encouraging social presence and a sense of community in a virtual residential school
TRANSCRIPT
This article was downloaded by: [University of Central Florida]On: 30 November 2014, At: 16:00Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registeredoffice: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK
Open Learning: The Journal of Open,Distance and e-LearningPublication details, including instructions for authors andsubscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/copl20
Encouraging social presence anda sense of community in a virtualresidential schoolKathleen Robinson aa Psychology in the Faculty of Social Science , The OpenUniversity , Milton Keynes, UKPublished online: 07 May 2009.
To cite this article: Kathleen Robinson (2009) Encouraging social presence and a sense ofcommunity in a virtual residential school, Open Learning: The Journal of Open, Distance and e-Learning, 24:2, 127-139
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02680510902879460
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE
Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the“Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis,our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as tothe accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinionsand views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors,and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Contentshould not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sourcesof information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims,proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoeveror howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to orarising out of the use of the Content.
This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Anysubstantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing,systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms &Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
Open LearningVol. 24, No. 2, June 2009, 127–139
ISSN 0268-0513 print/ISSN 1469-9958 online© 2009 The Open UniversityDOI: 10.1080/02680510902879460http://www.informaworld.com
Encouraging social presence and a sense of community in a virtual residential school
Kathleen Robinson*
Psychology in the Faculty of Social Science, The Open University, Milton Keynes, UKTaylor and FrancisCOPL_A_388118.sgm10.1080/02680510902879460Open Learning0268-0513 (print)/1469-9958 (online)Original Article2009Taylor & Francis242000000June [email protected]
This study describes the theoretical rationale underpinning the design andimplementation of a career-related activity as an optional element of a virtualresidential school. The activity comprised an interview with a practising charteredpsychologist recorded as an MP3 audio file, which was subsequently supported byan asynchronous discussion held in a dedicated online forum. The impact of theactivity was assessed, based on the analysis of activity logs and the studentresponse to a post-course survey, together with the ethnographic data from thediscussion forum. The design of the activity and its value for enriching the studentexperience and encouraging social presence and a sense of community isdiscussed and shows that there were benefits from this approach.
Keywords: virtual residential school; social presence; community of practice;dialogic interaction; diversity
Introduction
Traditionally, distance learning tuition has depended on engaging the student in activelearning by embedding activities in the course readings, with feedback on the assess-ment task providing the opportunity for interaction with a tutor. Contact might besupplemented by occasional face-to-face meetings and, in some large distance learn-ing organisations, additional face-to-face meetings can be arranged so that the individ-ual student can access support services such as study skills and careers advice. Burt(1997), in a survey of the student experience of the face-to-face elements for 45 OpenUniversity distance learning courses, found that residential schools obtained the high-est rating for helpfulness, followed by day schools and tutorials and then regionalcontact. There is also evidence that, for the individual student, a face-to-face experi-ence can impact on broader educational goals:
It was the most life changing experience for me: I arrived alone and worried, but left aconfident and very happy person. (Residential school student, L203 Motive: Moving onin German)
However, uptake of these opportunities can be disappointing. Although the survey byBurt (1997) showed 93% attendance for compulsory residential schools, the range was23–63% for non-compulsory courses – suggesting that, for some students, there arebarriers or a lack of motivation for face-to-face contact. By adopting the tools andtechnologies of online learning, it is now possible to offer a choice between a virtual
*Email: [email protected]
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Uni
vers
ity o
f C
entr
al F
lori
da]
at 1
6:00
30
Nov
embe
r 20
14
128 K. Robinson
residential school (VRS) and a face-to-face residential experience. How to offer anequivalent enriching experience and effect social presence and a sense of communityonline are just some of the design challenges for a VRS. Informal online conversationswith students provide some information about their reasons for choosing the VRS.Some have caring or work commitments and others have cultural or personal reasonsfor not attending residential school. However, many share career aspirations. Thisstudy will describe how a career activity was embedded in the VRS as an optionalelement and explain the theoretical rationale for its implementation.
Online courses based on collaboration and discussion can attract some keencontributors, who become frustrated when they perceive a lull in the teaching andlearning conversations. Having optional activities that run in parallel increases thelikelihood of new discussion to engage such students each time they log on. In thisway, the diverse needs of students can be addressed. On the other hand, a consistenttheme in both tutor and student feedback on previous presentations of the courseincludes critical comment about the lack of participation by some students. Wegerif(1998) has stressed the importance of encouraging students to feel like insiders. Forthis reason, a new career focus was introduced for each year of the VRS (forensics in2006, counselling in 2007) so that students had some sense of an artefact providedspecifically for their course. The conversational style of the careers interview wasintentional and was meant to set a personal tone for the activity, with an emphasis ondialogue in which anyone could get involved.
A great deal has been written about the potential of online communities forenhancing the experience of students’ learning at a distance, which immediatelyraises the question of what we mean by community. Based on a survey of the use ofthe term in sociological studies, Hillery (1955) identified two broad factors; namely,locality and a sharing of common interests. In online learning, a sense of location isprovided by structuring the online forums to involve virtual seminar rooms, chat andsupport areas; membership of the community is granted by the organisation to anystudent enrolled on the course. However, a designated location and formally authen-ticated membership of a community do not automatically lead to a sense of belong-ing. Sarason (1974) emphasised the need for belonging as embodying a psychologicalsense of community, and the importance of dialogic interaction for developing asense of emotional connection. Other work with online learning environments hasshown a significant relationship between the frequency of student communicationand a sense of community (Dawson, 2006; Rovai, 2000). Thus, the vital importanceof dialogic interaction has been recognised by the implementation of teaching andfacilitation strategies such as icebreaker sessions to encourage social interaction(Salmon, 2003). By including optional elements such as a careers activity into theVRS it was expected that the overall breadth and amount of interaction wouldincrease, and thereby subtly develop the sense of belonging to a learning communityfor those students who take part.
Discussing the ethical relationships between instructor, learner and institution,Haughey (2007, p. 144) has drawn attention to ‘the responsibility of learners to becommunal as well as committed to personal cognitive goals’, and advises that educa-tors should provide conditions that encourage communication. Educators also have aresponsibility to promote critical enquiry. Based on their experience with asynchro-nous computer conferencing, Garrison and Anderson (2003) proposed a model, thecommunity of inquiry, which emphasises the importance of interactions of a socialnature, social presence, for supporting the discourse of online learning communities
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Uni
vers
ity o
f C
entr
al F
lori
da]
at 1
6:00
30
Nov
embe
r 20
14
Open Learning 129
and, therefore, their cognitive purpose. They defined social presence as ‘the ability oflearners to project themselves socially and emotionally in a community of inquiry’(Rourke, Anderson, Garrison, & Archer, 1999, p. 2). They developed a data collectiontemplate for the analysis of forum scripts that is based on the identification of threecategories of social discourse; namely, emotional expression, open communicationand group cohesion (Rourke et al., 1999). In a study that used this template to measuresocial presence, Stacey (2002) demonstrated how, by acting as a role model for goodonline interaction and social presence, the teacher/facilitator can enhance online groupcohesiveness; a finding that is relevant for the design of the career activity.
The majority of the students engage with the VRS because the course offered is acompulsory element for those seeking Graduate Basis for Recognition of the BritishPsychology Society. Students require Graduate Basis for Recognition in order to beable to enrol for postgraduate programmes leading to chartered status (e.g. forensic,counselling, educational, clinical, sport). Therefore, one pedagogical aim is to moti-vate students by situating them in the wider context of psychology as a profession.Brown, Collins, and Duguid (1989) emphasise the value of providing students with aglimpse of an authentic environment. Lave and Wenger (1991), describing theirconcepts of legitimate peripheral participation in a community of practice, proposedthat a novice gradually develops to feel part of a community of practice and that asthey do so they become more engaged. A career-related activity should, therefore,increase motivation and embed ongoing knowledge and skills acquisition into a possi-ble career context. Although many communities of practice are organic in the way inwhich they form naturally (Wenger, 1998), there are situations when there is a needto nurture their development (Wenger, McDermot, & Snyder, 2002) – an aspect thatinfluenced the design of the career activity, including the decision to employ a guestprofessional as a discussant. In this study, student involvement and impression of thecareer activity was assessed in a number of ways, including the analysis of activitylogs and ethnographic data in the discussion forums, as well as conducting a post-course survey. The evaluation of the design and implementation of the career activityas an optional element in a VRS is based on this evidence.
The activity
The activity comprises an interview with a practising professional, recorded as anaudio file; the interviewee subsequently hosts an online asynchronous discussion withstudents. The choice of technology, an audio file made available on the course websitesupported by a dedicated asynchronous discussion forum, was influenced by a numberof factors. Since distance students engage with the VRS alongside their work, domes-tic and social commitments flexibility is paramount. The career audio files can bedownloaded from the course website on demand. The files can then be saved onto MP3players or a personal computer, which means that students can opt into the activity andhave the flexibility of listening to a career interview whenever and wherever they wish.
The audio files and forum
Each audio file was produced professionally in a soundproof recording laboratoryusing high-quality recording equipment under the direction of a media editor. Theinterview format was agreed beforehand and provided structure for the interviewee’saccount of personal experience, insights, conclusions and reflections about their
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Uni
vers
ity o
f C
entr
al F
lori
da]
at 1
6:00
30
Nov
embe
r 20
14
130 K. Robinson
chosen professional route as a psychologist. The final length of the interview waslimited to 12–14 minutes. The technology is compatible with the asynchronous designfor the course discussion forums. A transcript of the interview was provided so thatany student with impaired hearing was not excluded from the activity.
The audio files were placed on the course website as follows:
● 2006: Interview with a forensic psychologist working in the prison service(14.4 MB MP3 audio file).
● 2007: Interview with a psychologist who had undertaken postgraduate trainingin counselling. Both a 5.6 MB MP3 audio file and a 14.4 MB MP3 audio filewere made available.
Each interviewee, the guest professional, hosted an online asynchronous discussionover a 10- to 14-day period in a dedicated forum area embedded within the othercourse forums. The discussion took place after the submission of the end of courseassessment and was open to all students enrolled on the VRS.
The virtual residential school course
The VRS, a psychology project course (second level), has a mandatory requirementthat each student regularly contributes to online discussions and that they collaboratewith three to seven other students to design and carry through a psychology project.The online computer-mediated course discussion is mostly asynchronous using FirstClass, although a live chat (instant messaging) function is available. The VRS lasts for12 weeks; students are expected to spend at least five hours online per week. The VRSusually enrols 600–700 students who are then organised into sites of 45–55 partici-pants. During the first three weeks of preparatory activities the students are randomlydivided and sub-divided into smaller groups at each site so they have an opportunityto get to know each other, before forming into small groups (four to seven students)for project work. At the same time they can mingle with students from other sites inthe help forum, optional activities and chat forums, and, therefore, gain a sense of anoverall community of colleagues all engaged in a similar task.
Methods
Evidence about student engagement and experience was collected from three sources:
(1) Activity logs. The functionality of the First Class software allows detailed anal-ysis of student activity, including which students started and then continued amessage thread and who read each message and when they did so. Similarly,the Moodle platform for the virtual learning environment provided logs as towhich students downloaded the audio file from the course website and whenthey did so.
(2) Ethnographic evidence from the career forum. Online courses provide a richopportunity for ethnographical data and, therefore, there were ethical decisionsto be made about its use. However, the author’s name was familiar in the teach-ing, support and optional forums so that students were aware that messageswere being read. The social presence template as described by Rourke et al.(1999) was applied to the content of student messages for both the 2006 and
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Uni
vers
ity o
f C
entr
al F
lori
da]
at 1
6:00
30
Nov
embe
r 20
14
Open Learning 131
2007 career forums. In addition, a summary was made of any value statementsmade by students and also the contribution of the professional.
(3) Survey. All students who enrolled on the course in 2007 were surveyed. Thiscohort had the opportunity to take part in the counselling forum and they alsohad access to the forensic audio file and a summary of the discussion held bystudents in 2006. The survey was conducted online and took place three weeksafter the cut-off date for the end-of-course assessment, therefore shortly afterthe career forum closed for discussion. There were 15 survey questions (threeopen questions) and 88 items in total. Sixteen items were relevant to the anal-ysis of the career activity (see Appendix 1). Two hundred and fifty-sixstudents completed the survey, which represents approximately 48% ofstudents who completed the course.
The following questions were then addressed in order to assess the impact of thecareer activity:
● Did the students engage with the activity?● How did the students engage with the activity?● Did the students value the activity?● Did the activity impact on the student experience of the course?● Was there evidence of social presence in the career activity forums?
Did the students engage with the activity?
Although the presentation of the course is limited to 12 weeks, the website and theonline discussion forums remain available for reading during a further seven months.Therefore, the activity logs were inspected for the period December 2006–December2007.
(1) Accessing the interview from the course website: ● 103 students downloaded the 2006 forensic psychology careers activity, to
which both the 2006 (approximately 600) and 2007 (approximately 650)students had access.
● 77 students downloaded the 2007 counselling careers activity; in this case,only 2007 (approximately 650) students had access.
(2) Engagement with the course discussion: ● There were 14 active discussants in the forensic forum (2006), with approx-
imately 80 students reading each message whilst the discussion took place.● There were nine active discussants in the counselling forum (2007), with
approximately 30 students reading each message whilst the discussion tookplace.
(3) Accessing other career-related resources made available in the forum (2007only): ● 80 students accessed this information.
How did the students engage with the activity?
(1) They shared career-related experience with each other as follows. Interestingly,all the aspects of the conversation listed below were common to both the
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Uni
vers
ity o
f C
entr
al F
lori
da]
at 1
6:00
30
Nov
embe
r 20
14
132 K. Robinson
forensic and the counselling forums, despite the fact that a different guestprofessional hosted each and a different cohort of students had access: ● Disappointments such as failure to get a training placement.● Personal accounts of voluntary experience.● Motivations; for example, interest for one student had been stimulated by a
traumatic personal experience with an offender.● Educational experience (e.g. progress on the psychology programme).● Useful careers-related information.
(2) They presented several direct questions to the guest professional, some ofwhich acted as a trigger for a wider discussion. For example, some weremature students and they were keen to find out about potential age barriers toa chartered career progression. An extract below illustrates how age came upas a topic throughout the forensic discussion. There is a strong possibility thatthe humorous reference to age made by the guest professional (the inter-viewee) may have facilitated the emergence of this theme, which elicited somepersonal and affective disclosures and the use of emotional indicators, therebyraising the index of overall social presence.
From the forensic interview:
Interviewer: Can you tell us how you came to start in the prison service, and as a foren-sic psychologist in fact?
Interviewee: To be honest, it was a complete accident. I am one of those people who at52 is still trying to decide what I want to do when I grow up.
From the discussion forum (real names have been replaced by fictitious names):
Student A: I found the audio very interesting having heard an insightful perceptionfrom a psychologist. I particularly struck a chord with the bit about beingaged 52 and still figuring it out!
Student B: I am currently working in a Business environment and I am forty three yearsold so by the time I finish my degree I will be forty eight and wanting tochange my very well paid career. Competition will no doubt be fierce soI may end up with no alternative than doing voluntary work. Do you thinkthere will be any scope for mentoring within the prison service or otherinstitutions?
Student C: I am 45 and would like to know if my age would be considered and advan-tage or a disadvantage when considering a new career.
Student D: I recently tried to apply for the counselling psychology degree with … inLondon and it was suggested that I try again when I am a bit older! So nowbeing 26 is another hurdle??? He he he … it’s never ending!
Student E: On the bright side Rita, it is obviously not like some careers where you areconsidered too old if you’re over 22 – that gives hope to a lot of us I’m sure:0) Freda< 30 and suddenly not so worried!
As a result of the questions posed and ensuing discussion in the forums, the guestprofessional in each year was able to weave into the discussion the following advice:
● An honest appraisal of opportunity balanced by advice on how to prepare forcompetition for placements. This was both realistic yet supportive of ambitions.
● Described the key competencies required by employers and repeatedly empha-sised the importance for applicants of linking voluntary and academic experi-ence to justify claims for competence.
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Uni
vers
ity o
f C
entr
al F
lori
da]
at 1
6:00
30
Nov
embe
r 20
14
Open Learning 133
● Outspoken opinion about disadvantages as well as the advantages of the profes-sional pathway
Did the students value the activity?
Comments on the activity made in each dedicated discussion forum were all positiveand included the descriptors listed below; interestingly, the same positive descriptorswere used by each of the two cohorts of students.
● Interview: � Interesting� Helpful� Illuminating� Interesting but not personally relevant
● Discussion: � Invaluable� Useful� Inspirational
Did the activity impact on the student experience of the course?
One of the survey items asked whether the student had engaged with the career activ-ity. Sixty-six students responded in the affirmative whilst 188 did not. Another surveyquestion, about the student experience on the course, contained 15 items covering awide range of questions (see Appendix 1). Responses were recorded using a six-pointLikert scale from strongly agree (one) to strongly disagree (five), with the sixth cate-gory for ‘don’t know’ responses.
The mean levels of agreement with each of the items in the survey question aboutthe individual student’s experience on the course are shown in Figure 1. An indepen-dent t-test was carried for each item and the results are presented in Table 1. Applyinga significance level of p < 0.05, four items of the student experience were rated morepositively by students who had engaged with the careers activity:
(1) ‘Overall the online activities that took place during the first four weeks wereappropriate preparation for the project work.’
(2) ‘Overall I was satisfied with my study experience on the virtual residentialschool.’
(3) ‘Overall I valued the opportunity to engage in an intensive student experience’(4) ‘Overall I gained some useful information that is relevant to my long term
plans.’
It could be argued that with such a large number of t-tests at least one of these resultscould arise by chance. Therefore, a similar analysis was carried out to compare theexperience of students who had engaged with another optional activity, the courseblog, and those who had not. In that analysis, three items resulted in p < 0.05:
(1) ‘Overall I now have a greater sense of belonging to the Open University’(2) ‘Overall I gained some useful skills from working online’
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Uni
vers
ity o
f C
entr
al F
lori
da]
at 1
6:00
30
Nov
embe
r 20
14
134 K. Robinson
(3) ‘Overall if I was making the choice between the Residential School and theVirtual Residential course I would choose the Virtual Residential course again’
Only one of these is in common with the analysis of student experience based on thecareer activity, thereby indicating some confidence in the analysis method.Figure 1. Study experience.
�
���
�
���
�
���
�
���
�� �� � � �� �� � �� �� �� �� �� �� �� ��
������ ��� ��� � ����� ��
�������������������
����������
����������������
���������
������� ��� �� � � ���� ��� ����� �������
������� ��� � ��� �� � � ���� ��� ����� �������
Figure 1. Study experience.
Table 1. Comparison between the experience and satisfaction ratings of students engagingwith the careers activity and those who did not.
Survey item
Mean difference Group 1 (did engage) – Group 2 (did not engage) t value
Degrees of freedom
Significance (two-tailed)
q1a −1.78 −1.024 253 0.308q1b 0.37 0.209 252 0.835q1c 0.184 1.108 253 0.270q1d −0.301 −2.345 252 0.020q1e −0.201 −1.345 252 0.181q1f −0.167 −1.008 251 0.316q1g −0.270 −1.462 251 0.146q1h −0.122 −1.063 252 0.290q1i −0.249 −1.454 252 0.149q1j −0.369 −2.013 253 0.046q1k −0.417 −2.636 251 0.009q1l −0.287 −1.716 251 0.089q1m −0.360 −2.124 252 0.036q1q −0.011 −0.086 250 0.931q1r −0.064 −.291 251 0.772
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Uni
vers
ity o
f C
entr
al F
lori
da]
at 1
6:00
30
Nov
embe
r 20
14
Open Learning 135
Was there evidence of social presence in the career activity forums?
The results from applying the social presence template to the student discussion in eachof the career forums are presented in Table 2. As suggested by Rourke et al. (1999),the overall social presence density was calculated for each forum by dividing the totalnumber of instances recorded by the total number of words contributed by the students.By multiplying by 1000, this value can be represented as the number of indicators ofsocial presence per 1000 words. This gave a value of 43.9 instances per 1000 wordsof student contribution for the forensic forum and 34.8 per 1000 words for the coun-selling forum. The aggregate social presence density was higher for the forensic forum;however, this lasted five days longer than the counselling forum. There are 12 itemson the index; Figure 2 provides a comparison between the two forums of the social
Table 2. Assessment of social presence.
Category Social presence indicatorsForensic
forum, 2006Counselling forum, 2007
Affective Expression of emotions 46 13Use of humour 1 0Self-disclosure 20 9
Interactive Continuing a thread 23 14Quoting from messages 0 0Referring to others’ messages 15 8Asking questions 25 9Complimenting, appreciative 4 4Expressing agreement 2 1
Cohesive Vocatives 12 11Using inclusive pronouns 8 6Phatics, salutations 3 2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
emote
humour
self-disclosure
quote
refer
reply
question
agree
compliment
vocative
group
phatic
soci
al p
rese
nce
den
sity
Forensic Counselling
Figure 2. Social presence in the career activity forums.
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Uni
vers
ity o
f C
entr
al F
lori
da]
at 1
6:00
30
Nov
embe
r 20
14
136 K. Robinson
presence density for each item. There were more questions posed in the forensic forum;however, this may be due to the fact that the forum took place over a longer period.The main differences were in the amount of emotional expression (higher in the forensicforum) and use of vocatives (higher in the counselling forum); apart from this, the socialpresence profile of each forum was similar.Figure 2. Social presence in the career activity forums.
Discussion
Attending residential school allows the distance learning student to indulge in a fullcampus experience, including interaction with staff and with peer students, access toenrichment activities, learning support, careers advice and social time, all integratedin time and space. A tentative conclusion from this study is that the careers activitywas an aspect that provided a different yet equivalent experience of campus life forstudents following the VRS, and that some students valued the opportunity and bene-fited from it. There are additional costs, both monetary and in terms of course teamtime, involved in providing optional activities. However, the evidence indicates thatthe proportion of students taking advantage of the careers activity and the value placedon it by those taking part leads to a favourable cost/benefit analysis. The successfulreuse of elements of the activity is an added bonus. Student comments suggest thatthey benefited from the opportunity to share knowledge, experience, aspirations anddisappointments and that there were advantages to doing so collectively with otherstudents, some of whom they already knew through sharing a common learning andsupport environment.
The choice of technologies for the career activity, an audio file supported by anasynchronous discussion forum, took into account the disadvantages, such asconstraints on study time, experienced by many students who study at a distance. Anaudio file can be viewed as a variant of mobile learning (Kukulska-Hulme and Traxler,2005). Students can listen whilst engaged in other cognitively light activities, and italso provides an opportunity for repeated listening. There are other advantages. Wengeret al. (2002) emphasised the importance of aliveness for sustaining a community ofpractice. The use of audio brings voice to an otherwise text-based environment andwas a powerful way of conveying the enthusiasm and excitement of the guest profes-sional. The advice and comment of the media editor was another valued part of thedevelopment, helping us to achieve a professional yet engaging artefact for students.
However, audio files do not allow for student interaction, so combining it with anonline asynchronous discussion session, held in a dedicated forum, should encouragestudents to take ownership of the activity. The students did self-organise into acommunity, sharing aspirations and circumstances as well as experience and knowl-edge, and, as such, met the core criteria for a community of practice (Wenger, 1998).Wenger (1998) recognised that an expert can be important for legitimising a commu-nity of practice but stressed the need to place the expert within the community. Theinformal nature of both interview and discussion was deliberate in its intention tofoster the sense of the expert as an insider. However, subtle manipulation of the inter-view dialogue allowed interview content to both function as a spark for the onlinediscussion whilst also indicating boundaries. Instead of the guest professional impos-ing advice, it arose naturally in response to the questions and discussions of thestudents. It was striking that thematic analysis of the advice contributed by each careerprofessional was so similar. The functionality of the CMC software made it possibleto widen the scope of information and advice available by providing links to other
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Uni
vers
ity o
f C
entr
al F
lori
da]
at 1
6:00
30
Nov
embe
r 20
14
Open Learning 137
career sites and relevant sources of information. The activity logs and feedback fromstudents show that a significant proportion of students accessed these links.
Anderson and Simpson (2007) suggest that educators have a responsibility toconsider the effect of broadening the range of perspectives and ideas that onlinedistance students can access. Should educators be manipulating course design todirectly modify the student interaction and experience? No-one involved was a careersspecialist, therefore advice was sought from specialist colleagues and students werealso linked to formal institutional provision. At the same time, the informal nature ofthe provision was emphasised to students. The analysis of the information and adviceprovided by the guest psychologist indicates that there is no conflict with any of theformal institutional careers advice.
Did the activity enhance the students’ overall experience on the course? Is thereany evidence that the activity did engender a sense of belonging to a community forthe individual student? Although Eisenhart (2001) has questioned an approach tovirtual ethnography that relies on traditional ethnographic practice for the purpose ofassessing the usefulness and effectiveness of the careers activity, we have adoptedLuttrell’s idea of ‘good enough’ as opposed to ideal evidence. This involves acceptingthat the text as written in the forums and the survey responses may not represent thestudent reality (Luttrell, 2000). Although there is scant evidence from the survey thatthe career activity impacted on the specific course learning objectives, there isevidence that it did enhance the more general goal of the course as an enriching expe-rience. The analysis of social presence indicates that most of the elements identifiedby Rourke et al. (1999) were consistently present in the contributions. However, theactivity logs show that many more students were listening without contributing, andthe survey data indicate that these students benefited from the careers activity –although the estimation of social presence by student contributions does not take thesestudents into account. Future work on social presence could usefully focus on suchstudents, who are often referred to as lurkers in the e-learning literature. Seventy-threeper cent of the students who responded to the survey request did not take up the oppor-tunity to engage with the career activity. In a diverse cohort there are many reasonsfor this, including lack of confidence or time. However, there are a number of studentswho do not perceive the need to be communal in collaborative learning environments,as evidenced by one comment collected during the course survey:
No, I didn’t want to engage with the online community – for me, that is not a desiredoutcome for courses which contribute towards the qualification which I am workingtowards.
Such feedback reminds us that, in the context of the individual student, the main moti-vation for enrolling on a course is usually closely linked with a cognitive goal andwith the accreditation process. Therefore, good design for these goals is paramountwhilst at the same time encouraging students to reflect on the potential of the socialand emotional aspects of learning with others for improving critical enquiry.
AcknowledgementsThe author would like to thank Dr Kay Bromley, a staff tutor with The Open University UKFaculty of Maths, Computing and Technology, for her patient and helpful advice on an earlierversion of this article, and also for the commitment of the guest professionals who took part inthis activity.
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Uni
vers
ity o
f C
entr
al F
lori
da]
at 1
6:00
30
Nov
embe
r 20
14
138 K. Robinson
ReferencesAnderson, B., & Simpson, M. (2007). Ethical issues in online education. Open Learning: The
Journal of Open & Distance Learning, 22(2), 129–138.Brown, J.S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning.
Educational Research, 18, 32–42.Burt, G. (1997). Face to face with distance education. Open and distance education statistics.
Milton Keynes, UK: The Open University Archive.Dawson, S. (2006). A study of the relationship between student communication interaction
and sense of community. Internet and Higher Education, 9, 153–162.Eisenhart, M. (2001). Educational ethnography past, present, and future. Ideas to think with.
Educational Researcher, 30(8), 16–27Garrison, D.R., & Anderson, T. (2003). e-Learning in the 21st century. London: Routledge-
Falmer.Haughey, D.J. (2007). Ethical relationships between instructor, learner and institution. Open
Learning: The Journal of Open & Distance Learning, 22(2), 139–147.Hillery, G. (1955). Definitions of community: Areas of agreement. Rural Sociology, 20(2),
111–123.Kukulska-Hulme, A., & Traxler, J. (2005). Mobile learning; A handbook for educators and
trainers. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation.
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Luttrell, W. (2000). ‘Good enough’ methods for ethnographic research. Harvard Educational
Review, 70(4), 499–523.Rourke, L., Anderson, T., Garrison, D.R., & Archer, W. (1999) Assessing social presence in
asynchronous text-based computer conferencing. The Journal of Distance Education,14(2), 50–71.
Rovai, A.P. (2000). Development of an instrument to measure classroom community. Internetand Higher Education, 5(3), 197–211.
Salmon, G. (2003). e-Moderating: The key to teaching and learning online (2nd ed.). London:Kogan Page.
Sarason, S. (1974). The psychological sense of community: Prospects for a communitypsychology. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Stacey, E. (2002). Social presence online: Networking learners at a distance. Education andInformation Technologies, 7(4), 287–294.
Wegerif, R. (1998). The social dimension of asynchronous learning networks. Journal ofAsynchronous Learning Networks, 2(1), 34–49. Retrieved March 18, 2009, from http://www.sloan-c.org/publications/jaln/v2n1/pdf/v2n1_wegerif.pdf
Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning as a social system. Systems Thinker,9(5). Retrieved October 3, 2008, from http://www.co-i-l.com/coil/knowledge-garden/cop/lss.shtml
Wenger, E.C., McDermott, R., & Snyder, W.C. (2002). Cultivating communities of practice:A guide to managing knowledge. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Uni
vers
ity o
f C
entr
al F
lori
da]
at 1
6:00
30
Nov
embe
r 20
14
Open Learning 139
Appendix 1. Survey items used in the analysis of student experience and satisfactionQ9 Did you engage with any of the following activities?
Q9.3 Careers interviews (MP3 files on the course website) and discussion.
Q1 Your study experience 1a ‘Overall the workload on the Virtual Residential School was higher than expected.’1b ‘Overall the amount of interaction with other students was higher than expected.’1c ‘Overall the pacing of the study program was faster than expected.’1d ‘Overall the online activities that took place during the first four weeks were appropriate
preparation for the project work.’1e ‘Overall I was satisfied with how the online preparatory activities were facilitated by the
tutor team.’1f ‘Overall I was satisfied with how the project work was facilitated by the project team.’1g ‘Overall I have gained academically from working with other students.’1h ‘Overall I was satisfied with the printed course material.’1i ‘Overall I now have a greater sense of belonging to the Open University.’1j ‘Overall I was satisfied with my study experience on the Virtual Residential School.’1k ‘Overall I valued the opportunity to engage in an intensive student experience.1l ‘Overall I gained some useful skills from working online.’1m ‘Overall I gained some useful information that is relevant to my long term plans.’1q ‘Overall the facility to access a complete textual record of all discussions advantaged
my learning.’1r ‘Overall if I was making a choice between the Residential School or the Virtual Residentialcourse I would choose the Virtual Residential course again.’
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Uni
vers
ity o
f C
entr
al F
lori
da]
at 1
6:00
30
Nov
embe
r 20
14