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ENCYCLOPEDIA ofSOLID EARTHGEOPHYSICS

Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF SOLID EARTH GEOPHYSICS

Volume EditorHarsh K. Gupta currently holds the prestigious Panikkar Professorship at the National Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI), Council of Scientific& Industrial Research (CSIR), Hyderabad, India. Pursuing a luminous career in a variety of aspects of the Earth Sciences for over four decades, he isglobally known for providing the first geophysical evidence of an enormously thick crust below the Himalaya and Tibet Plateau region, identifyingthe common characteristics of artificial water reservoir triggered earthquakes and discriminating them from normal earthquakes, setting up India’sfirst permanent station at Antarctica in a record time, and in the recent years, spearheading the designing and commissioning of the TsunamiWarningSystem for India, after the disastrous tsunami caused by the 26th December 2004 Sumatra earthquake. He has published over 200 papers and written4 pioneering books, published by Elsevier.

Editorial BoardKusumita AroraNational Geophysical Research InstituteCouncil of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)Uppal RoadHyderabad 500 606India

Anny CazenaveLaboratoire d’Etudes en Géophysique etOcéanographie Spatiales (LEGOS)Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales18 Avenue Edouard Belin31401 Toulouse Cedex 4France

Eric Robert EngdahlCenter for Imaging the Earth’s InteriorDepartment of PhysicsUniversity of Colorado at BoulderCampus Box 390 UCBBoulder, CO 80309-0390USA

Rainer KindHelmholtz Centre PotsdamGFZ German Research Centre for GeosciencesSection 2.4, SeismologyTelegrafenberg A314473 PotsdamGermany

Ajay ManglikNational Geophysical Research InstituteCouncil of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)Uppal RoadHyderabad 500 606India

Sukanta RoyNational Geophysical Research InstituteCouncil of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)Uppal RoadHyderabad 500 606India

Kalachand SainNational Geophysical Research InstituteCouncil of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)Uppal RoadHyderabad 500 606India

Seiya UyedaJapan Academy7-32, Ueno ParkTaito-ku, Tokyo 110-0007Japan

Aims of the SeriesThe Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series provides comprehensive and authoritative coverage of all the main areas in the Earth Sciences. Eachvolume comprises a focused and carefully chosen collection of contributions from leading names in the subject, with copious illustrations andreference lists.

These books represent one of the world’s leading resources for the Earth Sciences community. Previous volumes are being updated and newworks published so that the volumes will continue to be essential reading for all professional earth scientists, geologists, geophysicists, climatolo-gists, and oceanographers as well as for teachers and students. See the dustjacket of this volume for a current list of titles in the Encyclopedia of EarthSciences Series. Go to http://www.springerlink.com/reference-works/ to visit the “Earth Sciences Series” online.

About the Series EditorProfessor Charles W. Finkl has edited and/or contributed to more than eight volumes in the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. For the past 25years he has been the Executive Director of the Coastal Education &Research Foundation and Editor-in-Chief of the international Journal of CoastalResearch. In addition to these duties, he is Research Professor at Florida Atlantic University in Boca Raton, Florida, USA. He is a graduate of theUniversity of Western Australia (Perth) and previously worked for a wholly owned Australian subsidiary of the International Nickel Company ofCanada (INCO). During his career, he acquired field experience in Australia; the Caribbean; South America; SW Pacific islands; southern Africa;Western Europe; and the Pacific Northwest, Midwest, and Southeast USA.

Founding Series EditorProfessor Rhodes W. Fairbridge (deceased) has edited more than 24 Encyclopedias in the Earth Sciences Series. During his career he has worked asa petroleum geologist in theMiddle East, been aWW II intelligence officer in the SWPacific and led expeditions to the Sahara, Arctic Canada, ArcticScandinavia, Brazil and New Guinea. He was Emeritus Professor of Geology at Columbia University and was affiliated with the Goddard Institutefor Space Studies.

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EARTH SCIENCES SERIES

ENCYCLOPEDIA ofSOLID EARTHGEOPHYSICS

edited by

HARSH K. GUPTANational Geophysical Research Institute

Council of Scientific and Industrial ResearchHyderabad

India

Library of Congress Control Number: 2011924208

ISBN: 978-90-481-8701-0This publication is available also as:Electronic publication under ISBN 978-90-481-8702-7 andPrint and electronic bundle under ISBN 978-90-481-8732-4

Published by SpringerP.O. Box 17, 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands

The original Encyclopedia of Solid Earth Geophysics was compiled by David E. James, and was first published in theEncyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series in 1989.

Printed on acid-free paper

Cover figure credit: Mineral Physics Institute at Stony Brook University, illustration by Keelin Murphy

Every effort has been made to contact the copyright holders of the figures and tables which have been reproducedfrom other sources. Anyone who has not been properly credited is requested to contact the publishers, so that dueacknowledgment may be made in subsequent editions.

All Rights Reserved for Contributions on Gravity, Data to Anomalies; Gravity, Global Models; Instrumentation,Electrical Resistivity; Spherical Harmonic Analysis Applied to Potential Fields© Springer Science þ Business Media B.V. 2011

No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means,electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from thePublisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed ona computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work.

Contents

Contributors xiii

Preface xxxv

Acknowledgments xxxvii

Absolute Age Determinations: Radiometric 1Richard W. Carlson

Archaeomagnetism 8Donald H. Tarling

Archaeoseismology 11Klaus-Günter Hinzen

Artificial Water Reservoir Triggered Earthquakes 15Harsh K. Gupta

Biogeophysics 25Lee Slater and Estella Atekwana

Body Waves 29Mahmoud Mohamed Selim Saleh

Characteristic Earthquakes and Seismic Gaps 37David D. Jackson and Yan Y. Kagan

Continental Drift 40Alan G. Smith

Continental Rifts 41A. M. Celâl Şengör

Core Dynamo 55Ulrich R. Christensen

Core-Mantle Coupling 64Paul H. Roberts and Jonathan M. Aurnou

Crustal Reflectivity (Oceanic) and Magma Chamber 78Satish C. Singh

Curie Temperature 89Vincenzo Pasquale

Deep Scientific Drilling 91Ulrich Harms and Harold J. Tobin

Deep Seismic Reflection and Refraction Profiling 103Kabir Roy Chowdhury

Differential Rotation of the Earth’s Inner Core 118Xiaodong Song

Earth Rotation 123Harald Schuh and Sigrid Böhm

Earth Tides 129John M. Wahr

Earth, Density Distribution 133Frank D. Stacey and Paul M. Davis

Earth’s Structure, Core 137Lianxing Wen

Earth’s Structure, Continental Crust 138Rolf Meissner and Hartmut Kern

Earth’s Structure, Global 144Jean-Paul Montagner

Earth’s Structure, Lower Mantle 154Edward J. Garnero, Allen K. McNamara andJames A. Tyburczy

Earth’s Structure, Upper Mantle 159Guust Nolet

Earthquake Lights 165John S. Derr, France St-Laurent,Friedemann T. Freund and Robert Thériault

Earthquake Precursors and Prediction 168Seiya Uyeda, Toshiyasu Nagao andMasashi Kamogawa

Earthquake Prediction, M8 Algorithm 178Alik Ismail-Zadeh and Vladimir Kossobokov

Earthquake Rupture: Inverse Problem 182Shamita Das

Earthquake Sounds 188Andrew J. Michael

Earthquake, Aftershocks 192Mian Liu and Seth Stein

Earthquake, Focal Mechanism 194Emile A. Okal

Earthquake, Foreshocks 199Mian Liu

Earthquake, Location Techniques 201Clifford H. Thurber

Earthquake, Magnitude 207Peter Bormann

Earthquakes and Crustal Deformation 218Robert McCaffrey

Earthquakes, Early and Strong Motion Warning 226Richard M. Allen

Earthquakes, Energy 233Domenico Di Giacomo and Peter Bormann

Earthquakes, Intensity 237Gottfried Grünthal

Earthquakes, PAGER 243David J. Wald

Earthquakes, Shake Map 245David J. Wald

Earthquakes, Source Theory 248Raul Madariaga

Earthquakes, Strong-Ground Motion 252Giuliano F. Panza, Cristina La Mura,Fabio Romanelli and Franco Vaccari

Earthquakes, Volcanogenic 261J. W. Neuberg

Electrical Properties of Rocks 270Takashi Yoshino

Electrical Resistivity Surveys and DataInterpretation 276

Meng Heng Loke

Electronic Geophysical Year 283William K. Peterson, Daniel N. Baker,C. E. Barton, Peter Fox, M. A. Parsons andEmily A. CoBabe-Ammann

Energy Budget of the Earth 285Jean-Claude Mareschal and Claude Jaupart

Energy Partitioning of Seismic Waves 291Kalachand Sain

Equatorial Electrojet 294Archana Bhattacharyya

Fractals and Chaos 297Vijay P. Dimri, Ravi P. Srivastava andNimisha Vedanti

Free Oscillations of the Earth 302Sarva Jit Singh and Sunita Rani

Geodesy, Figure of the Earth 313Kusumita Arora

Geodesy, Ground Positioning and Leveling 316Stelios P. Mertikas

Geodesy, Networks and Reference Systems 323Hayo Hase

Geodesy, Physical 331V. Chakravarthi

Geodetic Pendulums, Horizontal UltraBroad Band 336

Carla Braitenberg

Geodynamics 340Alessandro M. Forte

Geoelectromagnetism 341Antal Ádám and László Szarka

Geoid 353Paramesh Banerjee

Geoid Determination, Theory and Principles 356Michael G. Sideris

vi CONTENTS

Geoid Undulation, Interpretation 362Petr Vaníček

Geoid, Computational Method 366Michael G. Sideris

Geomagnetic Excursions 371Martha Schwartz

Geomagnetic Field, Global Pattern 373Susan Macmillan

Geomagnetic Field, IGRF 379Aude Chambodut

Geomagnetic Field, Measurement Techniques 381Mioara Mandea and Anca Isac

Geomagnetic Field, Polarity Reversals 386Carlo Laj

Geomagnetic Field, Secular Variation 394Monika Korte

Geomagnetic Field, Theory 394Friedrich H. Busse

Geophysical Well Logging 401Miroslav Kobr

Geothermal Heat Pumps 411Ladislaus Rybach

Geothermal Record of Climate Change 415Michael G. Davis, David S. Chapman andRobert N. Harris

GPS, Data Acquisition and Analysis 420Carine Bruyninx, Wim Aerts and Juliette Legrand

GPS, Tectonic Geodesy 431Jeffrey T. Freymueller

Gravimeters 449Andrew Hugill

Gravity Anomalies, Interpretation 456Mikhail K. Kaban

Gravity Data, Advanced Processing 461Christopher J. Swain and Jonathan F. Kirby

Gravity Data, Regional – Residual Separation 466Kumarendra Mallick, Anthwar Vasanthi andKrishna Kant Sharma

Gravity Field of the Earth 471Christopher Jekeli

Gravity Field, Temporal Variations from SpaceTechniques 484

Anny Cazenave, G. Ramillien andRichard Biancale

Gravity Field, Time Variations from SurfaceMeasurements 489

Virendra M. Tiwari and Jacques Hinderer

Gravity Measurements, Absolute 494Mark A. Zumberge

Gravity Method, Airborne 497Uwe Meyer

Gravity Method, Principles 500Hans-Jürgen Götze

Gravity Method, Satellite 504Georges Balmino

Gravity Method, Surface 513Dinesh Chandra Mishra and Virendra M. Tiwari

Gravity Modeling, Theory and Computation 518Jean-Pierre Barriot and Lydie Sichoix

Gravity, Data to Anomalies 524Ron Hackney

Gravity, Global Models 533Nikolaos K. Pavlis

Gravity, Gradiometry 547Christopher Jekeli

Great Earthquakes 561Roger M. W. Musson

Heat Flow Measurements, Continental 569John H. Sass and Graeme Beardsmore

Heat Flow, Continental 573Paul Morgan

Heat Flow, Seafloor: Methods and Observations 582Earl E. Davis and Andrew T. Fisher

Impact Craters on Earth 593Richard A. F. Grieve and Gordon R. Osinski

Instrumentation, Electrical Resistivity 599Meng H. Loke, Jonathan E. Chambers andOliver Kuras

Instrumentation, EM 604Steven Constable

CONTENTS vii

International Geophysical Year 608Ralph W. Baird

International Gravity Formula 611Hans-Jürgen Götze

International Polar Year 2007–2008 612David J. Carlson

International Year of Planet Earth 614Eduardo F. J. de Mulder and Wolfgang Eder

Inverse Theory, Artificial Neural Networks 618William A. Sandham and David J. Hamilton

Inverse Theory, Global Optimization 625Mrinal K. Sen and Paul L. Stoffa

Inverse Theory, Linear 632Pravin K. Gupta

Inverse Theory, Monte Carlo Method 639Malcolm Sambridge and Kerry Gallagher

Inverse Theory, Singular Value Decomposition 645Ajay Manglik

Isostasy 647Anthony B. Watts

Isostasy, Thermal 662David S. Chapman and Derrick Hasterok

Legal Continental Shelf 669Ray Wood, Stuart A. Henrys, Vaughan Stagpoole,Bryan Davy and Ian Wright

Lithosphere, Continental 675David E. James

Lithosphere, Continental: Thermal Structure 681Claude Jaupart and Jean-Claude Mareschal

Lithosphere, Mechanical Properties 693Evgueni Burov

Lithosphere, Oceanic 701James McClain

Lithosphere, Oceanic: Thermal Structure 709Earl E. Davis and David S. Chapman

Magnetic Anisotropy 717Leonardo Sagnotti

Magnetic Anomalies, Interpretation 729Erwan Thébault

Magnetic Data Enhancements and DepthEstimation 736

Clive Foss

Magnetic Domains 746Susan L. Halgedahl

Magnetic Gradiometry 758Harald von der Osten-Woldenburg

Magnetic Methods, Airborne 761Mike Dentith

Magnetic Methods, Principles 767Kusumita Arora

Magnetic Methods, Satellite 771Dhananjay Ravat

Magnetic Methods, Surface 774Nandini Nagarajan

Magnetic Modeling, Theory and Computation 781Mioara Mandea, Carmen Gaina and Vincent Lesur

Magnetic Storms and Electromagnetic Pulsations 792Gurbax S. Lakhina and Bruce T. Tsurutani

Magnetic, Global Anomaly Map 796Kumar Hemant Singh

Magnetometers 810Ivan Hrvoic

Magnetotelluric Data Processing 816Gary Egbert

Magnetotelluric Interpretation 822John F. Hermance

Magnetovariation Studies 830Nandini Nagarajan

Mantle Convection 832David Bercovici

Mantle D00 Layer 851Thorne Lay

Mantle Plumes 857Cinzia G. Farnetani and Albrecht W. Hofmann

Mantle Viscosity 869W. R. Peltier

Numerical Methods, Boundary Element 877Michele Cooke

viii CONTENTS

Numerical Methods, Domain Decomposition 879Alfio Quarteroni and Luca Formaggia

Numerical Methods, Finite Difference 883Johan O. A. Robertsson and Joakim O. Blanch

Numerical Methods, Finite Element 892J. N. Reddy

Numerical Methods, Multigrid 895Wim A. Mulder

Ocean Bottom Seismics 901Ingo A. Pecher, Jörg Bialas and Ernst R. Flueh

Ocean, Spreading Centre 908K. S. Krishna

Oceanic Intraplate Deformation: The CentralIndian Ocean Basin 913

D. Gopala Rao and D. A. Bhaskara Rao

Paleomagnetic Field Intensity 919Andrew Biggin, Neil Suttie and John Shaw

Paleomagnetism, Magnetostratigraphy 925Donald R. Prothero

Paleomagnetism, Measurement Techniques andInstrumentation 933

Tallavajhala Radhakrishna and J. D. A. Piper

Paleomagnetism, Polar Wander 945Jean Besse, Vincent Courtillot and Marianne Greff

Paleomagnetism, Principles 955William Lowrie

Paleoseismology 964Shinji Toda

Plate Driving Forces 977Alessandro M. Forte

Plate Motions in Time: Inferences on Driving andResisting Forces 983

Giampiero Iaffaldano and Hans-Peter Bunge

Plate Tectonics, Precambrian 991Y. J. Bhaskar Rao and E. V. S. S. K. Babu

Plates and Paleoreconstructions 998Alan G. Smith

Poroelasticity 1003Ran Bachrach

Propagation of Elastic Waves: Fundamentals 1006Francisco J. Sánchez-Sesma and UrsulaIturrarán-Viveros

Radioactivity in Earth’s Core 1013V. Rama Murthy

Radiogenic Heat Production of Rocks 1018Christoph Clauser

Remanent Magnetism 1024Laurie Brown and Suzanne McEnroe

Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques for TectonicStudies 1030

Semere Solomon and Woldai Ghebreab

Remote Sensing, Applications to Geophysics 1035Hojjatollah Ranjbar

SAR Interferometry 1041Masato Furuya

Satellite Laser Ranging 1049David Coulot, Florent Deleflie,Pascal Bonnefond, Pierre Exertier, Olivier Laurainand Bertrand de Saint-Jean

Seafloor Spreading 1055Richard N. Hey

Sedimentary Basins 1059Magdalena Scheck-Wenderoth

Seismic Anisotropy 1070Thorsten W. Becker

Seismic Data Acquisition and Processing 1081Kabir Roy Chowdhury

Seismic Diffraction 1097Enru Liu

Seismic Discontinuities in the Transition Zone 1102Lev P. Vinnik

Seismic Hazard 1107Andrzej Kijko

Seismic Imaging, Overview 1121Gerard T. Schuster

Seismic Instrumentation 1134Duncan Carr Agnew

Seismic Microzonation 1140Fumio Yamazaki and Yoshihisa Maruyama

CONTENTS ix

Seismic Monitoring of Nuclear Explosions 1144Paul G. Richards and Wu Zhongliang

Seismic Noise 1157Dhananjay Kumar and Imtiaz Ahmed

Seismic Phase Names: IASPEI Standard 1162Dmitry A. Storchak, Johannes Schweitzer andPeter Bormann

Seismic Properties of Rocks 1173Nikolas I. Christensen

Seismic Quiescence and Activation 1178Gennady Sobolev

Seismic Seiches 1184Art McGarr

Seismic Signals in Well Observations:Pre, Co, Post 1185

R. K. Chadha

Seismic Structure at Mid-Ocean Ridges 1190Donald W. Forsyth

Seismic Tomography 1195Guust Nolet

Seismic Velocity-Density Relationships 1198Kalachand Sain

Seismic Velocity-Temperature Relationships 1199Kalachand Sain

Seismic Wave Propagation in Real Media:Numerical Modeling Approaches 1200

Ursula Iturrarán-Viveros andFrancisco J. Sánchez-Sesma

Seismic Waves, Scattering 1210Ludovic Margerin

Seismic Zonation 1224Yanxiang Yu, Mengtan Gao and Guangyin Xu

Seismic, Ambient Noise Correlation 1230Michel Campillo, Philippe Roux andNikolai M. Shapiro

Seismic, Migration 1236Samuel H. Gray

Seismic, Ray Theory 1244Vlastislav Červený and Ivan Pšenčík

Seismic, Receiver Function Technique 1258Rainer Kind and Xiaohui Yuan

Seismic, Reflectivity Method 1269Mrinal K. Sen

Seismic, Viscoelastic Attenuation 1279Vernon F. Cormier

Seismic, Waveform Modeling and Tomography 1290Yanghua Wang

Seismicity, Intraplate 1301Paul Bodin

Seismicity, Subduction Zone 1305Akira Hasegawa

Seismogram Interpretation 1315Ota Kulhanek and Leif Persson

Seismological Networks 1324Eric Robert Engdahl and István Bondár

Seismology, Global Earthquake Model 1334Peter Suhadolc

Seismology, Monitoring of CTBT 1340Wu Zhongliang and Paul G. Richards

Seismology, Rotational 1344William H. K. Lee

Shear-Wave Splitting: New Geophysics andEarthquake Stress-Forecasting 1355

Stuart Crampin

Single and Multichannel Seismics 1366Tamás Tóth

Slow Earthquake 1374Teruyuki Kato

Spherical Harmonic Analysis Applied toPotential Fields 1382

Nikolaos K. Pavlis

Statistical Seismology 1392David A. Rhoades

Subduction Zones 1395Geoffrey A. Abers

Surface Waves 1406Barbara Romanowicz

T Waves 1421Emile A. Okal

x CONTENTS

Thermal Storage and Transport Properties ofRocks, I: Heat Capacity and Latent Heat 1423

Christoph Clauser

Thermal Storage and Transport Properties ofRocks, II: Thermal Conductivityand Diffusivity 1431

Christoph Clauser

Time Reversal in Seismology 1449Carène Larmat and Clarence S. Clay

Traveltime Tomography Using Controlled-SourceSeismic Data 1453

Colin A. Zelt

Tsunami 1473Steven N. Ward

Tsunami: Bay of Bengal 1493Vineet Gahalaut

Tsunami Watch and Warning Centers 1498Shailesh R. Nayak and Srinivasa Kumar Tummala

Vertical Seismic Profiling 1507James W. Rector, III and Maria-Daphne Mangriotis

Very Long Baseline Interferometry 1509Helmut Wiesemeyer and Axel Nothnagel

Wavelet Analysis 1517Mikhail Kulesh

Author Index 1525

Subject Index 1527

CONTENTS xi