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  • 7/27/2019 En Wikipedia Org Wiki Mahayana

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    Mahayana

    Mahyna

    Buddhism

    Lands

    India China Japan

    Vietnam Korea

    Taiwan SingaporeMalaysia Mongolia

    Tibet Bhutan Nepal

    Doctrine

    Bodhisattva la

    Samdhi Praj

    From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

    Mahyna(Sanskrit:mahyna, literally the "Great Vehicle") is one

    of the two main existing branches of Buddhismand a term for classification

    of Buddhist philosophies and practice. Mahyna Buddhism originated in

    India,[1] and is associated with the oldest historical sect of Buddhism, the

    Mahsghika.[2][3][4][5][6]

    The Mahyna tradition is the larger of the two major traditions of

    Buddhism existing today, the other being that of the Theravda school.

    According to the teachings of Mahyna traditions, "Mahyna" also refers

    to the path of seeking complete enlightenment for the benefit of all sentient

    beings,also called "Bodhisattvayna", or the "Bodhisattva Vehicle.[1][7]

    In the course of its history, Mahyna Buddhism spread from India to

    various other Asian countries such as China, Japan, Vietnam, Korea,

    Singapore, Taiwan, Nepal, Tibet, Bhutan, and Mongolia. Major traditions of

    Mahyna Buddhism today include Zen/Chn, Pure Land, Tiantai, andNichiren, as well as the Esoteric Buddhist traditions of Shingon, Tendai and

    Tibetan Buddhism.

    Contents [hide]

    1 Etymology

    2 History

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ipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:RecentChangeshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_ushttps://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B0https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayanahttps://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%90%E0%BD%BA%E0%BD%82%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%86%E0%BD%BA%E0%BD%93%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94%E0%BD%BC%E0%BC%8Dhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page
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    unyat Trikya

    Mahyna Stras

    Prajpramit Stras

    Lotus Stra

    Nirva Stra

    Sadhinirmocana Stra

    Avatasaka Stra

    ragama Stra

    Mahyna Schools

    Mdhyamaka

    Yogcra

    Esoteric Buddhism

    Pure Land ZenTiantai Nichiren

    Huayan

    view talkedit

    Part of a series on

    Buddhism

    Outline Portal

    .

    2.1.1 Origins of Mahyna

    2.1.2 Earliest Mahyna stras

    2.1.3 Earliest inscriptions

    2.1.4 Early Mahyna Buddhism

    2.1.5 Legacy of Early Mahyna Buddhism

    2.1.6 Late Mahyna Buddhism

    3 Doctrine3.1 Universalism

    3.2 Bodhisattva

    3.3 Expedient means

    3.4 Liberation

    3.5 Buddha nature

    4 Mahyna scriptures

    4.1 Mahyna and the gamas

    4.2 Turnings of the Dharma Wheel4.3 Mahyna and early canon

    5 Mahyna and the Theravda school

    5.1 Role of the Bodhisattva

    5.2 Theravda and Hnayna

    6 See also

    7 References

    8 Notes

    9 Further reading10 External links

    Etymology

    According to Jan Nattier, the term Mahyna ("Great Vehicle") was

    originally an honorary synonym for Bodhisattvayna ("Bodhisattva

    Brezhoneg

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    Magyar

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Aunyat%C4%81https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Aunyat%C4%81https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Aunyat%C4%81https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trik%C4%81yahttps://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%90%E0%BD%BA%E0%BD%82%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%86%E0%BD%BA%E0%BD%93%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94%E0%BD%BC%E0%BC%8Dhttp://pdfcrowd.com/http://pdfcrowd.com/redirect/?url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fMahayana&id=ma-120412112148-576201e9http://pdfcrowd.com/customize/http://pdfcrowd.com/html-to-pdf-api/?ref=pdfhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&action=edit&section=1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Aunyat%C4%81https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trik%C4%81yahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na_S%C5%ABtrashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praj%C3%B1%C4%81p%C4%81ramit%C4%81_S%C5%ABtrashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_Sutrahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nirvana_S%C5%ABtrahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandhinirmocana_Sutrahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avata%E1%B9%83saka_S%C5%ABtrahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shurangama_Sutrahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C4%81dhyamakahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yog%C4%81c%C4%81rahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esoteric_Buddhismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiantaihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nichiren_Buddhismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huayan_schoolhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Mahayana_Buddhismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Mahayana_Buddhismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Mahayana_Buddhism&action=edithttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Buddhismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dharma_Wheel.svghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Buddhismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Buddhismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodhisattvahttps://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%90%E0%BD%BA%E0%BD%82%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%86%E0%BD%BA%E0%BD%93%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94%E0%BD%BC%E0%BC%8Dhttps://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayanahttps://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayanahttps://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mah%C3%A1j%C3%A1nahttps://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayanahttps://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayanahttps://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahajaanahttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B1%CF%87%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%B1https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mah%C4%81y%C4%81nahttps://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahajanohttps://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayanahttps://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%87https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bouddhisme_mah%C4%81y%C4%81nahttps://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayanahttps://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayanahttps://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8C%80%EC%8A%B9%EB%B6%88%EA%B5%90https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahajanahttps://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mah%C4%81y%C4%81nahttps://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mah%C4%81y%C4%81nahttps://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhismo_Mah%C4%81y%C4%81nahttps://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%94%D7%90%D7%99%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%94https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddha_Mahayanahttps://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%B0%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mah%C4%81j%C4%81nas_budismshttps://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahajanahttps://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mah%C3%A1j%C3%A1nahttps://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%B9%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%82https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8
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    [edit]

    [edit]

    [edit]

    History

    Timeline Councils

    Gautama Buddha

    Later Buddhists

    Dharmaor concepts

    Four Noble Truths

    Five Aggregates

    ImpermanenceSuffering Non-self

    Dependent Origination

    Middle Way Emptiness

    Karma Rebirth

    Samsara Cosmology

    Practices

    Three Jewels

    Noble Eightfold PathMorality Perfections

    Meditation Mindfulness

    Wisdom Compassion

    Aids to Enlightenment

    Monasticism Laity

    Nirva

    Four Stages Arahant

    Buddha Bodhisattva

    Traditions Canons

    Theravda Pali

    Mahyna Hinayana

    Chinese

    Vajrayna Tibetan

    V T E

    Vehicle")[8] the vehicle of a bodhisattva seeking buddhahood for the

    benefit of all sentient beings.[1] The term Mahyna was therefore formed

    independently at an early date as a synonym for the path and the

    teachings of the bodhisattvas. Since it was simply an honorary term for

    Bodhisattvayna, the creation of the term Mahyna and its application to

    Bodhisattvayna did not represent a significant turning point in the

    development of a Mahyna tradition.[8]

    The earliest Mahyna texts often use the term Mahyna as a synonym

    for Bodhisattvayna, but the term Hnayna is comparatively rare in the

    earliest sources. The presumed dichotomy between Mahyna and

    Hnayna can be deceptive, as the two terms were not actually formed in

    relation to one another in the same era.[9]

    Among the earliest and most important references to the term Mahyna

    are those that occur in the Lotus Stra (Skt. Saddharma Puarka Stra)

    dating between the 1st century BCE and the 1st century CE.[10] Seishi

    Karashima has suggested that the term first used in an earlier Gandhri

    Prakrit version of the Lotus Stra was not the term mahyna but the

    Prakrit word mahjna in the sense of mahjna (great knowing).[11] At a

    later stage when the early Prakrit word was converted into Sanskrit, this

    mahjna, being phonetically ambivalent, was mistakenly converted into

    mahyna, possibly due to what may have been a double meaning in the

    famous Parable of the Burning House, which talks of three vehicles or carts

    (Skt:yna).[12][13]

    History

    Early Mahyna Buddhism

    Origins of Mahyna

    Bahasa Melayu

    Mirands

    Nederlands

    Norsk (bokml)

    Norsk (nynorsk)

    Polski

    Portugus

    Romn

    Simple English

    Slovenina

    / Srpski

    Srpskohrvatski /

    Suomi

    Svenska

    Tagalog

    Trke

    Ting Vit

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    Ancient Buddhist s tpas in Borobodur,Indonesia.

    Early statue of the Buddha

    The origins of Mahyna are still not completely understood. [14] The

    earliest views of Mahyna Buddhism in the West assumed that

    it existed as a separate school in competition with the so-called

    "Hnayna" schools. Due to the veneration of buddhas and

    bodhisattvas, Mahyna was often interpreted as a more

    devotional, lay-inspired form of Buddhism, with supposed origins

    in stpa veneration,[15] or by making parallels with the history of

    the European Protestant Reformation. These views have been

    largely dismissed in modern times in light of a much broader

    range of early texts that are now available. [16] These earliest

    Mahyna texts often depict strict adherence to the path of a

    bodhisattva, and engagement in the ascetic ideal of a monastic

    life in the wilderness, akin to the ideas expressed in the

    Rhinoceros Stra.[17] The old views of Mahyna as a separate lay-

    inspired and devotional sect are now largely dismissed as misguided andwrong on all counts.[18]

    The earliest textual evidence of "Mahyna" comes from stras

    originating around the beginning of the common era. Jan Nattier has

    noted that in some of the earliest Mahyna texts such as the

    Ugraparipccha Stra use the term "Mahyna", yet there is no doctrinal

    difference between Mahyna in this context and the early schools, and

    that "Mahyna" referred rather to the rigorous emulation of Gautama

    Buddha in the path of a bodhisattva seeking to become a fully enlightenedbuddha.[19]

    There is also no evidence that Mahyna ever referred to a separate

    formal school or sect of Buddhism, but rather that it existed as a certain

    set of ideals, and later doctrines, for bodhisattvas. [19] Paul Williams has

    also noted that the Mahyna never had nor ever attempted to have a

    separate Vinaya or ordination lineage from the early schools of

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    , CE.

    A statue of Prajpramitpersonified, from Singhasari, East

    Buddhism, and therefore each bhiku or bhiku adhering to the

    Mahyna formally belonged to an early school. This continues today

    with the Dharmaguptaka ordination lineage in East Asia, and the

    Mlasarvstivda ordination lineage in Tibetan Buddhism. Therefore Mahyna was never a separate rival

    sect of the early schools.[20]

    The Chinese monk Yijing who visited India in the 7th century CE, distinguishes Mahyna from Hnayna as

    follows:

    [21]

    Both adopt one and the same Vinaya, and they have in common the prohibitions of the five

    offences, and also the practice of the Four Noble Truths. Those who venerate the bodhisattvas

    and read the Mahayana stras are called the Mahynists, while those who do not perform

    these are called the Hnaynists.

    Much of the early extant evidence for the origins of Mahyna comes from early Chinese translations of

    Mahyna texts. These Mahyna teachings were first propagated into China by Lokakema, the first

    translator of Mahyna stras into Chinese during the 2nd century CE.[22]

    Earliest Mahyna stras

    Some scholars[who?] have traditionally considered the earliest Mahyna

    stras to include the very first versions of the Prajpramit series,

    along with texts concerning Akobhya Buddha, which were probably

    written down in the 1st century BCE in the south of India.[23][24][25] Some

    early Mahyna stras were translated by the Kua monk Lokakema,

    who came to China from the kingdom of Gandhra. His first translationsto Chinese were made in the Chinese capital of Luoyang between 178

    and 189 CE.[22] Some Mahyna stras translated during the 2nd

    century CE include the following:[26]

    1. Aashasrik Prajpramit Stra

    2. Vimalakrti Nirdea Stra

    3. Larger Sukhvatvyha Stra

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    Java, Indonesia.

    Mahyna Buddhist triad, includingBodhisattvaMaitreya, the Buddha, andBodhisattva Avalokitevara. 2nd3rdcentury CE, Gandhra.

    4. Akobhyatathgatasyavyha Stra

    5. Ugraparipccha Stra

    6. Majurparipcch Stra

    7. Drumakinnararjaparipcch Stra

    8. ragama Samdhi Stra

    9. Bhadrapla Stra

    10. Ajtaatrukauktyavinodana Stra

    11. Kyapaparivarta Stra

    12. Loknuvartana Stra

    13. An early stra connected to theAvatasaka Stra

    Some of these were probably composed in the north of India in the 1st century CE. [27] Thus scholars

    generally think that the earliest Mahyna stras were mainly composed in the south of India, and later the

    activity of writing additional scriptures was continued in the north.[28] However, the assumption that the

    presence of an evolving body of Mahyna scriptures implies the contemporaneous existence of distinct

    religious movement called "Mahyna", may be a serious misstep.[29]

    Earliest inscriptions

    The earliest s tone inscription containing a recognizably

    Mahyna formulation and a mention of the Buddha Amitabha

    was found in the Indian subcontinent in Mathura, and dated to

    around 180 CE. Remains of a statue of a Buddha bear the

    Brahmi inscription: "Made in the year 28 of the reign of king

    Huvishka, .. . for the Buddha Amitabha" (Mathura Museum).

    However, this image was in itself extremely marginal and

    isolated in the overall context of Buddhism in India at the time,

    and had no lasting or long-term consequences.[30] Evidence of

    the name "Mahyna" in Indian inscriptions in the period before

    the 5th century is very limited in comparison to the multiplicity of

    Mahyna writings transmitted from Central Asia to China at that time.[31][32]

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    These views of a discrepancy between translated texts and epigraphical evidence assume the presence of

    Mahyna as distinct from the "Hnayna" schools. This view has been largely disproved in more recent

    scholarship[citation needed], as Mahyna is now recognized as a tradition working within the context of the

    early Buddhist schools rather than as a separate movement.

    Early Mahyna Buddhism

    During the period of early Mahyna Buddhism, four major types of thought developed: Mdhyamaka,Yogcra, Buddha Nature (Tathgatagarbha), and Buddhist Logic as the last and most recent. [33] In India,

    the two main philosophical schools of the Mahyna were the Mdhyamaka and the later Yogcra. [34]

    Legacy of Early Mahyna Buddhism

    Earlier stage forms of Mahyna such as the doctrines of Prajpramit, Yogcra, Buddha Nature, and

    the Pure Land teachings are still popular in East Asia. In some cases these have spawned new

    developments, while in others they are treated in the more traditional syncretic manner. Paul Williams has

    noted that in this tradition in the Far East, primacy has always been given to study of the stras.[35]

    Late Mahyna Buddhism

    Late stage forms of Mahyna Buddhism in India are found largely in the schools of Esoteric Buddhism.

    These were replaced in India and Central Asia after the early millennium by Islam ( Sufism etc.) and

    Hinduism, and in south-east Asia by Theravda Buddhism from Sri Lanka and Islam. They continue to exist

    in certain regions of the Himalayas. In contrast to the East Asian traditions, there has been a strong

    tendency in Tibetan Buddhism and the Himalayan traditions to approach the stras indirectly through the

    medium of exegetical treatises if at all. [35]

    Doctrine

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    Amitbha Buddha statue from Borobodur,Indonesia.

    Buddhism,[36] especially its early Indian form, other than that the

    Buddhism practiced in China, Vietnam, Korea, Tibet, and Japan

    is Mahyna Buddhism.[37] Mahyna can be described as a

    loosely bound collection of many teachings with large and

    expansive doctrines that are able to coexist simultaneously. [38]

    Mahyna constitutes an inclusive tradition characterized by

    plurality and the adoption of new Mahyna stras in addition tothe earlier gama texts. Mahyna sees itself as penetrating

    further and more profoundly into the Buddha's Dharma. There is a

    tendency in Mahyna stras to regard adherence to these

    stras as generating spiritual benefits greater than those that

    arise from being a follower of the non-Mahyna approaches to

    Dharma. Thus the rmldev Stra claims that the Buddha

    said that devotion to Mahyna is inherently superior in its

    virtues to the following the ravaka or pratyekabuddha paths.[39]

    The fundamental principles of Mahyna doctrine were based on the possibility of universal liberation from

    suffering for all beings (hence the "Great Vehicle") and the existence of buddhas and bodhisattvas

    embodying Buddha Nature. The Pure Land school of Mahyna simplify the expression of faith by allowing

    salvation to be alternatively obtained through the grace of the Amitbha Buddha by having faith and devoting

    oneself to mindfulness of the Buddha. This devotional lifestyle of Buddhism has greatly contributed to the

    success of Mahyna in East Asia, where spiritual elements traditionally relied upon mindfulness of the

    Buddha, mantras and dhras, and reading of Mahyna stras. In Chinese Buddhism, most monks, letalone lay people, practice Pure Land, some combining it with Chn (Zen).[40]

    Most Mahyna schools believe in supernatural bodhisattvas who devote themselves to the perfections

    (Skt.pramit), ultimate knowledge (Skt. sarvajna), and the liberation of all sentient beings. In

    Mahyna, the Buddha is seen as the ultimate, highest being, present in all times, in all beings, and in all

    places, and the bodhisattvas come to represent the universal ideal of altruistic excellence.

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    Bodhisattva Maitreya, thefuture successor of GautamaBuddha. Thikse monastery,

    Ladakh.

    Universalism

    Mahyna traditions generally consider that attainment of the level of

    arhat is not final. This is based on a subtle doctrinal distinction between

    the Mahyna and some views contained in the early Buddhist schools

    concerning the issues of Nirva With Remainder and Nirva Without

    Remainder. The Mahyna position here is similar to that of the early

    school of the Mahsghika[citation needed]

    .Some of the early schools considered that Nirva Without Remainder

    always follows Nirva With Remainder (Buddhas first achieve

    enlightenment and then, at "death", Mahparinirva) and that Nirva

    Without Remainder is final; whereas the Mahyna traditions consider

    that Nirva Without Remainder is always followed by Nirva With

    Remainder[citation needed] the state of attainment of arhat is not

    considered final, and should be succeeded by

    Bodhisattvahood[citation needed].

    This distinction is most evident regarding doctrinal concerns about the

    capability of a Buddha after Nirva, which is identified by the early schools as being Nirva Without

    Remainder. Amongst the early schools, a completely enlightened buddha (Skt. samyaksabuddha) is not

    able to directly point the way to Nirva after death. Some[who?] Mahayana schools however, hold that once

    a completely enlightened Buddha (Skt. samyaksabuddha) arises, he or she continues to directly and

    actively point the way to Nirva until there are no beings left in sasra[citation needed]. Consequently,

    some Mahyna schools talk of a bodhisattva deliberately refraining from Buddhahood.[41]

    The Lotus Sutrastates that Shakyamuni Buddha's parinirvana is an expedient, and that he actually remains in the world to

    teach and guide living beings.[42] This is why Nichiren Buddhism regards Shakyamuni as the Eternal

    Buddha.[43]

    The early schools held that Maitreya will be the next Buddha to rediscover the path to Nirvana, when

    teachings of Gautam Buddha are forgotten[citation needed]. In contrast, some Mahyna schools[who?] hold

    that Maitreya will be the next buddha manifest in this world and will introduce the Dharma when it no longer

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    Avalokitevara, thebodhisattva of compassion.Aja Caves, Mahrtra, India.

    exists , but when he dies (or enters Mahparinirva), he will likewise continue to teach the Dharma for all

    time[citation needed]. Moreover, some Mahyna schools [who?] argue that although it is true that, for this

    world-system, Maitreya will be the next buddha to manifest, there are an infinite number of world-systems,

    many of which have currently active buddhas or bodhisattvas manifesting [citation needed].

    Because the Mahyna traditions assert that eventually everyone will achieve complete enlightenment (Skt.

    Anuttar Samyaksabodhi), the Mahyna is labeled universalist, whereas the stance of the early

    scriptures is that attaining Nirva depends on effort and is not pre-determined. [44]

    Bodhisattva

    The Mahyna tradition holds that pursuing only the release from

    suffering and attainment of Nirva is too narrow an aspiration, because it

    lacks the motivation of actively resolving to liberate all other sentient

    beings from Sasra. One who engages in this path is called a

    bodhisattva.

    The defining characteristic of a bodhisattva is bodhicitta, the intention toachieve omniscient Buddhahood (Trikaya) as fast as possible, so that

    one may benefit infinite sentient beings. Sometimes the term bodhisattva

    is used more restrictively to refer to those sentient beings on the grounds.

    As Ananda Coomaraswamy notes, "The most essential part of the

    Mahayana is its emphasis on the Bodhisattva ideal, which replaces that

    of the arhat, or ranks before it."[45] According to Mahyna teachings,

    being a high-level bodhisattva involves possessing a mind of great

    compassion and transcendent wisdom (Skt.praj) to realize the reality

    of inherent emptiness and dependent origination. Mahyna teaches that

    the practitioner will finally realize the attainment of Buddhahood.

    Six perfections (Skt.pramit) are traditionally required for bodhisattvas:

    1. dna-pramit: the perfection of giving

    2. la-pramit: the perfection on behavior and discipline

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    3. knti-pramit: the perfection of forbearance

    4. vrya-pramit: the perfection of vigor and diligence

    5. dhyna-pramit: the perfection of meditation

    6. praj-pramit: the perfection of transcendent wisdom

    Expedient means

    Main article: Upaya

    Expedient means (Skt. upya) is found in the Lotus Sutra, one of the earliest dated Mahyna stras, and

    is accepted in all Mahyna schools of thought. It is any effective method that aids awakening. It does not

    necessarily mean that some particular method is "untrue" but is simply any means or stratagem that is

    conducive to spiritual growth and leads beings to awakening and nirvana. Expedient means could thus be

    certain motivational words for a particular listener or even the noble eightfold path itself. Basic Buddhism

    (what Mahyna would term ravakayna orpratyekabuddhayna) is an expedient method for helping

    people begin the noble Buddhist path and advance quite far. But the path is not wholly traversed, according

    to some Mahyna schools, until the practitioner has striven for and attained Buddhahood for the liberationof all other sentient beings from suffering.

    Some scholars have stated that the exercise of expedient means, "the ability to adapt one's message to

    the audience, is also of enormous importance in the Pli canon." [46] In fact the Pli term upya-kosalla

    does occur in the Pli Canon, in the Sangiti Sutta of the Digha Nikya.[47]

    Liberation

    Devotional Mahyna developed a rich cosmography, with various Buddhas and bodhisattvas residing in

    paradise realms. The concept of the three bodies (trikya) supports these constructions, making the

    Buddha himself a transcendental figure. Dr. Guang Xing describes the Mahyna Buddha as "an omnipotent

    divinity endowed with numerous supernatural attributes and qualities ...[He] is described almost as an

    omnipotent and almighty godhead."[48]

    Under various conditions, the realms Buddha presides over could be attained by devotees after their death

    so, when reborn, they could strive towards buddhahood in the best possible conditions. Depending on the

    sect, this salvation to paradise can be obtained by faith, imaging, or sometimes even by the simple

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    invocation of the Buddhas name. This approach to salvation is at the origin of the mass appeal of devotional

    Buddhism, especially represented by the Pure Land ().

    This rich cosmography also allowed Mahyna to be quite syncretic and accommodating of other faiths or

    deities. Various origins have been suggested to explain its emergence, such as popular Hindu devotional

    cults (bhakti), and Persian and Greco-Roman theologies, which filtered into India from the northwest. [49]

    Buddha nature

    Main article: Buddha nature

    The teaching of a "Buddha nature" (Skt. tathgatagarbha) may be based on the "luminous mind" concept

    found in thegamas. The essential idea, articulated in the Buddha nature stras, but not accepted by all

    Mahynists, is that no being is without a concealed but indestructible interior link to the awakening of

    bodhiand that this link is an uncreated element (dhtu) or principle deep inside each being, which

    constitutes the deathless, diamond-like "essence of the self".[50] The Mahparinirva Stra states: "The

    essence of the Self (tman) is the subtle Buddha nature..." while the later Lankvatra Stra states that the

    Buddha nature might be taken to be self (tman), but it is not. In the Buddha nature class of stras, theword "self" (tman) is used in a way defined by and specific to these stras. (See Atman (Buddhism).)

    According to some scholars, the Buddha nature discussed in some Mahyna stras does not represent a

    substantial self (tman); rather, it is a positive language and expression of emptiness (nyat) and

    represents the potentiality to realize Buddhahood through Buddhist practices.[51] It is the "true self" in

    representing the innate aspect of the individual that makes actualizing the ultimate personality possible.

    The actual "seeing and knowing" of this Buddha essence (Buddha-dhtu, co-terminous with the

    Dharmakya or self[citation needed] of Buddha) is said to usher in nirvanic liberation. This Buddha essence or"Buddha nature" is stated to be found in every single person, ghost, god and sentient being. In the Buddha

    nature stras, the Buddha is portrayed as describing the Buddha essence as uncreated, deathless and

    ultimately beyond rational grasping or conceptualisation. Yet, it is this already real and present, hidden

    internal element of awakeness (bodhi) that, according to the Buddha nature stras, prompts beings to seek

    liberation from worldly suffering, and lets them attain the spotless bliss that lies at the heart of their being.

    Once the veils of negative thoughts, feelings, and unwholesome behaviour (the kleas) are eliminated from

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    Statue of the Buddha w ithDharmacakraMudra, symbolizinghis teaching of the Dharma.Sarnath, Vras.

    Buddhist schools in India who employed Sanskrit for their basic canon.

    These correspond to the Nikyas used by the Theravda school. The

    surviving gamas in Chinese translation belong to at least two schools,

    while most of the gamas teachings were never translated into Tibetan.

    In addition to accepting the essential scriptures of the various early

    Buddhist schools as valid, Mahyna Buddhism also maintains large

    additional collections of stras that are not used or recognized by the

    Theravda school. In the past, these were also not recognized by some

    individuals within the early Buddhist schools. In other cases, Buddhist communities were divided along

    these doctrinal lines. In Mahyna Buddhism, the Mahyna stras are often given greater authority than

    the gamas. The first of these Mahyna-specific writings were written probably around the 1st century

    BCE[56] or 1st century CE.[57]

    Turnings of the Dharma Wheel

    Dating back at least to the Sadhinirmocana Stra is a classification of the corpus of Buddhism into threecategories, based on ways of understanding the nature of reality, known as the "Three Turnings of the

    Dharma Wheel". According to this view, there were three such "turnings":[58]

    1. In the first turning, the Buddha taught the Four Noble Truths at Vras for those in the ravaka

    vehicle. It is described as marvelous and wonderful, but requiring interpretation and occasioning

    controversy.[59] The doctrines of the first turning are exemplified in the Dharmacakra Pravartana

    Stra. This turning represents the earliest phase of the Buddhist teachings and the earliest period in

    the history of Buddhism.

    2. In the second turning, the Buddha taught the Mahyna teachings to the bodhisattvas, teaching thatall phenomena have no-essence, no arising, no passing away, are originally quiescent, and

    essentially in cessation. This turning is also described as marvelous and wonderful, but requiring

    interpretation and occasioning controversy.[59] Doctrine of the second turning is established in the

    Prajpramit teachings, first put into writing around 100 BCE. In Indian philosophical schools, it is

    exemplified by the Mdhyamaka school of Ngrjuna.

    3. In the third turning, the Buddha taught similar teachings to the second turning, but for everyone in the

    three vehicles including all the ravakas pratyekabuddhas and bodhisattvas These were meant to

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    three vehicles, including all the ravakas, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas. These were meant to

    be completely explicit teachings in their entire detail, for which interpretations would not be

    necessary, and controversy would not occur.[59] These teachings were established by the

    Sadhinirmocana Stra as early as the 1st or 2nd century CE.[60] In the Indian philosophical

    schools, the third turning is exemplified by the Yogcra school of Asaga and Vasubandhu.

    Some traditions of Tibetan Buddhism consider the teachings of Esoteric Buddhism and Vajrayna to be the

    third turning of the Dharma Wheel. Tibetan teachers, particularly of the Gelugpa school, regard the second

    turning as the highest teaching, due to their particular interpretation of Yogcra doctrine. The Buddha

    Nature teachings are normally included in the third turning of the wheel. The Chinese tradition has a different

    scheme.

    The Chinese scholar T'ien-T'ai believed the Buddha taught over Five Periods[61]. These are:

    1. The Flower Garland Period[62].

    2. The Agama Period[63].

    3. The Correct and Equal Period (provisional Mahayana Sutras, including the Amida, Mahavairochana

    and Vimalakirti Sutras)[64].

    4. The Wisdom Period (Perfection of Wisdom Sutras)[65].

    5. The Lotus and Nirvana Period (when Shakyamuni taught from the standpoint of his

    Enlightenment)[66].

    Mahyna and early canon

    Scholars have noted that many key Mahyna ideas are closely connected to the earliest texts of

    Buddhism. The seminal work of Mahyna philosophy, Ngrjuna'sMlamadhyamakakrik, mentions the

    canon's Katyyana Stra (SA 301) by name, and may be an extended commentary on that work.[67]

    Ngrjuna systematized the Mdhyamaka school of Mahyna philosophy. He may have arrived at his

    positions from a desire to achieve a consistent exegesis of the Buddha's doctrine as recorded in the canon.

    In his eyes the Buddha was not merely a forerunner, but the very founder of the Mdhyamaka system. [68]

    Ngrjuna also referred to a passage in the canon regarding "nirvanic consciousness" in two different

    works. [69]

    Yogcra the other prominent Mahyna school in dialectic with the Mdhyamaka school gave a special

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    Yogcra, the other prominent Mahyna school in dialectic with the Mdhyamaka school, gave a special

    significance to the canon's Lesser Discourse on Emptiness (MA 190).[70] A passage there (which the

    discourse itself emphasizes) is often quoted in later Yogcra texts as a true definition of emptiness.[71]

    According to Walpola Rahula, the thought presented in the Yogcra school's Abhidharma-samuccaya is

    undeniably closer to that of the Pali Nikayas than is that of the Theravadin Abhidhamma.[72]

    Both the Mdhyamikas and the Yogcrins saw themselves as preserving the Buddhist Middle Way

    between the extremes of nihilism (everything as unreal) and substantialism (substantial entities existing).

    The Yogcrins critic ized the Mdhyamikas for tending towards nihilism, while the Mdhyamikas critic ized

    the Yogcrins for tending towards substantialism.[73]

    Key Mahyna texts introducing the concepts of bodhicitta and Buddha nature also use language parallel to

    passages in the canon containing the Buddha's description of "luminous mind" and may have been based

    on this idea.[74]

    Mahyna and the Theravda school

    Role of the Bodhisattva

    In the early Buddhist texts, and as taught by the modern Theravada school, the goal of becoming a teaching

    Buddha in a future life is viewed as the aim of a small group of individuals striving to benefit future

    generations after the current Buddha's teachings have been lost, but in the current age there is no need for

    most practitioners to aspire to this goal. Theravada texts do, however, hold that this is a more perfectly

    virtuous goal.[75]

    Theravda and HnaynaAlthough the Theravda school is usually described as belonging to Hnayna, [76][77][78][79][80] some

    authors have argued that it should not be considered such from the Mahyna perspective. Their view is

    based on a different understanding of the concept of Hnayna. Rather than regarding the term as referring

    to any school of Buddhism that hasn't accepted the Mahyna canon and doctrines, such as those

    pertaining to the role of the boddhisatva,[77][79] these authors argue that the classification of a school as

    "Hnayna" should be crucially dependent on the adherence to a specific phenomenological position. They

    point out that unlike the now extinct Sarvstivda school which was the primary object of Mahyna

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    point out that unlike the now-extinct Sarvstivda school, which was the primary object of Mahyna

    criticism, the Theravda does not claim the existence of independent entities (dharmas); in this it maintains

    the attitude of early Buddhism.[81][82][83] Adherents of Mahyna Buddhism disagreed with the

    substantialist thought of the Sarvstivdins and Sautrntikas, and in emphasizing the doctrine of emptiness,

    Kalupahana holds that they endeavored to preserve the early teaching. [84] The Theravdins too refuted the

    Sarvstivdins and Sautrntikas (and other schools) on the grounds that their theories were in conflict with

    the non-substantialism of the canon. The Theravda arguments are preserved in the Kathvatthu.[85] Thus,

    according to this view, no form of real Hnayna Buddhism survives today.

    Some contemporary Theravdin figures have indicated a sympathetic stance toward the Mahyna

    philosophy found in texts such as the Heart Stra (Skt. Prajpramit Hdaya) and Ngrjuna's

    Fundamental Stanzas on the Middle Way(Skt. Mlamadhyamakakrik).[86][87]

    See also

    Buddha nature

    Buddhist Ceremonies

    Dzogchen

    Early Buddhist Schools

    Faith in Buddhism

    God in Buddhism

    Golden Light Sutra

    History of Buddhism

    Lotus Sutra

    Mahayana sutras

    Nirvana Sutra

    Pure Land

    Rebirth

    Schools of Buddhism

    Shunyata

    Silk Road transmission of

    Buddhism

    Tathagatagarbha

    Tendai

    Zen

    References1. ^ abc Keown, Damien (2003),A Dictionary of Buddhism: p. 38

    2. ^ Warder, A.K. Indian Buddhism. 2000. p. 11

    3. ^ Ray, Reginald. Buddhist Saints in India: A Study in Buddhist Values and Orientations. 1999. p. 426

    4. ^ Guang Xing. The Concept of the Buddha: Its Evolution from Early Buddhism to the Trikaya Theory. 2004. p.

    65-6

    5. ^ Skilton, Andrew.A Concise History of Buddhism. 2004. p. 48

    6. ^ Williams, Jane, and Williams, Paul. Buddhism: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies, Volume 2. 2005. p.

    http://pdfcrowd.com/http://pdfcrowd.com/redirect/?url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fMahayana&id=ma-120412112148-576201e9http://pdfcrowd.com/customize/http://pdfcrowd.com/html-to-pdf-api/?ref=pdfhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&action=edit&section=23https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&action=edit&section=24https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarvastivadahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dharma#In_Buddhist_phenomenologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sautrantikahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunyatahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kathavatthuhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart_Sutrahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mulamadhyamakakarikahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddha_naturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_Ceremonieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dzogchenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Buddhist_Schoolshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faith_in_Buddhismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_in_Buddhismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Light_Sutrahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Buddhismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_Sutrahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayana_sutrashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nirvana_Sutrahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pure_Landhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebirth_(Buddhist)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shunyatahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tathagatagarbhahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tendaihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zen
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    6. Williams, Jane, and Williams, Paul. Buddhism: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies, Volume 2. 2005. p.

    189

    7. ^ "The Mahayana, 'Great Vehicle' or 'Great Carriage' (for carrying all beings to nirvana), is also, and perhaps

    more correctly and accurately, known as the Bodhisattvayana, the bodhisattva's vehicle." - Warder, A.K. (3rd

    edn. 1999). Indian Buddhism: p. 338

    8. ^ ab Nattier, Jan (2003),A few good men: the Bodhisattva path according to the Inquiry of Ugra: p. 174

    9. ^ Nattier, Jan (2003),A few good men: the Bodhisattva path according to the Inquiry of Ugra: p. 172

    10. ^ Ven. Dr. W. Rahula, Theravada - Mahayana Buddhism

    11. ^ Williams, Paul. Buddhism. Vol. 3. The origins and nature of Mahyna Buddhism. Routledge. 2004. p. 50.

    12. ^ I have ass umed that, in the earliest stage of the transmiss ion of the Lotus Stra, the Middle Indic fornja

    or *jna (= Pkt < Sktjna,yna) had s tood in these places ... I have assum ed, further, that the Mahynis t

    terms buddha-yn ("the Buddha-vehicle"), mahyna ("the great vehicle"), hnayna ("the inferior vehicle")

    meant originally buddha-jna ("buddha-knowledge"), mahjna ("great knowledge") and hnajna

    ("inferior knowledge"). Karashima, Seishi (2001). Some Features of the Language of the Saddharma-

    puarka-stra, Indo-Iranian Journal44: 207-230

    13. ^ Williams, Paul. Buddhism. Vol. 3. The origins and nature of Mahyna Buddhism. Routledge. 2004. p. 50

    14. ^ Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993.A History of Indian Buddhism. Delhi: MotilalBanarsidass : p. 260

    15. ^ Akira, Hirakawa (1993),A History of Indian Buddhism: From Sakyamuni to Early Mahayana: p. 271

    16. ^ e.g. Williams, Mahayana Buddhism

    17. ^ "As scholars have moved away from this limited corpus, and have begun to explore a wider range of

    Mahayana stras, they have s tumbled on, and have started to open up, a literature that is often s tridently

    ascetic and heavily engaged in reinventing the forest ideal , an individualis tic, antisocial, ascetic ideal that is

    encapsulated in the apparently resurrected image of wandering alone like a rhinoceros. Macmillan

    Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004): p. 494

    18. ^ "One of the most frequent ass ertions about the Mahayana ... is that it was a lay-influenced, or even lay-

    inspired and dominated, movement that arose in response to the increasingly closed, cold, and scholastic

    character of monastic Buddhism. This, however, now appears to be wrong on all counts ." Macmillan

    Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004): p. 494

    19. ^ ab Nattier, Jan (2003),A few good men: the Bodhisattva path according to the Inquiry of Ugra: p. 193-194

    20. ^ Williams, Paul (2008) Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations: p. 4-5

    21. ^ Williams, Paul (2008) Mahyna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations: p. 5

    22 ^ a b "The most im portant evidence in fact the only evidence for s ituating the emergence of the

    http://pdfcrowd.com/http://pdfcrowd.com/redirect/?url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fMahayana&id=ma-120412112148-576201e9http://pdfcrowd.com/customize/http://pdfcrowd.com/html-to-pdf-api/?ref=pdfhttp://www.budsas.org/ebud/ebdha125.htm
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    22. The most im portant evidence in fact the only evidence for s ituating the emergence of the

    Mahayana around the beginning of the common era was not Indian evidence at all, but came from China.

    Already by the last quarter of the 2nd century CE, there was a small , seem ingly idiosyncratic collection of

    subs tantial Mahayana sutras translated into what Erik Zrcher calls 'broken Chinese' by an Indoscythian,

    whos e Indian name has been reconstructed as Lokaksema." Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004):

    p. 492

    23. ^ Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993.A History of Indian Buddhism. Delhi: Motilal

    Banarsidass: p. 263, 268

    24. ^ "The south (of India) was then vigorously creative in producing Mahayana Sutras" Warder, A.K. (3rd edn.

    1999). Indian Buddhism: p. 335.

    25. ^ Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993.A History of Indian Buddhism. Delhi: Motilal

    Banarsidass : p. 253

    26. ^ Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993.A History of Indian Buddhism. Delhi: Motilal

    Banarsidass: p. 248-251

    27. ^ Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993.A History of Indian Buddhism. Delhi: Motilal

    Banarsidass: p. 252, 253

    28. ^ "The sudden appearance of large numbers of (Mahayana) teachers and texts (in North India in the secondcentury AD) would seem to require some previous preparation and development, and this we can look for in

    the South." - Warder, A.K. (3rd edn. 1999). Indian Buddhism: p. 335.

    29. ^ "But even apart from the obvious weaknesses inherent in arguments of this kind there is here the tacit

    equation of a body of literature with a religious movement, an ass umption that evidence for the presence of

    one proves the existence of the other, and this may be a serious m isstep." - Macmillan Encyclopedia of

    Buddhism (2004): p. 493

    30. ^ "In other words, once nontextual evidence is taken into account the picture changes dramatically. Rather

    than being datable to the beginning of the common era, this strand of Mahayana Buddhism, at leas t,

    appeared to have no visible impact on Indian Buddhis t cult practice until the 2nd century, and even then

    what impact it had was extremely isolated and marginal, and had no las ting or long-term cons equences

    there were no further references to Amitabha in Indian image inscriptions. Almost exactly the same pattern

    occurs (concerning Mahayana) on an even broader s cale when nontextual evidence is considered." -

    Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004): p. 493

    31. ^ "Certainly, we have for this period an extensive body of inscriptions from virtually all parts of India. ... But

    nowhere in this extensive body of material is there any reference, prior to the fifth century, to a nam ed

    Mahyna.", Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004): p. 493

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    y y p ( ) p

    32. ^ "What is particularly disconcerting here is the disconnect between expectation and real ity: We know from

    Chinese translations that large numbers of Mahyna sutras were being compos ed in the period between

    the beginning of the common era and the fifth century. But outside of texts, at least in India, at exactly the

    sam e period, very different in fact seemingly older ideas and aspirations appear to be motivating

    actual behavior, and old and es tablished Hinayana groups appear to be the only ones that are patronized

    and supported., Macmil lan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004): p. 494

    33. ^ Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993.A History of Indian Buddhism. Delhi: Motilal

    Banarsidass: p. 8,934. ^ Harvey, Peter (1993).An Introduction to Buddhism. Cambridge University Press: p. 95.

    35. ^ ab Williams, Paul (1989). Mahayana Buddhism: p.103

    36. ^ "There are, it seems , very few things that can be said wi th certainty about Mahayana Buddhism ",

    Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004): p. 492

    37. ^ "But apart from the fact that it can be said with some certainty that the Buddhism em bedded in China,

    Korea, Tibet, and Japan is Mahayana Buddhism, it is no longer clear what else can be said with certainty

    about Mahayana Buddhism itself, and especially about its earlier, and presumably formative, period in

    India.", Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004): p. 49238. ^ "It has becom e increasingly clear that Mahayana Buddhism was never one thing, but rather, it seem s, a

    loosely bound bundle of many, and like Walt Whitman was large and could contain, in both sens es of

    the term, contradictions, or at least antipodal elements." - Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004): p.

    492

    39. ^ Hookham, Dr. Shenpen, trans. (1998). The Shrimaladevi Sutra. Oxford: Longchen Foundation: p.27

    40. ^ Welch (1967). Practice of Chinese Buddhism. Harvard: p. 396

    41. ^ Cook (1977). Hua-Yen Buddhism. Pennsylvania State University Press

    42. ^ Lotus Sutra, Ch. 16, Lifespan of the Thus Come One

    43. ^ Nichiren the Buddhist Prophet, MASAHARU ANESAKI, p. 27, CAMBRIDGE HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS

    (1916)

    44. ^ Harvey, Peter (1995). The Selfless Mind. Curzon Press : p. 87.

    45. ^ Coomaraswamy, Ananda (1975). Buddha and the Gospel of Buddhism. Boston: University Books, Inc..

    p. 229. LCCN64056434 .

    46. ^ "It is true that the term translated 'expounding in means', upaya-kausalya, is post-canonical, but the

    exercise of expounding to which it refers, the abili ty to adapt one's mess age to the audience, is of

    enormous importance in the Pali Canon." Gombrich, Richard F. (1997). How Buddhism Began. Munshiram

    http://pdfcrowd.com/http://pdfcrowd.com/redirect/?url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fMahayana&id=ma-120412112148-576201e9http://pdfcrowd.com/customize/http://pdfcrowd.com/html-to-pdf-api/?ref=pdfhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Numberhttp://lccn.loc.gov/64056434
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    Manoharlal: p. 17

    47. ^ Walshe, M. trans. (1987). Thus Have I Heard: the Long Discourses of the Buddha. Wisdom: p. 486

    48. ^ Guang Xing (2005). The Three Bodies of the Buddha: The Origin and Development of the Trikaya Theory.

    Oxford: Routledge Curzon: pp.1 and 85

    49. ^ Lowenstein, Tom. The Vision of the Buddha

    50. ^Nirva Stra

    51. ^Heng-Ching Shih, The Significance Of "Tathagatagarbha"A Positive Expression Of "Sunyata".

    52. ^ King, Sallie B. The Doctrine of Buddha-Nature is impeccably Buddhist : pp. 174-179.

    53. ^ Sebastian, Professor C. D. (2005), Metaphysics and Mysticism in Mahayana Buddhism. Delhi: Sri Satguru

    Publications: p. 268

    54. ^ Sebastian, Professor C. D. (2005), Metaphysics and Mysticism in Mahayana Buddhism. Delhi: Sri Satguru

    Publications: p. 151; cf. also p. 110

    55. ^ Sebastian, Professor C. D. (2005), Metaphysics and Mysticism in Mahayana Buddhism. Delhi: Sri Satguru

    Publications: p. 278

    56. ^ Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993).A History of Indian Buddhism. Delhi: Motilal

    Banarsidass : p. 25257. ^Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004): p. 293

    58. ^Kitagawa, Joseph Mitsuo (2002). The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture.

    Routledge. ISBN 0-7007-1762-5: p. 80

    59. ^ abc Keenan, John (2000). The Scripture on the Explication of the Underlying Meaning. Numata Center.

    ISBN 1-886439-10-9: p. 49

    60. ^ Powers, John (1993), Hermeneutics and tradition in the Sadhinirmocana-stra, Brill Academic

    Publishers, pp. 411, ISBN9004098267

    61. ^ Soka Gakkai Dictionary of Buddhism, 'Five Periods '62. ^ Soka Gakkai Dictionary of Buddhism, 'Five Periods '

    63. ^ Soka Gakkai Dictionary of Buddhism, 'Five Periods '

    64. ^ Soka Gakkai Dictionary of Buddhism, 'Five Periods '

    65. ^ Soka Gakkai Dictionary of Buddhism, 'Five Periods '

    66. ^ Soka Gakkai Dictionary of Buddhism, 'Five Periods '

    67. ^ Kalupahana, David (2006). Mulamadhyamakakarika of Nagarjuna. Motilal Banarsidas s: p. 5.

    68. ^ Lindtner, Christian (1997). Master of Wisdom. Dharma Publishing: p. 324.

    69. ^ Lindtner, Christian (1997). Master of Wisdom. Dharma Publishing: p. 322. Lindtner says that Ngrjuna is

    http://pdfcrowd.com/http://pdfcrowd.com/redirect/?url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fMahayana&id=ma-120412112148-576201e9http://pdfcrowd.com/customize/http://pdfcrowd.com/html-to-pdf-api/?ref=pdfhttp://zencomp.com/greatwisdom/ebud/ebdha191.htmhttp://www.scribd.com/doc/33827209/Sallie-B-King-The-Doctrine-of-Buddha-Nature-is-Impeccably-Buddhisthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Kitagawahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0700717625https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1886439109https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9004098267
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    [edit]

    referencing the DN.

    70. ^ Nagao, Gadjin M.; Kawamura, Leslie S., trans. (1991). Madhyamika and Yogachara. Albany: SUNY Press:

    p. 53.

    71. ^ Nagao, Gadjin M.; Kawamura, Leslie S., trans. (1991). Madhyamika and Yogachara. Albany: SUNY Press:

    p. 200.

    72. ^ Dan Lusthaus, Buddhist Phenomenology. Routledge, 2002, page 44, note 5. Lusthaus draws attention to

    Rahula'sZen and the Taming of the Bull .

    73. ^ Harvey, Peter (1993).An Introduction to Buddhism. Cambridge University Press: p. 106.

    74. ^ Harvey, Peter (1989). Conscious ness Mysticism in the Discourses of the Buddha. In Werner, Karel ed.,

    The Yogi and the Mystic. Curzon Press : p. 97.

    75. ^ Harvey, Peter (2000).An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics. Cambridge University Press : p. 123.

    76. ^Google Books

    77. ^ ab Gombrich, Richard Francis (1988). Theravda Buddhism: P.83

    78. ^ Collins , Steven. 1990. Selfless Persons: Imagery and Thought in Theravda Buddhism. P.21

    79. ^ ab Gellner, David N. (2005). Rebuilding Buddhism: P.14

    80. ^ Swearer, Donald (2006). Theravada Buddhist Societies. In: Juergensmeyer, Mark (ed.) The OxfordHandbook of Global Religions: P.83

    81. ^ Hoffman, Frank J. and Mahinda, Deegal le (1996). Pali Buddhism. Routledge Press: p. 192.

    82. ^ King, Richard (1999). Indian Philosophy: An Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist Thought. Edinburgh

    Universi ty Press: p. 86.

    83. ^ Nyanaponika, Nyaponika Thera, Nyanaponika, Bhikkhu Bodhi (1998).Abhidhamma Studies: Buddhist

    Explorations of Consciousness and Time. Wisdom Publications: p. 42.

    84. ^ Kalupahana, David (2006). Mulamadhyamakakarika of Nagarjuna. Motilal Banarsidas s: p. 6.

    85. ^ Kalupahana, David (2006). Mulamadhyamakakarika of Nagarjuna. Motilal Banarsidas s: p. 24.86. ^ Lopez, Donald S. and Dge-dun-chos-phel (2006). The Madman's Middle Way: Reflections on Real ity of

    the Tibetan Monk Gendun Chopel. Universi ty of Chicago Press: p. 24.

    87. ^Gil Fronsdal, in Tricycle, posted online on November 8, 2007

    Notes

    "Mahayana". Encyclopdia Britannica. Encyclopdia Britannica. 2002.

    [edit]Further reading

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    Further reading

    Beal (1871). Catena of Buddhist Scriptures from the Chinese

    Kuroda, S. (1893). Outline of Mahayana

    Lowenstein, Tom. The Vision of the Buddha. ISBN 1-903296-91-9

    Lynch, Kevin (2005). The Way Of The Tiger: A Buddhist's Guide To Achieving Nirvana. Yojimbo Temple

    Murdoch (1910). History of Japan, volume i.

    Schopen, G. "The inscription on the Kusan image of Amitabha and the character of the early Mahayanain India",Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 10, 1990

    Suzuki, D. T. (1914). In Paul Carus, ed., The Monist, volume xxiv,.

    Suzuki, D. T. (1907). Outline of Mahayana Buddhism

    Williams, Paul (1989). Mahayana Buddhism. Routledge.

    External links

    Digital Dictionary of BuddhismSacred Library Contains many Mahyna stras

    Comparison of Buddhist Traditions (Mahayana - Therevada -

    Tibetan)

    Mahayana Buddhist Sutras in English

    The Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra: complete text and analysis.

    Major Mahayana Tathagatagarbha sutras in English translation

    Buddhas and Bodhisattvas in Mahayana Buddhism

    April 2010 Smithsonian Magazine Article

    Buddhism

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