employee motivation foundations and practices

Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.McGraw-Hill/Irwin

Employee Motivation: Foundations and Practices

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Motivation Defined

The forces within a person that affect the direction, intensity, and persistence of voluntary behavior

Exerting particular effort level (intensity), for a certain amount of time (persistence), toward a particular goal (direction).

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Drives and Needs

Drives (aka-primary needs, fundamental needs, innate motives) Neural states that energize individuals to correct

deficiencies or maintain an internal equilibrium Prime movers of behavior by activating emotions

Self-concept, social norms, and past experience

Drives(primary needs)

NeedsDecisions

and Behavior

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Drives and Needs

Needs Goal-directed forces that people experience. Drive-generated emotions directed toward goals Goals formed by self-concept, social norms, and experience

Self-concept, social norms, and past experience

Drives(primary needs)

NeedsDecisions

and Behavior

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Self-Self-actual-actual-izationization

PhysiologicalPhysiological

SafetySafety

BelongingnessBelongingness

EsteemEsteem

Seven categories capture most needs

Five categories placed in a hierarchy

Need toNeed toknowknow

Need for Need for beautybeauty

Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy Theory

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Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy Theory

Lowest unmet need has strongest effect

When lower need is satisfied, next higher need becomes the primary motivator

Self-actualization -- a growth need because people desire more rather than less of it when satisfied

Self-Self-actualactual

--izationization


SafetySafety


EsteemEsteem



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Evaluating Maslow’s Theory

Lack of support for theory

Maslow’s needs aren’t as separate as assumed

People progress to different needs

Needs change more rapidly than Maslow stated

Self-Self-actualactual

--izationization


SafetySafety


EsteemEsteem



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What Maslow Contributed to Motivation Theory

More holistic integrative view of needs

More humanistic Influence of social dynamics, not just instinct

More positivistic Pay attention to strengths, not just deficiencies

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What’s Wrong with Needs Hierarchy Models?

Wrongly assume that everyone has the same needs hierarchy (i.e. universal)

Instead, likely that each person has a unique needs hierarchy Shaped by our self-concept -- values and social

identity

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Learned Needs Theory

Drives are innate (universal)

Needs are amplified or suppressed through self-concept, social norms, and past experience

Therefore, needs can be “learned” (i.e. strengthened or weakened through training)

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Three Learned Needs

Need for achievement Values competition against a standard of

excellence; Want reasonably challenging goals

Need for affiliation Desire to seek approval, conform to others wishes Avoid conflicts

Need for power Desire to control one’s environment Personalized versus socialized power

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Four-Drive Theory

Drive to BondDrive to Bond

Drive to LearnDrive to Learn

• Drive to form relationships and social commitments• Basis of social identity

• Drive to satisfy curiosity and resolve conflicting information

Drive to DefendDrive to Defend• Need to protect ourselves• Reactive (not proactive) drive• Basis of fight or flight

Drive to AcquireDrive to Acquire• Drive to take/keep objects and experiences• Basis of hierarchy and status

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Features of Four Drives

Innate and hardwired -- everyone has them

Independent of each other (no hierarchy of drives)

Complete set -- no drives are excluded from the model

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How Four Drives Affect Needs

1. Four drives determine which emotions are automatically tagged to incoming information

2. Drives generate independent and often competing emotions that demand our attention

3. Mental skill set uses social norms, personal values, and experience to translate competing drives into needs and effort

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Four Drive Theory of Motivation

Mental skill set uses social norms, personal values, and experience to translate competing drives into needs and effort

Drive to Acquire

Social norms

Drive to Bond

Drive to Learn

Drive to Defend

Personal

values

Past experience

Mental skill set resolves competing drive demandsMental skill set resolves

competing drive demandsGoal-directed

choice and effortGoal-directed

choice and effort

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Implications of Four Drive Theory

Provide a balanced opportunity for employees to fulfill all four drives1. employees continually seek fulfillment of

drives

2. avoid having conditions support one drive over others


Expectancy Theory of Motivation



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E-to-PExpectancy

P-to-OExpectancy

Outcomes& Valences

Outcome 1Outcome 1+ or -+ or -

EffortEffort PerformancePerformance



Expectancy Theory of Motivation

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Increasing E-to-P-to-O Expectancies

Increasing E-to-P Expectancies Assuring employees they have competencies Person-job matching Provide role clarification and sufficient resources Behavioral modeling

Increading P-to-O Expectancies Measure performance accurately More rewards for good performance Explain how rewards are linked to performance

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Increasing Outcome Valences

Ensure that rewards are valued

Individualize rewards

Minimize countervalent outcomes


Goal Setting and Feedback



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Effective Goal Setting

The process of motivating employees and clarifying their role perceptions by establishing performance objectives

Effective goals are: Specific Relevant Challenging Commitment Participation (sometimes) Feedback

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Characteristics of Effective Feedback

EffectiveFeedbackEffective

Feedback

SpecificSpecificSpecificSpecific

RelevantRelevantRelevantRelevant

TimelyTimelyTimelyTimely

CredibleCredible

SufficientlySufficientlyfrequentfrequent

SufficientlySufficientlyfrequentfrequent

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Evaluating Goal Setting and Feedback

Goal setting is one of the most respected theories in terms of validity and usefulness

Goal setting/feedback limitations: Focuses employees on measurable performance Tied to pay - employees motivated to set easy

goals Goal setting interferes with learning process in

new, complex jobs


Organizational Justice



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Elements of Equity Theory

Outcome/input ratio inputs -- what employee contributes (e.g., skill) outcomes -- what employee receives (e.g., pay)

Comparison other person/people against whom we compare our

ratio not easily identifiable

Equity evaluation compare outcome/input ratio with the

comparison other

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Correcting Inequity Feelings

Reduce our inputs Less organizational citizenship

Increase our outcomes Ask for pay increase

Increase other’s inputs Ask coworker to work harder

Reduce other’s outputsAsk boss to stop giving other preferred treatment

Change our perceptionsStart thinking that other’s perks aren’t really so valuable

Change comparison otherCompare self to someone closer to your situation

Leave the field Quit job

Actions to correct inequity Example

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Procedural Justice

Perceived fairness of procedures used to decide the distribution of resources

Higher procedural fairness with: Voice Unbiased decision maker Decision based on all information Existing policies consistently Decision maker listened to all sides Those who complain are treated respectfully Those who complain are given full explanation


Job Design and Empowerment



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Job Design

Assigning tasks to a job, including the interdependency of those tasks with other jobs

Organization's goal -- to create jobs that allow work to be performed efficiently yet employees are motivated and engaged

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Job Specialization

Dividing work into separate jobs that include a subset of the tasks required to complete the product or service

Scientific management advocates job specialization also emphasized person-job matching, training,

goal setting, work incentives

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AdvantagesAdvantages DisadvantagesDisadvantages

Evaluating Job Specialization

Less time changing activities

Lower training costs

Job mastered quickly

Better person-job matching

Job boredom

Higher absenteeism/turnover

Lower work quality

Lower motivation

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WorkWorkmotivationmotivation

GrowthGrowthsatisfactionsatisfaction

GeneralGeneralsatisfactionsatisfaction

WorkWorkeffectivenesseffectiveness

Job Characteristics Model

FeedbackFeedbackfrom jobfrom job

KnowledgeKnowledgeof resultsof results

Skill varietySkill variety

Task identityTask identity

Task significanceTask significanceMeaningfulnessMeaningfulness

AutonomyAutonomy ResponsibilityResponsibility

IndividualIndividualdifferencesdifferences

CriticalCriticalPsychologicalPsychological

StatesStates

Core JobCharacteristics OutcomesOutcomes

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Job Enrichment

Given more responsibility for scheduling, coordinating, and planning one’s own work

1. Clustering tasks into natural groups Stitching highly interdependent tasks into one job e.g., video journalist, assembling entire product

2. Establishing client relationships Directly responsible for specific clients Communicate directly with those clients

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Dimensions of Empowerment

MeaningMeaning

CompetenceCompetence

Employees believe their work is important

Employees have feelings of self-efficacy

ImpactImpactEmployees feel their actions influence success

Self-Self-determinationdetermination

Employees feel they have freedom and discretion

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Supporting Empowerment

Individual factors Possess required competencies, able to perform

the work

Job design factors Autonomy, task identity, task significance, job

feedback

Organizational factors Resources, learning orientation, trust

employee motivation foundations and practices

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