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TRANSCRIPT
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END NOTES
Chapter-I: Introduction
1. The term „Post-Colonial is used to refer to writing after India‟s
Independence. This study focuses on the theme of violence against
women as represented in Post-colonial Indian writing. Almost all the
works studied here are written after the 1960‟s to present times.
2. Oxford English Dictionary. (Oxford: OUP, 2010).
3. While there are numerous references to rape in the Bible, they are
hardly elaborated. These allusions are mere mentions and no
attempts are made to understand the trauma or to explore any
dimensions. More than a crime, rape has been looked upon as a
punishment in the classical allusions. For biblical references see The
Holy Bible. (Wisconsin: The Gideons International, 1961).
4. For references to these incidents in the Greek Classical world refer to
The Encyclopedia of Religion, ed. Lindsay Jones (New York:
Macmillan, 2004) and The Oxford Classical Dictionary (New York:
OUP, 2010).
5. Like the Hebraic and the Hellenic religious traditions, the Indian
cultural tradition too corroborates the use of violence in the man-
woman relationship. Allusions to the incidents are evinced in the
epics such as the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Puranas.
6. The debate about capital punishment for the crime of rape dates
back to the ancient times in Indian society. In Manusmriti too, the
177
recommendation of capital punishment or death sentence was
permitted in cases of rapes, albeit selectively see Pg. 190, 191. The
Laws of Manu. In Kautilya‟s Arthashastra in the second century
A.D. too there is the endorsement of capital punishment of rape in
selective cases. Kautilya, Arthashastra Trans. & ed. L.N. Lingarajan,
(New Delhi: Penguin, 1992), 448-49.
7. Psychologists have emphasized that rape victims suffer
psychologically and emotionally for a long period and sometimes all
their life. Greenberg and Ruback have stressed in their study the
personal and intimate violation of the self. Indian psychologist Dr.
Rajat Mitra, who founded the NGO Swancheten too feels that the
rape trauma syndrome (referred to as PTSD) affects the life of
victims for a long time and there is the need to treat it in order to
rehabilitate the victim. Greenberg and Ruback in Julie Alilison and
Lawrence Wrightsman Rape: The Misunderstood Crime, p. 148,
160. Dr. Rajat Mitra, TOI report „Project Hope‟ TOI, New Delhi 22,
May 2011, pg. 18.
8. „Take Back the Night Movement‟ (its website: www.
takebackthenight.org) started in 1976 in Brussels. It aimed at
securing women‟s right to safe space and removing fear of
movement. The inaugural march of 2000 women at the International
Tribunal of Crime Against Women triggered off many protests. In
1978 in Mumbai the march marked the protests against the rape of
a pregnant woman.
9. W.J.T. Mitchell, „Representation‟ in Critical Terms for Literary
Study, eds. Frank Lentricchia and Thomas McLaughlin (Chicago:
178
Univ. of Chicago Press, 1990).
10. Mark Ledbetter, Victims of the Post-Modern Narrative (London:
Macmillan, 1996) 13.
11. This study focuses on the study of man-on-woman rape, though there
are few freak incidents of reversal. Most studies have corroborated
that more than 96% cases are of man-on-woman rape. The proposal
to replace the word „rape‟ with „sexual assault‟ in the IPC is only to
allow justice for victims of child abuse and sodomy. It in no way
makes rape a gender-neutral crime. Cf TOI report, „Can a Woman
Rape a Man?‟ 28, March 2010: 19.
12. See Robert Newman „Self-Consuming Arts and Facts‟ in Theory and
Praxis eds. Prafulla C. Kar, Kailash Baral and Sura Rath (p 145-64)
and Rey Chow, „Gender and Representation‟ in Feminist
Consequences: Theory for the New Century eds. Elisabeth Bronfen
and Misha Kavka (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 2001) 38-44.
13. Mark Ledbetter, 1.
14. Wendy Doniger and Brian K. Smith‟s inference about the ancient
Indian society vis-à-vis The Laws of Manu (New Delhi: Penguin
Books, 2000) xxiv intro.
15. Kautilya‟s Arthashastra enlists punishments for sexual offences.
Kautilya, Arthashastra Trans. & ed. L.N. Rangarajan (New Delhi:
Penguin Books, 1992), VIII-XV 446-51.
16. Euphemistic portrayals of violence against women are seen in the
Mahabharata and Ramayana. Various instances of rape and
179
abductions in the epics discussed, ibid p.3. For a comparison of the
Shakuntala narrative in the epic and Kalidasa‟s play Abhigyan
Shakuntalam see Irawati Karve Yuganta: The End of an Epoch
(New Delhi: Disha, 1991).
17. See Fredric Jameson, Postmodernism or The Cultural Logic of Late
Capitalism. (London: Duke Univ. Press, 1991) 1-53.
18. Mark Ledbetter, 6.
19. In American writing the theme of violence was taken up in a muted
form in slave narratives in the nineteenth century. Later, the theme
underwent a radical transformation in the works of Alice Walker,
Maya Angelou and Toni Morrison.
20. The history of the Indian Women‟s movement began with the
mobilization of women against the rape of Mathura, a minor in
police custody. See „Women‟s Organization against Rape in India:
Report of a National Meeting‟ in Women and Violence compiled by
Miranda Davies (New Jersey: Zed Books, 1994) : 60-76 and Mala
Khullar ed. Writing the Women’s Movement: A Reader (New Delhi:
Zubaan, 2005).
21. Deliberations of the National Commission for Women and the Law
Commission have resulted in a series of amendments of rape laws.
22. The inference that male writing takes up the theme of violence
against women in situations where patriarchal honour is threatened is
taken up in Chapter-IV in this study.
23. See Chap-III - The Praxis of Rape in Peace for the analysis of
180
class/caste as the initiators of this crime.
24. Most of the studies mentioned here engage in some specific aspect of
violence against women and the scope of their study is limited. For
details of these works see the bibliography.
25. Rape during War/Conflict is discussed in Chap-IV.
26. Rape during peace is the subject of Chap. III.
181
Chapter-II: The Psycho-Socio Dynamics of Rape or Why Rape
Occurs
1. Claire M. Renzetti, Jeffrey L. Edelson & Raquel Kennedy Bergen,
eds. Sourcebook on Violence Against Women (California: Sage,
2001), 36.
2. Lee Ellis, Theories of Rape: Inquiries into the Causes of Sexual
Aggression (New York: Hemisphere Pub., 1989) 14.
3. Diana Russell, Lee Ellis and Susan Brownmiller are some of the
sociologists who believe that rape is the consequence of a rape –
supportive culture.
4. Susan Brownmiller, Against Our Wills: Men, Women and Rape
(New York: Simon Schuster, 1975) 5.
5. Albert Bandura, Lee Ellis and others believe that societies that
promote hypermasculinity are less likely to be rape-free. Bandura
in Renzetti ed. Sourcebook an Violence Against Women, 140.
6. Michael Kimmel, The Gendered Society (New York: Oxford
University Press, 2004) 52.
7. Rape involves the violation and infringement of right to gender
equality under Article 14 of the Constitution of India; Right to Life
and the Right to live with dignity under Article 21, besides the
violation of Right to Safe Environment free from Sexual
Harassment. It is also the violation of bodily rights biological
Rights to motherhood and human rights. See National Commission
for Women Annual Report 2005: Year of Endeavour (New Delhi:
182
NCW, 2005) 79-81.
8. See for further discussion on the challenges to personhood Francis
Barker, The Tremulous Private Body: Essay’s on Subjection (Ann
Arbor: The Univ. of Michigan Press, 1995) 21-81.
9. Michael Kimmel, The Gendered Society, 21-30.
10. Cited in Diana Russell, Sexual Exploitation (London: Sage, 1984),
56.
11. See Claire M. Renzetti, Jeffrey L. Edelson & Raquel Kennedy
Bergen eds. Sourcebook on Violence Against Women.
12. Rape as a measure to control women‟s choice of partners is an
aspect commented on by various sociologists and anthropologists
such as Julie Allison & Lawrence Wrightsman, Michael Kimmel
etc.
13. Mala Sen, India’s Bandit Queen: The True Story of Phoolan Devi
(New Delhi: Harper Collins, 2003). Elaborate analysis of this work
in Chap-III.
14. Mridula Garg, Kathgulab (Country of Goodbyes) Trans. Manisha
Chaudhary. (New Delhi: Kali for Women, 2003), 48.
15. Renzetti 217.
16. In Julie Allison & Lawrence Wrightsman Rape: The
Misunderstood Crime, 34.
17. Renzetti 217-230.
183
18. Mahasweta Devi “Draupadi”. In Other World: Essays in Cultural
Politics, Ed. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak (London: Methuen, 1987)
179-96.
19. In Up Against Foucault: Exploration of Some Tensions Between
Foucault and Feminism ed. Caroline Ramazanoglu (London:
Routledge, 1993), 86.
20. Various studies have emphasized the connection between cultural
endorsements of violence and media violence to incidence of
violent crimes like rape. See, Encyclopedia of Violence Against
Women Vol. I & II ed. Judith Worell: (San Diego: Academic Press,
2001) and Renzetti, ed. Sourcebook on Violence Against Women.
21. Mahasweta Devi “Choli Ke Peeche Kaya Hai”, Breast Stories.
Trans. Gayatri Spivak Chakravorty (Calcutta: Seagull Book, 1997).
Also refer to Appendix-II for a discussion on celluloid
representations of the theme.
22. Suchitra Bhattacharya, Dahan. Trans. Madhu Mitra (New Delhi:
Shristi, 2001).
23. Shashi Deshpande, The Binding Vine, 34-5.
24. Worrel, ed. Encyclopedia of Women and Gender, 709-15 and
Allison, Rape: The Misunderstood Crime, 14-15.
25. The transition from garbed and tacit representations of violence
against women to more overt representations can be seen across
cultures with the rise of women‟s movements.
184
26. For publication details of the above-mentioned works see
bibliography.
27. This is common to war/conflict situations internationally. See
chapter-IV for elaborate analysis.
28. The Binding Vine, 147.
29. Attempts to confine women to a limited space is a strategy of
patriarchal society since times immemorial. For a discussion on
the theme see Kalpana Vishwanath‟s essay “Shame and Control”
(313-33) and Seemanthini Niranjana‟s essay “Femininity, Space
and the Female Body” in Embodiment: Essays on Gender and
Identity ed. Meenakshi Thapan (Delhi: OUP, 1997): 107-124.
30. Lauren Berlant “The Subject of True Feeling”, Feminist
Consequences: Theory for the New Century eds. Elisabeth Bronfen
and Misha Kavka (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 2001) 145.
31. Berlant, 145-46.
32. Cited in Women’s Studies in India ed. Malashri Lal and Sukrita
Paul (Shimla: Indian Institute of Advanced Studies, 2002), 133.
33. „Sabha Parva‟. Ved Vyasa. The Mahabharata. Trans. and ed. J.A.B
Van Buitenan. Chicao: Univ. of (Chicago Press, 1981).
34. Pratibha Ray, Yajnaseni: The Story of Draupadi. Trans. Pradip
Bhattacharya (New Delhi: Rupa & Co., 1995).
35. Claude Levi-Strauss, The Elementary Structures of Kinship. Trans
J.H. Bill and J.R. von Sturmore, ed. Rodney Nedham (London:
185
George Allen & Unwin, 1969).
36. Gayatri Spivak Chakravorty „Can the Subaltern Speak?‟ Marxism
and the Interpretation of Culture. Eds. C. Nelson and L. Grossberg
(Basingstoke, Macmillan: 1988) 271-313.
37. Rey Chow „Gender and Representation‟. Feminist Consequences:
Theory for the New Century, eds. Elisabeth Bronfen & Misha
Kavka (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 2011), 44.
186
Chapter-III: The Praxis of Rape in Peace: Some Aspects
1. UNESCO report on violence and its causes cited in Women’s Studies
in India Malashri Lal and Sukrita Paul (Shimla: Institute of
Advanced Studies, 2002) 133.
2. Fredric Jameson, Postmodernism, 6-10.
3. See Jyoti Puri Women, Body Desire in Post-Colonial India (New
York: Routledge, 1999) and Meenakshi Thapan, ed. Embodiment:
Essays on Gender and Identity (Delhi: Oxford UP, 1997).
4. A comparative analysis of Indian and American writing reveals that
this theme of violation appeared much earlier in the form of
sentimental novels/diaries as early as the 1860s in America.
Nevertheless, serious engagement with the theme begin in the 1960
& 70s in sync with writing on the theme and women‟s movements
across the world.
5. Greenberg and Ruback quoted in Julie. Allison and Lawrence
Wrightsman. Rape: The Misunderstood Crime, 148.
6. S. Katz cited in J. Allison, 123.
7. Rape ensuing from communal violence/partition / conflict examined
in Chapter IV.
8. Mala Sen, India’s Bandit Queen : The True Story of Phoolan Devi
(1991 (New Delhi: Harper Collins, 2003).
9. Jyoti Puri, 88-97.
187
10. Puri, 98.
11. Gender discrimination through cultural practices deepens the chasm
between genders. This has its impact as increased possibility of
violence against women. See critics Kalpana Vishwanath,
Seemanthini Nranjana etc.
12. Priyamvada Gopal, “Of Victims and Vigilantes” Sinposts: Gender
Issues in Post-Independence India. Ed. Rajeshwari Sunder Rajan
(New Delhi: Kali for Women, 1999) 299.
13. Brenda Longfellow, “Rape and Translation in „Bandit Queen‟”.
Translating Desire, ed. Brinda Bose, 243.
14. Longfellow, 247.
15. See Catherine R. Stimpson, Where the Meanings are : Feminism and
Cultural Spaces (New York & London: Methuen, 1988).
16. Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish : The Birth of the Prison
(Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1979) 138.
17. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, In Other Worlds: Essays in Cultural
Politics (London & N.Y: Methuen, 1987) 179-96.
18. Spivak, Introduction, 167-69.
19. Race and colour are the analogues of caste and class in Afro-
American Writing. In a similar way they are responsible for the
double bind in the lives of the characters in such writing.
20. The divine intervention of Krishna salvages Draupadi‟s honour in
188
the classical epic.
21. Pratibha Ray, Yajnaseni: The Story of Draupadi, 3.
22. Sandra Gilbert & Susan Gubar, The Mad Woman in the Attic: The
Woman Writer & the Ninetenth-Century Literary Imagination (New
Haven: Yale UP, 1979).
23. Bani Basu, “The Fallen Man”. Trans. Nandini Guha Katha Prize
Stories 12. Ed. Geeta Dharmarajan (New Delhi: Katha, 2002) 154-
288.
24. Julie A Allison 2-5.
25. Shashi Deshpande, The Binding Vine (New Delhi: Penguin, 1993).
26. Theories such as the subculture of violence have now been
disproved as statistics prove that rape is committed by diverse
personality types and from a mixed strata of society. See Julie
Allison & Lawrence Wrightman Rape: The Misunderstood Crime
and article “Jump in Number of Offenders, Even From Well-Off
Families” 6, July 2008, The TOI, p.4.
27. Interview with Mridula Garg in Storylines: Conversations with
Women Writers (Delhi: Women‟s World, 2003) 291-309.
28. Mridula Garg, Kathgulab. Trans. Manisha Chaudhary (New Delhi:
Kali for Women, 2003).
29. Michel Foucault, The Uses of Pleasure: The History of Sexuality
Vol. II, Trans. Robert Hurley, 1984 (London: Penguin, 1992), 218-
221.
189
30. Interview with Mridula Garg, Storylines, 299.
31. Mridula Garg, Interview, 299.
32. The Times of India, 21 June 2006.
33. TOI Report, 7 October 2006, p. 29.
34. See TOI Report 21, June 2006.
35. TOI Report, 21 June 2006.
36. Shashi Deshpande, „The Intrusion and Other Stories (New Delhi:
Penguin, 1993) 34-42.
37. Suchitra Bhattacharya „Good Woman Bad Woman‟, Her Stories:
Twentieth Century Bengali Women Writers. Trans. Sanjukta
Dasgupta (New Delhi: Shristi, 2002).
38. The catalytic role of alcohol in violence against women has been
emphasized by numerous psychologists. See Julie Allison and
Lawrence Wrightsman, Rape: The Misunderstood Crime & Renzetti
Sourcebook on Violence Against Women.
39. Cited in Sourebook on Violence Against Women.
40. Suchitra Bhattacharya, Dahan, Trans Madhu Mitra (New Delhi:
Shristi, 2001).
41. Krishna Sobti, Surajmukhi Andherey Ke, Trans Kavita Nagpal
(Delhi: Vikas, 1979).
42. This work clearly shows the traumatic impact of rape on the victim,
190
Ratti through the emphasis on the PTSD (Post-Traumatic Stress
Disorder) ensuing from rape.
43. Anupama Niranjana „The Incident – and After‟ Women Writing in
India: Vol. II Eds. Susie Tharu ad K. Lalitha (New Delhi: Oxford
UP, 1993).
44. Jyoti Puri, 75-77.
45. Bhanwari Devi, a Dalit Sathin was raped by upper caste men for her
activism against child marriage. In 2002, Bhuvaneshwari Devi, a
teacher in a Panchayat School was sentenced to a gang-rape by an
elected Panchayat.
46. Ambai „Black Horse Square‟. A Purple Sea: Short Stories by Ambai.
Trans. Lakshmi Holmstrom (New Delhi: Affiliated East-West Press,
1992.
47. The controversy around the Mathura rape case when a minor was
raped in police custody and the ensuing protest form the backdrop
to this short story.
48. Jyoti Puri, 75-102.
49. Anita Desai, Fire on the Mountain (New Delhi: Allied Pub., 1977).
The infiltration of violent ways from imperialist colonizers to the
colonized is discussed by Aijaz Ahmed in “Post-colonialism: What‟s
in a Name?” in Late Imperial Culture, eds. Roman de la Campa, Ann
Kaplan & Michael Sprinker (London: Verso, 1995).
50. Isobel Armstrong, Radical Aesthetics (Oxford: Blackwell, 2000).
191
51. The spatial banishment of the rape victim out of the city (a-polis) is
part of the stigma rape victims face.
52. Rajendra Yadav, ‟Sabse Bada Kahaani Puraskar‟ Hans No. 2 Sept
2004 : 4-10.
53. Ajay Nawaria, „Dhai Aakhar‟, Hans, No. 2 Sept 2004: 52-62.,
Kavita, „Dehdansh‟. Hans No. 2 Sept 2004 : 63-68.
54. Yadav, 8.
55. Shekhar Mallik, „Asvikaar‟. Hans No.2 Sept 2004: 26-32.
56. Sushma Munindra, „It‟s My Life‟, Hans No.2 Sept 2004: 33-40.
Lata Sharma . „Jin Din Dekhe Ve Kusum‟ Hans No.2 Sept 2004: 41-
51. Usha Yadav, „Gangrape‟ Hans No.2 Sept 2004: 77-78.
57. The analogy of appropriation of rights over a woman‟s body and
imperialistic ambitions of developed nations has often been raised.
See Anuradha M. Chenoy‟s article on militarism and glorification of
masculinity “Fauji Mardvaad: Ghar aur Baahar”. Hans No.7 Feb
2004: 27-28.
58. The interrogation of society‟s outlook to the crime of rape is
emphasized by many works examined in this study. However,
Manjula Pandmanabhan‟s play Lights Out specifically focuses on the
social apathy that contributes to this crime (hence this sub-heading).
59. Manjula Padmanabhan, Lights Out in Body Blows: Women, Violence
and Survival: Three Plays (Calcutta: Seagull Books, 2000).
192
60. Of the works examined in this study Pinki Virani‟s, Aruna’s Story:
The True Account of a Rape and its Aftermath (New Delhi: Viking,
1998) is of special significance as it examines rape at the work place
in a non-fictional account.
61. Aruna Shanbaug‟s brain shriveled under the impact of assault in
1973. This confirms the intimidating impact of rape on a woman‟s
brain. Cf. report The Times of India, New Delhi, 28 February 2011.
62. Pinki Virani‟s appeal for mercy-killing was turned down in 2011. Cf.
The Times of India, New Delhi, 28 February 2011.
193
Chapter-IV: The Praxis of Rape in War and Conflict
1. Critics including Veena Das, Ashis Nandy, Urvashi Butalia etc. have
drawn attention to the conflation of women‟s identity with the
nation‟s.
2. See Partha Chatterjee „The Nationalist Resolution of the Women‟s
Question‟ Recasting Women: Essays in Colonial History, eds.
Kumkum Sangari & Sudesh Vaid (New Delhi: Kali for Women,
1989) 233-53.
3. „Gender symbolism‟ is a phrase, aptly used by Rosemary George
„Feminists Theorize Colonial/postcolonial‟, The Cambridge
Companion to Feminist Literary Theory ed. Ellen Rooney
(Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2006) 222.
4. Sudhir Kakar, The Colours of Violence (Delhi: Viking, 1995), 175.
5. See Urvashi Butalia, The Other Side of Silence: Voices from the
Partition of India (New Delhi: Penguin, 1998) and Ritu Menon and
Kamla Bhasin Borders and Boundaries (New Delhi: Kali for
Women, 1998).
6. See Rita Manchanda, ed. Women, War and Peace in South Asia
(New Delhi: Sage, 2004).
7. The use of Viagra boosters by Gaddafi‟s forces in Libya suggests
conscious and strategic use of rape in warfare. The Times of India.
New Delhi, 27 April 2011.
8. Cited in Rita Manchanda, 73.
194
9. Jyoti Puri, 94.
10. Sa‟adat Hasan Manto, „Open It‟. For Freedom’s Sake: Selected
Stories and Sketches Intro. Mohammad Asadudin (Karachi: OUP,
2001).
11. Saadat Hasan Manto, „Compassion‟ in Alok Bhalla ed. Stories About
the Partition of India, 97.
12. S.H. Manto „Cold Meat‟. Trans & ed Alok Bhalla Stories About the
Partition of India (New Delhi Indus, 1994) 91-96.
13. Jamila Hashmi, “Exile”. Trans & ed. Alok Bhalla Stories About the
Partition of India (New Delhi: Indus, 1994) 39-53.
14. Amrita Pritam‟s story Pinjar (The Skeleton) written in Punjabi in
1950 contrasts the rejection of women by their community as
against the shelter provided by the other community.
15. Rajinder Singh Bedi, „Lajwanti’ – Trans . & ed. Alok Bhalla. Stories
About the Partition of India (New Delhi: Indus, 1994) 55-66.
16. S.H. Vatsayan Ajneya „Getting Even‟. Trans Alok Rai Ed. Alok
Bhalla Stories About the Partition of India (New Delhi: Indus, 1994)
119-25.
17. Alok Bhalla “Introduction”. Stories About the Partition of India
(New Delhi: Indus, 1994) 22.
18. The paradigmatic shift from descriptive to prescriptive writing i.e.
writing that posits life after rape and reinforces rehabilitative
empowerment seems to make a beginning even in Partition
195
literature.
19. Jyotirmoyee Devi, Epar Ganga Opar Ganga (New Delhi : Kali for
Woman, 1995).
20. Ved Vyasa The Mahabharata Trans. & ed. J.A.B. Van Buitenan.
Chicago. (Chicago UP, 1981). The „Mushal Parva‟ or the „Book of
the Clubs describes the destruction of the Yadavas with clubs
(„musalas‟). The author had in mind the mutual destruction of the
Hindu‟s and Muslims during the Partition.
21. Ram Manohar Lohiya, Rachnavali Vol. 5. Trans. Mast Ram Kapoor
(New-Delhi: Anamika, 2008).
22. Cited in Jasodhara Bagchi, „Introduction‟ Epar Ganga Opar Ganga,
xxxiii.
23. Bhisham Sahni, Tamas. Trans. Jai Ratan (New Delhi: Penguin,
1974).
196
Chapter-V: Inadequacy of Rape Laws: A Literary Perspective
1. Cited in Nivedita Menon, ed. Sexualities: Issues in Contemporary
Indian Feminism (New Delhi: Women Unlimited, 2007) xiv.
2. See „Women‟s Organizations against Rape in India: Report of a
National Meeting‟ Miranda Davies, ed. Women and Violence (New
Jersey: Zed Books, 1994) 60-76.
3. For a discussion of these issues see Nivedita Menon “Embodying the
Self : Feminism, Sexual Violence and the Law” in Brinda Bose, ed.
Translating Desire: The Politics of gender and Culture in India New
Delhi: Katha, 2002) 200-221 and Toril Moi, Sex, Gender and the
Body (Oxford: OUP, 2005).
4. Sharon Marcus, „Fighting Bodies, Fighting Words: A Theory and
Politics of Rape Prevention‟, in Joan Scott & Judith Butler eds.
Feminists Theorise the Political (London & NY: Routledge, 1992)
398-99.
5. Nivedita Menon „Rights, Bodies and the Law: Rethinking Feminist
Politics of Justice in Gender and Politics in India (New Delhi:
Oxford UP, 1999).
6. Diane Scully, „Understanding Sexual Violence‟ : 234.
7. See TOI: report, „Inside A Rapist‟s Mind‟. TOI, New Delhi, 10
January 2006.
8. Diane Scully, „Understanding Sexual Violence‟, 234.
9. Merriam Webster Dictionary. (Massachusetts: Encyclopedia
197
Britannnica, 2002).
10. Seemanthini Niranjana, „Bodily Matrices‟ in Writing the Women’s
Movement A Reader (New Delhi: Zubaan, 2005) 480.
11. Elizabeth Spelman, Inessential Woman: Problems of Exclusion in
Feminist Thought (Boston: Beacon Press; 1988) 30-31; 126-31.
12. The Hindi phrase „izzat lootna‟ suggests that women are treated as
the property of men around them.
13. For a detailed discussion of what rape entails see Chap-II, note 7.
14. Flavia Agnes, Journey to Justice (Mumbai: Majlis, 1990) 9-10.
15. Chapter – XVI, Section 375, Indian Penal Code, 1860.
16. „Modesty‟ and „Consent‟ are issues that are infinitely interpretable
and have contributed to the low conviction rate in rape cases. See an
interesting discussion of the same in „What Women Want‟ The
Times of India 29 July 2011. The attempt to redefine rape laws
includes the redrafting of the IPC, Evidence and Cr. PC. See
National Commission for Women Reports.
17. Judith Worell, ed. Encyclopedia of Women and Gender Vol. II (San
Diego: Academic Press, 2001) 893.
18. Worell, 894.
19. Flavia Agnes „Protecting Women Against Violence?‟ in Economic
and Political Weekly 25 April 1992: 21.
20. The NCRB data shows a 792% increase in rape cases since 1971
198
and the rate of convictions as abysmally low as 27% in 2010. The
Times of India New Delhi, 13 Nov. 2011, p.18.
21. NCRB Crime Clock in The Times of India, New Delhi 1 Sept 2006.
22. NCRB data The Time of India 7 Jan 2007.
23. Most of these cases were publicized and long struggles for justice
followed. However, the Sarita Rani case that took place in May 2008
was unique in many ways. The victim was raped on the premises of
the Central Investigating Agency (CIA) by two policemen –
constable Balraj and Silak Ram. To hush the matter the policemen
offered money and framed the husband to scare the victim. Strangely
enough, Sarita Rani‟s mother had killed herself 24 years earlier to
prevent rape. See report in The Times of India, 10 & 11 June 2008.
24. Carol Smart, „Feminism and The Power of Law’, 302.
25. Smart, 301.
26. See report TOI, New Delhi 3 May 2008.
27. In the Priyadarshini Mattoo case this provision to appeal against the
acquittal of the accused was seen in action and justice was obtained.
28. See National Commission for Women Annual Report (New Delhi:
NCW, 2005) 67-8 & 277-88.
29. NCRB data in TOI report, 17 July, 2003.
30. TOI report, 17 July 2003
199
31. TOI report , 7 November 2004.
32. TOI Report 7 November 2004.
33. TOI report 7 November 2004.
34. In Julie Allison, Rape: The Misunderstood Crime, 85.
35. Allison, 85-86.
36. Allison, 87.
37. Russell cited in Julie Allison and Lawrence Wrightsman, 87-88.
38. See TOI Report 4 Dec 2004 & 21 June 2006.
39. Cited in Julie Allison and Lawrence Wrightsman, 93.
40. Pinki Virani, Aruna’s Story.
41. Shekhar Mallik, „Asvikaar‟.
42. Suchitra Bhattacharya, Dahan.
43. Ambai, ‘Black Horse Square‟.
44. Mridula Garg, Kathgulab.
45. Suchitra Bhattacharya, „Good Woman Bad Woman‟.
46. Bani Basu, The Fallen Man.
200
47. Shashi Deshpande,The Binding Vine.
48. Mala Sen, India’s Bandit Queen.
49. Manjula Pandmanabhan, Lights Out.
50. See Report „Insult to Injury: Rape Takes a Steeper Toll on Dalit
Women‟ TOI, New Delhi, 15 Dec. 2009.
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Chapter-VI: Conclusions
1. Mikhail Bakhtin The Dialogic Imagination Trans. Michael Holquist
& Caryl Emerson, (Austin: Univ. of Texas Press, 1981) 15.
2. Lauren Berlant, „The Subject of True Feeling: Pain, Privacy and
Politics, 145.
3. This is observed by Indian writers such as Mridula Garg, Maria
Mies, Urvashi Butalia and others.
4. A drift from descriptive to prescriptive models is observed in the
attempt to understand and represent women‟s sexuality.
5. Joyce Carol Oates and Adrienne Rich were the pioneering voices
who recommended the writing of the woman‟s body in the text. See
Joyce Carol Oates First Person Sigular and Adrienne Rich „Notes
towards a Politics of Location‟.
6. See details in the bibliography.
7. Amongst Western scholars the significant critics who have
commented on the conditioning of women‟s bodies are Simone de
Beauvoir, Luce Irigaray, Diane Scully among others.
8. Veena Das and Ashis Nandy „Violence, Victimhood and the World‟
ed. Veena Das (Delhi: Sage, 1986) 177-97.
9. Susan Brownmiller, Against Our Wills and Katherine O‟ Donovan
„Sexual Divisions in Law‟ 269-76. See note above in Chap. I for
Slutwalk and „Give us Back the Night‟ movement.
202
10. George Kimmel and Allan Johnson have explored the connection
between violence against women and levels of discrimination
between genders.
11. See bibliography for details.
12. Partition /Conflict narratives discussed above in Chap. IV.
13. A vestigial proportion of male writing dwells on the theme of
violence against women (sp. rape). In this study except for Shekhar
Malik and Ajay Nawaria‟s short stories, and no other work by a
male writer dwells on the theme in peaceful situations.
14. Adrienne Rich „Notes Towards a Politics of Location‟s in Post-
Colonial Theory: A Reader eds. Reina Lewis and Sara Mills
(Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ. Press, 2003), 31.
15. Rich, 32-35.
16. Mridula Garg, Interview, 308.
17. Sharon Marcus, „Fighting Bodies, Fighting Words‟, 391.
18. Cited in George Kimmel, 279.
19. Established by data and studies mentioned above.
20. Rene Girard, Violence and the Sacred, 218.
21. Malavika Karlekar, Voices From Within and Uma Chakravarti,
Rewriting History; The Life and Times of Pandita Ramabai (New
Delhi: Kali, 1998).
203
22. Critics such as Urvashi Butalia, Veena Das, Ashis Nandy, Ritu
Bhasin, Rita Manchanda have stressed the same.
23. Mridula Garg, Kathgulab.
24. Krishna Sobti, Surajmukhi Andherey Ke.
25. See Appendix-II.
26. Veena Das and Ashis Nandy „Violence, Victimhood and the
Language of Silence, op. cit 177-97.
27. Urvashi Butalia, The Other Side of Silence cites the RSS magazine
The Organizer that metaphorically represented the act of Partition as
violation of the body of the pure Hindu woman i.e. Bharatmata, 139.
28. Veena Das and Ashis Nandy, “Violence Victimhood and the
Language of Silence op. cit.
29. See Chap-III and IV above.
30. See Chap III for a detailed analysis of Jyotirmoyee Devi‟s Epar
Ganga Opar Ganga.
31. This inference is based on the comparison specially of narratives that
deal with rape in peace and in war /conflict.
32. This classification is made on the basis of differing levels of
resistance and rehabilitation issues vis-à-vis rape. Works in the
First-Phase are primarily descriptive, those in the second phase
explore issues related to the crime and delve deeper. Works in the
Third Phase include some radical writing that is prescriptive in
204
many ways. Some of the Hans stories will also appear here. EGOG
is a radical work of an earlier period but appears here for its mature
handling of the issues.
33. Mala Sen‟s depiction certainly emphasizes the eviction of Phoolan
from her home and the „polis‟ to the outskirts, and finally her
ultimate rejection followed by incarceration. However, her courage
and determination to carve a niche for herself is seen in her
victorious comeback as a MP.
34. An aspect stressed by Partha Chatterjee, Butalia, Das and Nandy etc.
See above.
35. All these mythological sisters of Sutara were violated and failed to
get justice.
36. The dilemma of women in war/conflict has been contrasted in
Bhisham Sahni‟s Tamas.
37. Critics like Susan Brownmiller, Michelle Barrett, Adrienne Rich,
Veena Das, S. Niranjana, K. Viswanath have commented on the
aspiration of society to control women‟s sexuality and thereby
identity.
38. See Chap IV above.
39. Stasa Zajovic „Women and Ethnic Cleansing‟ cited in Ritu Menon
and Kamla Bhasin Borders and Boundaries (New Delhi : Kali for
Women, 1998), 44.
40. The Laws of Manu, Chap 11 verse 59, 171-3.
205
41. See Appendix-I.
42. Michel Foucault Discipline and Punish (New York: Vintag), 1979),
201. Also see Jana Sawicki „Foucault, feminism and questions of
Identity‟ in The Cambridge Companion to Foucault, ed. Gary
Gutting (New York: Columbia UP, 1994), p. 290.
43. Judith Worrell ed. Encyclopedia of Women and Gender op. cit. See
Appendix IV for view of Psychologists in India on the issue.
44. Mridula Garg, Interview, 300.
45. The Laws of Manu and Kautilya‟s Arthashashtra See Chap. I.
46. Susan Brownmiller, Against Our Wills. See Chap-I.
47. Marge Piercy „Rape Poem‟. Circles on the Water The Selected
Poems of Marge Piercy. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1982).
48. See Chap I for a discussion of some myths.
49. Mridula Garg Interview, 291.
50. See Chap-III and IV for a discussion of these works.
51. See Chap-III, IV and V for a discussion of these works.