;lJHI

veins of the body; like a labyrinth, T.. 0, KatUl'e i.'i go"emee! hy ,imilar meehanieal law in the "malle,t finite things us in the ~reatest.. J., 20. Th" meebaniea.l wode! of nature is like a spider's \l'eb and the natura] philosopher like the spider her<;elf, 1.. 30, :~(i, ::\atlll'e is a motive force diversely mocli{ied, 1., 228. Natnrl' is ah\'i'YS the saille. and identieal \Vith her~elf,

II., .1;'il, 195. Na.tlll'e is identioal in eanses and ell't'ct-. .11., 214. Nature must arise and he mnltiplied snccessi\'oly, II., 228. l.'lt.imate natnre is where the senses begin, Il., ~lil. ]~le.mentary na.ture i.'i similar 1.0 hersolf, bath in thl' great.cst and Icast t.hingH, L, 22R. The ll1iglüic-st operations of natlll'e are ,eeu in the minutest things, n., 267. NMlIl'e 'lets \l'ith the utlllost sil11plicity, II., ~8D.

S.EEDLE.. the mariner's; sec :i\JARINlm's XEEDLE. OXLY BEGO'I'l'EN, THE, \l'hy He bccame man, 1'., {l0. OmGINS. :\11 things in the wodd de pend fol' their existence upon one

another. An intermediate cannot exist but fl'om sOlllet.hing prior 10 it.'t~lf,

L, 22. Origins mllst he by motion. 1.. 84. OVIn, quoted, II., 176, 177, 28;;. PARADŒE. The whole globe adol'ned with a kind of, as the re"l1lt ot " con·

tinuons spl'ing of. II.. 286. P,mTICr;E, the fil'st clementary, eomponnclecl of iln Heti\'", and a [lH"i\.-e,

consists of seeonû finites and the actives of the fir;t finite, 1.. lM). Second finites constit.nte the snrfaec-, and aùtives the internaI 'pilce of the [l;Jxtide. L, lfiD·l60. Part,ides, !1l0"ümelü of "(l!l1me of, 1.. 179. l':lastieity ilncl movement of particles, 1., 179, 'Vhen moved in \'oinme !"articles prese)'\'e t.h"ir e'jnilihrium, II., 213,

PHENOMENA a.nd the acquisition of a kllowlcdgc of natul'al thing:-;, f., :1 . .-\n infinity of phenomena alroacly known, T., 1;.

PIIlJ.OS01'HER, a. truc, defined, 1., :15. The aneient. philosopher" shre\l'dly guessed the we·exist.enee of 11 ehaotie condition, but \Vere ignora.llt of the series by whioh things ca.me UltO exi._tenee, II., 175. The reason \\'hy man in a ,ta.te of integrity \Vas a oom piete ,philosopher, 1., :38. Wilho11t the ulmost

65 6 THi...' PRINCIPIA.

devotion 10 t,he Supreme Being no one ean be a truly learned philosopher, 1.,38.

PHILOSOPHICAT_ KNOWLEDGE, the means whieh lead to, L, 2. PIiILOSOPHY, Means leading to true philosophy, 1., 1. Definition of

philo~ophy, L, 2. Love of philo~ophy and eontempt of the Deity are opposed, L,38. Philosophy, summal'Y of author's, 11" 293.

PHOSPHORESCENT LIGHT, AND ELECTRICITY, both have the same orJgm in the ether, in whieh either local motion, or cise an effort toward it, is set up, JI., 22(1. Phosphorie light depends npon the vibration of the small and subtle patt,s of a body, from which pl'oeeed effln "ia l'nttin~ the ether alone in motion IL. 221.

PLANETARY BODIES, motion of, in the solar "ortex ealClllated, II., 2i6. PLANETS, THE, are govemed by the same eentripetal and eentrifu~al tendeney

as smull bodies, L, 18, The planets fOl'med by the eollapsed belt of the sun cOllsisted of fonrth finites, II., 185. How the pla nets arrived at their orhitB, IL 18;';. Detaih of the formation of the planets shown by dia.gnl,ms, II., 185,191l. The planets eonRist of fom'Lh finites, II., 196. The motion of the planets is similar to the motion of fourth finites, II., 196.

PLEASUHES. indulgence in, resnlt (lf, I., 46. POl"'T, the mathematical point and geometry, I., 54. The point i~ the one

entity whieh gives existence to finites, I., 68, sIotion of the point is ail centre and ail periphery, L, 71. Internai state of the point" L, 72, 73. In the point, 01' in the effort of the point, lie~ eoneealed the whole power, both active and pasRivc, of meeha,nically produeing ail finites, L, 74. Once nothillg existed in the universe but a point, L, i9. The point eannot but produce derivatives, aud why, 1., 19i. Everything mobile in the whole universe exists in the point, 1., 198, 'l'he first point wa,s produeed by motion from the Infinite, L,55. The first point is a kind of medium bet,ween wha,t is finite and \Vhat is infinite, L,56. The first natnral point is the same «,s the lllathematicai point, or the point of Zeno 1., 56. The finit, natural point, L, 51- i8, The first point is a simple entity, 1., 57. The tirst point origina,tes from the Infinite and then givcs origin to things finite: il., may be eompared 1.0 Janns, L,59. l'he fil'st nat.ura,l point introduees us into a kind of geometrieal field, L,59, l'eOlu"tl')' could ha vo no existence without the first point, L,59. The first point was produced immediately from the Infinite: the Infinite lUUSt hav'e exi,tüd before the point, L, 60. The first natural point is \Vith out pa,rts and indivisible, and why, 1., 65, 1'0 divide the point would be to annihilatc it, 1., 65, rt is not Rpatial and not endl1ed with figure, and why, L, 66. If ail first sub­sta,nees \Vere resolved there would remain in the universe onl)' simple points; and ",ere these resolved without being annihilated thcre wouk! remain onl)' the Infi'Jite, 1., 82. The point,s exist immediately from the Infinite, I., 8:3, An aggregate of points eannot be finitec1 exeept, by motion, L, 84. The motion of the points mnst he spiml, L, 91.

POLES of a spiral motion, 1., 93. POWEH, ail meehanical power is inhel'ent in spiral motion, 1., 104. P1UNCIPLES, the order of exposition of the allthor's prineiples, I.. i6, n. PROGRESSIVE MOTION a,mong parts. L, Di. Pr.IOVIDENCE is ,infinite in the Infinite, L, 30. :RATIO, the salUe bet"'een the greatest numbers as betweell the smallest, L, 21. RATIONAL PRiNCIPLE, THE, ,,,hat it does not consist in, l,; :31. In the sonl the

rational pl'inciple is the continuai analys,is of those things which are seientifieally, as it \Vere, inhcl'ent in its organs, J., 31.

657 INDEX OF 5UB.lECT5.

REASON, man is distinguished from brutes by reason alone, L, 10. The sciences must co-operate with reason, L, 31. The third means leading ta true philosophy is reason, without this. experience and geomctry are uscless, L, 32. Knowledge withont reason does not make a true philosopher, J., 32. The faculty of reason has ta be acquired at the present d"y by use of means, 1., 46. What the faculty of reasoning philosophically consists in, J., 15. The facultv of reasoning, together with experience and geometry, clHHacterise the rati'~nal

Inan, L, 32. REFLECTION AND REFRACTION, II., 218. SCIENCES, THE, now far advanced, 1., 4. SCRIPTURES, THE ROLY, tcach ~us that the world was created by Gad, or by

the Infinite, succcssivcly and in time, 1., 54. vVhatever is confirmed by, is in no need of confirmation from reason, rational philosophy, or geometry, 1., 54~.

SECOND' FrNITE, THE, L, 106-133. The active of the second finite is the saille as thc second fini te put into a free state, L, 198; see also FINITE.

SENSES, man alone possesses knowledge beyond tha t acql1ired by the senses, 1., 1. Knowledge is gained throngh the medium of the senses, L, 8. Nature has dcsigned that wc should bc instructed through thc medinm of the scnses, II., 152. Our senses perceive effccts, but not causcs, II., 261.

SERIES. A series of things existing successively and simultaneously necessary, II, 164.

SIDEREAL REAVEN, the whole, is one large sphcre. n., 156. The common axis of the sidercal heavens seems ta be the galaxy, II., 159. T'here may bc innnmerable sidereal heavens, IL, 161. The whole visible sidereal heaven may be but a point in respect to the nnivcrse, II., 161.

SUIILAlUTY, the principal dcgree of perfection consists in, 1., 83. SDIPLE, THE, has one limit, and arises from the Infinite, L, 52. vVhy simple,

are so called, and their relation to things compoundecl, L,52. The first simplc or entity is not a finited simple, L,57. A simple admits of no degrees; has one limit, and is not the cause of itself, L,57. The simple must prccede the existence of the compound, IL, 173.

SOLAR OCEAN, THE, secms ta comist of actives of thc first and second finite L, 206.

SOLAR SPACE, no salaI' spacc can be conceived without surrounding finites or elementaries, 1.. 225.

SOLAR VORTEX, THE, tends to flow into a spiral gyration, L, 104. The greatest motion of the solar vortex was at the centre, II., 274·.

SOUL, THE, cannot be explained by any of the laws of motion known to l1S, T., 3. The connection bctwecn the senses and the sOIlI, L, 10. The soul is the primaI'Y and nltimate constitucnt of man, L, Il. Perception in the soul compared with the elcments, L, Il. The sonl is deriycd from the aura of a better world, II., 153.

SOUNDS. vVhy harmonious sounds exhilarate and discordant givc pain, ex­plaincd, 1., 25.

SPACE is always accompanied by form, L, 20. The natural point docs not fill space, L, 66. Motion creates space, J., 67. Space and form are shown to be the result of motion, L, 75. The largest active space has the same weight as the smaIJest, L, 204.

SPIRAL, THE, or the perpetually circulaI', is the most perfcct of ail forms, L, 70. Spiralimotion is infinitely circulaI', and why, J., 70. The perpetuai spiral is the most pcrfect form of motion; it is a flowing spiral motion con­tinnally returning upon itself, J., 70. The first figure of motion, state and

221'

658 THE PRINCIPIA.

effort is spiral; this gives rise to axillary, progressive, and local motions, L, 74. The spiral described, L, 91. Nothing is more regalar or more potent in its motion than the spiral, 1., 91, 92. From the regular arrangement of parts into a spiral figurc arises a general effort tending to one and the same general motion, L, 95. A spiral figure must have a centre, which is not the centre of the circle, J., 99. The spiral in relation to the circle, L, 115. The spiral is continuity of motion, L, 116. Geometry of the spiral, 118-12:i. Calculations based on the spiral, L, 120-12:~. The spiral form is the most perfectly mechanical, L, 197. Spiral gyrations have a greater curvature in proportion to their proximity to the centre of motion, or to the sun or a star, JI., 155.

SPRING. The earth once enjoyed perpetuai spring, JI., 283. STAR. A new and variable star in the breast of the Swan was observed hy

Kepler, JI., 192, also in the right foot of the Dragon and in the neck of the Whale; also other observed variable stars, n., 192-194. Canse of variable st,ars, JI., 194.

STEEL, why it retains magnetic force better than iron, I.. 459. SUBSTANCE, THE FmST, was produced from points, L, 79. Resemblance

to a substance may be reprcscnted by motion, L, 139. SUBSTANTIAL. THE FIRST, has an axillary rotation, and a progressive motion.

J., 13. In the infinitc there is nothing substantial, nothing capable of modifica· tian, L, 62. Thc Icast substantial is geometrical, L, 82. How the first sub. stantials flow together into some new finite, L, 107, 108. The second sub­stantieL!, J., 108. The multiplication of substantiaJs, L, 207.

SUCCESSIVE OROER, ail things must follow in, L, 22. The existence of things must consist in a sncccssive series of entities, L, 84. Finite things came into existence successively, 1., 53.

SUN, THE, communicates to its element a perpetually circnlating motion. II., 172. In the middle of the sun's vortex is the fountain of ail the motion oi the parts constituent of its wodd, L, 224. The sun and the solar vortex, L, 224-229.

SUN SI'OTS, the author's conception of, II., 184, 190. SURFACE. There can be no yielding in any surface unle~s the contents

within he non·contiguous, L, IG4. A surface may be represented by motion, II., 239.

THIRD FrNITE OR SunsTANTIAL, THE, L, 211. The properties of the actives of the third fini te, 1., 20G-21O. The third finite has mass rather than weight. L, 208. The a,ctive of the third finite is nearly 10,000 times larger than that of the first, L, 209; see also FINITE.

TRANSPARENCY, cause of, JI., 2IG, 217. 'l'RUTH is but one and the autlwr's simple aim, L, 78. Truth can defend

itseif, JI.. 292. TYCHO BRAHE treats of a new star; quotation given, JI., 192. UNDULATION from a grosser medium to one of a more subtle nature, 1., IL VMOUR, when formed, encloses within itseif a small volume of ether, II., 263.

Vapour is formed on the surface of water andfrom the motion of the interfluent ether particles, JI., 263. Vapour may be compressed and dilated, II., 264.

VARUBLE STARS, cause of, IL, 191. Account of, Il., 192-194. VARIE'IY, the perfection of the world eonsists in variety, TI., 165. A single

variety among a thousand changes makes the perfection of the world different from what it otherwise would he, II., 167.

VARIOUS 'VAYS OF DESTROYING THE POWER OF 'l'HE MAGNET, 1., 372. VEGETABLE KINGDO~I, THE, what it comprises, L, 2.

659 INDEX OF SUBjECTS.

VELOCLTY. vYhere velocity is greatest, there enel'gy of acting is the greatest possiblc, L, 140. Velocities in the solar vortex at thc several distanees from the centl'B ealculated, II. 276.

VELOCITY RATIO, first and sccond, 1., 112. VICES AND LUSTS, their result upon the mind and organism, L, 47. VIRGINIAN SAND, experiments to ascertain whether attra.eted by the magnet,

1.,460. VORTEX. Bodies moving in a vortex a,nd ealculations respecting, 1., 123-129. VORTICAL MOTION, how it arises, L, 181. Vortical motion in a volume when

th~ axes of the parts do not lie in a righ t line; explained, IL, IG9. VORTICLES defined, J., 241. They may tnwel from various centres, either

without or within the sphere of another, 1., 242. There may be as many vortieles as there are cent,res of motion, L, 242. One vor.t.iele may gyrate near another with resistance or retardation; illustrated, 1., 243. Vorticles meehanically eonjoiued in their motions tend to remain united, L, 244.

"VAT.ER seems to have originated in the same manner as the air pnrtieles, II., 256. and water originated simultaneotlsly with the air, Il., ~56. Ether particles can permeate the interstices of water, II., ~9. 'Vatel' exerts pressure proportioned to the depth and al'ea, II., 259.

"VATER PARTlCLE, THE, is similar to a eompressed particlc of air; It is in­cnpable of actuating itself, Il., 256. The water particle is non-e1astic, II., 256, Waterparticles owe the.ir motion and flllidity to the interflllent ether, II., 25f'i.

WAVES OF MOTION and thelr interaction illllstrated, L, 241. WEIGHT. Active force and weight depend upon the quantity of motion

which is the product of mass and the veloeity, L, 201. Weight cannot be spoken of the third fini te, 1., 208.

"VRITE. C,,,use of white in COIOUl', II., 217. Wrr~L. In the cause produeing the first natural point there was something

of will that it should be produced; something of an actÏ\7 e quality which pl'O­duced it, something intelligent, J., 55.

\VISDŒI, 'ohe des.ire of wisdom is the special mark and characteristic of man. 1., 1. "Yisdom and experienee, 1., 14.

\-VOLFF, CHRISTIAN VON, referred to, the author's principles almost coïncide with his metaphysical and gcneral axioms, II., 292.

VVORLD, THE, cannot exist hom itsclf,l., 51. The wodd in embryo consists solely of least possible finites, I., 106. The world had to pass throngh many changes bcfore "man could he introduced, II., 226. The variety of the pheno­menl1, of the wodd would not have arisen had it consisted of a single clement, 1., 210. The world is similar to itself in gI:en.test a,s in least things, L, 223.

WORLD-SYSTE)!S. Thore may be myriads of these, and fresh ones may every moment come into existcnce by the will of the Deity, II., 162.

ZENO, the point of, identical with the first natural point, 1., 56.

660 THE PRINCIPIA.

INDEX 1'0 MUSSOHENnnOEK'S EXPERIMENTS,

ACCIDENT. In the physica.l sciences discoveries are made more by accident than by foresight, 1., 294.

AIBIATURE. best way of making an, for a magnct, 1., 330. AR~[lNG THE MAGNET, methods of, 1., 464. ATTRACTION OR REPULSION, ex periment to determine whethcr greater in two·

magnets, and results; attraction found to be much greater than repulsion, but no constant ratio, 1., 305-311.

ATTRACTIVE FORCE, differcnce of, in lllagnets when the axes are parallel, or when in line; expel'iments and results, 1., 294

COMPASS, when use of at sea first known, 1., 473. EFFLUVIA of magnet, Musschenbroek's doubts as to, and desil'e for proof of,

1., 351-353. The existence of magnetic effiuvia disputed, 1., 371. HAWKSBEE, FRANCIS, the fil'st to inquire into the proportion of the magnetic

forces at various distances of the magnet from the il'on ; his experiment de­scribed, 1., 334-335.

IRON, action of, on the magnct; experiment showing this, 1., 320. Iron renders a piece of stone in which it is embedded magnetic, 1., 320. The presence of iron rendel's al! bodies magnetic; cases enumcratcd, 1., 321. Action of magnet on iron filings; experiments and results, 1., 327·330. Magnetic force universally present in iron, 1., 522. Iron rods remaining long in a direction parallel to the horizon, in the terrestrial or magnetic meridian, become imbued with directive magnetic force, 1., 524. Experiments on action of iron laid parallel to the earth's equo,tor, 1., 526. Iron cutting tools become magnetic, 1., 540. Heated il-on placcd perpendicular to the hol'izon becomes imbued \\·ith magnetic force; experiments, L, 533-536. Pointed iron bodies acquire il

greater magnetic force than when blunt, 1., 540. Behaviour of iron wire magnetised, and then split, 1., 504·505.

MAGNETIC FLUID, existence of, disputed, 1., 361·363. MAG:'\"'ETIC FORCES, metals transparent to; cxperiments proving this and

authorities quoted, 1., 356-359. An iron plate is deprived of its magnctic force when heated, 1.,443. Magnetic forcc universally present in iron; examples given, 1., 522. ls greater in pointed iron than in blunt, 1., 540.

:1I'IAGNETIC il'IERIDIAN, iron rods left for somc tirne in, becoille irnbued with directive magnetic force, I., 524.

lIfAGNETIC PHENO~lENA, Musschenbroek confcsses the caU8e of, to remain a· secret, 1., 381.

MAGNETISED IRON, communicates its force to othcr portions of iron in decreasmg proportion, 1., 491. Arrangement of iron dust or Indian sand about magnetised iron; experiment and illustrations, I., 497-504.

UAGNE1'ISED WIRE, if roughly bent loscs its force, 1., 494. MAGNETS, forces of, when placed at a distance ascertained by balance;

apparatlls describcd and precautions in experimcnt, with tabulaI' results (ex periment 1), T., 274·280. Experilllent to find difl'erence in attractive force

INDEX TG iJ1"USSCHENBRGEK'S EXPERIMENTS. 661

of t.he two pales of a magnet, l., 289. Action of sphercs of two magnets, l., 292. Difference in attractive force of magnets, when axes are parallel, 01'

when in line; experiment and results, 1.,294-296. When the opposite pales of magnets are applicd ta each other, the spheres of the magnet.s coalesce, L, 297. Action of a magnet on iron filings; experiment.s and result.s, l., 327-330. Reciprocal attraction of a magnet and iroll, experiment.s and results, l., 318­329. Best \Vay of a.rming a magnet., L, 330. The forces wit.h which magnet.s mut.ually attract and repel each other, compared with the distances, L, 333. Experiments ta ascertain the action of a magnet on heated iran, L, 344-346. A magnet and iron do not rcspectively undcrgo change in wcight when rubbed togcther, r., 363-368. Ali the force and strength of a magnet consists in the regularity of its pores, l., 374. Expc.riments ta ascertain permanence of attractive forcc of the magnet, l., 385.409. How a magnet communicates its fmce ta iron, cxpcrimcnts ta ascertain, l., 417-423. The forces of the magnct do not consist in any tremor of the pa.rts, l., 421. Why the magnet does not lose its forcc after repeateclly magnetising iron, L, 429. Experiments ta ascertain action of a magnet on several picces of iron, l., 435-439. The very rapid rotation of a magnet on a whirling t.able does not prevcnt attraction of a needle; experiments, l., 446. Arrangement of iron filings around a magnet and on iroll plates; cxperiments, L, 451-454. Action of a magnet on iron filings in glass tubes; experiments, l., 455. The armature of a magnet ought ta be formed of soft iron, 1., 465. A magnet is generally endowed with two pales, which are not mathcmatical point<l, l., 470. A magnet suspended by a silken thread, 01' on a float, tUl'llS its pales approximately north and south, l., 472. Magnets fOl"l1led of built.up steel plates, 1., 494. 'l'he force of the earth's magnet is quite universal, l., 542.

M:ARINEU'S NEEDLES, action of one mariner's needle upon another; cxperi­ments, l., 515-518. Mariner's needle and magnet; experiments with, L, 331, 339, 340. Different results in magnetising a needle, l., 483-489.

NEWTON, SIR ISAAC, the princc of ail nrttural philosophers, l., 310. POLES, t.he two, of a magnet, do not exert the same force of attraction;

shawn by experiments and results, 1., 289-290. Magnets have generally two pales, how ascertained, expel'iments, l., 470. Definition of pales, l., 472. Direction of the pales of the magnet; experiments on, r., 474-489.

662 THE PRINCIPIA.

INDEX OF AUTHORlTIES.l�

SAORED SORIPTURE-�Genesis i. 2, II. 178�

ii. l, II. 178� iii. 24, II. 28Ll�

Pruverus viii. 27, II. 178�

Academiœ Cœsareo-Leopoldinee Naturee� CuriosorU'1n Ephemerides. See� 111iscellanea Curiosa.�

Acta E(1{ditorum, 321; II. 30� Albertus Magnns, 483� Alexander Aphrodisœus, 382� Amieus, J oannes Baptista, II. 28� Antonins Pallormitailsis. See Beeea­

delli. A.� Aphrodisœns. Sec Alexandor.� Arehimedes, II. 168� Aristophanes, II. 175, 177, 1!Jl� Aristotle, II. 174� Avieenna. Sec Husain ibn 'AbdAllah� Avitus, Aleimus Eedieius, Il. 286�

BALTHASAR, Conrad, Il. 27� Ballard, 541� Bardi, Girola mo, II. 26� Barlow, William, 427, 474� Beeeadelli, Antonio, 474n.� Berti, Jean Casparus, II. 26� Blaneanus, Josephus, Il. 26� Bond, Henry, JI. 34� Borough, William, II. 34� Borro, Cristoforo, II. 25� Boulliau, Ismael, II. 193� Bourdin, Pierre, II. 2.5� Boyle, Robert, 321, 345, 356, 357, 377,�

380, 385, 403, 407, 460, 470, 528,� 520, 532, 5:33, 540�

Brahe, Tycho, II. 102, 103� Bulbia1dus. Sec Boulliau, I.� Burroughs. See Borough, \V.� Burrus. Sec Borro, C.� Buttedield, 467 1�

Byrg, Jobst, II. 193�

C~BEUS, Nieolaus, 321, 383, 408, 4G6,� 532; II. 13, 26�

Camerarius, Elias, 382� Cassini, Giovanni Domenico, II. 4Gn.� Chesaud, Aimé, II. 28� Chiaranda, GioYtmni Paolo, II. 2(;� Cie,.nans, Joannes, II. 27� Claudianus, Claudius, 320n.� Cobavins, André, II. 27� Colepresse, Samuel, 524� Cornwall, Capta.in, II. 40� Cotes, Roger, 382� Cysatus, Joannes Baptista, II. 27�

D'~MPIER, \Villiam, II. 51, 142� Deelùles. See Milliet.� Degner, Gulielmus, II. 2(;� Demoeritus, :171� Derham, \Villiam, 380, 427, 435, 495,�

496, 504, 541� Dcsaguliers, Jean Théophile, 481� Descartes, René du Perrot, 371, 380� Durand, Jacques Honore, II. 28� Dykgraaf, 471�

E~LPEDOCLES, 371� Epicurus, 359, 371; II. 175�

FAURIOIUS, David, II. 192, 193� Fatio de Duillers, Nicolas, 425� Fauchet, Claude, 473� Ferehault de Réaumur, René Antoine,�

384, 50G, 522, 528, 1529, 532, 5~3,

538, 540, 541� Feüillée, Louis, II. 41, 55, 141� Eontanerus, Fredericus, II. 26� Fontenelle, Bernard le Bovier de,�

432, 542� Fournier, Georges, 471� Erezier, Amédée François, II. 55�

GALEN, Claudius, 382� Gallo, Chrysostom, II. 25�

1 Chiefty quotcd or rcfcrred to by Musschenbroek.

663 INDEX OF AUTHORITIES.

Gassendi, Pierre, .358, 361, 363, 437, 449, 486, 522; II. 26

Gellibrand, Henry, II. :34 Geoffroy, CLaude Joseph, 321 Giattini, Giovanni Battista, n. 26 Gilbert, William, 358, 363, 383, 428,

475, 483, 524, 526, 528, 529; II. 27

Gioja, Flavio, 474 Glauber, Johann Rudolph, 405, 457 Gmham, George, II. 11, 13, 34, 79 Grandami, Jacques, 475; II. 25 Graves, Johu, II. 28 Gregory, Da\Tid, II. 191 Gregory a St Vincent. See Saint

Vincent, G. Grimaldus, Franciscus Ma,ria, 441,

495, 532 Grothaus, J'ohann, II. 27 GUlUppenberg, Wilhelm, n. 27 Gunter, Edmund, II. 34 Guyot de Provins, 473

HALLEY, Edmund, 479; II. 34, 54, 5:'}, 56

Hambergcr, Georg Erhard, 381, 485, 486

l'bmilton (Jamcs), Lord Paisley, 469 Hartmann, Georg, II. 27 Hartsoeker, Nicolaas, 357, 424, 428,

431,439,467,493 Hawksbee, Fra-neis, 334, 364 Helmont, Jean Baptiste van, 322, 382 Hesiod, II. 286 Hevelius, Jommes, II. 192, 193, 194 Hipparchus, II. 191, 192 His/oire de l'Académie Royale des

Sciences, 321, 377, 380, 429, 432, 437,439,457, 501, 506, 522, 528. 532, 538n., 541. 542; JI. 46, 4';, 48, 51, 52, 54

HoLwarda, J oannes Phocylides, II. 193.

Homann, Johann Baptist, II. 14.2 Rondius, Jodocus, II. 27 Hooke, Robert, 541 Houssaye, Commander de, II. 47 Husain ibn'Abd Allah, 382

J. C., 529n James, Robert, 383n., 461n

Jardin, Franciscus du, II. 26 J oblot, Louis, 428 Jones, Renry, 335

KEDDE, Jodocus, II. 27 Keppler, Johann, n. Ul2 Kirche, Gottfricd, II. 34 Kircher, Athanasius, 345, 358, 437:

II. 14, 22, 25, 26, 27, 28, ~9

Krüger, Oswald, II. 28

LA HIRE, Gabriel Philippe, 320 La Rire, Phillipe de, 416, 429, 4~2,

437,438,439, 495, 501, 502, 504, 5lG

La Loure, Antoine de, n. 25 Lana Terzi, Fra,ncesco, 377, 467 Leeuwenhoek, Antony van, 358 Lo Lorrain dc Vallemont, Pierre, 465 Lémery, Louis, 377, 380, 457, 458 Leotaud, Vincent. II. 25 Le Tcllier, Jean, II. 22 Lcucippus, 371 I,eydckkcr, Melchior, II. 39, 147 Lintz, Rubcrt, II. 27 Lisle, Joseph Nicolas de, II. 48 Lucretius, 371, 408, 449

MAWLINI, Carlo Antonio, II. 26 Manzini, Giovanni Battista, II. 26 Marcellius, Renricus, II. 27 iVIariug, Simetl, II. 193 Martini, Jeo,n Antoinc, II. 26 Martini, Martino, II. 25, 26, 28 Massini, Il. 193 Mattcnkloth, Lamentius, II. 27 Maxwell, John, n. 45n. .1lle'moires de l'Académie Royale de3

Sciences, 416, 515 Mersenne, Marin, 363, 467 ; II. 25, 27 Middendorff, Lubertus, II. 27 Midclleton, Christopher, II. 35n. Milliet de Châles, Claude François,

424, 430, 432 N iscellanea ClIriosa sive Ephemeridum

111edico·Physicarwm German'icanLm Academiœ Natllrœ CU1'iosor'um, II. 39

Molinus. See Moulen, A. Molyneux, William, 321 Moneta, Carolus, II. 26

664 THE PRINCIPlA.

Moretus, Théodore, II. 27 MOllien, Allen, 460 Müller, Joannes Henricus, 524; II. 13 Musschenbroek, Pieter van, 274, 289,

294, 304, 318, 344, 350, 351, 376, 416,435,515,522,544; II.10,13, 33n., 34n., 35n., 39n., 41n., 42n., 43n., 44n., 45n., 46n., 47n., 48n., 49, 50n., 51n., 52n., 54, 56, 135

NEWTON, Isaac, 310, 311, 367, 382 Niceron, Jean François, II. 26 Noël, François, 536; II. 43n., 44n. Norman, Robert, 363. 428

OVID, 38n.; II. 176, 177, 190, 191, 285

PAISLEY, Lord. Sec Hamilton, James. Paolo Venetiano, 474 P'lyen, Antoine François, II. 25 Perrault, Charles, 474 Perseus, Franeiseus, II. 26 Philosophical Tmnsactions, 285, 321,

335, 358, 380, 427, 435, 460, 473, 481, 495, 502, 504, 524, 529, 532, 533, 537, 541; II. 11, 12, 13. 35, 42, 45, 49, 50, 55, 80n., 135

Philosophical Transactions Abridged, 335, 345n., 377n., 380, 385n, 460

Plato, II. 286 Pliny, 322; II. 191 Polinière, Pierre, 305, 369, 489, 532 Porta, Giovanni Battista della, 385,

475 Puget, Louis de, 471

RÉAUMUR. Sec Ferchallit de Réaumur.

Rieeioli, Giovanni Battista, 427; II. 192

Ridley, Mark, 473

Rogers, Woods, II. 42n. Rohfl;ult, 1aeques, 437, 522, 528, 529 Rubinus, Petrns, II. 28

Saggi di Natumli Esperienze iatle neU' Aeeademia dd Cimenta, 358, 369

St Eligius, Peter de, II. 25 Saint.Vincent, Grégoire de, II. 27 Sanderson, William, II. 35n. Sehonberger, George, n. 27 Sehott, Gaspar, 358, 380 Shaw, Peter, ·345n., 377n., 380, 385,

460 Staudaeher, Miehel, II. 27 Sturm, Johann Christoph, 357, 371,

426

T ACHARD, Gui, II. 10, 11 Taehenius, Otto, 359, 429 Ta.ylor, Brook, 285, 336, 481 Tellier. Sec Le Tellier, J.

UREMANNUS, Joannes, n., 28

VALLEMONT. See Le Lorrain de Vallemont

Verunc, Commander de la, II. 51, 142 Vintimiglia, Ca.rolus de, II. 26 Virgil, 343; II. 286 Viva, Jacques, II. 27

WALLIS, John, 473 Whist.on, William, 337, 339, 363, 364,

365, 381, 382, 425, 447, 469, 470 Windham, Colonel, 425 Wolff, Christian von, 357, 358, 369,

380, 382, 426, 437, 522, 528, 1529; II. 32, 292

ZENO, 56 Zieglerus, Joannes Reinardus, II. 27 Zupi, Jean Baptiste, II. 26

665 INDEX OF 5UBjECT5.

~rIIE JVIINûR I>RINCIPIA.

INDEX OF SUB,TECTS.

AGES, the golden, silver, iron and clay, 436. AGES OF :MEN. why they differed when the earth 'l'as young from those of

to-day, 437. AIR, pressure of, II., 498. AIR PARTICLE, or that of the ninth kind, ho IV il. arises, 487. How it retains it.s

spherical form, 489. It has a double motion, 491, 492. It has particles of the faurth kind within, 492, (illustration) 493. New particles formed with the air particle, 495, 496.

ANDLl.LS AND FrSH. The author hardly sees how, in obedicnce ta Divine command, these could have been produced, unless the ciimatic conditions and temperaturc of the earth had differed greaUy from those of to-day, 436.

AREA-, circle 01' line, ail, formed by motion, 302-304. AT~IOSPHERE, particles in thc highest region of, are capable of distension,

II., 500. Formed of particles of the ninth kind, 513. BRAIN. Rince the covcrings of the brain extend to the radiat.ing fibres of the

eye, undulations must be taken up by thc retina, II., 470. CENTRIFUGAL TENDENCY in a vortex; and in the polar vortex, II., 427. CrRCLE, area or line, a, formed by motion, II., 302-304. CLIMATIO CONDITIONS originally greatly differed from t,hose of to-day, II., 436. CORPUSCLE, A, moving with great velocity can mark out a surfacc, II., 535. COSMOS, THE, originated from the Deity, II., 533. CREATION. In the beginning of, motion was more rapid than afterwards.

and the years passed more quickly, II., 433. The solar year \Vas then corn· pleted in a few days, 433.

DIURNAL MOTION, 'IRE, of the earth 'l'as once more rapid, II., 434. E.o\.R, THE. an undulation in the membrane of, givcs rise to an undulation in

the nerves, II., 508. EARTH, THE. The vortex of the earth consists of particles of the sixth kind,

II., 424. It was many years before it reached its limiting boundary, 429. In receding from the sun the earth had a spiral motion, 430. lVlotion of the volume which gives rise ta the motion of the carth, 430. The motion of the earth 'l'as more rapid in the beginning of creation than now; night and day were com­pleted within the time corresponding to our hours, 433, 435. It departed from the sun by numerous revolutions until it reached itl! present position, 433. When the earth reached iLs limit it lay in the bos6m of its vortex without approaching nearer, or receding farther from ihe sun, 434. The effects of the diurnal motion of the earth in changing its surface, 435. Changes resulting from the withdrawal of the earth from the sun, 436. When the earth 'l'as at a middle distance from the sun it reccived a procreative virtue from God, 436. The earth departed from the sun by spiral gyrations, 437. It was once nothing but ocean, 517.

666 THE MINOR PRINCIPIA.

ELEMENTARY QUALITIES due to gyrations, II., 441, 442. These had no existence when the volume of the ea.t'th formed a part of the sun's crust, 442. They began to exist with the eRrth's motion, 442.

ENTITY, THE PRHIARY, is the mathematical point, it cannot be visualized, II., 298.

EXTENDED, THE, originates from the non-extendad, II., 533. EyE. In the eye there is a kind of mecbanism to take up undulation, II.,

469. The structure of tla.e membranes of the cye is R mechanism for taking up and distributing the wayes impinging on the membrane, 470. Undulatory motion takes pla.ce in tbe optic nerve, 471.

FrNITE, THE, owes its birth to infinite motion, Il., 337. Originates from the Infinite, 533.

FIRE, appendix on, 528. GEmlETRY takes its Tise from a formless and imponderable point, wlùch is

unknowable, and non-conceptual, II., 298. Acknowledges nothing but what is natural, 337. GEO~IETRY AND NATURE, origin of, the same, II., 298. GEOMETRY OF THE Pourr, II., 537. IMPACT OF SPHERES, Il., 455, 457, 459, 466. INFINITE MOTION must be conceived as a persistent gyration from a centre

to a definite pcriphcry, Il., 3:n. LIGHT. There is nothing in light which cannot be cxplained by the ru les

and mechanism of undulatory pressure, II., 469. LINE, area, or circle, a, formed by motion. II., 302-304. MATHEMATICAL POINT, TH~', is the primary entity, II.. 298. It gives rise to the

line, area and solid, 298. MECRANIOAL. Is nature whoUy mechanical? II., 297. MECHANIS)I. There is a kind of mechanism extending throughout the whole

body cooperating to take up undulations, II., 469. MEDIUlI!. There is a medium between the Infinite and the finit';), II., 533. METAPHYSICS OF THE POINT, II., 538. nfOON, THE, why it revolves in twenty-eight days, II., 439. :Motion of, 50!,

5001. Its influence on the weather, 507. MOTION of a point in empty space, II., 306-309. Motion and apparent l'est,

444. By means of motion elementary qualities exist, 517. Infinite motion must be absolutely perfect, perfectiy circulaI' and perfectly spiral, 53(\. Primal'y motion is absolute motion; is that of an infinite gyration proceeding infinitely froIQ. centre to periphery; in such motion therc are infinitc poles, 337.

MOTION AND ÀPPAREN'r RES-l', II. 444. n10VING POINT, a circle, area and solid formed by shown, II., 304-305. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, whethet' it is based on the same fundamental prin.

ciples as geometry, II., 297. NATURAL POINT, THE, is almost the same as the ml1tbematical point. It is

the beginning of lines, figul'GS and the whole of geometry, II., 300. It wa·s pl'oduced by motion. It is limited by motion. How it fOl'l~1s a line, 301. Examples given of lines 01' <ircles fOl'med by a moving body, 302.

NATURAL POINT, the origin of, is absolute motion, II. 337. NATUllE, like a spider's web, II., 541. NATURE AND GEO~IETRY have the same, Il., 298. NEW SUNS OR STARS, why they may arise and vanish, II., 412. NOAH mentioned, II., 437. OCCULT QUALITIES, ought the mind to be content with these ? II., 298.

667 INDEX OF SUBjECTS.

OCEAN, THE, was deeper in primeval times than now; evidenee given, II., 445. The VTaters of once beeume partial!y enel"Ustcd, 517. Its depth once extended to the centre of the eurth, 518.

ORBIT. How long the earth took to roaoh its orbit, II., 446. OVID on the primeval ages, CJl1oted, II., 437. PARADISE, mention of, in the Sacrcd Scripture. II., 435. PARTICLE. A point with its CJuiescent centre may be callec! a partiele of the

fil'st kind or a primary particIe ; it is nething but a point that has origina,ted rrom pure motion, II., 343, 344. A particle of the second kind is t,he point. flowing with its centre along spiral eireles, 344. The particle of the third is formod exteriorly of points of the first kind, but interiorly of points 01' particles of the third kind, 344. !ts mechanism, 346·349. Tho third partiele can under­go contraction and expansion, 371-:374. Partieles of the ~econd kincl fla,," between thoso of the third kind; 376. Chanwteristies of pa.rticlps of the fourth kind, 399-402. Plll'ticles of the third kind aro ~UlTOIlilded with a small sphere of points of tho socond kind, :387; and with a d~finito vortex, :388. Ch,waotoristies of part.icles of the fifth kind, 406-410. Particlos lue forced by the sun to aH the peripheries of the sola,r vortex, and they undeJ'go pressme acoording to thcir distance from tho centrc, 4(iO. The particlo.'! become less and less in proportion ta their distance from the sun, 4tH. Rcilcetion of from various bodies, 46::;. A eomprossed particle: ean undoJ'go compression, 479. A volumo of particles of the soventh kind bocomes heavier the more thg particlos are eomprossed, 48:3. A particle of the seventh kind cau boeome cornprosscd into a small globc, 485. How a purticle of thc ninth kind arises, which is the air partiele, 485, 486. A solid partiele cornes into existence when motion cousos among oCJual particies, 517. Particles of the tonth kinù may be broken IIp, 518. Differenco between motion of particles of nint!J. and tenth ldnùs, 521. Pressl1l'e exerted by partielcs proportionate ta base and altituùe, 523. Particlo of the eleyenth l,ind, or \Tapour particlo, 523, 524, 525. It can be seen by the eye '~nd

is spherical, 523. Another particle not designatod by namo, 527. Particlcs of the ninth kincl subject ta undulatory pressure, 507. They possess consider­able elastieity, 508. How tlley influence other particles, 500. A partiele of the fourth kind is \Tery small compared with, 509. Undulatory pres~ure of thesc partieles, 511. Refraction aillong these particles, 511. P'll'tioles of the ninth kind in the beginning of things extendecl ta the centre of the oarth, 513. Par­ticles of the tcnth kind or the mataI' particlc, theÎr origin, 513. TI1ustrat,ion of, 514. These eatUlot be oompressed, 516. Particles created one from another up ta partioies of the tenth kind, 517. Dofinit,ion of the first pa.rtiole, II., 530. Tt is Il simple finito ontity, 539. Possesses a very rapid internal motion, 539. Geometrieally, it is the most perfect that ean he, 539. It is the medium between the point and finit{) tllÎngs, 530. It is thc first substantiate, 540.

PATRIAllCHS. Theil' long lifo due ta simplicityof thei!" food and their un­sophistioated habits of life, and the peaceful state of theit· minds. The years \Vere also muoh shorter with them, II., 4:37.

PEHPENDICULAR LINE, A, is not straight but eurved and why, II., 443. PLANETS. The nearer the pla nets aro ta thc sun the more rapid thei,' motion,

II., 427. POINT, THE, originated from infinite motion in an infinitcly smal! space;

from this existed the fiTSt natural point; and from this ail things derive their origin. It is sOllletrung between the infinite a,nd the finite; by it wo enter into nature, II., 300. Motion of the point in empty space, 306, 313. Innull1erable

668 THE MINOR PRIl'/CIPIA.

points may mark out the same surface without coming in contact, 323. Con­sequence of the collision of points, 328, 329. Movemcnt of several points or an infinite number of samc, 320-322. The natural point defined, 532. It is absolute motion, non-composite, 532. It is a medium between the finite and the Infinite, a most simple entity, 533. The motion and fOl-m of the point. 534. It existed hom the Infinite by means of motion, 535. Roll' it can give rise ta a line, an area, a solid, 535. It goes forth directly from the Infinite, 535. Tt is something pme and absolute, and is the origin of geometry, 535. Geometry of the point, 535.

POI,ES. Water at the pales stood far higher at thc pales in the beginning of oreation than to-day; reasons given, II., 445, 446.

PRESSURE around the eguator was far grcater in the beginning of creation th",n at the present day, and water was earricd from the equator ta the pales where it stood at a greater height than to-day; reasons given, n., 445, 446, 519.

SACRED SCRIPTURE, THE. Its mention of paradise, IL, 435. Creation of animaIs, 4:36. Reference of ta the arder of creation, 436.

SATURN. Thirty of our yea.rs egual one of those of Saturn, II., 427. SENSES, :l'HE. Different ea.paeity of, 470. SOLAR YEAR. In t.he heginning the salaI' year \Vas completed in a few days,

n.,433. SOLlOS, ail those found in our earth derived their origin from f1uid partieles,

II., 517. SIXTH IUND OF PARTICDE, their eharacteJ:Ïsties, IL, 416-424. SPACE, FmITE, originates from the infinitely small, n., 533. SPHERES, impact of, 11.,455, 4l57, 459, 466. SPIRAL MonON, n., 308-313. STARS, their origin, n., 382. Why they become covercd with il crnst and

vanish, 413. SUN. A new sun arising in a certain place in the universe at once urges

the surrounding matter into a kind of gyre and forms a vortex, n., 382. In the beginning of things the sun \Vas eovered with a crust of particles of the fifth kind,411. This crust. \Vas impelled into a perpetuai gyration, 411. This erust darkened the sun, and on being disrupted initiated many things in the salaI' vortex, 412. Cause of the disruption, 413. Result of disrU1)tion of the crust. 426. The sun eonsisted of attenuated matter or particles of the second kind, 426. The motion of the enerusting mlttter deereases aeeording ta its distance from the sun, 427. The slln drives particles ta ail the peripheries of the solltr vortex, 460.

SUN AND STARS. holV they had their origin, n., 381, 383. Theil' influence one upon anothllr, 383. RolV It sun or staT may disappear, 383.

SUN-SPOTS, how they arise, II., 412. SUPREl>IE GOD (Summum Numen), A, must be aeknowledged, who is without

any geometriea.\ attribute, who alone is greatest and Icast infinite motion, and who gives rise ta the point from which geometry has its commencell~ent,II., 300.

TELLURIAN VORTEX, effects of ineguality in form, II., 502. UNDULATION, nature of, in a,n element, II., 456. The generaol undulation

in our vortex arises from the sun's motion. The undulation begins from the sun and exerts pressure upon the surrounding matter, 456.

UNDULATORY PRESSURE. If undulatory pressure meets a very thin mem­brane, it ta.kes up a certain amount of motion of undula.tion, and why, II.,456,457. Undulatory pressure is proportional to the distance, 459. Undulatory pressure ispropagated in ,. right line, 462, 470. It is arrested by an opposing obstacle

669 INDEX OF SUBjECTS.

463. There may be many thousands of undulatory pressures in one volume without being impeded, illustrateù, 465. Why undulatory pressure from the sun ean be maintained through sa great a distance, 468. Undulatory pressure is the cause of sight, light and eolour, 469. Undulatory pressure extendR from the sun ta the earth, 469. There is nothing in undulatory pressme whieh cannat he observed in light, 469. Undulatory pressure the cause of light; belongs to partieles of the sixth kind, 470. lt extends from the sun ta the earth, 470. Refraction of undulatory pressure, 471. Undultaory pressure takes the form of waves when opportunity is given, 477. Unduhl.tory pressure of partieles of the ninth kind, 511.

VAPüUR P ARTICLES, or that of the eleventh kirrd. They arc spherieal, and ean be seen by the eye, II., 523.

VOID. Primitive nature wa~ a,n infinite void, wherein the point did not exist. The beginning of regular and geometrical nature was an immense void, and the primary origin was infinite motion in an infinitely small space, II., 299. The motion of a point in, 318, 319.

VORTEX. A vortex formed by motion, II., 427. In it there is a centrifuga tendeney, 427. A body 1110ving in a vortex tends ta take a path along a tangent ta the gyr"tion, 427. In the salaI' vortex there is a centrifugai tendeney, 427. The motion of, 434. Movement of a vortex more rapid on the surface than nearer ta the centre, 438. It is in the nature of a, vort<lX ta exert pressure. Effeets of inequality in the form of the tellurian vortex, 502. The matter of the telluria.n vortex eonsists of partieles of the fourth and sixth kinds, 475.

WATER, THE. at the poles stood at a far greater height in the beginmng cf creation than to.day; l'easons given, II., 445. 'Vhy an abject plaeed in watel: appeal's ta be larger when viewed by the eye in the air (illustration), 472, 474.

WATER PA.RTICLE, origin of, II., 513; illustration of, 514. It cannat be eompressed,516.

'VEATHER; TITE, reasons for changes in, II., 506, 507. Influence of the moon on, 507.

'VORLD, THE, before creation., an empty void, II., 299.