encountering the old testament - exodus books · 2020. 4. 23. · encountering john: the gospel in...

Encountering the Old Testament

Bill T. Arnold and Bryan E. Beyer, Encountering the Old Testament, 2nd edition: A Christian Survey,Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.

To Susan and Yvonnewith love

Proverbs 31:10

Encountering Biblical StudiesWalter A. Elwell, General Editor and New Testament EditorEugene H. Merrill, Old Testament Editor

Encountering the Old Testament: A Christian Survey, Second EditionBill T. Arnold and Bryan E. Beyer

Readings from the Ancient Near East: Primary Sources for Old Testament StudyBill T. Arnold and Bryan E. Beyer, editors

Encountering the New Testament: A Historical and Theological Survey, Second Edition Walter A. Elwell and Robert W. Yarbrough

Readings from the First-Century World: Primary Sources for New Testament StudyWalter A. Elwell and Robert W. Yarbrough, editors

Encountering the Book of Genesis: A Study of Its Content and IssuesBill T. Arnold

Encountering the Book of Psalms: A Literary and Theological IntroductionC. Hassell Bullock

Encountering the Book of Isaiah: A Historical and Theological SurveyBryan E. Beyer

Encountering John: The Gospel in Historical, Literary, and Theological PerspectiveAndreas J. Köstenberger

Encountering the Book of Romans: A Theological SurveyDouglas J. Moo

Encountering the Book of Hebrews: An ExpositionDonald A. Hagner


Encountering the Old Testament

A Christian SurveySecond Edition

Bill T. Arnold and Bryan E. Beyer

KBill T. Arnold and Bryan E. Beyer, Encountering the Old Testament, 2nd edition: A Christian Survey,

Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.

Book copyright © 1999, 2008 Bill T. Arnold and Bryan E. Beyer

Design copyright © Angus Hudson Ltd/Tim Dowley & Peter Wyart trading as Three’s Company 1998; and Baker Book House Company

Published by Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing GroupP.O. Box 6287, Grand Rapids MI 49516-6287 USAwww.bakeracademic.com

CD-ROM copyright © 1999, 2008 Baker Book House CompanyISBN 978-0-8010-0301-1

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmit-ted in any form or by any means—for example, elec-tronic, photocopy, recording—without the prior writ-ten permission of the publisher. The only exception is brief quotations in printed reviews.

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Unless otherwise indicated, Scripture quotations are from the HOLY BIBLE, NEW INTERNATIONAL VERSION®. NIV®. Copyright © 1973, 1978, 1984 by International Bible Society. Used by permission of Zondervan. All rights reserved.

Scripture quotations labeled NLT are from the Holy Bible, New Living Translation, copyright © 1996. Used by permission of Tyndale House Publishers, Inc., Wheaton, Illinois 60189. All rights reserved.

Scripture quotations labeled NRSV are from the New Revised Standard Version of the Bible, copyright © 1989, by the Division of Christian Education of the Na-tional Council of the Churches of Christ in the United States of America. Used by permission. All rights reserved.

Picture Acknowledgments

IllustrationsAlan Parry: pp. 151, 227, 330, 389

PhotographsBible Scene Slide Tours: pp. 132, 135British Museum: 25, 55, 81, 159, 163, 241, 244, 245, 246, 255, 258, 264, 284, 338, 343, 349, 371, 399, 429, 457Tim Dowley Associates: pp. 39, 43, 49, 50, 61, 65, 95, 110, 118, 131, 136, 142, 161, 162, 168, 170, 174, 176, 189, 198, 201, 204, 211, 217, 223, 225, 232, 239, 253, 271, 295, 305, 309, 320, 328, 332, 401, 413, 419, 423, 443, 452, 467, 469Jamie Simson: pp. 67, 90, 252, 254, 280, 345, 433Peter Wyart: pp. 3, 26, 27, 62, 97, 105, 155, 156, 177, 182, 183, 185, 187, 197, 203, 243, 257, 269, 279, 283, 290, 293, 294, 297, 314, 327, 337, 355, 361, 377, 387, 397, 408Zev Radovan: pp. 373, 459Dr. James C. Martin: pp. 121 (Copyright © PBT & Dr. James C. Martin. Mus’ee du Louvre; Authorisation de photographer et de filmer.), 145 PhoenixDataSystems.com, Neal and Joel Bierling: 306

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataArnold, Bill T.

Encountering the Old Testament : a Christian survey / Bill T. Arnold and Bryan E. Beyer. — 2nd ed.

p. cm. Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and indexes.ISBN 978-0-8010-3170-0 (cloth)1. Bible. O.T.—Textbooks. I. Beyer, Bryan. II. Title.

BS1140.3.A76 2008 221.6’1—dc22 2007042455


5

Contents in Brief Preface 13 To the Professor 15 To the Student 17 Abbreviations 19 1. What Is the Old Testament

and Why Study It? 21 2. Where and When Did the

Events of the Old Testament Take Place? 35

PArT 1 Encountering the Pentateuch 3. Introduction to the Pentateuch:

The Birth of God’s People 63 4. Genesis 1–11: The Prelude

to Israel 77 5. Genesis 12–50: The Patriarchs:

Ancestors of Israel’s Faith 89 6. Exodus: A Miraculous Escape 103 7. Leviticus: Instructions

for Holy Living 117 8. Numbers: Failure in the Desert 127 9. Deuteronomy: Restoring

the Covenant 141

PArT 2 Encountering the Historical Books 10. Introduction to the Historical

Books: The History of Israel’s Nationhood 157

11. Joshua: Conquest and Division 167 12. Judges and Ruth:

Israel’s Moral Crisis 181 13. First Samuel: God Grants

a King 195 14. Second Samuel: David’s

Reign 209 15. First Kings: The Glory of Solomon

and the Beginning of the End 221 16. Second Kings: The End of

National Israel 237 17. First and Second Chronicles: A

Look Back 251 18. Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther:

A Time to Rebuild 263

PArT 3 Encountering the Poetical Books 19. Introduction to the Poetical

Books: The Literature of God’s People 281

20. Job: One Man’s Search for Justice 289

21. Psalms: The Songbook of Ancient Israel 303

22. Proverbs: Advice on Living in God’s World 313

23. Ecclesiastes and Song of Songs: Israelite Faith in Everyday Life 325

PArT 4 Encountering the Prophets 24. Introduction to the Prophets:

Voices of God’s Servants 339 25. Isaiah 1–39: Prophet of Judah’s

Royal Court 353 26. Isaiah 40–66: Great Days

Are Coming! 369 27. Jeremiah 1–20: Struggling

with God’s Call 383 28. Jeremiah 21–52 and Lamentations:

Dealing with Disaster 393 29. Ezekiel 1–24: Rough Days

Are Coming! 407 30. Ezekiel 25–48: God’s Planning an

Exciting Future! 417 31. Daniel: The Kingdom of God—

Now and Forever 427 32. Hosea, Joel, and Amos: A Call

for Repentance and a Promise for Blessing 439

33. Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah: God’s Plan for the Nations 451

34. Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi: Rebuilding a People 463

Epilogue 475 Glossary 477 Notes 491 Subject Index 502 Scripture Index 514 Name Index 524


7

Contents

Preface 13To the Professor 15To the Student 17Abbreviations 19

1. What Is the Old Testament and Why Study It? 21

Outline Objectives

Canon: What Is the Bible?• Definitionof“Canon”• TestsforCanonicity• TheFormationoftheCanon• HebrewandEnglishBook

OrderInspiration: How Was

the Bible Written?• Neo-OrthodoxTheory• DictationTheory• LimitedInspirationTheory• PlenaryVerbalInspiration

TheoryTextual Transmission: How

Did We Get the Bible?• ScribalCareoftheOld

Testament Text• TransmissionintheOriginal

Languages• TransmissioninOther

LanguagesHermeneutics: How Do We

Interpret the Bible?• UsetheGrammatical-

Historical Method• UnderstandtheContext• DeterminetheTypeof

Literature• InterpretFigurativeLanguage• LetScriptureInterpret

Scripture• DiscovertheApplicationto

Modern LifeSummaryKey TermsKey PlacesStudy QuestionsFurther Reading

2. Where and When Did the Events of the Old Testament Take Place? 35

Outline Objectives

Where Did the Events of the Old Testament Take Place?

• ThreeRegionsoftheAncientNear East

• FourSubregionsofIsrael• HighwaysoftheAncientNear

EastWhat Events Does the

Old Testament Describe?• Israel’sAncestry:

The Patriarchs• Israel’sBeginnings:

Moses and Joshua• Israel’sStatehood:

David and His Dynasty• Israel’sExileandRestoration:

Ezra and NehemiahSummaryKey TermsKey People/PlacesStudy QuestionsFurther Reading

PArT 1EncountEring thE PEntatEuch

3. Introduction to the Pentateuch: The Birth of God’s People 63OutlineObjectivesWhat Is the Pentateuch?What Is the Pentateuch

About?What Are the Overarching

Themes of the Pentateuch?• Sovereignty of God• History• FallenConditionofHumanity• Salvation• Holiness

Who Wrote the Pentateuch?• AuthorshipandTraditional

Consensus• ModernCriticalApproachesSummaryKey TermsKey PeopleStudy QuestionsFurther Reading

4. Genesis 1–11: The Prelude to Israel 77OutlineObjectivesPrimeval History

and Its NatureContents of Genesis 1–11• Outline• CreationandItsNature

(chapters 1–2)• SinandItsNature

(chapters 3–11)SummaryKey TermsKey PlaceStudy QuestionsFurther Reading

5. Genesis 12–50: The Patriarchs: Ancestors of Israel’s Faith 89OutlineObjectivesBackground of the

Patriarchal NarrativesThe Story of the Patriarchs• Outline• AbrahamandIsaac(12–25)• JacobandHisTwelveSons

(25:19–36:43)• Joseph(37:1–50:26)Theology of the Patriarchal

Narratives• Election• Promise• CovenantSummaryKey TermsKey People/Places


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Contents

Study QuestionsFurther Reading

6. Exodus: A Miraculous Escape 103OutlineObjectivesContents of the Book

of Exodus• Outline• TheEventsoftheExodusHistorical Problems

of the Exodus• HistoricityoftheExodus• DateoftheExodus• RouteoftheExodusTheological Significance

of the Exodus• Deliverance• Covenant• PresenceofGodSummaryKey TermsKey PlacesStudy QuestionsFurther Reading

7. Leviticus: Instructions for Holy Living 117OutlineObjectivesBackground of the Book

of LeviticusContents of Leviticus• Outline• OverviewThemes of Leviticus• Law• Sacrifice• HolinessSummaryKey TermsStudy QuestionsFurther Reading

8. Numbers: Failure in the Desert 127OutlineObjectivesContents of the Book

of Numbers• LiteraryStructure• TheBook’sUseofNumbers• Outline• Overview

Use of the Book of Numbers in the New Testament

• FirstCorinthians10• HebrewsSummaryKey TermKey Person/PlacesStudy QuestionsFurther Reading

9. Deuteronomy: restoring the Covenant 141OutlineObjectivesContents of the Book

of Deuteronomy• LiteraryStructure• Outline• OverviewParallels from the

Ancient World• TheHittiteParallels• TreatyStructurein

DeuteronomySignificance of Deuteronomy

in Biblical Thought • RoleofDeuteronomyinthe

Pentateuch• Deuteronomyandthe

Historical BooksSummaryKey TermsKey Person/PlacesStudy QuestionsFurther Reading

PArT 2EncountEring thE historical Books

10. Introduction to the Historical Books: The History of Israel’s Nationhood 157OutlineObjectivesContents of the Historical

BooksThe Role of History

in the Bible• Herodotus, the Father of

History?• The Jewish Canon and the

Christian Canon• History and Theology

Authorship of the Historical Books

• The Deuteronomistic History

• Chronicles and Ezra–Nehemiah

• Ruth and EstherSummaryKey TermsKey PeopleStudy QuestionsFurther Reading

11. Joshua: Conquest and Division 167OutlineObjectivesOutlineBackground of the Book

of Joshua• JoshuatheMan• DateandAuthorship• ArchaeologyandtheBook

of Joshua• ThemesofJoshuaMessage of the Book

of Joshua• IsraelConquerstheLand

(chapters 1–12)• IsraelDividestheLand

(chapters 13–21)• IsraelBeginstoSettle

into the Land (chapters 22–24)SummaryKey TermKey PlacesStudy QuestionsFurther Reading

12. Judges and ruth: Israel’s Moral Crisis 181OutlineObjectivesThe Book of JudgesContents• Outline• OverviewHistorical Problems

in Judges• Chronology• PoliticalStructureThe Book of RuthContents• LiteraryStructure• Outline• Overview


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Contents

The Sovereignty of God and Faithful Living

SummaryKey TermsStudy QuestionsFurther Reading

13. First Samuel: God Grants a King 195OutlineObjectivesOutlineBackground of 1 Samuel• Setting• AuthorshipandDate• Themesof1SamuelMessage of 1 Samuel• APeriodofTransition

(chapters 1–15)• David’sRiseandSaul’s

Decline (chapters 16–31)SummaryKey PlacesStudy QuestionsFurther Reading

14. Second Samuel: David’s reign 209OutlineObjectivesOutlineBackground of 2 Samuel• Setting• AuthorshipandDate• Themesof2SamuelMessage of 2 Samuel• David’sRisetoPowerinJudah

(chapters 1–4)• David’sReignoverAllIsrael

(chapters 5–24)SummaryKey TermsKey People/PlacesStudy QuestionsFurther Reading

15. First Kings: The Glory of Solomon and the Beginning of the End 221OutlineObjectivesThe Author and His Method• RetributionTheology• RegnalFormulaandSources• HistoricalPerspective

from the Exile

Contents of 1 Kings• Outline• OverviewSummaryKey TermsKey Person/PlacesStudy QuestionsFurther Reading

16. Second Kings: The End of National Israel 237OutlineObjectivesContents of 2 Kings• Outline• OverviewThemes of the Books

of KingsSummaryKey TermsKey People/PlacesStudy QuestionsFurther Reading

17. First and Second Chronicles: A Look Back 251OutlineObjectivesThe Author and His PurposeChronicles and the Canon• LocationintheCanon• RelationshiptoSamuel

and KingsContents of 1 and

2 Chronicles• Outline• OverviewThemes of the Books

of Chronicles• DavidandHisDynasty• TheTempleandtheWorship

of GodSummaryKey TermsStudy QuestionsFurther Reading

18. Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther: A Time to rebuild 263OutlineObjectivesThe Books of Ezra

and Nehemiah• Contents• ProblemsofInterpretation

The Book of Esther• ContentsTheological Themes• EzraandNehemiah• EstherSummaryKey TermsStudy QuestionsFurther Reading

PArT 3 EncountEring thE PoEtical Books

19. Introduction to the Poetical Books: The Literature of God’s People 281OutlineObjectivesWhat Are the

Poetical Books?Common Characteristics

of Hebrew Poetry• Meter• Parallelism• Chiasm• AcrosticsUgaritic ParallelsThe Poetical Books

ThemselvesSummaryKey TermsKey PlaceStudy QuestionsFurther Reading

20. Job: One Man’s Search for Justice 289OutlineObjectivesIntroduction to

Wisdom Literature• AncientNearEasternWisdom

Literature• OldTestamentWisdom

LiteratureContents of the Book of Job• Outline• OverviewThe Author and His TimesTheological ThemesSummaryKey TermsKey Person/PlacesStudy QuestionsFurther Reading


10

Contents

21. Psalms: The Songbook of Ancient Israel 303OutlineObjectivesBackground to the Psalms• TheName“Psalms”• AuthorshipofthePsalms• TheUniquePlaceofthe

Psalms in ScriptureThe Division of the Psalms• TheBasicArrangement• TheoriesonthePsalms’

ArrangementPsalm TitlesClassification of the Psalms• Hymns• PenitentialPsalms• WisdomPsalms• RoyalPsalms• MessianicPsalms• ImprecatoryPsalms• LamentPsalmsThe Psalms

and the ChristianSummaryKey TermsKey PersonStudy QuestionsFurther Reading

22. Proverbs: Advice on Living in God’s World 313OutlineObjectivesWhat Is a “Proverb”?Contents of the Book

of Proverbs• Outline• OverviewAuthorshipTheological ThemesSummaryKey TermsKey PersonStudy QuestionsFurther Reading

23. Ecclesiastes and Song of Songs: Israelite Faith in Everyday Life 325OutlineObjectivesThe Book of Ecclesiastes• Contents• Authorship

The Song of Songs• Contents• AuthorshipTheological Themes• Ecclesiastes• SongofSongsSummaryKey TermsKey PeopleStudy QuestionsFurther Reading

PArT 4 EncountEring thE ProPhEts

24. Introduction to the Prophets: Voices of God’s Servants 339OutlineObjectivesProphecy’s Biblical Heritage• HowDotheProphetsFitinto

God’s Unfolding Purpose?• WhoWereProphecy’s

“FoundingFathers”?The Nature of Prophecy• TheHebrewTermsfor

“Prophet”• WhatAreSomeCommon

Wrong Ideas about the Prophets?

• HowAreAllthe Prophets Alike?

• DidOtherNations Have Prophets?

• DidAllProphets Write Down Their Messages?

• HowWasProphecy Passed Down to Us?

• WhatAreSomeCommonThemes of the Prophets’ Writings?

The Historical Setting of the Classical Prophets

• TheAssyrians• TheBabylonians• ThePersiansSummaryKey TermsKey People/PlacesStudy QuestionsFurther Reading

25. Isaiah 1–39: Prophet of Judah’s royal Court 353OutlineObjectives

OutlineBackground of the Book

of Isaiah• IsaiahtheMan• Isaiah’sTimes• AuthorshipandDate• ThemesoftheBookofIsaiahMessage of the Book

of Isaiah• OpeningWordstoJudah

(1:1–31)• God’sJudgmentRevealed

(2:1–5:30)• Isaiah’sCall(6:1–13)• TheSignofImmanuel(7:1–17)• TheComingAssyrianInvasion

(7:18–8:22)• Descriptionofthe

Messianic Era (9:1–7)• JudgmentagainstIsrael

and Assyria (9:8–10:34)• FurtherDescriptionofthe

Messianic Era (11:1–12:6)• OraclesagainsttheNations

(13:1–23:18)• The“LittleApocalypse”

(24:1–27:13)• OraclesofWoe(28:1–33:24)• EschatologicalSummation

(34:1–35:10)• HistoricalInterlude:Highlights

and Lowlights from Hezekiah’s Reign (36:1–39:8)

SummaryKey TermsKey People/PlacesStudy QuestionsFurther Reading

26. Isaiah 40–66: Great Days Are Coming! 369OutlineObjectivesOutlineWho Wrote Isaiah 40–66?• Multiple-AuthorView• One-AuthorViewThe Servant Passages

in Isaiah 40–66Isaiah’s Message Continues• Comfort,OComfort

My People (40:1–31)• TheComingDeliverance

(41:1–29)• TheRoleoftheLord’sServant

(42:1–25)


11

Contents

• Israel’sRedemption from Babylon (43:1–45:25)

• JudgmentagainstBabylon(46:1–47:15)

• Israel’sReleaseandExaltation(48:1–52:12)

• TheSufferingServant (52:13–53:12)

• CelebratingtheReturn (54:1–59:21)

• TheClimaxof God’s Restoration (60:1–66:24)

SummaryKey TermsStudy QuestionsFurther Reading

27. Jeremiah 1–20: Struggling with God’s Call 383OutlineObjectivesOutlineJeremiah’s BackgroundJeremiah’s Message• GodCallsJeremiahtoService

(1:1–19)• JeremiahDescribesJudah’s

Sad Condition (2:1–10:25)• JeremiahWrestleswithPeople

and with God (11:1–20:18)SummaryKey Person/PlacesStudy QuestionsFurther Reading

28. Jeremiah 21–52 and Lamentations: Dealing with Disaster 393OutlineObjectivesOutlineJeremiah’s Message

Continues (21:1–52:34)• JeremiahChallengesRulers

and Prophets (21:1–29:32)• TheBookofComfort

(30:1–33:26)• TheFailureofJerusalem’s

Leadership (34:1–39:18)• JerusalemafterItsFall

(40:1–45:5)• OraclesabouttheNations

(46:1–51:64)• Jerusalem’sFallRevisited

(52:1–34)

Lamentations: A Cry of Agony

• Outline• TheBackgroundof

Lamentations• TheMessageofLamentationsSummaryStudy QuestionsFurther Reading

29. Ezekiel 1–24: rough Days Are Coming! 407OutlineObjectivesOutlineBackground of EzekielMessage of Ezekiel• OraclesandEventsRelating

to Ezekiel’s Call (1:1–5:17)• TheDayoftheLord(6:1–7:27)• God’sGloryDeparts

(8:1–11:25)• JudgmentagainstJerusalem

(12:1–24:27)SummaryKey TermsKey PlacesStudy QuestionsFurther Reading

30. Ezekiel 25–48: God’s Planning an Exciting Future! 417OutlineObjectivesOutlineEzekiel’s Message Continues

(25:1–48:35)• OraclesagainsttheNations

(25:1–32:32)• Israel’sRestoration

(33:1–39:29)• Israel’sNewTemple

(40:1–48:35)SummaryKey TermsKey PlacesStudy QuestionsFurther Reading

31. Daniel: The Kingdom of God— Now and Forever 427OutlineObjectives

Daniel as Apocalyptic Literature

• UniquenessofApocalypticLiterature

• CharacteristicsofApocalypticLiterature

• “Biblical”ApocalypticContents of the Book

of Daniel• Outline• OverviewThe Theological Themes

of Daniel• TheSovereigntyofGod• ThePrideofHumankind• TheUltimateVictoryof

God’s SaintsProblems of Interpretation• Bilingualism• IdentityoftheFourKingdoms• Visionofthe“SeventyWeeks”• HistoricalQuestions• DateofCompositionSummaryKey TermsKey People/PlacesStudy QuestionsFurther Reading

32. Hosea, Joel, and Amos: A Call for repentance and a Promise for Blessing 439OutlineObjectivesHosea: Sharing God’s

Heartache• Outline• TheMan• HisTimes• MajorThemesoftheBook• ContentoftheBook• HoseaandtheNewTestamentJoel: The Day of the Lord• Outline• Joel’sBackground• Joel’sMessageAmos: Shepherd

for Social Justice• Outline• Amos’sBackground• Amos’sMessageSummaryKey TermsKey People/PlaceStudy QuestionsFurther Reading


12

Contents

33. Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah: God’s Plan for the Nations 451OutlineObjectivesObadiah: Edom Will Fall!• Outline• Obadiah’sMessageJonah: Running away

from God• Outline• Jonah’sBackground• Jonah’sMessageMicah: Zealot for True

Covenant Living• Outline• Micah’sBackground• Micah’sMessageNahum: Nineveh Will Fall!• Outline• Nahum’sBackground• Nahum’sMessageHabakkuk: Lord,

What’s Going On?• Outline

• Habakkuk’sBackground• Habakkuk’sMessageZephaniah: God Will Judge

All the Earth!• Outline• Zephaniah’sBackground• Zephaniah’sMessageSummaryKey TermsKey People/PlacesStudy QuestionsFurther Reading

34. Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi: rebuilding a People 463OutlineObjectivesHaggai: Dealing with

People Who Just Don’t Care

• Outline• Haggai’sBackground• Haggai’sMessageZechariah: Get Ready

for God’s Kingdom!• Outline

• Zechariah’sBackground• Zechariah’sMessageMalachi: Give God

Your Best!• Outline• Malachi’sMessageSummaryKey TermKey People/PlaceStudy QuestionsFurther Reading

Epilogue 475Glossary 477Notes 491Subject Index 502Scripture Index 514Name Index 524


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We are grateful for the good reception Encountering the Old Testament has received since its publication in 1999. We appre-ciatively acknowledge those who have written with comments and insights; we believe your constructive criticism has further strengthened the work.

Some readers may be interested to know which author wrote individual chapters. Dr. Arnold wrote the introductory chap-ter on history and geography (chapter 2), all the chapters on the Pentateuch (chap-ters 3–9), and the Historical Books except Joshua and the Books of Samuel (chapters 10, 12, and 15–18). He also is responsible for the chapters on Job, Proverbs, Eccle-siastes, Song of Songs, and the Epilogue (chapters 20 and 22–23). Dr. Beyer wrote the introductory chapter on the origin, inspiration, and interpretation of the Old Testament (chapter 1) and the chapters on Joshua and the Books of Samuel (chapters 11 and 13–14). In addition to the Poetical Books introduction (chapter 19), he wrote on the Psalms (chapter 21) and all the chapters on the Prophets except Daniel

(chapters 24–30 and 32–34). The chapter on Daniel (chapter 31) was a collaborative effort, although on all the other chapters the authors also gave each other the op-portunity for review and comment prior to submission.

The people at Baker Academic have been most helpful as we have prepared the second edition. We are grateful for their encouragement and professionalism.

Student assistants and secretaries as-sisted in various ways in the preparation of the manuscript. For the first edition, Dr. Arnold’s assistants were Joel R. Soza, Michael K. West, and Robert W. Wilcher; Dr. Beyer’s were Cheryl Brannan, Chan-dra Briggman, and Judy Peinado. Joyce Hack and Jason Conrad also assisted Dr. Beyer on the manuscript preparation for the second edition. Our thanks to all of you.

As this second edition goes to press, we both know the joy of over thirtyyears of marriage. To Susan Arnold and Yvonne Beyer go our continued love and gratitude.

Preface


15

To the Professor

This book targets primarily students who will be taking their first course on this topic. Although we originally wrote the book with undergraduates in mind, we are pleased a number of graduate schools and seminaries have also found it useful. We hope this second edition will continue to satisfy both audiences.

We have also provided a glossary that clarifies difficult terms with which the reader may be unfamiliar. Study ques-tions at the end of each chapter guide the reader and bring key points of the chapter intofocus.Finally,a“FurtherReading”list at the end of each chapter provides suggestions for students who want more information on any given topic. We hope to stretch students’ thinking, whatever their backgrounds.

The underlying slant of this book is broadly evangelical. We believe the Scriptures not only spoke to their origi-nal audience, but that they continue to speak to us today. At the same time, we recognize that people from many Chris-tian denominations will use this book. Consequently, when we discuss issues on which evangelicals have agreed to dis-agree, we have often chosen to survey the basic interpretations and let the particular emphasis lie with the professor.

The survey follows the canonical order of the English Bible. We have found through our research that most teachers prefer this. However, the chapter divi-sions make it easy for one to follow either a canonical or chronological approach.

Outlines for each Old Testament book are taken (with some modification) from the Evangelical Commentary on the Bible, ed. Walter Elwell (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1989). Readers seeking verse-by-verse commentary not provided by this sur-vey may be referred to this volume for further study.

Baker Academic has worked with us to produce a well-illustrated survey.

Illustrative materials such as charts, maps, and graphs comprise approximately 20 percent of the volume. The color format makesthebookmore“user-friendly”toa generation that has experienced much in the way of technological improvement. We want to give students the feeling that “theyarethere”asmuchaspossible,tohelp them see the images the Bible so carefully paints.

We have also highlighted the relevance of the Old Testament by placing strategic “sidebars”withinthetext.Theseside-bars apply the text directly to pertinent issues of today. They help the reader un-derstand that the Bible spoke not only then, but still speaks today. To this end, we have also interwoven application material as appropriate in the body of the text.

Finally, professors will want to be aware of three items that supplement Encountering the Old Testament. The first item, the instructor’s manual, is available on a compact disc, the second is a compact disc attached to the back of the book, and the third is a paperback volume.

1. Instructor’s Resource Manual with Test Items. In addition to including objective-typetestitems,thisresource includes suggestions for using the text-book,chapteroutlines,chapterobjec-tives, chapter summaries, key terms, master transparencies, lecture outlines, and media resources.

2. Student’s Multimedia Interactive CD-ROM. Developed by biblical scholar Chris Miller and educational specialist Phil Bassett, this product provides

•videoclipsof interviewswiththe authors

•videoclipsofbiblicallands•stillphotosofbiblicallands•maps


16

To the Professor

•interactivereviewquestions•visualorganizers

3. Readings from the Ancient Near East: Primary Sources for Old Testament Study (RANE). This is a collection of pri-mary source readings related to the Old Testament. These readings are ar-ranged in canonical order. This vol-ume provides translations of ancient

Near Eastern documents that are use-ful to read hand-in-hand with the Old Testament.

It is our hope and prayer that Encountering the Old Testament will help students gain a deeper love and appreciation for the message that impacts every one of us—the message of the Bible.


17

Ethical and theological issues

To the Student

Encountering the Old Testament in a sys-tematic way for the first time is an exciting experience. It can also be overwhelming because there is so much to learn. You need to learn not only the content of the Old Testament but also a good deal about the Near Eastern world.

The purpose of this textbook is to make that encounter a little less daunting. To accomplish this a number of learning aids have been incorporated into the text. We suggest you familiarize yourself with this textbook by reading the following intro-ductory material, which explains what learning aids have been provided.

SidebarsMaterial in yellow-colored boxes isolates contemporary issues of concern and shows how the Old Testament speaks to these pressing ethical and theological is-sues. Some of these boxes contain quotes from various authors, whether ancient or modern, whose thoughts shed light on the Old Testament material under discussion.

Focus BoxesThese boxes add interest and relevance to the text by providing practical applica-tions or devotional thoughts.

Chapter OutlinesAt the beginning of each chapter is a brief outline of the chapter’s contents. Study Suggestion: Before reading the chapter, take a few minutes to read the outline. Think of it as a road map, and remember that it is easier to reach your destination if you know where you are going.

Chapter ObjectivesAbrieflistofobjectivesisplacedattheoutset of each chapter. These present the tasks you should be able to perform after reading the chapter. Study Suggestion:Readtheobjectivescarefullybeforebeginning to read the text. As you read

thetext,keeptheseobjectivesinmindandtake notes to help you remember what you have read. After reading the chapter, returntotheobjectivesandseeifyoucanperform the tasks.

SummaryA list of statements summarizing the con-tent of each chapter can be found at the end of each chapter. Study Suggestion: Use this summary list to conduct an immedi-atereviewofwhatyouhavejustread.

Key Terms and GlossaryKey terms have been identified through-out the text by the use of boldface type. This will alert you to important words or phrases you may not be familiar with. A definition of these words will be found in the glossary at the end of the book and on the interactive CD-ROM. Study Suggestion: When you encounter a key term in the text, stop and read the definition before continuing through the chapter.

Key People and PlacesWhile studying the Old Testament you will be introduced to many names and places. Those that are particularly signifi-cant have been set in small caps. Study Suggestion: Pay careful attention to the people and places as you read the text. When studying for a test, skim the text and stop at each small capped term to see if you know its importance to the Old Testament.

Study QuestionsA few discussion questions have been provided at the end of each chapter, and these can be used to review for exami-nations. Study Suggestion: Write suitable answers to the study questions in prepa-ration for tests.

Further readingA short bibliography for supplementary reading is presented at each chapter’s

Primary source material

Focus box: key issues and relevant applications

Key terms, people, and places

Study questions

Further reading


18

To the Student

conclusion. Study Suggestion: Use the suggested reading list to explore areas of special interest.

Visual AidsA host of illustrations in the form of photographs, maps, and charts have been included in this textbook. Each illustra-tion has been carefully selected, and each is intended not only to make the text more aesthetically pleasing but also more easily mastered.

At the back of this text is a multimedia interactive program on compact disc. De-signed to be informative and fun to use, this CD-ROM contains video clips of the biblical lands, photos of the Old Testa-ment world, maps, interactive review questions, and more.

May your encounter of the Old Testa-ment be an exciting adventure!


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6Exodus A Miraculous Escape

Outline•ContentsoftheBookofExodus

OutlineThe Events of the Exodus

•HistoricalProblemsoftheExodusHistoricity of the ExodusDate of the ExodusRoute of the Exodus

•TheologicalSignificance of the ExodusDeliveranceCovenantPresence of God

ObjectivesAfter reading this chapter, you should be able to•Contrasttheemphasisonbeginningsin

Exodus with those in Genesis•OutlinethebasiccontentofExodus•GiveexamplesofhowGodsavedIsrael•DefinecasuisticlawasfoundinExodus•Explainthepurposeofthecovenant•Identifythethreemajorhistorical

problems of the exodus•Discussthetheologicalsignificance

of the exodus


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Encountering the Pentateuch

The Book of Exodus is about a daring escape. Even the meaning of the word “exodus”impliesaquickexit.1 By God’s grace and mercy, he rescued Israel from a life of slavery in Egypt. But the book is also about Israel’s relationship with God after the nation’s departure from Egypt. Exodus describes these two main events: Israel’s departure from Egypt (rescue) and Israel’s newly established alliance with God (relationship).

Contents of the Book of ExodusExodus is a book of beginnings, as was Genesis. The first book of the Bible related the beginning of everything. Genesis in-cluded the beginning of faith in the form of the patriarchal line. Exodus now con-tinues that line, relating the beginning of the nation Israel.

Outline I. Oppression and Deliverance

(1:1–15:21) A. Introduction (1:1–7) B. Oppression (1:8–22) C. The Birth of a Deliverer

(2:1–10) D. Moses as Refugee (2:11–25) E. Moses’ Call (3:1–4:17) F. Moses Returns to Egypt

(4:18–31) G. Increased Oppression (5:1–23) H. God Encourages Moses

(6:1–13) I. Moses’ Genealogy (6:14–30) J. Moses and Aaron Warn

Pharaoh (7:1–13) K. The Nine Plagues (7:14–10:29) L. The Tenth Plague Announced

(11:1–10) M. The Passover (12:1–27) N. The Exodus (12:28–51) O. Consecration of the Firstborn

(13:1–16) P. The Crossing of the Red Sea

(13:17–14:31) Q. CelebrationofSalvation

(15:1–21)

II. The Journey to Mount Sinai (15:22–19:2)

A. From the Sea to Elim (15:22–27)

B. From Elim to the Wilderness of Sin (16:1–36)

C. From Sin to Rephidim (17:1–16)

D. Moses’ Family (18:1–27) E. From Rephidim to Sinai

(19:1–2)

III. The Sinaitic Covenant (19:3–24:18)

A. Preparations (19:3–25) B. The Covenant (20:1–23:33) C. The Covenant Ceremony

(24:1–18)

IV. Instructions for Israel’s Sanctuary (25:1–31:18)

A. Preparations (25:1–9) B. The Ark (25:10–22) C. The Table (25:23–30) D. The Lampstand (25:31–40) E. The Tabernacle (26:1–37) F. The Altar (27:1–8) G. The Courtyard (27:9–19) H. The Oil (27:20–21) I. The Priestly Garments

(28:1–43) J. Consecration of the Priests

(29:1–46) K. The Altar of Incense (30:1–10) L. The Offering (30:11–16) M. The Laver (30:17–21) N. The Anointing Oil and

Incense (30:22–38) O. Bezalel and Oholiab (31:1–11) P. Sabbath Instructions

(31:12–18)

V. Apostasy and Intercession (32:1–33:23)

A. The Golden Calf (32:1–33:6) B. The Tent of Meeting (33:7–23)

VI. The New Tablets (34:1–35)

VII. Execution of Sanctuary Instruc-tions (35:1–40:38)

The Events of the ExodusThe Book of Exodus describes Israel’s trav-els under the direction of God, from Egypt through the desert to the foot of mount sinai. So the book has a geographical ar-rangement: Israel in Egypt (1:1–12:36), Is-rael in the desert (12:37–18:27), and Israel at Mount Sinai (19–40).


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Hebrews

Egyptian wall painting showing a scribe conducting a count of geese on an Egyptian official’s estate.

As the book opens, the patriarchal covenantpromisesareinjeopardy.Thedescendants of Abraham are living in Egypt, where we left them at the conclu-sion of Genesis. But it is now hundreds of years later. The people have grown in significant numbers, enough to become a threat to the Egyptian population (1:10). In order to control this threat, the Egyptians enslaved the Hebrews and attempted to control their birth rate (chapter 1).

The birth of Moses is God’s answer to this terrible predicament. Exodus 2 relates how the baby was spared and raised in the Egyptian court, providing him with the best education possible (Acts 7:22). As an adult, Moses tried to take matters into his own hands in a pathetic attempt to fulfill his calling (Ex 2:11–15a). As a result, he had to flee Egypt. Moses found his way to Midian, where he started life over again. He tried to forget about the terrible plight of the Hebrews by settling into a new oc-cupation, a new family, a new home (vv. 15b–22).

But God did not forget or forsake his people. In an important paragraph at the conclusion of chapter 2 (vv. 23–25), we are told that God knew their plight. He heard,

remembered, saw, and knew of the groan-ing of the Israelites. God was committed to taking action to redeem his people from Egypt because of his covenant with the patriarchs (v. 24). Because of Abraham, the Israelites must be redeemed from Egypt. Moses may have forgotten, but God had not!

Moses and God were on a collision course. The Lord was determined to save the Israelites; Moses was determined to forget about them. The famous call of Moses at the burning bush (Ex 3–4) is where the two collide. The resulting de-bate is classic and powerful. God called Moses to go back to Egypt and lead the Is-raelites out of their slavery. Moses raised four objections, all of which God an-swered. Finally Moses simply refused to go:“pleasesendsomeoneelse”(4:13).

God assured Moses of his presence in Egypt and of his ultimate victory. Together with the help of his brother, Aaron, Moses would become the deliverer of his people. He returned to Egypt and warned Pha-raoh of impending disaster if the Egyp-tian ruler failed to obey God’s command to let the people go. The ten plagues were intended not only to force the Egyptians


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casuistic law into compliance, but also to teach both the Egyptians and the Israelites about the sovereign character of the God of Israel. The Egyptians believed their god-king, the Pharaoh, was responsible for main-taining the life-giving Nile River and for the sun’s daily rising. But the plagues demonstrated that Israel’s God, Yahweh, was in control of the cosmic order.2

On the night of the release of the Israel-ites, God established a permanent memo-rial to commemorate the event, the Pass-over (chapter 12). Future generations must never forget God’s great and mighty acts of salvation. Exodus 14:30–31 serves as a theological summary of the entire exodus event that became so central in future Isra-elite thought. The Lord saved Israel in that day and they saw the Egyptians dead on the seashore. This sight became the con-crete sign that God had accomplished sal-vation and brought a new life for Israel.3

The second main unit of the book traces Israel’s strange odyssey through the des-ert. How could Israel question God and complain about their circumstances? Hadtheynotjustwitnessedthegreatestmiracle of history? Did they not yet un-derstand what God had done for them? Yet sin and rebellion often fly in the face

of facts. If we would only remember who God is and what he has done for us, we would quickly obey his Word.

In chapter 19, the Israelites arrived at Mount Sinai. The rest of the book de-scribes the events that took place there. In dramatic fashion, God met with the nation (vv. 16–25). Now he began to trans-form this ragtag group of former slaves intoanationdevotedonlytohim,a“trea-suredpossession”(v.5).Justashehadused a covenant to establish his relation-ship with the patriarchs, so now he used a covenant with Israel.

The Sinai covenant was anchored in the Ten Commandments (20:1–17). The Bible actuallycallsthese“words”insteadofcommandments (Dt 10:4), because they are more like ten principles for living than laws. The rest of the law is based on them. Chapters 21–23 are called the “BookoftheCovenant”(Ex24:7).Thesechapters list specific cases in which the principles of covenant law are applied to life. This type of law (known as casuistic law) was widely used in the ancient Near East. Several parallels from Mesopota-mia illustrate how the Bible often used the writing styles and customs of the day to express God’s revelation.

1. If a man accuses another man and charges him with homicide but cannot bring proof against him, his accuser shall be killed. (Compare Ex 23:1–3) 2. If a man should kidnap the young child of another man, he shall be killed. (Compare Ex 21:16) 3. If an obligation is outstanding against a man and he sells or gives into debt service his wife, his son, or his daughter, they shall perform service in the house of their buyer or of the one who holds them in debt service for three years; their release shall be secured in the fourth year. (Compare Ex 21:2–11) 4. If a child should strike his father, they shall cut off his hand. (Compare Ex 21:15)

5. If he should break the bone of a citizen of his own rank, they shall break his bone. (Compare Ex 21:23–25) 6. If an ox gores to death a man while it is passing through the streets, that case has no basis for a claim. If a man’s ox is a known gorer, and the authorities of his city quarter notify him that it is a known gorer, but he does not pad its horns or control his ox, and that ox gores to death a member of the aristocracy, he (the owner) shall give 30 shekels of silver. (Compare Ex 21:28–36)

Selected from the Law Code of Hammurapi, Laws 1, 14, 117, 195, 197, and 250–51, Martha T. Roth,

Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia Minor, 2nd ed., Society of Biblical Literature Writings from

the Ancient World 6 (Atlanta, Ga.: Scholars Press, 1997), 81, 84, 103, 120, 121, 128 (adapted).

Laws from Ancient Mesopotamia


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After God gave the law to Israel, Moses led the nation in a solemn and sacred cov-enant ceremony, binding God and nation together (24:3–8). Moses sprinkled sacrifi-cial blood on the altar, which represented God (v. 6). Then he read the Book of the Covenant to the people and sprinkled blood on them as well (vv. 7–8). Moses calledthisblood“thebloodofthecov-enant”becausetheceremonywassym-bolic of the kind of covenant God made

with Abraham in Genesis 15, using di-vided animals. Just as God bound himself to Abraham, he was now binding himself to Israel. This must surely be behind the wordsofJesus:“Thisismybloodofthecovenant, which is poured out for many fortheforgivenessofsins”(Mt26:28).

The purpose for the desert tabernacle was clear from the beginning (25:8). It was not like our churches, stadiums, or arenas, where large groups gather for various purposes. It was God’s way of living in the midst of his people. Prior to this, God had demonstrated his presence with them in the form of pillars of fire and smoke during their desert travels (13:21–22). This large tent, however, would now be God’s dwelling place. The glory of his presence, which had provided both pro-tection and comfort, would now reside in the center of the Israelite camp. The word“tabernacle”itself(mis˙ka mn) means “dwellingplace.”

The tabernacle section of the book uses repetition. Seven chapters (25–31) give detailed instructions in how to build the tabernacle with all of its furnishings. Then four chapters (35–39) relate how Moses and the Israelites obeyed in every detail. While this may be unlike the modern lit-erature we are used to reading, the point should be clear. The people were obedient to God, down to every detail of the taber-nacle’s curtains, rings, and hooks.

What comes between the two sections on the tabernacle, however, is an example of stark disobedience (chapters 32–34). While Moses was on Mount Sinai receiv-ing the law of God, the children of Israel blatantly and quickly turned from the veryGodwhohadjustdeliveredthemfrom their life of slavery and misery in Egypt. Apparently they wanted God to look like the familiar gods of Egypt and Canaan. So, while Yahweh was creating a nation that would reflect his moral like-ness, the Israelites were trying to create God in their image.

Chapter 40 is a triumphant climax to the Book of Exodus. The recurring phrase makes the point: Moses and the Israelites performed the tasks of building God’s tabernaclejust“astheLord had com-mandedMoses.”Whenallwascompletedas required, God’s wonderful glory filled the tabernacle (v. 34). The presence of God


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that led the Israelites in pillars of cloud and fire and that met them so dramati-cally on Mount Sinai would now rest on the movable tabernacle. They must leave Mount Sinai behind, but God’s presence would go with them.

Historical Problems of the ExodusLike the ancestral narratives of Genesis, the Book of Exodus gives few historical references to other times and places in the ancient Near East. Consequently, we are faced with several unanswered questions about the exodus event.

Historicity of the ExodusThe first of these is the question of its his-toricity. The lack of firm extrabiblical evi-dence leads some to deny the event actu-ally occurred. But the exodus is so central to later Israelite thought and theology, it is inconceivable the events could have no basis in the national history. Furthermore, it seems unlikely Israel would have been so uncomplimentary about its past as to include suffering and servitude if it were not true. Those who question the historic-ity of the exodus ignore too many other pertinent questions.4

Date of the ExodusThe second problem has to do with the precise date of the exodus. Basically there are two options, though there are many variations of these. The exodus may be dated to around 1446 b.c. or 1275 b.c.

First Kings 6:1 dates the exodus 480 years before Solomon built the temple in 966 b.c. By simple addition, we derive the fifteenth-century b.c. date, 1446, for the exodus. Judges 11:26 gives three hundred years between Jephthah’s day (around 1100 b.c.) and the conquest, which would also seem to suggest the earlier date.

An Egyptian inscription, known vari-ouslyasthe“IsraelStela”orthe“Mernep-tahStela,”recordsthevictoryhymnofPharaoh Merneptah in 1209 b.c. This in-scription reports the Pharaoh’s victory over several peoples in Palestine, includ-ing“thepeopleofIsrael”(RANE 160). Some would argue the Israelites must

have been in the land for a considerable length of time in order to be recognized by an Egyptian Pharaoh. This would also support the early date.

However, others have contended the archaeological evidence from Palestine contradicts the earlier date and suggests instead a thirteenth-century b.c. date. The 480 years of 1 Kings 6:1 must, in this case, be an ideal figure. For example, the num-ber might be the sum total of the 12 tribes of Israel multiplied by an ideal generation of 40. The real time between the exodus and the temple would be approximately 300 years instead of 480.

Exodus 1:11 states the Israelites worked on the construction of the city of Ramesses, which is believed to have been built by Pharaoh Ramesses II (1279–1213 b.c.). Thus the exodus could not have taken place prior to 1279 b.c., when Ramesses began to rule. Also, recently published re-liefsfromKarnakcombinewiththe“IsraelStela”inscriptiontosupportthelaterdate.Since the inscription designates Israel as a“people”insteadofalandorcountry,itmay be assumed Israel had only recently arrived in the area and not yet completely settled. Thus the exodus and conquest were thirteenth-century b.c. events.

Reevaluation of the archaeological evi-dence shows that archaeology cannot an-swer this question. Archaeology can, in fact, be used to argue for the earlier date.5 Singling out a definitive date for the exo-dus is currently impossible because of a lack of more complete information. Of course, we can still affirm the reality of the event, even if we do not know exactly when it occurred.

route of the ExodusThe third problem facing those who study Exodus is identifying the route the Isra-elites took after leaving Egypt and then traveling through the desert from Egypt to the promised land. Ramesses and Suc-coth (Ex 12:37) may be identified with some degree of confidence. But the other Egyptian place-names mentioned in the narrative are not clearly identifiable.6

The sea that has been known as the “RedSea”sincethedaysoftheSeptua-gint is actually the “Sea of Reeds” inHebrew. Presumably the body of water Israel miraculously crossed is one of the


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theophany freshwater lakes east of the Nile Delta where such reeds were found: Menzaleh, Ballah, Timsah, or the Bitter Lakes (some would add Lake Sirbonis to this list).7 The Red Sea’s Gulf of Suez probably should be ruled out, as may the gulf of aQaba, since these larger salt water bodies lack the reedy vegetation necessary to qualify themasthe“SeaofReeds.”8

Once across the sea and out of Egypt, there were three basic options for the Israelite trek across the Sinai Peninsula: northern, central, or southern routes.

Thenorthernroutewasalongthe“WayoftheSea,”aninternationalhighwaythatstretched from Egypt to Canaan along the Mediterranean coastline. The Bible referstothishighwayasthe“wayofthelandofthePhilistines”(Ex13:17).Thiswould have been the most direct route, though not the easiest. Archaeology has confirmed certain Egyptian inscriptions

that speak of a heavy Egyptian military presence along the highway, reaching from the Nile Delta all the way to Gaza. The Israelites, with God’s guidance, by-passed this dangerous northern route and took“theroundaboutwayofthewilder-nesstowardtheReedSea”(Ex13:18).Wemay assume this was a more southerly direction, taken to avoid military con-flict with the Egyptians. Unfortunately, weareunabletodiscernjustwhatthatroundabout way was. The locations of important places mentioned in the desert narratives are still uncertain—even the location of Mount Sinai.

The central route hypothesis locates Mount Sinai somewhere in northwest Saudi Arabia, beyond the Gulf of Aqaba. Some who hold this position believe the Bible’s references to the theophany at Sinai describe an active volcano (Ex 19:18; 24:17, etc.). Geological evidence points to

EvidenceFifteenth-Century Approach

Thirteenth-Century Approach

1) 1 Kings 6:1 480 years from exodus to the temple of Solomon

The numbers are taken seriously, and are literal.

The 480 years are ideal numbers and figurative.

2) Exodus 1:11 Israelites built the city of Ramesses, named for Pharaoh Ramesses of the thirteenth century.

The name “Ramesses” was also used prior to the thir-teenth century.

Since Ramesses came to power in 1279 B.c., the exodus could not have occurred prior to this time.

3) Judges 11:26 Jephthah refers to 300 years between his day (around 1100 B.c.) and the conquest of the promised land.

Jephthah was approxi-mately correct, placing the Transjordanian conquest around 1400 B.c.

Jephthah had no historical records, and was making a broad generalization.

4) Merneptah’s Stela The thirteenth-century pha-raoh mentioned “the people of Israel” as inhabitants of Palestine.

Since the pharaoh men-tioned them by name, the Israelites must have been there for an extended period of time. The thir-teenth-century approach does not provide enough time for Israel to become recognized by Egypt.

Other groups in the inscrip-tion are designated as terri-torial city-states. Only Israel is referred to as a people. Israel must have been a rela-tive newcomer to the area. The fifteenth-century date leaves too much time.

Dating the Exodus

Of the abundance of evidence cited in the debate, we include here only a selective list, along with the interpretation of each approach.


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The view from Jebel Musa (Mount of Moses), often identified as Mount Sinai.

volcanically active areas in Arabia at that time, while the mountains of the Sinai Peninsula were not. Also, the land of Mid-ian was located east of the Gulf of Aqaba. So when Moses fled Egypt, settled in Mid-ian, and eventually met God at Mount Sinai (Ex 3:1), a region in northwestern Arabia was intended.

However, the Bible’s description of God’s appearance at Sinai does not require an active volcano. Many theophanies of the Old Testament describe extraordinary phenomena, and Exodus 19:18 has other more plausible explanations. Moreover, Moses’ connection with the Midianites is inconclusive. The Bible relates him to a Midianite subtribe, the Kenites. This Midianite clan was not settled in a single area, but was nomadic, sometimes ap-pearing in the Sinai Peninsula.9 Few today would insist on the central route as the way taken by the Israelites.

Advocates of the southern route usually accept the identification of Mount Sinai with Jebel Musa (Mount of Moses), where today there is a monastery and a basilica

of St. Catherine. The identification of Jebel Musa with Mount Sinai dates to a Chris-tian tradition from the fourth century a.d. However, the rugged granite mountains of the Sinai Peninsula offer several other possibilities for the mountain of God: Ras Safsaf, Jebel Serbal, Jebel Katarina, or Jebel Sin Bisher.

The Israelites often gave names to places in the desert as they passed through the area. But without a continuous population in the region to carry on the traditional names, we are unable to identify locations precisely. Furthermore, the Israelites lived a nomadic lifestyle during these years in the desert. Their tents, animal-skin cloth-ing, and containers would leave behind few artifacts for modern archaeologists to discover. As a result, we have no specific information on the route, and are unlikely to acquire any soon. However, the tra-ditional, southern route answers more questions than the others. This is our best estimate of the direction the newly freed Israelite people took on their way to God’s promised land.


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Exodus

Theological Significance of the ExodusThe Book of Exodus and the events it de-scribes are of paramount importance in Christian theology. God sovereignly re-deemed his people from a life of bondage and bound himself to them in covenant relationship. This role of God became central for the rest of the Old Testament.

The exodus as salvation event was the formative beginning of the nation Israel, historically and theologically. Similarly, the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ was a parallel event of salvation, which was the formative beginning for thechurch.Jesusspokeofhis“departure”(Greek exodos) that he would accomplish on the cross (Lk 9:31).

DeliveranceThe theme of the first section of the book is deliverance (chapters 1–18). The people


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covenant

Torah

of God were languishing under the heavy bondage of the Egyptians. They had no leadership and no hope of escape. But God was moved by his grace and his ear-lier commitment to the patriarchs (2:24–25). He delivered his people by providing the necessary human leader, Moses. Through dramatic plagues, God demonstrated his sovereign control of nature and broke the Egyptian hold on Israel, freeing the nation to escape. The spectacular miracle at the Sea of Reeds was the ultimate act of de-liverance (chapters 14–15). The helpless Israelites were now free through no merit of their own; the Lord had become their salvation (15:2).

CovenantThe theme of the second section of Exodus is covenant (chapters 19–40). As we have seen, the patriarchal covenant provides the foundation for the covenant at Sinai. The Abrahamic covenant (Gn 15:7–21) an-ticipated the covenant of blood between Yahweh and Israel (Ex 24:3–8). Just as the Abrahamic covenant involved promises

of land and descendants, the Sinai cov-enant fulfills those promises partially and continues them (19:4–5).

However, the Sinai agreement added a new element to the covenant. Although God had demanded ethical behavior from Abraham (Gn 17:1), the details of living in relationship to God were not available to the Hebrew people in written form. The Sinai covenant was a public and specific statement of the demands of having a relationship with God, establishing clear and uplifting instruction (chapters 20–23). Though the covenantal promises are in a sense permanent and unconditional, the covenant itself requires faithful obedi-encetoGod:“YouhaveseenwhatIdidto the Egyptians. . . . Now therefore, if you obeymyvoiceandkeepmycovenant...”(19:4–5). The Sinai covenant placed God’s Torah(“law”),hisdivineinstruction,atthe very center of his relationship with Israel.

The Ten Commandments and the other commands of chapters 21–23 were a natu-ral part of the relationship between God

1. The Book of Exodus describes how God led Israel from Egypt through the desert to Mount Sinai.

2. The Passover was God’s method of commemorating the release of the Is-raelites from Egyptian bondage.

3. The Ten Commandments were the foundation of the Sinai covenant.

4. The tabernacle was the place where God dwelt in the midst of his people.

5. Scholars find three major historical problems with the Book of Exodus: the historicity of the exodus, the date of the exodus, and the route of the exodus.

6. The date of the exodus is placed by some scholars in the thirteenth cen-tury B.c. and by others in the fifteenth century B.c.

7. There are three possible routes for the exodus—the northern, central, and southern routes.

8. The life, death, and resurrection of Christ is a parallel event of salvation to the exodus of Israel.

9. The Book of Exodus is important theo-logically in terms of the way deliver-ance, covenant, and God’s presence are presented.

Summary


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Exodus

St. Catherine’s Monastery, Sinai, situated close to Jebel Musa, Mount of Moses.

and the Israelites. The terms of the cov-enant were a result of God’s grace and love for his people. He issued his laws for the nation after he had redeemed them and established his bond of intimate rela-tionship with them. The law served as a seal on that relationship. Throughout the Old Testament, law is a positive expres-sion of God’s will for his people.

Laws are a part of life, whether they are natural laws of the universe or divine laws prescribed by God. We should not break any of God’s laws any more than we would attempt to break the laws of na-ture. Trying to break the law of gravity, for example,byjumpingoffahighcliffonlyproves the law to be true and breaks in-steadthepersonwhojumps!SoitiswithGod’s laws. Breaking them only hurts us

andprovesthatGod’slawsarejustandtrue (Ps 19:7–10). On the other hand, obeying his law is the right response to God’s grace, not as a means of salvation, but as the response to salvation.

Presence of GodDeliverance and covenant—these are the themes of the two main sections of Exodus (chapters 1–18 and 19–40). But an emphasis on the presence of God runs throughout the whole book. The purpose of the exodus from Egypt and the cov-enant at Sinai, with its Law and taber-nacle, can be summarized in this way: God was preparing Israel for his arrival in their midst.

The patriarchal covenant had contained the promise of descendants and a land. An element of that Genesis land-promise was living in the presence of Yahweh. When the promise was confirmed to Abraham’s children, God assured them “Iam[orwillbe]withyou”(Gn26:3forIsaac; Gn 28:15 for Jacob). Joseph’s life illustrated the principle of living in God’s presence (Gn 39:2).

But at the beginning of Exodus, the land was not yet a reality and the descendants of Jacob were in danger of extinction. Even worse, the people were incapable of inheriting God’s land-promise because

Key PlacesMount SinaiGulf of Aqaba

Key TermsHebrews

casuistic lawtheophany

covenantTorah


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they were unprepared to live in the land. Life in the promised land also meant life in God’s presence.

The Israelites were not ready for life in God’s presence because they had not yet learned of his great character. This was one of the lessons of the plagues. They were unprepared to live under his lordship, as Exodus 32 demonstrates and as we shall see in the Book of Numbers. Consequently, they were also unprepared to inherit the promised land.

The book’s emphasis on the presence of God is related to the important reference in Exodus 3:14, where God gives Moses thename“Iam Who I am,”andexplainsfurther that Moses should tell the Isra-elites“Iamhassentmetoyou.”Thisisfollowed immediately by the assurance that“theLord[Yahweh],theGodofyourancestors,...hassentmetoyou”(3:15).The significance of God’s personal name of intimacy, Yahweh, is that he is the God who is there for Moses and the Israelites. Moses has asked God what to say if the reluctant Israelites want to know who sent him to Egypt to deliver them. Their request for a name is their way of asking, “Exactlywhat kind of God is the God of ourancestors?”(v.13).Inresponse,Godsaidtotellthem,“Iam(theGodwhois

thereforyou).”Itwouldbealongjour-ney. But Moses and the Israelites learned through the plagues and the exodus what kind of God Yahweh was (and is). He was a God who was present with them in their time of need and suffering. He was with them to deliver them mightily.

The exodus, in fact, marked Yahweh forever as the God who was present with Israel to deliver them. The statement that the patriarchs did not know God as Yah-weh (Ex 6:3) does not mean they were completely unfamiliar with the name (see Gn22:14,whereAbrahamused“Yah-weh”).ButafterMosesandtheIsraelites,the name is associated with the exodus and the Sinai covenant. He is the One who was with his people to redeem them and to mark them with his holy presence.

God’sdesirewasfora“priestlyking-domandaholynation”thathecouldin-dwell (Ex 19:6). The purpose for the exo-dus from Egypt was so God could dwell in the midst of his people. The coming of God’s glorious presence into the newly constructed tabernacle forms the climax of the Book of Exodus (40:34). Thus the tabernacle was the partial fulfillment of the patriarchal promise that God would be with the descendants of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Eventually the temple

1. What are the two main events in the Book of Exodus? What “beginning” is established in the book? What is the arrangement of the book?

2. What was the point of collision be-tween God and Moses?

3. What was the permanent commemo-ration of the Israelites’ release from captivity?

4. What were the two intended purposes of the plagues?

5. What was the anchor of the new Sinai covenant?

6. What was the purpose of the desert tabernacle?

7. What are the possible dates of the ex-odus? What is the evidence for each date?

8. What is the best estimate of the route followed by the Israelites after leaving Egypt?

9. What are the theological themes of the Book of Exodus? What other em-phasis runs throughout the book?

Study Questions


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Exodus

in Jerusalem would replace the tabernacle as the habitation of God’s glory. Likewise, Christcameto“tabernacle”amongus(Jn1:14; Heb 8:1–9:15). Now the Holy Spirit dwells within the church and has there-fore fulfilled the ultimate purpose for both tabernacle and temple.

At the conclusion of Exodus, God’s pa-triarchal promises are partially fulfilled. The descendants of Abraham are free and in covenant relationship with God. They are not yet living in the promised land. But they still have the promise, and at the end of the book they receive God’s presence. Exodus is about the salvation

and preparation of the Israelites for life in the land. The gift of God’s presence is a prefulfillment reality.

The miracle at the Sea of Reeds became the primary symbol of salvation in the Old Testament. Likewise, the Sinai cov-enant became the principal symbol of an enduring relationship with God. Together, the exodus and Sinai covenant constitute the central act of redemption in the Old Testament. Here, the promises of God and the acts of God met to save his people from their bondage. The exodus and Sinai events are thus as central for the Old Tes-tament as the cross is for the New.

Bimson, John J. Redating the Exodus and Conquest. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament—Supplement Series 5. Sheffield, JSOT, 1981.

Cassuto, Umberto. A Commentary on the Book of Exodus. Trans. Israel Abrams. Jerusalem: Magnes, 1967. Excellent treatment from a Jewish perspective.

Childs, Brevard S. The Book of Exodus: A Critical, Theological Commentary. Old Testament Library. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1974. Important literary and theological introduction to the book.

Cole, R. Alan. Exodus: An Introduction and Commentary. Tyndale Old Testament

Commentary. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity, 1973. Helpful evangelical introduction to all the issues in Exodus.

Durham, John I. Exodus. Word Biblical Commen tary 3. Waco, Tex.: Word, 1987.

Hoffmeier, James K. Ancient Israel in Sinai: The Evidence for the Authenticity of the Wilderness Tradition. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.

———. Israel in Egypt: The Evidence for the Authenticity of the Exodus Tradition. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.

Further reading


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