encyclopedia of snow, ice and glaciers
TRANSCRIPT
University of DaytoneCommons
Geology Faculty Publications Department of Geology
2011
Encyclopedia of Snow, Ice and GlaciersVijay P. SinghTexas A & M University - College Station
Pratap Singh
Umesh K. HaritashyaUniversity of Dayton, [email protected]
Follow this and additional works at: http://ecommons.udayton.edu/geo_fac_pub
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eCommons CitationSingh, Vijay P.; Singh, Pratap; and Haritashya, Umesh K., "Encyclopedia of Snow, Ice and Glaciers" (2011). Geology FacultyPublications. Paper 7.http://ecommons.udayton.edu/geo_fac_pub/7
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EARTH SCIENCES SERIES
ENCYCLOPEDIA ofSNOW, ICE AND
GLACIERS
edited by
VIJAY P. SINGHTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas
USA
PRATAP SINGHNew Delhi
India
UMESH K. HARITASHYAUniversity of Dayton
Dayton, OhioUSA
Contents
Contributors xxi
Preface xli
Acknowledgments xliii
Guide to the Reader xlv
Ablation Depression 1Lasafam Iturrizaga
Ablatometer 3Rijan B. Kayastha
Acidity of Glacier Ice 3Cunde Xiao
Active Ice Wedge 4Pratima Pandey
Adfreeze 4Pratima Pandey
Aerial Photogrammetry for Glacial Monitoring 4Martin Kappas
Alaskan Glaciers 16Bruce F. Molnia
Albedo 23Thomas C. Grenfell
Alps 35Martin Beniston
Altai-Sayan Glaciers 38Vladimir Aizen
Anabatic Winds: In Relation withSnow/Glacier Basin 39
Umesh K. Haritashya, Vijay P. Singh andPratap Singh
Anchor Ice 40D. P. Dobhal
Andean Glaciers 40Mathias Vuille
Anisotropic Ice Flow 44Olivier Gagliardini
Antarctica 45Rasik Ravindra and Arun Chaturvedi
Anti-Icing 54Rijan B. Kayastha
Anti-Syngenetic Ice Wedge 54Pratima Pandey
Appalachian Glacier Complex in Maritime Canada 54Rudolph R. Stea
Arctic Hydroclimatology 58Jessica Ellen Cherry
Artificial Ground Freezing 61Rijan B. Kayastha
Artificial Production of Snow 61Carmen de Jong
Atmosphere-Snow/Ice Interactions 66Timo Vihma
Atmospheric Circulation and GlaciochemicalRecords 75
Shichang Kang
Automated Glacier Mapping 76Frank Paul
Basal Sediment Evacuation by SubglacialDrainage Systems 85
Darrel A. Swift
Base Flow/Groundwater Flow 90Debasmita Misra, Ronald P. Daanen andAnita M. Thompson
Bed (Bottom) Topography 93Vijay Kumar
Bed Forms (Fluvial) 93Vijay Kumar
Bed Roughness 94Vijay Kumar
Bed Strength 94Vijay Kumar
Benchmark Glacier 95Tobias Bolch
Biogeochemistry of Sea Ice 98David N. Thomas
Blue Ice 102Richard Bintanja
Bottom Melting or Undermelt (Ice Shelf) 103Ashok Kumar Verma
Brash Ice 103Chelamallu Hariprasad
Calving Glaciers 105Charles R. Warren
Canadian Rockies and Coast Mountainsof Canada 106
John J. Clague, Brian Menounos andRoger Wheate
Cascade Mountains, USA 111Rijan B. Kayastha
Cascade System 112Rijan B. Kayastha
Catastrophic Flooding 112Fiona Tweed
Catastrophic Rock Slope Failures and MountainGlaciers 113
Kenneth Hewitt, John J. Clague and Philip Deline
Catchment Glacier 127D. P. Dobhal
Caucasus Mountains 127Chris R. Stokes
Characteristics of Snow and Glacier Fed Riversin Mountainous Regions with SpecialReference to Himalayan Basins 128
Akhouri Pramod Krishna
Chemical Composition of Snow, Ice, and Glaciers 133Amanda M. Grannas
Chemical and Microbe Records in Snow and Ice 135Liu Yongqin
Chemical Processes in Snow and Ice 138Amanda M. Grannas
Circulation and Mixing in Ice-Covered Lakes 139Lars Bengtsson
Cirque Glaciers 141Øyvind Paasche
Climate Change and Glaciers 145Arun B. Shrestha
Climate Variability and High AltitudeTemperature and Precipitation 153
Mathias Vuille
Cloudburst 156Vijay Kumar
Cohesion 157P. Pradeep Kumar
Cold-Based Glaciers 157Reginald D. Lorrain and Sean J. Fitzsimons
Condensation Nuclei 161P. Pradeep Kumar
Confluence of Rivers 161Anju Chaudhary
Congelation Ice 163Pratima Pandey
Crack 163Pratima Pandey
viii CONTENTS
Creep 163Christophe Lambiel, Reynald Delaloye andIsabelle Gärtner-Roer
Crevasses 165C. J. van der Veen
Critical Temperature 168Pratima Pandey
Crush 168Pratima Pandey
Crust 168Pratima Pandey
Cryoconite 168Nozomu Takeuchi
Cryodessication 171P. Pradeep Kumar
Cryofront 171P. Pradeep Kumar
Cryogenesis 171P. Pradeep Kumar
Cryogenic Aquiclude 171P. Pradeep Kumar
Cryogenic Fabric 172P. Pradeep Kumar
Cryolithology 172P. Pradeep Kumar
Cryopeg 172P. Pradeep Kumar
Cryosol 172P. Pradeep Kumar
Cryostatic Pressure 173Pratima Pandey
Cryostructure 173Pratima Pandey
Cryoturbation 173P. Pradeep Kumar
Dating Glacial Landforms 175Jason P. Briner
Dead Ice 186D. P. Dobhal
Debris 186Tobias Bolch
Debris Thermal Properties and Impact onIce Ablation 188
Ryohei Suzuki
Debris-Covered Glaciers 190Martin P. Kirkbride
Deglaciation 192Vinvent Rinterknecht
Degree-Days 196Roger J. Braithwaite
Depletion of Snow Cover 200Sanjay K. Jain
Deposition from Debris-Rich Ice 201Gulab Singh and Farjana S. Birajdar
Digital Elevation Model Generation OverGlacierized Region 202
Thierry Toutin
Digital Image Information Extraction Techniquesfor Snow Cover Mapping from RemoteSensing Data 213
Manoj K. Arora, Aparna Shukla andRavi P. Gupta
Direct Surface Runoff 232Lars Bengtsson
Discharge/Streamflow 234Debasmita Misra, Ronald P. Daanen andAnita M. Thompson
Distributary Channels 236Anju Chaudhary
Diurnal Cycle of Runoff 237Darrel A. Swift
Diverging Ice Flow 239Gulab Singh and Farjana S. Birajdar
Drift Glacier/Ice/Snow 240Gulab Singh and Farjana S. Birajdar
Dry and Wet Snow Line/Zone 240Ravi P. Gupta
Dry Snow 241Ravi P. Gupta
CONTENTS ix
Dye Tracer Investigations of Glacier Hydrology 242Peter Nienow
Dynamics of Glaciers 245Hester Jiskoot
Elongation Ratio 257Vijay Kumar
Englacial Conduit 257D. P. Dobhal
Englacial Processes 258Andrew G. Fountain
Environmental Isotopes 261Bhishm Kumar
Epigenetic Ice 262Chelamallu Hariprasad
Epiglacial Morphology 262Claudio Smiraglia and Guglielmina Diolaiuti
Equilibrium-Line Altitude (ELA) 268Jostein Bakke and Atle Nesje
Erosion of Hard Rock Bed 277D. P. Dobhal
Erosion Rate 277Subhajit Sinha
Estimation of Glacier Volume and VolumeChange by Scaling Methods 278
David B. Bahr
Estuary Ice Cover 281Brian Morse
Fast Ice 289D. P. Dobhal
Finger Rafting 289Dominic Vella and John Wettlaufer
Firn 290Rachel W. Obbard, Ian Baker andRachel W. Lomonaco
Fjords 293Umesh K. Haritashya, Vijay P. Singh andPratap Singh
Foliation 296Gulab Singh
Forbes Band 296Gulab Singh
Formation and Deformation of Basal Ice 297Simon J. Cook
Frazil 300Gulab Singh
Freezing Bottom (Ice Shelf) 300Gulab Singh
Freezing Meltwater 301Gulab Singh and F. S. Birajdar
Freezing and Thawing Index 301Jiang Fengqing and Zhang Yanwei
Frequency Analysis of Snow Storms 302Stanley A. Changnon
Fresh Water Storage 303Pratima Pandey
Frictional Melting 303Pratima Pandey
Frost 303Alan W. Rempel
Frozen Soil Hydrology 306Ronald P. Daanen, Debasmita Misra andAnita M. Thompson
Frozen Toe (Outer Zone of Glacier Snout) 311Pratima Pandey
Gelisols 313Divya Dudeja
Geochemistry of Snow and Ice 313Tandong Yao, Yongqin Liu, Huabiao Zhao andWusheng Yu
Geocryology 324Amit Kumar
GIS in Glaciology 325Jacob Napieralski
Glacial Drainage Characteristics 328Richard A. Marston
Glacial Ecosystems 330Nozomu Takeuchi
Glacial Erosion 332Ping Fu and Jonathan Harbor
x CONTENTS
Glacial Erratic 341D. P. Dobhal
Glacial Geomorphology and Landforms Evolution 341Alan R. Gillespie
Glacial Grooves 358D. P. Dobhal
Glacial Overdeepening 358Christopher Lloyd
Glacial Striations 359D. P. Dobhal
Glacial Trough 359D. P. Dobhal
Glacial/Interglacial Cycles 359Michel Crucifix
Glaciation During Times of Enhanced/ReducedAtmospheric Carbon Dioxide 366
Andrew B. G. Bush
Glaciations and Groundwater Flow Systems 372Jean-Michel Lemieux and Edward A. Sudicky
Glacier 376D. P. Dobhal
Glacier Bird of the Andes 377Douglas R. Hardy and Spencer P. Hardy
Glacier Cave 377Monohar Arora
Glacier Field Studies: Important Things to Notice 378John F. Shroder
Glacier Hydrology 379Pratap Singh
Glacier Lake Outburst Floods 381Lasafam Iturrizaga
Glacier Mass Balance 399Wilfried Haeberli
Glacier Motion/Ice Velocity 408Terry Hughes
Glacier Pothole 414Rajesh Kumar
Glacier Sliding 415Rajesh Kumar
Glacier Surging 415Hester Jiskoot
Glacier System 428Rajesh Kumar
Glacier Toe 429Rajesh Kumar
Glaciers of the Karakoram Himalaya 429Kenneth Hewitt
Glacieret 436Rajesh Kumar
Glacierization 436Rajesh Kumar
Glacioeustasy 436Amit Kumar
Glaciofluvial 437Rajesh Kumar
Glaciogenic Deposits 437Rajesh Kumar
Glaciohydraulic Supercooling 438Fiona Tweed
Glacioisostasy 439Amit Kumar
Glaciolacustrine 440Himali Panthri
Glaciology 440Peter G. Knight
Glaciomarine 443Amit Kumar
Glaciostatic Pressure/Stress 443Divya Dudeja
Glaciotectonic Structures, Landforms,and Processes 444
James S. Aber and Andrzej Ber
Global Climate Modeling in CryosphericAssessment 458
Jeffrey Ridley
Global Outlook of Snowcover, Sea Ice,and Glaciers 461
Mauri Pelto
CONTENTS xi
Global Warming and its Effect onSnow/Ice/Glaciers 468
Stephen J. Déry
GPS in Glaciology, Applications 471Matt A. King
GRACE in Glaciology 474John Wahr
Granulometry 477Amit Kumar
Gravel Sheet 477Amit Kumar
Gravitational Mass Movement Deposits 477D. P. Dobhal
Gravity Flow (Mass Flow) 477Rajesh Kumar
Gray-White Ice 478Chelamallu Hariprasad
Greenland Glaciers Outside the Ice Sheet 478Jacob C. Yde
Greenland Ice Sheet 484Poul Christoffersen
Ground Ice 489D. P. Dobhal
Ground Penetrating Radar MeasurementsOver Glaciers 490
David C. Nobes
Heat and Mass Transfer in Sea Ice 505Daniel J. Pringle
High Elevation Glacio-Climatology 507Vladimir Aizen
Himalaya 510John F. Shroder
Himalayan Glaciers in 2010 and 2035 520J. Graham Cogley
Hindu Kush 523John F. Shroder
Holocene Glacier Fluctuations 525Johannes Koch
Horizontal Component of Ablation 529Rijan B. Kayastha
Horizontal Component of Velocity 530Rijan B. Kayastha
Hummocks (Peat) 530Subhajit Sinha
Hydrochemical Characteristics of Snow, Ice, andGlaciers 530
Jacob Clement Yde
Hydrogen Isotopes 533Bhishm Kumar
Hydrographs 534Ian C. Willis
Hydrologic Cycle and Snow 538Ronald P. Daanen, Debasmita Misra andAnita M. Thompson
Hydrological Response in Glacierized Basins 541Ian C. Willis
Hydrology of Jökulhlaups 544Fiona Tweed
Hydropower: Hydroelectric Power Generationfrom Alpine Glacier Melt 546
Mauri S. Pelto
Hypsometry 551Andrés Rivera, Fiona Cawkwell, Camilo Rada andClaudio Bravo
Hysteresis 554Vijay Kumar
Ice 557Yoshinori Furukawa
Ice Age 560Matthias Kuhle
Ice Age Cycles: Data, Models, and Uncertainties 565Donald Rapp
Ice Age Development Theory 576Matthias Kuhle
Ice Apron 581Mahendra R. Bhutiyani
Ice Caps 582Mahendra R. Bhutiyani
Ice Caves 583Mahendra R. Bhutiyani
xii CONTENTS
Ice Core 584Nancy A. N. Bertler
Ice Covered Lakes 589Lars Bengtsson
Ice Dams 590Mahendra R. Bhutiyani
Ice Sheet 592Alastair G. C. Graham
Ice Sheet Mass Balance 608Eric Rignot
Ice Shelf 613Adrian Jenkins
Ice-Cored Moraines 616Sven Lukas
Ice-Dammed Lakes 619Fiona Tweed
Ice-Marginal Deposition 621Mahendra R. Bhutiyani
Ice-Marginal Processes 623Matthew R. Bennett
Ice-Volcano Interactions 625Hugh Tuffen
Icefall 628Mahendra R. Bhutiyani
Iceland Glaciers 630Oddur Sigurðsson
ICESat Data in Glaciological Studies 636Thomas A. Neumann, H. J. Zwally andBob E. Schutz
Icicle 640P. Pradeep Kumar
Icing 640P. Pradeep Kumar
Impacts of Snow and Glaciers on Runoff 640Sarah Boon
Interception of Snow 646Manmohan Kumar Goel
Interflow 647Manmohan Kumar Goel
International Polar Year 2007–2008 647Ian Allison
Interstitial Ice 649P. Pradeep Kumar
Intrusive Ice 649Chelamallu Hariprasad
Inventory of Glaciers 650Frank Paul
Inverse Methods in Glaciology 653G. Hilmar Gudmundsson
Inversion Layers 656Mahendra R. Bhutiyani
Inverted Cup Depth Hoar Crystals 656Mahendra R. Bhutiyani
Irreducible Water 657Mahendra R. Bhutiyani
Isotope Analysis 657Tandong Yao, Wusheng Yu, Huabiao Zhao andYongqin Liu
Isotopic Characteristics of Ice, Snow, and Glaciers 665Bhism Kumar
Isotopic Fractionation of Freezing Water 668Martyn Tranter
Isotopic Signatures 669Bhishm Kumar
Kame and Kettle Topography 671Amit Kumar
Katabatic Wind: In Relation With Snowand Glaciers 671
Amit Kumar
Kilimanjaro 672Douglas R. Hardy
Kunlun Mountains 679Jingshi Liu
Lake Ellsworth 683John Woodward, Martin J. Siegert,Andy M. Smith and Neil Ross
Lake Ice 686Rajesh Kumar
CONTENTS xiii
Lake Vostok 687Malte Thoma
Laminated Sediments 690Rajesh Kumar
Landforms of Glacial Deposition 690John F. Shroder
Landforms of Glacial Erosion 692John F. Shroder
Landforms of Glacial Transportation 693John F. Shroder
Landscapes of Glacial Erosion 694Martin P. Kirkbride
Last Glacial Maximum Glaciation (LGM/LGP)in High Asia (Tibet and Surrounding Mountains) 697
Matthias Kuhle
Latent Heat of Condensation 702Prem Datt
Latent Heat of Fusion/Freezing 703Prem Datt
Latent Heat of Sublimation 703Prem Datt
Latent Heat of Vaporization/Condensation 703Prem Datt
Lateroglacial 704Lasafam Iturrizaga
Lateroglacial Landform Systems 704Lasafam Iturrizaga
Laurentide Ice Sheet 708John T. Andrews
Layering of Snow 713Rajesh Kumar
LIDAR in Glaciology 713Michael N. Demuth
Little Ice Age 722Rajesh Kumar
Lobe 722Rajesh Kumar
Mapping of Internal Glacial Layers 723David A. Braaten
Marginal Channel (Lateral Meltwater Channel) 724Amit Kumar
Marginal Ice Zones 724Rajesh Kumar
Marine Glaciers 725Rajesh Kumar
Marine Ice Sheet 725Rajesh Kumar
Mechanical Weathering 725Rajesh Kumar
Median Elevation of Glaciers 726D. P. Dobhal
Mediterranean Glaciers and Glaciation 726Philip D. Hughes
Melt Runoff Modeling 730Pratap Singh
Melting Processes 733Luke Copland
Meltwater Channels 735Cliff Atkins
Meltwater Conduit 738D. P. Dobhal
Meltwater Erosion 738Rajesh Kumar
Meltwater Pressure 739Rajesh Kumar
Meltwater Storage 739Pratap Singh
Microorganisms Associated with Glaciers 741Vanya I. Miteva
Monitoring and Warning Systems 744Markus Konz
Monsoonal Records Observed fromSnow/Ice/Glacier 746
Shichang Kang
Moraine 747Anders Schomacker
Moulins 756Umesh K. Haritashya, Vijay P. Singh andPratap Singh
xiv CONTENTS
Mount Everest 756Rijan B. Kayastha
Mount Kenya 758William C. Mahaney
Mountain Geomorphology 761David R. Butler
Natural Hazards Associated with Glaciers andPermafrost 763
Andreas Kääb
Negative Temperature Gradient (in Ice) 775Rajesh Kumar
Neoglaciation 775Rajesh Kumar
Network of Stakes 775Pratap Singh
New Zealand Glaciers 775Wendy Lawson
Niche Glacier 779D. P. Dobhal
Normalized-Difference Snow Index (NDSI) 779Dorothy K. Hall and George A. Riggs
Novaya Zemlya 781Chris R. Stokes
Nye (N) Channels 781D. P. Dobhal
Ogives 783Divya Dudeja
Optical Remote Sensing of Alpine Glaciers 783Duncan J. Quincey and Michael P. Bishop
Orographic Precipitation 794Justin R. Minder and Gerard H. Roe
Outlet Glacier 799Monohar Arora
Overburden Pressure 799Prem Datt
Oxygen Isotopes 799Bhishm Kumar
Palaeo Glaciofluvial Sediment Systems 801Norm R. Catto
Palaeo-Channel 803Vijay Kumar
Palaeo-Ice Stream 803Chris R. Stokes
Palaeoclimate and Past Glaciations 808Philip D. Hughes
Palaeohydrology 812Vijay Kumar
Pamirs 813Vladimir Aizen
Pancake Ice 815Chelamallu Hariprasad
Papua 815Ian Allison
Paraglacial Landscape Transformations 817Lasafam Iturrizaga
Patagonia 824Stephan Harrison
Paternoster Lakes 826Umesh K. Haritashya, Vijay P. Singh andPratap Singh
Peak Flood Glacier Discharge 827Monohar Arora
Percolation Zone 827Prem Datt
Perennially Frozen Ground 827Monohar Arora
Periglacial 827H. M. French
Permacrete 841Ashok Kumar Verma
Permafrost 841Yuri Shur, M. Torre Jorgenson andM. Z. Kanevskiy
Permafrost on Asteroids 848William C. Mahaney
Permafrost and Climate Interactions 852Sharon L. Smith and Margo M. Burgess
Permafrost Modeling 858Daniel Riseborough
CONTENTS xv
Permanent/Perpetual Snow Line 859Monohar Arora
Physical Properties of Snow 859Florent Domine
Piedmont Glaciers 863Monohar Arora
Pingo 863Himali Panthri
Plastic Deformation 864A. K. Singh
Plastic Flow 864A. K. Singh
Pleistocene Epoch 865Amit Kumar
Plucking 865Amit Kumar
Polythermal Glaciers 865Neil F. Glasser
Precipitation 867Donna F. Tucker
Proglacial Lakes 870Brenda L. Hall
Quaternary Glaciation 873Jürgen Ehlers and Philip Gibbard
Radar Application in Snow, Ice, and Glaciers 883G. Venkataraman and Gulab Singh
Radiative Transfer Modeling 903Jie Cheng and Shunlin Liang
Radioactive Fallout 913Bhishm Kumar
Radioactive Isotopes 913Bhishm Kumar
Radioactivity 914Bhishm Kumar
Rain-Induced Snowmelt 915Delphis F. Levia and Daniel J. Leathers
Ram Resistance 917Prem Datt
Rating Curve 918Ian C. Willis
Recession Coefficient 922Manmohan Kumar Goel
Recession of Discharge 922Manoj K. Jain
Reconstruction of the Last Glaciations in theWhole of Asia 924
Matthias Kuhle
Recrystallization of Ice 932Ashok Kumar Verma
Refreezing of Meltwater 932Ashok Kumar Verma
Regelation 933Ashok Kumar Verma
Remobilization (of Debris) 933Renoj J. Thayyen
Resedimentation 933Subhajit Sinha
Retreat/Advance of Glaciers 934Luke Copland
Rime Ice 939Renoj J. Thayyen
River Ice Hydrology 939Hung Tao Shen
Roche Moutonnees 942Himali Panthri
Rock Glaciers 943John R. Giardino, Netra R. Regmi andJohn D. Vitek
Rocky Mountains 948Eric M. Leonard
Röthlisberger (R)-Channels 952Renoj J. Thayyen
Runoff Coefficient 952Manmohan Kumar Goel
Runoff Generation 953Anita M. Thompson, Debasmita Misra andRonald P. Daanen
xvi CONTENTS
Runoff Observations 955Anita M. Thompson, Debasmita Misra andRonald P. Daanen
Runout Distance 957A. K. Singh
Salinity 959C. K. Jain
Saltation 959C. K. Jain
Scandinavian Glaciers 960Juha P. Lunkka
Sea Ice 964Matti Leppäranta
Sea-Level 969Anny Cazenave
Seasonal Frost 974Chelamallu Hariprasad
Seasonal Snow Cover 974Amit Kumar
Sediment Budgets 975Helen E. Reid and Gary J. Brierley
Sediment Core and Glacial EnvironmentReconstruction 979
Jostein Bakke and Øyvind Paasche
Sediment Entrainment, Transport, and Deposition 984Michael J. Hambrey and Neil F. Glasser
Sediment Flux Source-To-Sink 1003Achim A. Beylich
Sediment Gravity Flow 1005George Postma
Sediment Routing 1010Subhajit Sinha
Sediment Transfer Modeling 1010Richard Hodgkins
Sediment Yield 1014Kelly MacGregor
SEM Analysis of Glacial Sediments 1016William C. Mahaney
Septa of Englacial Debris 1027Subhajit Sinha
Serac 1027Markus Konz
Siberia 1028Kazuyoshi Suzuki
Slush and Sleet of Snow 1031A. K. Singh
Snow 1031A. K. Singh
Snow Bed/Snow Bed Vegetation 1032Nadine Konz
Snow Course 1032A. K. Singh
Snow Cover and Snowmelt in Forest Regions 1033Tobias Jonas and Richard Essery
Snow Cover Changes in the Alps 1036Christoph Marty
Snow Crystal Structure 1038Kenneth G. Libbrecht
Snow Deformation 1041Jerome B. Johnson
Snow Density 1045Steven Fassnacht
Snow Depth 1045Gavin Gong
Snow Drift 1048Richard Bintanja
Snow Gauge 1049A. K. Singh
Snow Grains 1050Thomas H. Painter
Snow Hydrology 1053Sarah Boon and Katie Burles
Snow Layer 1059A. K. Singh
Snow Load 1060A. K. Singh
Snow Metamorphism 1060A. K. Singh
CONTENTS xvii
Snow Microstructure 1061Christine Pielmeier
Snow Pellet 1062A. K. Singh
Snow Pillow 1062A. K. Singh
Snow Pit 1063A. K. Singh
Snow Ripening 1064A. K. Singh
Snow Skating 1064Ashok Kumar Verma
Snow Skiing 1066Ashok Kumar Verma
Snow Storm 1067A. K. Singh
Snow and Vegetation Interaction 1067Christopher A. Hiemstra and Glen E. Liston
Snow Water Equivalent 1070Michael Durand
Snowboard 1071Amit Kumar
Solifluction 1071Stephen J. Walsh and Daniel J. Weiss
Solute in Glacial Meltwaters 1074Martyn Tranter
Solutes in Glacier Ice 1077Renoj Thayyen
Specific Melt Rate 1078Pratap Singh
Stable Isotopes 1078Bhishm Kumar
Stage-Discharge Relationship 1079Amit Kumar
Stationary Glacier 1081Renoj Thayyen
Stratigraphy of Snowpacks 1081Peter W. Nienow and Fay Campbell
Streamflow Trends in Mountainous Regions 1084Peter Molnar, Paolo Burlando andFrancesca Pellicciotti
Structural Glaciology 1089Michael J. Hambrey
Subglacial Borehole Instrumentation 1091Philip R. Porter
Subglacial Drainage System 1095Bryn Hubbard
Subglacial Lakes, Antarctic 1099John C. Priscu
Subglacial Processes 1101Sean Fitzsimons and Reginald Lorrain
Subglacial Volcanism 1105Hugh Tuffen
Subglacial Weathering 1106Markus Konz
Sublimation from Snow and Ice 1106A. K. Singh
Summer Accumulation Type Glaciers 1107Nozomu Naito
Super Cooling Clouds 1108P. Pradeep Kumar
Supercooled Water 1108Simon Cook
Supra-Glacial Debris Entrainments 1112D. P. Dobhal
Surface Energy Balance 1112Michiel Van den Broeke, Xavier Fettweis andThomas Mölg
Surface Temperature of Snow and Ice 1123Dorothy K. Hall
Suspended Sediment Concentration 1125Veerle Vanacker
Suspended Sediment Dynamics 1126Tim Stott
Suspended Sediment Load 1132Amit Kumar
xviii CONTENTS
Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) Interferometryfor Glacier Movement Studies 1133
Y. S. Rao
Talik 1143Tingjun Zhang
Tarn 1144Himali Panthri
Temperate Glaciers 1145Andrew Fountain
Temperature Lapse Rates in Glacierized Basins 1145Shawn J. Marshall and Mira Losic
Temperature Profile of Snowpack 1151Charles Fierz
Terminus 1154Amit Kumar
Terraces 1155Amit Kumar
Thaw Weakening 1155Divya Dudeja
Thermal Infrared Sensors 1156Anju Chaudhary
Thermal Regime of Ice-Covered Lakes 1157Lars Bengtsson
Thermokarst 1158Debasmita Misra, Ronald P. Daanen andAnita M. Thompson
Thinning of Arctic Sea Ice 1166Ron Lindsay
Thinning of Glaciers 1169Etienne Berthier
Tibetan Plateau 1172Tandong Yao, Yongqin Liu, Huabiao Zhao andWusheng Yu
Tidewater Glaciers 1175Andreas Vieli
Tien Shan Glaciers 1179Vladimir Aizen
Till 1181Jan A. Piotrowski
Topographic Normalization of MultispectralSatellite Imagery 1187
Michael P. Bishop and Jeffrey D. Colby
Transformations of Snow at the Earth’sSurface and its Climatic and EnvironmentalConsequences 1197
Florent Domine
Transient Snowline 1204Markus Konz
Tree-Ring Indicators of Glacier Fluctuations 1205Dan J. Smith and Lynn Koehler
Tributary Glaciers 1209Hester Jiskoot
Urban Snow 1211Lars Bengtsson and Annette Semádeni-Davies
U-Shape Valley 1217Amit Kumar
Vein Ice 1219Chelamallu Hariprasad
V-Shaped Valley 1219Amit Kumar
Water Balance in the Glacierized Region 1221Heidi Escher-Vetter
Westerlies and their Effects on MaritimeIce Caps and Glaciers 1224
Robert D. McCulloch
WGMS (World Glacier Monitoring Service) 1227Wilfried Haeberli
Winter Accumulation Glacier 1227Amit Kumar
Year-Round Ablation Pattern 1229Rijan B. Kayastha
Younger Dryas 1229Sven Lukas
List of Articles 1233
Author Index 1239
Subject Index 1241
CONTENTS xix
Contributors
James S. AberEmporia State UniversityEmporia, KS [email protected]
Vladimir AizenCollege of Science, Mines BuildingUniversity of IdahoMoscow, ID [email protected]
Ian AllisonAustralian Antarctic Division and Antarctic Climate andEcosystems CRCPrivate Bag 80Hobart, Tasmania [email protected]
John T. AndrewsInstitute of Arctic and Alpine Researchand Department of Geological SciencesUniversity of ColoradoBoulder, CO [email protected]
Manoj K. AroraDepartment of Civil EngineeringIndian Institute of Technology RoorkeeRoorkee [email protected]
Monohar AroraNational Institute of Hydrology (NIH)Roorkee 247667, [email protected]
Cliff AtkinsSchool of Geography, Environment and Earth SciencesVictoria University of WellingtonP.O. Box 600Wellington 6140New [email protected]
David B. BahrDepartment of Physics and Computational ScienceRegis University3333 Regis BlvdDenver, CO [email protected]
Ian BakerThayer School of EngineeringDartmouth CollegeHanover, NH [email protected]
Jostein BakkeDepartment of Geography/Bjerknes Centre for ClimateResearchUniversity of BergenFosswinckelsgate 65020 [email protected]
Lars BengtssonDepartment of Water Resources EngineeringLund UniversityP.O. Box 11822100 [email protected]
Martin BenistonInterdisciplinary Institute for Environmental DynamicsUniversity of Geneva7 route de Drize1227 Carouge, [email protected]
Matthew R. BennettThe School of Applied SciencesBournemouth University Talbot CamposFern BarrowDorset BH12 [email protected]
Andrzej BerPolish Geological Institute – Polish Research [email protected]
Etienne BerthierLEGOS/CNRS/UPS14 av. Ed. Belin31400 [email protected]
Nancy A. N. BertlerJoint Antarctic Research InstituteVictoria University of Wellington and GNS ScienceP.O. Box 600Wellington 6140New [email protected]
Achim A. BeylichQuaternary Geology and Climate GroupGeological Survey of Norway (NGU)Leiv Eirikssons vei 397491 TrondheimNorwayandDepartment of GeographyNorwegian University of Science and Technology
(NTNU)Dragvoll7491 [email protected]
Mahendra R. BhutiyaniHazard Assessment and Forecasting DivisionSnow and Avalanche Study EstablishmentPlot No. 1, Sector 37 A, Him ParisarChandigarh [email protected]
Richard BintanjaRoyal Netherlands Meteorological Institute (KNMI)Wilhelminalaan 103732 De BiltThe [email protected]
Farjana S. BirajdarCentre of Studies in Resources EngineeringIndian Institute of Technology BombayPowai, Mumbai 400076, MaharashtraIndia
Michael P. BishopDepartment of Geography and GeologyUniversity of Nebraska-Omaha6001 Dodge StreetOmaha, NE [email protected]
Tobias BolchDepartment of GeographyUniversity of Zürich-IrchelWinterthurerstr. 1908057 Zü[email protected]
Sarah BoonDepartment of GeographyUniversity of Lethbridge4401 University DrLethbridge, AB T1K [email protected]
David A. BraatenCenter for Remote Sensing of Ice SheetsDepartment of GeographyUniversity of KansasLawrence, KS [email protected]
xxii CONTRIBUTORS
Roger J. BraithwaiteGeography Programme, School of Environment andDevelopmentUniversity of ManchesterOxford RoadManchester M13 [email protected]
Claudio BravoCentro de Estudios Científicos, CECSArturo Prat [email protected]
Gary J. BrierleySchool of EnvironmentThe University of Auckland10 Symonds StreetPrivate Bag 92019, Auckland 1142New [email protected]
Jason P. BrinerDepartment of Geological SciencesUniversity at BuffaloBuffalo, NY [email protected]
Margo M. BurgessGeological Survey of CanadaNatural Resources Canada601 Booth StreetOttawa, ON K1A [email protected]
Paolo BurlandoInstitute of Environmental EngineeringETH Zurich8093 [email protected]
Katie BurlesDepartment of GeographyUniversity of Lethbridge4401 University DrLethbridge, AB T1K 3M4Canada
Andrew B. G. BushDepartment of Earth and Atmospheric ScienceUniversity of Alberta1-26 Earth Sciences BuildingEdmonton, AB T6G [email protected]
David R. ButlerMountain GeoDynamics Research GroupDepartment of GeographyTexas State University-San MarcosSan Marcos, TX [email protected]
Fay CampbellDepartment of Geographical and Earth SciencesUniversity of GlasgowGlasgow G12 8QQUK
Norm R. CattoDepartment of GeographyMemorial University of NewfoundlandSt. John’s, NL A1B [email protected]
Fiona CawkwellDepartment of GeographyUniversity College [email protected]
Anny CazenaveLaboratoire d’Etudes en Géophysique et OcéanographieSpatiales (LEGOS)LEGOS-CNES, Observatoire Midi-Pyrénées18 Av. E. Belin31400 [email protected]@gmail.com
Stanley A. ChangnonUniversity of IllinoisUrbana, IL [email protected]
CONTRIBUTORS xxiii
Arun ChaturvediAntartic DivisionGeological Survey of IndiaNH 5PFaridabad [email protected]
Anju ChaudharyWater Resources System DivisionNational Institute of HydrologyRoorkee [email protected]
Jie ChengCollege of Global Change and Earth System ScienceBeijing Normal University19 Xinjiekouwai StreetBeijing [email protected]
Jessica Ellen CherryInternational Arctic Research Center and Institute ofNorthern EngineeringUniversity of Alaska Fairbanks930 Koyukuk Dr.Fairbanks, AK [email protected]
Poul ChristoffersenScott Polar Research InstituteUniversity of CambridgeLensfield RoadCambridge CB2 [email protected]
John J. ClagueDepartment of Earth SciencesCentre for Natural Hazard ResearchSimon Fraser University8888 University DriveBurnaby, BC V5A [email protected]
J. Graham CogleyDepartment of GeographyTrent UniversityPeterborough ON, K9J [email protected]
Jeffrey D. ColbyDepartment of Geography and PlanningAppalachian State UniversityBoone, NC [email protected]
Simon J. CookCentre for GlaciologyInstitute of Geography and Earth SciencesAberystwyth UniversityH5, LlandinamCeredigion, Wales SY23 [email protected]@gmail.com
Luke CoplandDepartment of GeographyUniversity of OttawaOttawa, ON K1N [email protected]
Michel CrucifixGeorges Lemaitre Centre for Earth and Climate ResearchUniversité catholique de Louvain2 chemin du Cyclotron1348 [email protected]
Ronald P. DaanenGeophysical InstituteUniversity of Alaska Fairbanks903 Koyukuk Dr.Fairbanks, AK [email protected]
Prem DattResearch and Design Center (RDC)Snow and Avalanche Study EstablishmentPlot No-1, Sector 37-AHimparishar 160036, [email protected]
Carmen de JongThe Mountain InstituteUniversity of Savoy73376 Pôle Montagne, Le Bourget du [email protected]
xxiv CONTRIBUTORS
Reynald DelaloyeDepartment of GeosciencesGeography University of FribourgCh. du Musee 41700 [email protected]
Philip DelineEDYTEM LabUniversité de Savoie, CNRS73376 Le Bourget du [email protected]
Michael N. DemuthGlaciology Section, Geological Survey of CanadaEarth Sciences Sector Program on Climate ChangeGeoscienceNatural Resources Canada601 Booth StreetOttawa, ON K1A [email protected]
Stephen J. DéryEnvironmental Science and Engineering ProgramUniversity of Northern British Columbia3333 University WayPrince George, BC V2N [email protected]
Guglielmina DiolaiutiDepartment of Earth Sciences “A. Desio”University of MilanoVia Mangiagalli 3420133 [email protected]
D. P. DobhalWadia Institute of Himalayan Geology33, General Mahadev Singh RoadDehradun 248001, [email protected]
Florent DomineLaboratoire de Glaciologie et Géophysique del’EnvironnementCNRSBP 96, 54 rue Molière38402 Saint Martin d’Hè[email protected]
Divya DudejaDepartment of GeologyDBS (P.G.) CollegeDehradun 248001, [email protected]
Michael DurandByrd Polar Research CenterOhio State University108 Scott Hall, 1090 Carmack RoadColumbus, OH [email protected]
Jürgen EhlersGeologisches LandesamtBillstrasse 8420539 [email protected]
Heidi Escher-VetterCommission for GlaciologyBavarian Academy of Sciences and HumanitiesAlfons-Goppel-Strasse 1180539 [email protected]
Richard EsserySchool of GeoSciencesUniversity of EdinburghEdinburgh EH9 [email protected]
Steven FassnachtSnow Hydrology, Watershed Science ProgramColorado State UniversityNatural Resources Building Room 335Fort Collins, CO [email protected]
Jiang FengqingXinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, CASChinese Academy of Sciences40-3 South Beijing RoadUrumqi, Xinjiang [email protected]@ms.xjb.ac.cn
CONTRIBUTORS xxv
Xavier FettweisInstitute for Marine and Atmospheric ResearchUtrecht UniversityPrincetonplein 53584 CC UtrechtNetherlandsandDepartment of GeographyUniversity of LiègeAllée du 6 Août, 24000 Liè[email protected]
Charles FierzWSL Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research SLF7260 Davos [email protected]
Sean J. FitzsimonsDepartment of GeographyUniversity of OtagoP.O. Box 56Dunedin 9054New [email protected]
Andrew G. FountainDepartment of GeologyPortland State UniversityP.O. Box 751Portland, OR [email protected]
Hugh M. FrenchUniversity of Ottawa (retired)10945 Marti LaneNorth Saanich, British Columbia V8L [email protected]
Ping FuDepartment of Earth and Atmospheric SciencesPurdue University550 Stadium Mall DrWest Lafayette, IN [email protected]
Yoshinori FurukawaResearch Group for Phase Transition Dynamics of IceInstitute of Low Temperature ScienceHokkaido UniversityN19 W8Sapporo [email protected]
Olivier GagliardiniLaboratoire de Glaciologie et Géophysique del'Environnement du CNRS/UJF54, rue Molière BP 9638402 [email protected]
Isabelle Gärtner-RoerGlaciology, Geomorphodynamics and GeochronologyDepartment of GeographyUniversity of ZürichWinterthurerstrasse 1908057 Zü[email protected]
John R. GiardinoDepartment of Geology and GeophysicsTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, TX [email protected]
Philip GibbardQuaternary Palaeoenvironments Group, CambridgeQuaternaryDepartment of GeographyUniversity of CambridgeDowning StreetCambridge CB2 [email protected]
Alan R. GillespieDepartment of Earth and Space SciencesQuaternary Research CenterUniversity of WashingtonSeattle, WA [email protected]
Neil F. GlasserCentre for Glaciology, Institute of Geography & EarthSciencesAberystwyth UniversityAberystwyth, Ceredigion, Wales SY23 [email protected]
xxvi CONTRIBUTORS
Manmohan Kumar GoelWater Resources SystemNational Institute of HydrologyRoorkee 247667, [email protected]@nih.ernet.in
Gavin GongDepartment of Earth and Environmental EngineeringHenry Krumb School of MinesColumbia University500 West. 120th Street, MC4711New York, NY [email protected]
Alastair G. C. GrahamIce Sheets Programme, British Antarctic SurveyHigh Cross, Madingley RoadCambridge CB3 [email protected]
Amanda M. GrannasDepartment of ChemistryVillanova University800 Lancaster AveVillanova, PA [email protected]
Thomas C. GrenfellDepartment of Atmospheric SciencesUniversity of WashingtonSeattle, WA [email protected]
G. Hilmar GudmundssonBritish Antarctic SurveyHigh Cross Madingley RoadCambridge CB3 [email protected]
Ravi P. GuptaDepartment of Earth SciencesIndian Institute of Technology RoorkeeRoorkee 247667, [email protected]@iitr.ernet.in
Wilfried HaeberliGlaciology, Geomorphodynamics & GeochronologyGeography DepartmentUniversity of ZurichWinterthurerstrasse 1908057 [email protected]
Brenda L. HallDepartment of Earth Sciences andClimate Change InstituteBryand Global Sciences CenterUniversity of MaineOrono, ME [email protected]
Dorothy K. HallCrysopheric Sciences BranchCode 614.1, NASA/Goddard Space Flight CenterGreenbelt, MD [email protected]
Michael J. HambreyCentre for GlaciologyInstitute of Geography & Earth SciencesAberystwyth UniversityAberystwyth, Ceredigion, Wales SY23 [email protected]
Jonathan HarborDepartment of Earth and Atmospheric SciencesPurdue University550 Stadium Mall DrWest Lafayette, IN [email protected]
Douglas R. HardyClimate System Research Center andDepartment of GeosciencesUniversity of MassachusettsMorrill Science Center611 North Pleasant StreetAmherst, MA [email protected]@valley.net
Spencer P. HardyHanover High School41 Lebanon StHanover, NH 03755USA
CONTRIBUTORS xxvii
Chelamallu HariprasadCentre for Studies in Resource EngineeringIndian Institute of Technology, BombayPowai, Mumbai 400076, [email protected]
Umesh K. HaritashyaDepartment of GeologyUniversity of Dayton300 College ParkDayton, OH [email protected]@notes.udayton.edu
Stephan HarrisonSchool of Geography, Archaeology and Earth ResourcesUniversity of ExeterCornwall CampusPenryn, Cornwall TR10 [email protected]
Kenneth HewittCold Regions Research CentreWilfrid Laurier University75 University Avenue WestWaterloo, ON N2L [email protected]
Christopher A. HiemstraCold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory(CRREL)U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, ERDCP.O. Box 35170Fort Wainwright, AK [email protected]
Richard HodgkinsDepartment of GeographyLoughborough UniversityLeicestershire LE11 [email protected]
Bryn HubbardCentre for GlaciologyInstitute of Geography and Earth SciencesAberystwyth UniversityLlandinam BuildingAberystwyth, Ceredigion, Wales SY23 [email protected]
Philip D. HughesGeography, School of Environment and DevelopmentThe University of ManchesterArthur Lewis BuildingManchester M13 [email protected]
Terry HughesDepartment of Earth ScienceUniversity of MaineOrono, ME 04469-5790USAandClimate Change InstituteUniversity of MaineOrono, ME [email protected]
Lasafam IturrizagaDepartment of Geography/High MountainGeomorphologyInstitute of GeographyUniversity of GöttingenGoldschmidtstr. 537077 Gö[email protected]
C. K. JainNational Institute of HydrologyCentre for Flood Management StudiesG. S. Road, Sapta Sahid Path, Mathura NagarDispur, Guwahati 781006, [email protected]
Manoj K. JainDepartment of HydrologyIndian Institute of TechnologyRoorkee 247667, [email protected]
Sanjay K. JainNational Institute of HydrologyRoorkee, 247667 [email protected]
xxviii CONTRIBUTORS
Adrian JenkinsBritish Antarctic SurveyNatural Environment Research CouncilHigh Cross, Madingley RoadCambridge CB3 [email protected]@bas.ac.uk
Hester JiskootDepartment of GeographyUniversity of Lethbridge4401 University Drive WLethbridge, AB T1K [email protected]
Jerome B. JohnsonInstitute of Northern EngineeringUniversity of Alaska FairbanksP.O. Box 755910Fairbanks, AK [email protected]
Tobias JonasSnow Hydrology Research GroupWSL Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research SLF7260 [email protected]
M. Torre JorgensonAlaska EcoscienceFairbanks, AK [email protected]
Andreas KääbDepartment of GeosciencesUniversity of OsloSem Sælands vei 1, 1047Blindern, 0316 [email protected]
M. Z. KanevskiyDepartment of Civil and Environmental EngineeringUniversity of Alaska Fairbanks245 Duckering Building, P.O. Box 755900Fairbanks, AK [email protected]
Shichang KangKey Laboratory of Tibetan Environmental Changes andLand Surface ProcessesInstitute of Tibetan Plateau ResearchChinese Academy of SciencesNo.18, Shuangqing Rd., P.O. Box 2871Haidian District, Beijing 100085ChinaandState Key Laboratory of Cryospheric SciencesChinese Academy of SciencesLanzhou [email protected]
Martin KappasCartography, GIS and Remote Sensing SectionInstitute of GeographyGeorg-August University GöttingenGoldschmidtstr. 537077 Gö[email protected]
Rijan B. KayasthaHimalayan Cryosphere, Climate and Disaster ResearchCenter (HiCCDRC)Kathmandu UniversityDhulikhel, KavreP.O. Box 6250, [email protected]
Matt A. KingSchool of Civil Engineering and GeosciencesNewcastle UniversityCassie BuildingNewcastle upon Tyne NE1 [email protected]
Martin P. KirkbrideGeography, School of the EnvironmentUniversity of DundeePerth RoadDundee DD1 4HN, [email protected]
Peter G. KnightSchool of Physical and Geographical SciencesKeele UniversityWilliam Smith BuildingStaffordshire ST5 [email protected]
CONTRIBUTORS xxix
Johannes KochDepartment of Earth SciencesSimon Fraser UniversityBurnaby, BC V5A [email protected]
Lynn KoehlerUniversity of Victoria Tree-Ring LaboratoryDepartment of GeographyUniversity of VictoriaVictoria, British Columbia V8W [email protected]
Markus KonzInstitute of Environmental EngineeringHydrology and Water Resources ManagementETH ZürichWolfgang-Pauli-Str. 158093 [email protected]
Nadine KonzInstitute of Environmental GeosciencesUniversity of Basel4003 [email protected]
Akhouri Pramod KrishnaDepartment of Remote SensingBirla Institute of Technology (BIT)Deemed UniversityP.O. MesraRanchi 835215, [email protected]@bitmesra.ac.in
Matthias KuhleDepartment of Geography and High MountainGeomorphologyGeographical InstituteUniversity of GöttingenGoldschmidtstr. 537077 Gö[email protected]
Amit KumarDepartment of GeologyCentre of Advanced Study in GeologyPunjab UniversitySector-14Chandigarh 160014, [email protected]@wihg.res.in
Bhishm KumarHydrological Investigations DivisionNational Institute of HydrologyRoorkee 247667, [email protected][email protected]
Rajesh KumarSchool of Engineering and TechnologySharda University32–34, Knowledge Park-IIIGreater Noida 201306, NCRIndiaandRemote Sensing DivisionBirla Institute of Technology, Extension Centre Jaipur27, Malviya Industrial AreaJaipur 302017, [email protected]
Vijay KumarNational Institute of HydrologyRoorkee 247667, [email protected][email protected]
Christophe LambielInstitute of GeographyUniversity of LausanneBâtiment Anthropole1015 [email protected]
Wendy LawsonDepartment of GeographyUniversity of CanterburyPrivate Bag 4800Christchurch 8140New [email protected]
xxx CONTRIBUTORS
Daniel J. LeathersDepartment of GeographyUniversity of DelawareNewark, DE [email protected]
Jean-Michel LemieuxDépartement de géologie et de génie géologiqueUniversité Laval1065 avenue de la MédecineQuébec, QC G1V [email protected]
Eric M. LeonardDepartment of GeologyColorado College14E Cache la PoudreColorado Springs, CO [email protected]
Matti LeppärantaDepartment of PhysicsUniversity of HelsinkiP.O. Box 64, (Gustaf Hällströmin katu 2a)00014 [email protected]
Delphis F. LeviaDepartment of GeographyUniversity of DelawareNewark, DE [email protected]
Shunlin LiangDepartment of GeographyUniversity of Maryland2181 LeFrak HallCollege Park, MD [email protected]
Kenneth G. LibbrechtDepartment of PhysicsCaltech264-33 CaltechPasadena, CA [email protected]
Ron LindsayPolar Science CenterApplied Physics LaboratoryUniversity of Washington1013 NE 40th StreetSeattle, WA [email protected]
Glen E. ListonCooperative Institute for Research in the AtmosphereColorado State University1375 Campus DeliveryFort Collins, CO [email protected]
Jingshi LiuInstitute of Tibetan Plateau ResearchChinese Academy of Sciences18 Shuangqing Rd.Haidian District, Beijing [email protected]
Yongqin LiuLaboratory of Tibetan Environment Changes and LandSurface Processes (TEL)Institute of Tibetan Plateau ResearchChinese Academy of SciencesNo. 18 Shuangqing Rd, P.O. Box 2871Haidian District, Beijing [email protected]
Christopher LloydDepartment of GeographyUniversity of SheffieldSheffield S10 [email protected]
Rachel W. LomonacoThayer School of EngineeringDartmouth CollegeHanover, NH 03755USA
Reginald D. LorrainDépartement des Sciences de la Terre et del’EnvironnementUniversité Libre de [email protected]
CONTRIBUTORS xxxi
Mira LosicDepartment of GeographyUniversity of CalgaryEarth Sciences 356, 2500 University Dr NWCalgary, AB T2N [email protected]
Sven LukasDepartment of GeographyQueen Mary University of LondonMile End RoadLondon E1 [email protected]
Juha P. LunkkaInstitute of GeosciencesUniversity of OuluP.O. Box 300090014 [email protected]
Kelly MacGregorGeology DepartmentMacalester College1600 Grand AvenueSaint Paul, MN [email protected]
William C. MahaneyQuaternary Surveys26 Thornhill AveThornhill, ON L4J [email protected]@yorku.ca
Shawn J. MarshallDepartment of GeographyUniversity of CalgaryEarth Sciences 356, 2500 University Dr NWCalgary, AB T2N [email protected]
Richard A. MarstonDepartment of GeographyKansas State University118 Seaton HallManhattan, KS [email protected]@k-state.edu
Christoph MartyWSL Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research SLFFlüelastr. 117260 [email protected]
Robert D. McCullochSchool of Biological and Environmental ScienceUniversity of StirlingStirling FK9 4LA, [email protected]
Brian MenounosGeography Program and Natural Resources andEnvironmental Studies InstituteUniversity of Northern British Columbia3333 University WayPrince George, BC V2N 4Z9Canada
Justin R. MinderDepartment of Atmospheric ScienceUniversity of WashingtonBox 351640Seattle, WA [email protected]
Debasmita MisraDepartment of Mining and Geological EngineeringCollege of Engineering and MinesUniversity of Alaska FairbanksP.O. Box 755800Fairbanks, AK [email protected]
Vanya I. MitevaDepartment of Biochemistry and Molecular BiologyThe Pennsylvania State University211 South FrearUniversity Park, PA [email protected]
Thomas MölgCenter for Climate & CryosphereUniversity of Innsbruck6020 InnsbruckAustria
xxxii CONTRIBUTORS
Peter MolnarInstitute of Environmental EngineeringETH Zurich8093 [email protected]
Bruce F. MolniaU.S. Geological Survey562 National Center, 12201 Sunrise Valley Drive, 12201Reston, VA [email protected]
Brian MorseDepartment of Civil and Water EngineeringLaval University1065, ave de la MédecineQuebec, QC G1V 0A6Canada
Nozomu NaitoDepartment of Global Environment StudiesHiroshima Institute of TechnologyMiyake 2-1-1, Saeki-kuHiroshima [email protected]
Jacob NapieralskiDepartment of Natural SciencesUniversity of Michigan-DearbornDearborn, MI [email protected]
Atle NesjeDepartment of Earth Science\Bjerknes Centre forClimate ResearchUniversity of BergenAllégaten 415007 [email protected]
Thomas A. NeumannNASA Goddard Space Flight CenterGreenbelt, MD [email protected]
Peter W. NienowSchool of GeosciencesUniversity of EdinburghDrummond StreetEdinburgh EH8 [email protected]
David C. NobesDepartment of Geological SciencesUniversity of CanterburyPrivate Bag 4800Christchurch 8140New [email protected]
Rachel W. ObbardThayer School of EngineeringDartmouth CollegeHanover, NH [email protected]
Øyvind PaascheBjerknes Centre for Climate ResearchUniversity of BergenAllégaten 555007 BergenNorwayandDepartment of Research ManagementUniversity of BergenProfessor Keysers gt. 85020 [email protected]
Thomas H. PainterJet Propulsion Laboratory/Caltech4800 Oak Grove DrivePasadena, CA [email protected]
Pratima PandeyCentre of Studies in Resources EngineeringIndian Institute of Technology BombayPowai, Mumbai 400076, [email protected]
Himali PanthriDepartment of GeologyD.B.S (P.G) CollegeDehradun 248001, [email protected]
Frank PaulDepartment of GeographyUniversity of ZurichWinterthurerstrasse 1908057 [email protected]
CONTRIBUTORS xxxiii
Francesca PellicciottiInstitute of Environmental EngineeringETH Zurich8093 [email protected]
Mauri S. PeltoDepartment of Environmental ScienceNichols CollegeDudley, MA [email protected]
Christine PielmeierWSL Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research SLFWarning and PreventionFlüelastrasse 117260 Davos [email protected]
Jan A. PiotrowskiDepartment of Earth SciencesUniversity of AarhusHøegh-Guldbergs Gade 28000 Aarhus CDenmarkandDepartment of GeographyUniversity of SheffieldSheffield S10 [email protected]
Philip R. PorterDivision of Geography and Environmental SciencesSchool of Life SciencesUniversity of HertfordshireHatfield, Hertfordshire AL10 [email protected]
George PostmaFaculty of GeosciencesEUROTANK LaboratoriesP.O. Box 80.0213508 TA UtrechtThe [email protected]
P. Pradeep KumarDepartment of Atmospheric and Space SciencesPune UniversityPune 411007, [email protected]
Daniel J. PringleArctic Region Supercomputing Center and GeophysicalInstituteUniversity of AlaskaFairbanks, AK [email protected]
John C. PriscuDepartment of Land Resources and EnvironmentalSciencesMontana State UniversityBozeman, MT [email protected]
Duncan J. QuinceyInstitute of Geography and Earth SciencesPenglais CampusAberystwyth UniversityAberystwyth, Wales SY23 3DBUK
Camilo RadaCentro de Estudios Científicos, CECSArturo Prat 514ValdiviaChile
Y. S. RaoCentre of Studies in Resources EngineeringIndian Institute of TechnologyPowai, Mumbai [email protected]
Donald RappIndependent Contractor1445 Indiana AvenueSouth Pasadena, CA [email protected]
Rasik RavindraNational Centre for Antarctic and Ocean ResearchHeadland Sada, Vasco-Da-GamaGoa [email protected]
Netra R. RegmiDepartment of Geology and GeophysicsTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, TX [email protected]
xxxiv CONTRIBUTORS
Helen E. ReidSchool of EnvironmentThe University of Auckland10 Symonds StreetPrivate Bag 92019, Auckland 1142New [email protected]
Alan W. RempelDepartment of Geological SciencesUniversity of OregonEugene, OR [email protected]
Jeffrey RidleyMet Office, Hadley CentreFitzRoy RoadExeter EX1 3PBUK
George A. RiggsSSAI10210 Greenbelt Road, Suite 600Lanham, MD [email protected]
Eric RignotDepartment of Earth System ScienceUniversity of California IrvineIrvine, CA 92697USAandJet Propulsion Laboratory4800 Oak Grove DrivePasadena, CA [email protected]
Vinvent RinterknechtSchool of Geography and GeosciencesUniversity of St AndrewsNorth StreetSt Andrews KY16 9AL, [email protected]
Daniel RiseboroughGeological Survey of Canada601 Booth StreetOttawa, ON K1A [email protected]
Andrés RiveraCentro de Estudios Científicos, CECSArturo Prat 514ValdiviaChileandUniversidad de ChileMarcoleta 250SantiagoChileandCentro de Ingeniería de la Innovación, CINArturo Prat [email protected]
Gerard H. RoeDepartment of Atmospheric ScienceUniversity of WashingtonBox 351640Seattle, WA 98195-1640USAandDepartment of Earth and Space SciencesUniversity of Washington2206 N41 StSeattle, WA [email protected]
Neil RossSchool of GeosciencesUniversity of EdinburghGeography BuildingDrummond StreetEdinburgh EH8 [email protected]
Anders SchomackerInstitute of Earth SciencesUniversity of IcelandAskja, Sturlugata 7101 ReykjavíkIcelandandDepartment of GeologyNorwegian University of Science and Technology7491 [email protected]
CONTRIBUTORS xxxv
Bob E. SchutzCenter for Space ResearchUniversity of Texas at AustinAustin, TX [email protected]
Annette Semádeni-DaviesDepartment of Water Resources EngineeringLund University22100 [email protected]
Hung Tao ShenDepartment of Civil and Environmental EngineeringClarkson UniversityP.O. Box 5710Potsdam, NY [email protected]
Arun B. ShresthaInternational Centre for Integrated MountainDevelopment (ICIMOD)Khumaltar, Lalitpur, GP.O. Box [email protected]
John F. ShroderDepartment of Geography and GeologyUniversity of Nebraska at Omaha6001 Dodge StreetOmaha, NE [email protected]
Aparna ShuklaUttarakhand Space Application [email protected]
Yuri ShurDepartment of Civil and Environmental EngineeringUniversity of Alaska Fairbanks245 Duckering Building, P.O. Box 755900Fairbanks, AK [email protected]
Martin J. SiegertSchool of GeoSciencesUniversity of EdinburghGrant InstituteWest Mains RoadEdinburgh EH9 [email protected]
Oddur SigurðssonVeðurstofu ÍslandsIcelandic Meteorological OfficeBústaðavegi 9150 Reykjaví[email protected]
A. K. SinghDIAT (Deemed University)GirinagarPune 411025, [email protected]@diat.ac.in
Gulab SinghCentre of Studies in Resources EngineeringIndian Institute of Technology BombayPowaiMumbai 400076, [email protected]
Pratap SinghIntegrated Natural Resources Management (INRM)Consultants Pvt. LtdAn Incubatee Company of IIT DelhiNew DelhiIndiaandHydro Tasmanier ConsultingNehru PlaceNew Delhi [email protected]@gmail.com
Vijay P. SinghDepartment of Biological and Agricultural EngineeringTexas A&M UniversityScoates Hall2117 TAMUCollege Station, TX [email protected]
xxxvi CONTRIBUTORS
Subhajit SinhaDBS CollegeDehradun, [email protected]
Claudio SmiragliaDepartment of Earth Sciences “A. Desio”University of MilanoVia Mangiagalli 3420133 [email protected]
Andy M. SmithBritish Antarctic Survey, High CrossMadingley RoadCambridge CB3 [email protected]
Dan J. SmithUniversity of Victoria Tree-Ring LaboratoryDepartment of GeographyUniversity of VictoriaVictoria, British Columbia V8W 3R4Canada
Sharon L. SmithGeological Survey of CanadaNatural Resources Canada601 Booth StreetOttawa, ON K1A [email protected]
Rudolph R. SteaStea Surficial Geology Services851 Herring Cove RoadHalifax, Nova Scotia B3R [email protected]
Chris R. StokesDepartment of GeographyDurham UniversityScience Site, South RoadDurham DH1 [email protected]
Tim StottPhysical Geography and Outdoor EducationLiverpool John Moores UniversityI. M. Marsh Campus, Barkhill RoadLiverpool L17 [email protected]
Edward A. SudickyDepartment of Earth and Environmental SciencesUniversity of WaterlooWaterloo, ON N2L [email protected]
Kazuyoshi SuzukiResearch Institute for Global ChangeJapan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology3173-25 Showa-machiYokohama [email protected]
Ryohei SuzukiGraduate School of Environmental StudiesNagoya Universityc/o Hydrospheric Atmospheric Research CenterFuro-cho Chikusa-kuNagoya [email protected]
Darrel A. SwiftDepartment of GeographyUniversity of SheffieldSheffield S10 [email protected]
Nozomu TakeuchiDepartment of Earth SciencesGraduate School of ScienceChiba University1-33 Yayoicho, Inage-ku, Chiba-cityChiba [email protected]
Renoj J. ThayyenWestern Himalayan Regional CentreNational Institute of HydrologyJammu (J&K) [email protected]
Malte ThomaBavarian Academy and Sciences, Commission forGlaciologyAlfons-Goppel-Str. 1180539 MunichGermanyand
CONTRIBUTORS xxxvii
Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine ResearchBussestrasse 2427570 [email protected]
David N. ThomasSchool of Ocean Sciences, College of Natural SciencesBangor UniversityMenai Bridge, Anglesey LL59 [email protected]
Anita M. ThompsonDepartment of Biological Systems EngineeringUniversity of Wisconsin-Madison230 Ag. Eng. Building, 460 Henry MallMadison, WI [email protected]
Thierry ToutinCanada Centre for Remote SensingNatural Resources CanadaOttawa, ON K1A [email protected]
Martyn TranterBristol Glaciology CentreSchool of Geographical SciencesUniversity of BristolUniversity RoadBristol BS8 [email protected]
Donna F. TuckerDepartment of GeographyUniversity of Kansas1475 Jayhawk Blvd., Room 213Lawrence, KS [email protected]
Hugh TuffenLancaster Environment CentreLancaster UniversityLancaster LA1 [email protected]
Fiona TweedDepartment of GeographyStaffordshire UniversityCollege RoadStoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire ST4 [email protected]
Michiel Van den BroekeInstitute for Marine and Atmospheric ResearchUtrecht UniversityPrincetonplein 53584 CC [email protected]
C. J. van der VeenDepartment of Geography andCenter for Remote Sensing of Ice SheetsUniversity of Kansas203 Lindley Hall1475 Jayhawk BlvdLawrence, KS [email protected]
Veerle VanackerTECLIM, Earth and Life InstituteUniversity of LouvainPlace L. Pasteur, 31348 Louvain-la-Neuve, [email protected]
Dominic VellaDepartment of Applied Mathematics and TheoreticalPhysicsInstitute of Theoretical GeophysicsUniversity of CambridgeWilberforce RoadCambridge CB3 [email protected]
G. VenkataramanCentre of Studies of Resources EngineeringIndian Institute of Technology BombayMumbai [email protected]
xxxviii CONTRIBUTORS
Ashok Kumar VermaDepartment of Geography and Environmental StudiesCold Regions Research CenterWilfrid Laurier University75 University Ave. WestWaterloo, ON N2L [email protected]@wlu.ca
Andreas VieliDepartment of GeographyDurham UniversityDurham DH1 [email protected]
Timo VihmaFinnish Meteorological InstituteErik Palménin aukio 1, P.O. Box 50300101 [email protected]
John D. VitekDepartment of Geology and GeophysicsTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, TX [email protected]
Mathias VuilleDepartment of Atmospheric and Environmental SciencesUniversity at AlbanyState University of New York1400 Washington AvenueAlbany, NY [email protected]
John WahrDepartment of Physics and CIRESUniversity of ColoradoBoulder, CO [email protected]
Stephen J. WalshDepartment of GeographyUniversity of North CarolinaChapel Hill, NC [email protected]
Charles R. WarrenSchool of Geography and GeosciencesUniversity of St. AndrewsIrvine BuildingSt. Andrews, Fife KY16 9AL, [email protected]
Daniel J. WeissDepartment of GeographyUniversity of North CarolinaChapel Hill, NC 27599-3220USA
John WettlauferYale UniversityNew Haven, CT [email protected]
Roger WheateGeography Program and Natural Resources andEnvironmental Studies InstituteUniversity of Northern British Columbia3333 University WayPrince George, BC V2N [email protected]
Ian C. WillisDepartment of GeographyScott Polar Research InstituteUniversity of CambridgeLensfield RoadCambridge CB2 [email protected]
John WoodwardDivision of GeographySchool of Applied SciencesNorthumbria UniversityEllison PlaceNewcastle upon Tyne NE1 [email protected]
Cunde XiaoState Key Laboratory of Cryospheric SciencesCold and Arid Regions Environmental and EngineeringResearch Institute, Chinese Academy of SciencesLanzhou, Gansu [email protected]@cams.cma.gov.cn
CONTRIBUTORS xxxix
Zhang YanweiXinjiang Institute of Ecology and GeographyChinese Academy of Sciences40-3 South Beijing RoadUrumqi, Xinjiang 830011China
Tandong YaoLaboratory of Tibetan Environment Changes and LandSurface Processes (TEL)Institute of Tibetan Plateau ResearchChinese Academy of SciencesNo. 18 Shuangqing Rd, P.O. Box 2871Haidian District, Beijing [email protected]
Jacob C. YdeCenter for GeomicrobiologyUniversity of AarhusNy Munkegade building 15408000 Århus CDenmarkandBjerknes Centre for Climate ResearchUniversity of BergenAllégaten 555007 [email protected]
Wusheng YuLaboratory of Tibetan Environment Changes and LandSurface Processes (TEL)Institute of Tibetan Plateau ResearchChinese Academy of SciencesNo. 18 Shuangqing Rd, P.O. Box 2871Haidian District, Beijing 100085China
Tingjun ZhangNational Snow and Ice Data CenterCooperative Institute for Research in EnvironmentalSciencesUniversity of Colorado at BoulderBoulder, CO [email protected]
Huabiao ZhaoLaboratory of Tibetan Environment Changes and LandSurface Processes (TEL)Institute of Tibetan Plateau ResearchChinese Academy of SciencesNo. 18 Shuangqing Rd, P.O. Box 2871Haidian District, Beijing 100085China
H. J. ZwallyNASA Goddard Space Flight CenterGreenbelt, MD [email protected]
xl CONTRIBUTORS
Preface
Snow, ice and glaciers (SIG) are the components constitut-ing what is called cryosphere. They exist at all latitudesand contain the majority of the earth’s fresh water. Dueto their dominant prevalence, they influence weather,climate, ecosystems, vegetation, and life and human activ-ities in a variety of ways. Indeed they shape human civili-zation. Owing to looming climate change and globalwarming, temperature changes now seem inevitable andare changing the landscape of snow, ice and glaciers, oreven the existence thereof. In fact, the changes occurringin SIG can be construed as major indicators of climatechange. The nature of cryosphere is highly interdisciplin-ary and calls for an updated interdisciplinary account of itsdynamics. Recent decades have witnessed increasingattention to SIG and scientific communities have startedworking collectively to develop the basic foundation uponwhich the broad understanding of cryosphere rests.However, there is still a long way to go.
Discussions on climate change and global warmingnow seem to be occupying the center stage in publicdebates, professional forums, newsmedia, and political dia-log. As a result, the general public has become much moreaware of what is happening to our climate. Since bothclimate change and climate variability have been foundto be closely linked with the cryosphere, it is importantfor scientists and professionals in the field of earth, environ-mental, oceanic and atmospheric sciences to developa better understanding of this sphere from conceptual, theo-retical, technical and applied viewpoints. This is especiallyimportant for snow, ice and glacier covered areas, sincethey are rarely stable and are continuously changing in theirthickness, areal extent, and flow speeds. Recent advancesin field-based studies and quantitative and numericalmodeling have provided answers to several key questionsbut have also highlighted the urgent need for cryosphericstudies in many areas, for example, contribution of snow,ice and glaciermelt to the sea level rise; importance of snowand glacier to water resources; and so on.
The objective of this Encyclopedia is to present thecurrent state of scientific understanding of various aspectsof earth’s cryosphere – snow, glaciers, ice caps, ice sheets,ice shelves, sea ice, river and lake ice, and permafrost –and their related interdisciplinary connections underone umbrella. Therefore, every effort has been made toprovide a comprehensive coverage of cryosphere byincluding a broad array of topics, such as the atmosphericprocesses responsible for snow formation; snowfall obser-vations; snow cover and snow surveys; transformationof snow to ice and changes in their properties; classifica-tion of ice and glaciers and their worldwide distribution;glaciation and ice ages; glacier dynamics; glacier surfaceand subsurface characteristics; geomorphic processesand landscape formation; hydrology and sedimentary sys-tems; hydrochemical and isotopic properties; permafrostmodeling; hazards caused by cryospheric changes; trendsof glacier retreat on a global scale along with the impact ofclimate change; and many more quantitative estimates ofvarious glacier parameters, such as degree-day, mass bal-ance, extent and volume, and downwasting. Also includedare articles on GPS application, and satellite image appli-cation in glaciology; GPR analysis; and sea level rise.
For purposes of the Encyclopedia 463 articles wereselected. Literature on snow, ice and glaciers has growntoo large to be fully treated in a single volume; therefore,the selection of articles included some subjectivity butwas reviewed by many experts who have long been atthe forefront of research in the field of cryosphere. Wetruly understand that given the scope of this subject it isalmost impossible to include each and every topic in thistype of reference book, but we have tried our best to avoidany glaring omissions or miss something which could sig-nificantly hamper the quality of the Encyclopedia. There-fore, we have made the contents of the Encyclopediaexhaustive, but we understand that we might have missedcertain topics. We are also aware of some partial omis-sions. As it frequently happens, willing contributors
cannot unfortunately be always found for all the suggestedtopics. It may be noted that if the reader does not see anentry for the particular topic that interests him or her, thenhe or she should look in the index because that topic mayhave been covered under a different heading and perhapsin more than one article. In making the list exhaustive, itis possible that there might be a little bit of repetition hereand there, but we do not want readers to read two articlesto understand one.
The material presented in the articles consists ofestablished information on a particular topic and repre-sents easily accessible digested knowledge. The level ofmaterial is such that a graduate student can benefit fromthe presentation which is not necessarily from his or herarea of expertise. An effort has been made such that eacharticle stands on its own, without an assumption thata reader will be seeing any other portion of the Encyclope-dia. Although entries are presented in alphabetical order,they have been organized under major compilation head-ings which should become particularly obvious when thereader uses the cross-references with each entry. This isnot an exhaustive list but hopefully it gives a structure tothe Encyclopedia’s contents. Of equal value are the manyreferences given with the entries.
This Encyclopedia of Snow, Ice and Glaciers is sup-posed to provide clear explanations of current topics,and is not structured as a student textbook, but it is ratherfor quick access to particular terms and concepts in self-contained entries. We hope that this volume will alsotempt the casual reader to browse through and becomecurious about the different facets and foci of cryosphere.
The contributors represent varying backgrounds andmany of them represent WHO’S WHO in the cryosphere.It is hoped that the Encyclopedia will serve as a referenceto scholars and students. The Encyclopedia will also bea valuable resource for geologists, geographers, climatol-ogists, hydrologists, and water resources engineers; aswell as to those who are engaged in the practice of agricul-tural and civil engineering, earth sciences, environmentalsciences and engineering, ecosystems management, andother relevant fields.
The encyclopedia is comprised of articles under threecategories: A, B, and C. Tables 1, 2 and 3 provide a listof major headings of articles included in the encyclopediafor a quick reference (see List of Articles, pages 1233–1237). 64 articles in category A represent major divisionsand review topics. These also serve to coordinate thewidely scattered entries of categories B and C. 182 Cate-gory B articles constitute building block items, inspiredby textbook subheads, but also the cookbook items. 217articles in category C are mini-entries dealing with mate-rials, fancy terms, or outdated concepts. All these categor-ical entries on different topics are compiled in analphabetical order, with their length being related to theirrelative importance.
March 2011 Vijay P. SinghPratap Singh
Umesh K. Haritashya(Editors-in-Chief)
xlii PREFACE
Acknowledgments
This Encyclopedia is a result of the collective contribu-tions of the authors who were gracious, generous andwilling to write different articles. These authors,representing five continents, have synthesized the bodyof knowledge in their particular area, and therefore thequality of the Encyclopedia is a reflection of the qualityof their efforts. We are grateful to these authors. Anydrawbacks are editors’, not authors’. The preparationof this Encyclopedia was greatly aided by the assistancewe received from our International Advisory Boardmembers:
Richard Armstrong, NSIDC, Boulder, Colorado, USA;Michael P. Bishop, University of Nebraska-Omaha, USA;Helgi Björnsson, Institute of Earth Sciences, Iceland;Wilfried Haeberli, WGMS, University of Zurich, Iceland;Johannes Oerlemans, University of Utrecht, Netherlands;John F. Shroder, University of Nebraska-Omaha, USA;Martyn Tranter, University of Bristol, UK;
We wish to express our deep gratitude to them for theirinvaluable support and encouragement.
All category A articles and major category B articleswere peer reviewed. Reviewers of these articles are
gratefully acknowledged for their constructive reviews.Their efforts have greatly enhanced the quality of contri-butions contained in the Encyclopedia. Special thanksgoes to Tom Allen, Andrew Bush, Etienne Berthier,Poul Christoffersen, Graham Cogley, Luke Copland,Moritz Dick, Thomas Grenfell, William Harrison, RobertHellstrom, Kenneth Jezek, Richard Lindzen, FrederickNelson, Mauri Pelto, Donald Rapp, and CornelisVanderveen.
We would also like to acknowledge the constant sup-port and help we received from Petra van Steenbergen,Senior Publishing Editor, Earth Sciences and Geography,Dr. Sylvia Blago, Associate Editor MRW and SimoneGiesler, Editorial Assistant, Springer.
Our families (V.P. Singh: wife Anita, son Vinay,daughter-in-law Sonali, and daughter Arti; P. Singh: wifeAnju, sons Arpit and Aman; and U.K. Haritashya: wifeNamrata and daughter Vanshika) allowed us to work dur-ing holidays, weekends and in night away from them.They provided support and help whenever we needed.Without their patience and love, this volume might nothave been completed, and we are much grateful to them.
Guide to the Reader
For the beginners, it is good to start with a general article,then track the list of cross-references provided at the endof the article to locate similar or relevant articles.For example, if one wants to learn about hydrologicalaspects of snow and glaciers, then one should go toGlacier Hydrology and Snow Hydrology, then MeltRunoff Modeling, then Impacts of Snow and Glaciers onRunoff, then Hydrochemical Characteristics of Snow, Iceand Glaciers, then Hydropower: Hydroelectric PowerGeneration from Alpine Glacier Melt, or several otherspecific Snow or Glacier Hydrology related articles. Thelist of cross-references provided at the end of the articleis not exhaustive, otherwise it would lead to a long listing,rather it is a guide for the reader to find other relevantarticles, which are further cross-referenced.
Experts or other readers with background in cryospheremay directly search for specific topics. For example, IceAge Cycles: Data, Models, and Uncertainties, or BasalSediment Evacuation by Subglacial Drainage Systems.If one does not find the topic one is looking for, it ispossible that it may have been covered under a differentheading. Therefore, one should go to the index that wouldlead to the articles that may cover the topic of interest.If a reader is looking for more explanation than what isalready described under any particular topic, then mostarticles provide important and landmark bibliographicreferences that relate to both general and research articles.Some articles provide older references which allowreaders to find the historical aspect of the topic.
As depth increases, firn porosity decreases and airmixing becomes more restricted (Schwander et al., 1997;Bender et al., 1997). Seasonal layering can also affectthe rate of air movement through firn (Albert, 1996) andmay produce impermeable layers in the non-diffusivezone. These prevent air from equilibrating with that inthe diffusive zone (Sowers et al., 1992; Schwander et al.,1997). While air may mix locally, within the summer layerfor example, impermeable winter layers impede its verti-cal diffusion (Fain et al., 2008).
Firn measurementsBorehole logging is used to measure firn properties in situ.These include temperature, density, and vertical strain.Unlike snow, which must be sampled at depth by digginga large snow pit and sampling from the sides, firn hasenough cohesion (Cohesion) to permit the extraction ofintact cores that are used to measure density, porosityand permeability, grain size, and anisotropy.
Because firn is compressible, seasonal layers thin withdepth. It is also porous and subject to the migration ofchemical species deposited with the snow (ChemicalComposition of Snow, Ice, and Glaciers). Both of theseaspects can complicate age-depth calculations. Whereannual layers cannot be distinguished optically or fromthe geochemical record, a density profile produced froma borehole log of vertical strain or measurements of mass,length, and diameter of core sections can reveal seasonallayering.
SummaryA transitional state between fallen snow and meteoric ice,firn is a complex material where vast morphological andchemical changes are taking place.
BibliographyAlbert, M., 1996.Modeling heat, mass and species transport in polar
firn. Annals of Glaciology, 23, 138–143.Albert, M. R., 2002. Effects of snow and firn ventilation of sublima-
tion rates. Annals of Glaciology, 35, 52–56.Albert, M. R., and Shultz, E. F., 2002. Snow and firn properties and
air-snow transport processes at Summit, Greenland. Atmo-spheric Environment, 36(15/16), 2789–2798.
Bender, M., Sowers, T., and Brook, E., 1997. Gases in icecores. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 94,8343–8349.
Bender, M. L., Floch, G., Chappellaz, J., Suwa, M., Barnola, J.-M.,Blunier, T., Dreyfus, G., Jouzel, J., and Parrenin, F., 2006. Gasage-ice age differences and the chronology of the Vostok icecore, 0–100 ka. Journal of Geophysical Research, 111(D21),115–125.
Colbeck, S. C., 1983. Theory of metamorphism of dry snow. Jour-nal of Geophysical Research, 88, 5475–5482.
Colbeck, S. C., 1989. Air movements in snow due to wind pumping.Journal of Glaciology, 35, 209–213.
Craig, H., Horibe, Y., and Sowers, T., 1988. Gravitation separationof gasses and isotopes in polar ice caps. Science, 242,1675–1678.
Domine, F., Lauzier, T., Cabanes, A., Legagneux, L., Kuhs, W. F.,Techmer, K., and Heinrichs, T., 2003. Snow metamorphism asrevealed by scanning electron microscopy.Microscopy Researchand Technique, 62, 33–48.
Fain, X., Ferrari, C. P., Dommergue, A., Albert, M., Battle, M.,Arnaud, L., Barnola, J. M., Cairns, W., Barbante, C., andBoutron, C., 2008. Mercury in the snow and firn at SummitStation, central Greenland and implications for the study ofpast atmospheric mercury levels. Atmospheric Chemistry andPhysics, 8, 3441–3457.
Hawley, R., Waddington, E. D., Morse, D. L., Dunbar, N. W., andZielinski, G. A., 2002. Dating firn cores by vertical strain mea-surements. Journal of Glaciology, 48(162).
Schwander, J., Sowers, T., Barnola, J. M., Blunier, T., Fuchs, A.,and Malaize, B., 1997. Age scale of air in the summit ice: impli-cations for glacial-interglacial temperature change. Journal ofGeophysical Research, 102, 19483–19493.
Sowers, T., Bender, M., Raynard, D., and Korotkevich, Y. S., 1992.d15N of N2 in air trapped in polar ice: a tracer of gas transport inthe firn and a possible constraint on ice age-gas age differences.Journal of Geophysical Research, 97(D14), 15,683–15,697.
Spencer, M. K., Alley, R. B., Fitzpatrick, J. J., 2006. Developing abubble number-density paleoclimatic indicator for glacier ice.Journal of Glaciology, 52(178), 358–364.
Swinkels, F. B., and Ashby, M. F., 1980. A second report onsintering diagrams. Metallurgica, 29, 259–281.
Cross-referencesAntarcticaChemical and Microbe Records in Snow and IceChemical Composition of Snow, Ice, and GlaciersCohesionGeochemistry of Snow and IceGlacierIceIsotopic Characteristics of Ice, Snow, and GlaciersLayering of SnowOverburden PressureSnow GrainsStratigraphy of SnowpacksTemperate Glaciers
FJORDS
Umesh K. Haritashya1, Vijay P. Singh2, Pratap Singh31Department of Geology, University of Dayton, Dayton,OH, USA2Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering,Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA3Tahal Consulting Engineers Ltd, New Delhi, India
SynonymsFiord
DefinitionFjords are long, narrow, and over-deepened features withsteep sides and are carved into bedrock by the glacialactivity and flooded by melting water (Figure 1).
FJORDS 293
Fjords are erosional landforms that represent the move-ment of a glacier within a confined channel along the val-ley bottom. The movement of a glacier and formation offjords is entirely controlled by topography. They are com-mon in the polar regions, but can also be found in subpolarand temperate regions (Table 1). Fjords have existed formillions of years and they range from a few kilometersto several tens of kilometers wide and several kilometerslong. Because of their location and relationship with thesea level on one side and tectonically active high moun-tains on the other side, they are an important feature. Theyalso possess unique characteristics of oceanic processesand ice-ocean interface (Straneo et al., 2010), and there-fore, they are appropriately termed as one of the complexand dynamic landsystems that provide information aboutglacial, fluvial, and oceanographic features.
Most fjords are a Palimpsest feature which makesthem an extremely important feature, because they canprovide information about the successive glaciationsthrough floor sediments. However, these sediments needto be carefully analyzed, since they may have been buriedby younger glacimarine sediments. Fjords act as naturalsediment traps and typically have high sediment accumu-lation rates, providing the potential for high-resolutionpalaeoclimatic and palaeoenvironmental studies ondecadal to centennial timescales and presenting a uniqueopportunity to study land–ocean interactions. Cowanet al. (2010) used the fjord sediment to identify two prom-inent glacial erosion surfaces associated with Last GlacialMaximum advance and Little Ice Age advance. Fjordscomprise several rock basins, but many of them aredeepest at the beginning and become gradually shallowertoward the sea. This could be related to the erosive power
of glaciers, which becomes lesser and lesser toward theend of the feature.
Sediment deposition in fjords can be related toretreating glaciers by depositional zones moving in theupward direction and hiatuses in retreat by push morainesor morainal banks. Powell and Molnia (1989) has shownvarious depositional system models associated withretreating glaciers, and he (Powell, 2003) has discussedsuch models in various types of environment from polarto temperate. Sediment deposition can also be related toadvancing glaciers in the form of increasing till thicknessfrom head of a fjord toward the sea limit.
Fjords also provide critical information about marinelimits and relate to with the isostaic uplift of deglaciatedouter coasts.
BibliographyCowan, E. A., et al., 2010. Fjords as temporary sediment traps: his-
tory of glacial erosion and deposition in Muir Inlet, Glacier BayNational Park, southeastern Alaska. GSA Bulletin, 122(7-8),1067–1080, doi:10.1130/B26595.1.
Powell, R. D., 2003. Subaquatic landsystems: fjords. In Evans,D. J. A. (ed.), Glacial Landsystems. London: Arnold,pp. 313–347.
Powell, R. D., and Molnia, B. F., 1989. Glacimarine sedimentaryprocesses, facies and morphology of the South-southeast Alaskashelf and fjords. Marine Geology, 85, 359–390.
Straneo, F., et al., 2010. Rapid circulation of warm subtropicalwaters in a major glacial fjord in East Greenland. Nature Geosci-ence, 3, 182–186, doi:10.1038/ngeo764.
Cross-referencesSediment Core and Glacial Environment Reconstruction
Fjords, Figure 1 Fjord as seen in Milford Sound, New Zealand. Photo courtesy Dr. Luke Copland.
294 FJORDS
Fjords,Table
1So
meofthemajorlocalcontrolsonmodern
fjord
landsystems(Adoptedfrom
Powell,
2003)
Clim
atic
zone
Glacial
flow
velocity
Internal
ice
cond
ition
Bed
cond
ition
Sub
glacial
water
free
Glacier
term
inus
Sedim
entcon
tribution
Glacial
Glacifluv
ialMarine
Terrestrial
Sub
-En-/
supra
Sub
-En-/
supra
icebergs
Sea
ice
biog
enic
Fluvial
Mass
flow
Wind
Mod
ernexam
ples
Temperate
Fast
Temperate
Deforming
till,local
Con
duit
flow
Tidew
ater
cliff
22
51
21
33
1Alaska,British
Colum
bia,Chile
Sub
polar
Fast
Slig
htly
cold
Deforming
till
Con
duit
flow
Tidew
ater
cliff
31
31
12
13
11
Svalbard,
Canadianand
Russian
Arctic
Mod
erate
Cold
Mostly
frozen,
localtill
Non
eto
minor
cond
uit
flow
Sho
rtfloatin
gtong
ueor
tidew
ater
cliff
22
12
11
Antarctic
Peninsula
Polar
Fast
Cold
Deforming
till
Local
cond
uit
thin
film
Floatingtong
ue3
13
31
12
11
Greenland
,Ellesm
ere
Island
,Baffin
Island
Mod
erate
Verycold
Deforming
till
Non
eFloatingtong
ue3
11
11
11
3Antarctica
(Mackay)
Slow
Verycold
Mostly
frozen,
sometill
Non
eFloatingtong
ueor
tidew
ater
cliff
11
11
11
3Antarctica(Ferrar
andBlue)
FJORDS 295