energy audits · 2020. 12. 23. · • energy – reduced availability of water threatens...
TRANSCRIPT
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Energy Audits Day 1
Expert Training on Energy System Optimization (ESO)
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1. Detailed Energy Audit (ISO 50002) 1.1 Pakistan Energy Sector
1.2 ISO 50002 Overview
1.3 Energy Audit Types
1.4 Energy Audit Planning and Support
1.5 Data Collection, Measurement Plan
1.6 On site surveys
1.7 Analysis
1.8 Economic Analysis: Project Packaging
1.9 Reporting
1.10 Baseline Development: Industrial Benchmarking Techniques
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2. Electrical Energy 2.1 Electrical Energy: Overview
2.2 Electric Lighting Introduction
2.3 Existing Lighting Technologies
2.4 Lighting Energy Management Opportunities
2.5 Electric Motors Fundamentals
2.6 Electric Motors Energy Management Opportunities
2.7 Power Quality
3. Thermal Energy 3.1 Fundamentals and Pshychrometry
3.2 Building Envelope
3.3 Heat Flow and Insulation
3.4 Refrigeration
3.5 Heat Transfer
3.6 Steam Systems
3.7 Renewable Energy
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4. Mechanical Energy 4.1 Mechanical Energy: Overview
4.2 Compressed Air Systems Demand Side
4.3 Compressed Air Systems Supply Side
4.4 Compressed Air Systems Treatment & Distribution
4.5 Compressed Air Systems Case Studies
4.6 Pump Systems: Enhancing Centrifugal Pumps Efficiency
4.7 Variable Speed Drives: Application
4.8 Fan Systems: Overview
5. Energy Management 5.1 ISO 50001: Requirements
5.2 ISO 50001: Implementation
5.3 Energy and Demand
5.4 Electric Cost Components
5.5 Energy Management Stages
5.6 Measurement and Verification
5.7 Software and Instrumentation
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PAKISTAN ENERGY SECTOR
Overview
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Climate Change Impact
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Climate Change Impact
• Ranks 7th in the Global Climate Risk Index 2017
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Climate Change Impact
• Agriculture and livestock - 80% of the major crops are grown on 23mha. 1/3 of the land (6.5mha) has been degraded.
• Energy – reduced availability of water threatens hydropower generation and thermal power plant cooling. Energy infrastructure is vulnerable to floods, storms, hurricanes and sea-level rise.
• Karachi – 17 mln people, the port accounts for 42% of GDP, generates ½ of tax revenues, priciest real estate. Risks of flooding, drought, extreme heat events, sea level rise,
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Why does this matter to the Business
• Climate Resilience Investments • Agriculture
• crop genotypes and livestock breeds with greater tolerance to climatic stress.
• Implementing best management practices for climate resilience
• Industry
• Investments in EE/RE to mitigate energy availability and volatility
• Investments in clean technologies
• Tourism
• climate change risk considerations into coastal development and land use planning
• climate change considerations into existing loan products to the tourism sector
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The Sector
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The Sector - Generation • Gas network – provides about 4 mil ft3 per day (demand is 6). Pakistan was gas sufficient until 2005,
due to increased demand, lack of alternative fuel and price subsidies, there are gas shortages.
• 30% of the gas is used for power generation, followed by households – 23%, industry – 20%, fertilizers – 18%.
• Oil - domestic production is not enough. As a result Pakistan imports oil and oil-based products from Middle East countries especially from Saudi Arabia.
• Transport (51%) and power (41%) are the two major users of oil;
• Renewable Energy - Alternative Energy Development Board (AEDB) is the representing agency of the federal government, established with the main objective to facilitate, development of Renewable Energy.
Wind power Plants Solar Power Plants Co-generation Plants
No. Capacity MW
No. Capacity MW
No. Capacity (MW)
In Operation 6 308.2 1 100 5 160.1
Under Development or Initial phase 52 2,589.2 28 956.8 30 1,043.4
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Energy Generation
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Issues in the Energy Sector
• Lack of Integrated Energy Planning & Demand Forecasting, seriously worsening the gap between energy supply and demand;
• Circular Debt, amount of cash shortfall within the Central Power Purchasing Agency (CPPA) that it is unable to pay to the power supply companies;
• Imbalanced Energy Mix with heavy reliance on gas and oil (72% imported);
• Non-utilization of vast indigenous resources of Thar Coal and Hydel potential;
• Lack of effective project structuring, planning and implementation of identified and viable projects;
• Transmission/distribution losses/thefts; • Inadequate revenue collection by DISCOs.
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Pakistan Vision 2025 • Eliminate current electricity supply-demand gap by 2018, and cater to growing
future demand by addition of 25,000 MW by 2025 • Optimize energy generation mix between oil, gas, hydro, coal, nuclear, solar,
wind and biomass – with reference to its indigenousness, economic feasibility, scalability, risk assessment and environmental impact
• Tap Pakistan’s huge potential for alternative energy • Focus on demand management and conservation to ensure prioritization in
allocation, elimination of wasteful use, incentives to use more energy efficient equipment and appliances and achieve better balance between peak and off-peak hours
• Introduce institutional reform and strengthen regulatory frameworks to improve transparency and efficiency.
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Objectives of Power Policy 2015
• To provide sufficient power generation capacity at the leas cost • To encourage and ensure exploitation of indigenous resources • To ensure that all stakeholders are looked after in the process; a win-win
situation • To be attuned to safeguarding the environment
• Currently no energy conservation policy exists in the country. • The energy conservation bill (ECB) has been approved by the standing
committee of National Assembly and is pending for approval from the parliament.
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Recommendations for improvement of Energy Sector • Promote domestic alternate sources of energy including hydro, solar, wind, coal and
agriculture biomass/biodiesel; • Energy conservation and demand management programs; • Coping with the circular debt and better management of the power sector financial flows;
• Existing power plants to be overhauled to achieve maximum efficiency; • Undertake policies/programs to improve governance/performance of energy sector entities
• Decrease costs and Increase cash flows;
• Ensure operational/financial integrity of the sector;
• Implement international best practices including smart metering / automated meter reading (AMR) systems and Time of Use (TOU) tariff;
• Resolve tariff and subsidy disputes between provincial governments and CPPA/DISCOs;
• Penalties for electricity thefts; • Political appointment culture needs to be replaced with professionalism/merit; • Fuel allocation policies be introduced;
• Relocation of imported furnace oil with gas into power production;
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WHY EE?
• Energy Efficiency can apply “Proven” & cost effective technologies to supply the World’s projected electricity growth for Next 20 Years!
• EE is the “Cleanest” and “Cheapest” Energy; • Don’t generate EE = “0” GHG Emissions!! • Costs less than 50% of Generated Power • Quick paybacks = “Paid-From-Savings”;
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EE/RE Technologies Investment
High Low
Investment
High Low
Savings
High Low
Payback Period
Low
High
USD/Ton CO
2 Avoided
High Low
Investment
High Low
Savings
High Low
Payback Period
Low
High
USD/Ton CO
2 Avoided
1. Renewable Energy. 2. Cogeneration and Tri-Generation. 3. Supply Side Efficient Technologies. 4. Waste to Energy and Recovery Systems.
1. Efficient Lighting Technology. 2. Automation and Controls. 3. Drives and VSD. 4. Boilers and Steam Systems. 5. Efficient Cooling Systems.
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DETAILED ENERGY AUDIT (ISO 50002)
Overview
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Energy Audit Process
Why reinvent the wheel?
Excellent tools and guides available
Easy to use, easy to read, reliable, well researched
Most are free
Guidance and Tools for Energy Audits
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Energy Audit Process • Energy Audit and Energy System Guides
• ASHRAE
Procedures for Commercial and Building Energy Audits
• Association of Energy Engineers (AEE)
Certified Energy Auditor Body of Knowledge
Energy Management Handbook, Dr. Wayne C. Turner
• and many, many more…
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Energy Audit standards Examples of Standards
ISO 50002
AS/NZS 3598
BS EN 16247-1:2012
Many others Which one is best? Answer: None of them. They are all similar and promote
the same basic steps!
Do we need a reference framework for energy audits? YES
Do all energy audits need to have exactly the same approach, details, etc.?
NO – All energy audits are different! Different objectives, different
budgets, different systems, etc.
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Energy Audit Process • Definition of an Energy Audit
Typical objectives / components:
Develop an energy balance of a facility and determine the consumption intensity and demand profile of energy sub-systems
Preliminary identification of opportunities for further study and investment targeting
Diagnose the performance of an energy system
Detailed study to demonstrate feasibility and justify investment in an energy efficiency measure (s)
Identification of the risk profile of a project for a load application
Verification of performance of an existing energy efficiency investment
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Energy Audit Process ISO 50002 - Energy audit steps
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ENERGY AUDIT TYPES
Selecting appropriate level of audit
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Pre-Feasibility Study / Simple Facility (ISO 50002 -Level 1 Energy Audit)
Source: Adapted from Natural Resources Canada,2005, Retscreen Clean Energy Project Analysis Textbook
Measurement & Verification (M&V) of Savings
Detailed Feasibility Study / Complex Facility (ISO 50002 -Level 2 Energy Audit)
Advanced Feasibility Study / Large Facility / Complex Energy Sub-System (ISO 50002 -Level 3 Energy Audit)
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Level 1
Accuracy •-30% to -50% Savings •+30% to + 50% Costs
Uses •Monitoring •Scoping •Qualification •Key feasibility study for small facilities or simple energy systems
LOE (Typical) •Small-Medium Building •1 days on site •1 week office report writing •Large Building •2 days on site •2 weeks office report writing
Level 2
Accuracy •-15% to -25% Savings •+15% to + 25% Costs
Uses •Detailed feasibility •Firm internal funding requests
LOE (Typical) •Small-Medium Building •1 week on site •2 weeks office report writing
•Large Building •2 Weeks on site •4 weeks office report writing
Level 3
Accuracy •-5% to -10% Savings •+5% to + 10% Costs
Uses •Advanced Investment Feasibility Study – more detail for a larger, more complex facility •External Funding Requests •System Specific Detailed Feasibility Study
LOE generally the same as Level 2 •LOE determined by detail required and / or complexity of a sub system
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Energy Audit Process Selecting the Audit Detail Key Points:
Level 1 audit is always conducted!
Level 1 energy audit is low cost investment and typically used for planning a more detailed audit or as a stand alone audit on simple facilities
More detailed audits should not be performed until a firm commitment to projec implementation under agreed upon investment qualification criteria has been made
The audit detail should depend on the current risk level of the project and / or accuracy of the energy balance required. Risks depends on:
- Complexity of the facility and measures - Availability of funding - Accuracy of data used to analyze opportunities and develop design concept- Capacity of resource available to implement projects
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Application
Small energy budgets
Preliminary for large organizations
• Needs Addressed
Indication of potential savings from more detailed audits
Awareness
Identifying strategic areas of focus
Defining scope for a more detailed audit
Determining scale of opportunity
Developing a better understanding of the stakeholders
• Data Collection
Skills: basic technical training and understanding of systems
Using existing data and meters—rules of thumb based on basic parameters
Establishing basic energy performance indicators
Site equipment list, schedules, duty factors and load factors
Level 1 Audit
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• Effort and Methods
Level of effort: 1-2 days on site, 1-2 weeks in the office
Relies mainly on readily available documentation (drawings, utility
bills, maintenance logs, etc.)
Accuracy: - 30% to -40% savings and +30% to 40% costs
Use rules of thumb and/or benchmarking for analysis and savings
calculations
Establish schedules, operating hours, loading mainly through
observations and personnel interviews
Level 1 Audit
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Application › Larger facilities › Further development of opportunities prioritized in Level 1 audit for investment
Needs Addressed › Evaluating a range of specific opportunities › Identifying complex opportunities that require a more detailed study (Level 3) › Auditor is typically outsourced and has appropriate technical skills and familiarity
with particular facility › Understanding operational factors in detail – budget, procurement, leadership,
approvals process etc. Data Collection
› Requires detailed data including daily profiles › Detailed variables for production, occupancy, weather correlated to energy use › Sub-metered data—site data can be sufficient, but temporary metering may be
needed › Data required: design data, O&M data, capital plans, instrument configurations,
automation details
Level 2 Audit
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• Effort and Methods
Level of effort: 1-2 weeks on site 4 weeks in office
Detailed analysis of utility bills, collect available sub-meter
data, extensive spot measurements
Accuracy: -15% to -10% savings and 15% to 10% of costs
Using detailed modeling techniques; developing detailed
energy balance
Level 2 Audit
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Application › Highly detailed – requires significant input from client › Cost effective for customers with very large energy spendings › Can be a focused assessment on a very specific system (compressed air) Needs Addressed › More detailed evaluation of a range of specific opportunities › Detailed cost-benefit analysis with energy and non-energy factors considered › Must consider strategic business objectives › Auditor is highly skilled and often a specialist of the specific system; often requires
outsourcing to specialist Data Collection › Detailed load profiles examined; examining variables in parallel › May need to instrument key processes › Development of detailed energy mass balance could be required for process › Data required: design data, O&M data, capital plans, instrument configurations,
automation details
Level 3 Audit
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• Effort and Methods
Level of effort: 1-2 weeks as necessary on site and 4 weeks
in the office
Detailed analysis of systems using specialized instruments,
outside technical specialists, temporary sub-metering
Accuracy: - 5-10% of savings and + 10% of costs
Level 3 Audit
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Project Life
Development Construction Period
Performance Period
Costs
Benefits
(Energy, Operations Savings)
(Operations, Energy, M&V, Debt Service) (EAs, implementation planning, finance planning)
Energy Efficiency Project Cycle Costs and Benefits
Key Point: Energy audits are necessary, but the develop and verification costs reduce the size of energy efficiency measures . The level of effort for an EA and other development activities should always be minimized. Development and performance verification costs are categorized as “transaction costs” and are a key burden and deterrent to energy efficiency project implementation.
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Optimizing Audit & M&V costs
= Larger Net Customer Benefit!
Net Benefit =
Utility / Operations Savings – (Implementation Costs + M&V Costs
+ Audit Costs)
Energy Efficiency Project Cycle Costs and Benefits
Energy Audit Process
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Quantifying Other, Non-Energy Savings Benefits is Important:
• Reduces emissions and other environmental impacts
• Increases the availability of non-renewable resources
• Lowers energy costs for consumers, reducing not only consumption but also the overall need for investment in energy supply
• Improves competitiveness and overall productivity
Energy Efficiency Project Costs and Benefits
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DETAILED ENERGY AUDIT (ISO 50002)
Planning and support
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Step 1: Energy Audit Planning
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2
3
4 5 6 7 8
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Stakeholder Communication
Determine the energy audit objectives, scope, roles, responsibilities, data requirements, resources, timeframe, issues Investment criteria Selecting audit type/detail, reporting format, approval
process
Energy Audit Planning
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Review the strategic business context for energy
How is energy use related to: • General business operations • Market positioning • Technology pressures • Work environment • Productivity • Quality • Energy and resource security
Energy Audit Planning
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Outcomes Higher Management Support Agreement to move forward with audit Terms of reference
• Scope • Roles and Responsibilities • Deliverables • Preliminary data (basic utility data, production data, site plan, etc.) • Time frame
Key contacts Obtain basic facility data
Energy Audit Planning
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DETAILED ENERGY AUDIT (ISO 50002)
Data Collection, Measurement Plan
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Step 2/3: Opening Meeting and Data Collection Initiation
1
2
3
4 5 6 7 8
ISO 50002 Energy Audit Process Steps
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Step 2/3: Opening Meeting and Data Collection Initiation
Data required and when Access to facilities (security, safety) Timeframes for data collection on site Organize copying, retrieving documents, etc. Key personnel on site to access specific areas
Review Roles, responsibilities and expectations for cooperation (should be documented in TOR from Step 1)
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Step 4: Measurement Planning
1
2
3
4 5 6 7 8
ISO 50002 Energy Audit Process Steps
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Utility bills (Do not go to site without first reviewing!)
Review of drawings and specifications
Review of specific operational issues / delayed maintenance items
Develop an initial data collection plan
Perform preliminary benchmarking
Pre-Site Visit Data Collection
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Analysis of EUIs Comparison with similar facilities / industry
• Find an appropriate database for benchmarking • Is the energy usage less or more than the average building / enterprise of
same type? • Providing an indication of the potential for energy efficiency improvement • EUI Examples:
• kWh / m2
• kWh / guest
• kWh / unit products
Key Point: Making benchmark comparisons to other facilities is often difficult because EUIs tend to be unique to a particular facility context (climate, product/process type, etc.)
Pre-Site Visit Data Review
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Analysis of EUIs – Key points What is the important energy use driver / EUI indicator?
• Is it a building? .....use energy consumption / floor area (e.g. kWh/m2)
• Is it a factory? ........consider using energy consumption / unit produced (e.g. kWh / kg)
Realistic benchmark comparisons to other facilities for a manufactured product can be complex or even impossible
If benchmark comparisons are not possible at the facility level – focus on benchmark comparison at the energy sub-system levels: • Compressed air production • Hot water production • Steam production • etc.
Pre-Site Visit Data Review
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Analysis of EUIs – Key points From manufacturing try to compare the production indicator
against best practice • - Comparisons must be “apples to apples” • - Manufacturing operations must be similar • - Typically only mainstream commodities can be compared with BAT
(cement, milk, steel, aluminum, etc.)
Examples of industrial benchmarking programs and tools: • US Energy Star (https://www.energystar.gov/buildings/facility-owners-and-
managers/industrial-plants) • Cement Industry Benchmarking Tool by LBNL (BEST – CEMENT)
(https://china.lbl.gov/tools/benchmarking-and-energy-saving-tool-cement) • Wine Industry Benchmarking Tool by the University of Oregon (formerly by
LBNL) (http://solardat.uoregon.edu/OregonBestWinery.html) • IFC Food Processing Benchmarking
Tool:(http://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/region__ext_content/regions/europe+middle+east+and+north+africa/ifc+in+europe+and+central+asia/countries/about+the+ifc+food+processing+benchmark+tool)
• Websites: LBNL Benchmarking site (http://energybenchmarking.lbl.gov/)
Pre-Site Visit Data Review
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Checklists
Equipment
Safety, Site requirements
Site Coordination
Key considerations for designing measurements:
Savings potential
Measurement boundary
Usage groups
Accuracy vs. cost
Errors
Preparation
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DETAILED ENERGY AUDIT (ISO 50002)
On site surveys
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Step 5: Conducting the Site Visit
1
2
3
4 5 6 7 8
ISO 50002 Energy Audit Process Steps
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Do we need to measure everything? NO
We need to measure enough data to estimate energy use and savings appropriate
for the required level of accuracy
Factors include:
- Project development stage
- Available resources
- Acceptable level of risk
• It is impossible within most audits to measure all parameters.
• The energy auditor must be an expert at making estimates based on incomplete
data.
Key Considerations for measurements to estimate energy USE
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Source: CEATI M&V Guide
Concept of Measurement Boundary
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Interactive Effects Concept
Heat AC Unit
Electricity Supply
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Consider the energy use patterns of facilities
- Constant load without changes in operating hours
- Operating hour reductions without changing load
- Both load and hours of operation are reduced
What is the Risk?
- Data collection must support operational and technical risks
Cost vs. Accuracy
- More accuracy = higher costs
- Is it worth it?
Key Considerations When Determining the Type and Resolutions of Measurements
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Spot Measurements: Power probe & multimeter: true RMS kW Air pressure gauge to measure fan statics Tachometer: fan RPM Light meter: foot-candles or lux Thermometers: temperatures Boiler stack gas analyzer: combustion efficiency
Measurement types
Short-term Monitoring Compact portable equipment monitoring
Electric current or power Lighting or motor runtime Occupancy schedules
Stand-alone battery powered Split-core CTs and other types of sensors CPU and sensors connected by twisted pair wiring
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Long-term Monitoring “Permanently” installed equipment with battery backup
Solid-core current transducers (CTs) and other types of sensors
Twisted pair wiring, power line carrier, or RF connections between sensors and CPU that may be
remotely located
Typically monitors high-value loads
Data from Existing Data Acquisitions Systems
BAS, EMS, SCADA
Review trends (HVAC / Process)
Use logger to record pulse outputs
Request 15 minute demand interval data from the utility if available
Measurement types
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0.000
50.000
100.000
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250.000
00:3
0 02
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04:3
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kW
kW
30 Minute Interval Demand Data from a commercial site
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• Operational Assessment
Interviews with facility personnel
O&M assessment
Observation of facility users and behaviours/awareness of operational
personnel
Documenting of operating schedules
Confirm elements that are strategic to them
• Comfort, lighting level, operations, cost
Confirm open channel of communication
Solicit access and collaboration
Interviews and Meetings
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• Spot Measurements
Confirm key equipment operating parameters (e.g. flow rate,
power, combustion efficiency, lux level
do not take drawings and specs at face value
case study: heat exchanger shortfall of savings
• Short Term Logging (Audit Level 2/3 Only)
Useful for peak demand analysis
Usage pattern (what energy is used out of normal
operating hours)
Confirm the energy usage of variable load equipment
(e.g., VSDs, equipped fans or pumps)
Source: esis.com.au
Lighting meter time of use
On-site Survey and Measurements
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Lighting Measurements Develop a spot measurement plan for some typical rooms
For each type of space:
• do inventory of fixture types (lamp type, nameplate wattage, number of lamps of
each type, ballast type, nameplate wattage of ballasts, number of ballasts/fixtures)
• identify the type of control switching
identify installed retrofits or system changes
perform spot measurements (lux, W, amps, V, power factor)
Lighting systems can vary a lot compared to the drawing (change in ballast, tube, zone
rewiring during renovations, etc.)
You will calculate the lighting W/m2 and later at the office
Also measure actual operation time and/or occupancy with loggers (level 2 /3)
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Floor Room Number
Dimension Area (m2)
Lux Quantity of Fixtures (units)
Fixture Type Number of Lamps/Fix.
(units)
Power per Lamp
(W)
Power per Ballast
(W)
Hours/ Period (hrs)
Right Orchid -Ground Floor – 1-2 101-109 630 150 108 CFL13-Compact fluorescent lamp 1 13 2 15 Right Orchid -Ground Floor – 1-3 101-109 630 100 54 I75-Incandescent 1 lamp x 75 W 1 75 0 15 Right Orchid -Ground Floor – 1-4 101-109 630 90 27 ELV36-Extra Low Voltage 1 50 16 15
Right Orchid -corridors 101-109 180 85 27 I40-Incandescent 1 lamp x 40 W 1 40 0 15 Left Orchid -Ground Floor – 1-2 101-109 630 105 108 CFL13-Compact fluorescent lamp 1 13 2 15
Apartment Ground Floor 21 84 150 7 I40-Incandescent 1 lamp x 40 W 1 40 0 8
Apartment Ground Floor 22 84 150 7 I40-Incandescent 1 lamp x 40 W 1 40 0 8
Apartment Ground Floor 23 84 150 7 I40-Incandescent 1 lamp x 40 W 1 40 0 8
Apartment Ground Floor 24 84 150 7 I40-Incandescent 1 lamp x 40 W 1 40 0 8
Apartment Ground Floor 25 84 200 7 I40-Incandescent 1 lamp x 40 W 1 40 0 8
Apartment Ground Floor 26 84 200 7 I40-Incandescent 1 lamp x 40 W 1 40 0 8
Apartment First Floor 27 84 200 7 I40-Incandescent 1 lamp x 40 W 1 40 0 8
On-site Lighting Survey Form - EXAMPLE
On-site Survey and Measurement
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Lighting Measurements
Example Classroom survey:
• Installed power: 158 W
• Area: 95 m2
Lighting Energy Density: 1.66 W/m2
Compared to best practice of 0.75 W/m2
On-site Survey and Measurement
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Mechanical System Measurement Develop a spot measurement plan Identify installed retrofits or system changes Perform spot measurements (W, amps, V, power factor,
RPM) Systems with variable loads must be tested at different
points of operation Nameplates Operating schedules Setpoints Control systems
On-site Survey and Measurement
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Equipment Survey Form - Example
On-site Survey and Measurement
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Electrical Systems
Confirm voltage of primary service, secondary service, tertiary service
• from nameplate data
Transformer loss
• sometimes written as wattage loss
• sometimes as a class of transformer
Inspect transformers
• note general condition of equipment
• floor around transformer should be dry
• transformer fins should be clean
• oil leaks?
On-site Survey and Measurement
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DETAILED ENERGY AUDIT (ISO 50002)
Analysis
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Step 6: Analysis
1
2
3
4 5 6 7 8
ISO 50002 Energy Audit Process Steps
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Energy Analysis
Preliminary / Rough Analysis (Level 1 Audits / Non-Core Measures):
Developing target scope for a more detailed study Time and resources are limited The project values are low The facility / energy system and operating profile is simple
Detailed Analysis (Level 2 Audits / Core Measures):
Projects with internal funding available Firm budget commitments for project implementation have been made Moderate complexity systems and operating profiles
Advanced Analysis (Level 3 Audit / High Value / High Risk Projects ):
Projects that require solicitation of external funding Moderate complexity systems and operating profiles Where project modifications have significant financial, health and human
safety, or environmental risks (e.g. modifications to process, critical environments, etc.)
Analysis Detail
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Energy Analysis
› Evaluations at ± 30 - 50% at the Level 1 stage
• Preliminary analysis tools can be used, i.e. Retscreen
• Benchmarking with previous projects or best practices
• Back of the envelope calculation
› Identify the range of potential savings - Not a single figure
› Always write down your hypothesis and source for preliminary calculations
• More advanced studies and lager investments can take a long time to be approved
• Document your thinking.
• Identify the hypothesis that will require refinement during the next, more detailed energy audit.
Level 1 Analysis Techniques
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Actual consumption
Quantity of energy saved annually
› Any cross effect to consider?
› DO NOT oversell the project if you're not confident that results will be achieved
Monetary value of energy saved based on tariff structure
Cost of modifications
› Preliminary stage: emphasize the costs are based on “budget” estimates and are rough
› Often based on :
• Savings x payback period (benchmark from other projects)
• Rules of thumb (cost per installed kW for boilers, chillers, per m2 for lighting, etc.)
Level 1 Analysis Techniques
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Criteria to Select EE measures based on: • Financial profitability • Risk • Alignment with strategic business priorities • Potential integration with other measures • etc…
Rules of thumb to identify potential are shown in this section:
• Experienced auditors can rapidly determine the list of potential EE
measures
• Technologies are detailed in a future section
Level 1 Analysis Techniques
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E.g.: Lighting Estimation Techniques
• Benchmarking with reference values of W/m2
• For example, Classroom: existing: 19 W/m2
efficient retrofit: 8,6 W/m2
Use a luxmeter to check the current level of lighting in different zones
• Identify over-lighted or under-lighted zones
Level 1 Analysis Techniques
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Energy usage and demand calculations
Method A : kW loading
› This method must be used for constant load equipment
• lighting
• fixed flow and head pump
• single speed motors
2 OPTIONS:
A-1: Equipment nameplate nominal power x Assumed loading factor
A-2 : Direct kW measurement
Electrical Equipment – Analysis By Usage
Detailed Analysis Techniques
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Motor Load – Option A-1 › Estimates kW load based on motor nominal kW/HP, loading and efficiency › Estimates load factor and motor efficiency › Load factor (l.f.) = 75% (assumed) › Efficiency = 0.92 (assumed) › Calculation: 100 HP x 0.746 kW/hp x 75% l.f. / 0.92 = 61 kW or 75 kW x 75 % l.f. / 0.92 = 61 kW
Motor 100 HP / 75 kW
From nameplate
Electrical Equipment - Analysis By Usage
Detailed Analysis Techniques
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Motor Load – Option A-2
• kW measurement is direct
• Using the kW we can get the:
› Energy: 54.2 kW x 4500 hrs/yr = 243 900 kWh
› Peak demand day: 54.2 kW x 90% = 48.8 kW
› Peak demand night: 54.2 kW x 10% = 5.4 kW *Diversity 90% with 10% to be assumed
54.2 kW From hand-held kW
Electrical equipment - analysis by usage
Detailed Analysis Techniques
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Description Qty (a)
Unit load W (b)
total W (c)= axb
Hrs / Per. (d)
kWh/ period
(e)= dxc /1000
Div’ty factor –
day (f)
Peak W (g)= fxc
Div’ty factor –
night (h)
Peak W night (i)= hxc
Offices 50 50 2500 290 725 .90 2,250 .10 250
Warehouse 30 450 13,500 250 3,375 .90 12,150 .10 1,350
Corridor 5 50 250 129 32,25 1.00 250 .50 125 Total n/a n/a n/a n/a 4,132 n/a 14,650 n/a 1,725
Summary table: Electrical equipment (except motors)
Electrical Equipment - Analysis By Usage
Detailed Analysis Techniques
80
Summary table: Motors
Electrical Equipment - Analysis By Usage
Description Qty
motor h.p.
motor load
%
Efficiency
%
Total kW
DayHrs/Per.
Day& night div’ty factor
Day kWh/
period
Day peak kW
Night Hrs/ Per
Night kWh/per
Night Peak kW
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h)= fxe (i)=exg (j) (k)=exj (l)= exg
5 hp air com-pressor
1 5 75 85 3.29 120 0.5 395 1.6 40 132 1.6
Total n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a 395 1,6 n/a 1,6
Note: kW total (e) = (a) x (b) x 0.746 x (c) ÷ (d)
Detailed Analysis Techniques
81
Method B for Electricity: Current-Voltage Method › Option B-1 : From nameplate
• from nameplate data (e.g., coolers, small motors, appliances) when kW load is not known
• nameplate information: amps, volts and phase
• load and power factor are estimated
› Option B-2 : From measurement • measured amps and volts: good info on loading
• power factor: estimated
Note 1: Auditors generally do not repeat the voltage measurement on each equipment as it does not vary much in the same mechanical room or facility
Note 2: Power factor is assumed
Electrical Equipment - Analysis By Usage
Detailed Analysis Techniques
82
Step 6: Energy Analysis
SHAFTEND BRG - 6318C3 OPD END BRG - 6315C3
MODEL
P28059-4
SERIAL 89147/01
RPM 1775
H.P. 150
VOLTS 575
PHASE
3
AMPS 145
HERTZ 60
PUMP
VOLTS 600
PHASE 3
AMPS 139
HERTZ 60
LEROY SOMERS ODP
Disconnect switch should be 200 amps
Electrical Equipment - Analysis By Usage
Pump Name Plate Example
Detailed Analysis Techniques
Option B-1: Current-Voltage Method Using Nameplate Data
83
• Current-Voltage Option B-1 – Nameplate (3 phases)
FLA: Full load amps (we use this one) LRA: Locked rated amps (no interest for IGA) Estimated power factor: 90% Estimated load factor: 75% Calculation: 600 V x 120 A x 90% x 75% x √3 x 1/1000 = 84 kW
FLA: 120 LRA: 500
VOLTS 600
Phase 3
Detailed Analysis Techniques
Electrical Equipment - Analysis By Usage
Option B-1: Current-Voltage Method Using Nameplate Data
84
• Single Phase Motors
FLA: Full load amps
LRA: Locked rated amps
Estimated power factor: 90%
Estimated load factor: 70%
Calculation:
240 V x 60 A x 90% x 70% x 1/1000 = 9.1 kW
FLA: 60 LRA: 300
VOLTS 240
Phase 1
Electrical Equipment - Analysis By Usage
Detailed Analysis Techniques
Option B-1: Current-Voltage Method Using Nameplate Data
85
• Measured amps: 95 amps
• Measured voltage: 600 volts
• Estimated power factor: 90%
Calculation:
• 600 V x 95 A x 90% x √3 x 1/1000 = 89 kW
95 A 600 V 3 Ø Replace by actual meter reading
Detailed Analysis Techniques
Option B-1: Current-Voltage Method Using Voltage and Amps Measurement
Electrical Equipment - Analysis By Usage
86
Description Qty
Volts
A
Ph
PF
Total kW
DayHrs/Per
Day Div’ty factor
Day kWh/
period
Day Peak kW
Night hrs/ per
Night Div’ty factor
Night kWh/ per.
Night PeakK
W
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) = gxf (j)= hxf (k) (l) (m)=kxf (n)= fxl
Rooftop 10 575 15 3 ,85 127 242 0,6 30730 76,1 20 0,5 2540 63,5
Total n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a 30730 76,1 n/a n/a n/a 63,5
Note: (g) includes the mean daily diversity factor
Summary table : Voltage/Current method
Detailed Analysis Techniques
Electrical Equipment - Analysis By Usage
87
Lux: Verify adequate lighting (e.g.: office = 660 lux)
Compare occupancy with actual hours of operation
Benchmark your kWh/m2 with best design for similar facilities: potential identification
IMPORTANT: Check power factor measured. Low power factors are common for low-cost ballasts
LIGHTING – ANALYSIS BY USAGE
Detailed Analysis Techniques
88
Motor efficiency is very difficult to measure directly in the field * • It’s done mainly in the lab by manufacturers • Testing is costly • Not cost-effective or feasible for an audit
Motor efficiency is usually estimated by: • using typical motor efficiency curves • taking into consideration the motor loading • efficiency varies with loading
*Some specialized companies offer an indirect method that requires testing the resistance of a motor coil when stopped (very uncommon)
Motors - Analysis By Usage
Detailed Analysis Techniques
89
Motor Efficiency Terms • Nominal efficiency Average efficiency obtained by testing a representative group of motors
Requirements of standards are to meet or exceed nominal efficiency
• Minimum, guaranteed, or guaranteed minimum efficiency Accounts for variations in the population
Allows for losses up to 20% more than nominal
Motors - Analysis By Usage
Detailed Analysis Techniques
90
› Motor load influence efficiency › Equation to determine motor load for a three phase motor
90
Pi = measured/estimated motor input power in kW η = motor operating efficiency (fraction) HP = nameplate rated horse power kW = nameplate rated power in kW Load = output power as a % of rated power
With the nameplate in HP
With the nameplate in kW
Load = Pi x η /kW
Motors - Analysis By Usage
Detailed Analysis Techniques
91
• Input Power (Pr) Determination
Where:
Pr = input power at full rated load in kW HP = nameplate rated horse power
= efficiency at full rated load
Motors - Analysis By Usage
Detailed Analysis Techniques
92
• Electrical power (Pi) Single-phase systems:
• Electrical power (Pi) 3-phase systems:
Detailed Analysis Techniques
Pi = V × I × PF /1000
93
Fan efficiency – Information required › Flow › Pressure differential › Motor power (output shaft power)
• AMP measurement only
• AMP, volt and PF
• Direct kW measurement
• Optional : RPM for motors (sometime used to evaluate motor loading by the slip between nominal and actual RPM)
Input power x assumed motor η
Energy Analysis By Usage: HVAC SYSTEM
Detailed Analysis Techniques
94
Pump efficiency – Information required › Flow (insertion probe, doppler, ultrasonic) › Pressure differential (input vs output) › Motor output power (shaft power)
Energy Analysis By Usage: PUMPS
Detailed Analysis Techniques
Powershaft [kW] = Q [m³/h] x ρ [kg/m³] x 9.81 [m/s²] x head [m]
3 600 000 x η [fraction]
Note: Precise measurement of water temperature inlet and outlet also enables to measure efficiency (energy lost is transformed into heat)
95
Let’s analyze this point: 72% efficiency 35 m head 400 m³/h
Energy Analysis By Usage: PUMPS Using the Manufacturers Pump Curve
Detailed Analysis Techniques
96
Pump curve analysis
Powershaft = 400 [m³/h] x 1000 [kg/m³] x 9.81 [m/s²] x 35 [m]= 53 kW
3 600 0000 x 0,72
• To calculate the total energy consumption divide the Powershaft by the efficiency of the motor: 53 kW/0,88 = 60,2 kW
• Energy [kWh] = 60,2 kW x 2 000 h/year = 120 400 kWh
ENERGY ANALYSIS BY USAGE: PUMPS
Detailed Analysis Techniques
97
Energy Analysis By Usage: CHILLER
Detailed Analysis Techniques
98
Compressor supply efficiency – Information required • Flow rate • Motor load • Simplified analysis: just use kW per l/s of compressed air provided (instead of
percentage efficiency) • Flow measurement is tricky
• Ultrasonic cannot be used on all systems (lower pressure)
• Pulsation from reciprocating unit
Source : DV Systems
Energy Analysis By Usage: Air Compressor
Detailed Analysis Techniques
99
Boiler Efficiency Determination
• Usual method: combustion efficiency test
• Efficiency varies with loading
• Measures only the portion of fuel energy leaving in the flue gas (is NOT the
actual boiler efficiency)
• Actual boiler efficiency considers
loss through the boiler’s skin
blowdown loss (surface and bottom)
waterside ash/scale accumulation
Energy Analysis By Usage: Boiler
Detailed Analysis Techniques
100
Two quick (easy) methods to calculate heat and cooling load:
• Degree-Day Method: correlates the outside temperature with the energy required for heating based on the assumption that heating is required when the average daily temperature is less than 18oC (T balance)
• Bin Method: must be used when several parameters, such as efficiency of the HVAC system, vary with the outdoor temperature. A bin is then a temperature interval around which conditions are constant
Energy Analysis By Usage: HVAC
Detailed Analysis Techniques
101
Energy Analysis By Usage: HVAC Degree Day
Annual heating energy cost
Annual heating energy estimation
Detailed Analysis Techniques
AH = Annual heat flow in MJ Q = Maximum heat flow rate (kJ/h) HDD = Heating degree days 24 = Hours per day to convert degree days to degree hour (T1-T2) = Temperature difference for which Q is calculated
102
Energy Analysis By Usage: HVAC Degree Day Detailed Analysis Techniques
AC = Annual Cooling Energy in MJ Q = Maximum cooling load (kJ/h) CDD = Cooling degree days 24 Hours per day to convert degree days to degree hour (T1-T2) = Temperature difference for which Q is calculated
Cost = Annual refrigeration energy cost ($) RE = Refrigeration energy consumption per unit of cooling 1000 MJ = 1 GJ
Annual cooling energy estimation
Annual heating energy cost
103
Conversion Factor to kBtu
Input Unit 1 kWh 3.412142
Input Unit 2 therms 100
Input Unit 3gallons (propane) 91.33
Combined Output Units kBtu 1Building Gross Floor Area 99,999
Floor Area Units ft 2̂
Input Energy Units Combined Energy Use
End Use kWh thermsgallons
(propane) kBtu %Air Compressors 25,000 - 85,304 1%Cooking 36,000 - 9,800 1,017,870 6%Cooling 445,996 - 1,521,800 10%Heating 699,993 20,640 4,452,455 28%Lighting (Exterior) 68,455 - 233,578 1%Lighting (Interior) 371,996 - 1,269,304 8%Miscellaneous - - 5,600 511,448 3%Office Equipment 350,856 - 1,197,170 8%Other Plug Loads 305,997 - 1,044,105 7%Process - 27,620 2,761,972 18%Pumps 56,525 - 192,871 1%Refrigeration 38,500 - 131,367 1%Ventilation 146,999 - 501,580 3%Water Heating 22,000 6,970 772,059 5%
Total Estimated 2,568,316 55,229 15,400 15,692,885 100%Historical Billing 2,575,020 56,800 15,500 14,466,334 Percent of Actual 99.7% 97.2% 99.4% 108.5%Total per ft^2 25.7 0.6 0.2 156.9
Assumptions / Notes / Conclusions
Combined Fuel End-Use Breakdown
Air Compressors1%
Cooking6%
Cooling10%
Heating28%
Lighting (Exterior)1%
Lighting (Interior)8%
Miscellaneous3%
Office Equipment8%
Other Plug Loads7%
Process18%
Pumps1%
Refrigeration1%
Ventilation3%
Water Heating
5%
Source: ASHRAE
Energy Balance
104
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
J F M A MA JU J A S O N D
Con
sum
ptio
n (k
Wh)
Reference year InvoicesCalculated
Energy Balance
Detailed Analysis Techniques
105
Key Considerations • Accuracy • Conservativeness • Cost evaluation
Consider the potential risks
• miscalculations
• technology failures
• time to repair; foreign equipment
• operator control of the measure; training
• need for continuous supervision; real-time metering
M&V
• select M&V method
EMO Elaboration
Detailed Analysis Techniques
106
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
Project Packaging
107
Project Packaging
• Several facility owner prefer to implement EMO at their own pace • Often one measure at a time • Often they skip one year or two in their program due to evolving
priorities • They generally do not realize the quantity of monetary savings
they left on the table over the years • The next figure is often used by some ESP to provide rationale for
a single large and integrated project.
Integrated Project
108
Order Of Project Completion
Project Packaging
Project in lighting control and technology change
Current Consumption 80 kW
4,000 hrs
Future consumption
2,000 hrs
60 kW
109
Order Of Project Completion
If we select control first – Lighting project:
• Hours reduced by 50% : 2,000 hrs vs. 4000 hrs
• Baseline power: 80 kW
• Control cost: 43,200 EUR
• Energy Savings: 80 kW x 2,000 hrs = 160,000 kWh
• Monetary savings : 0.54 EUR / kWh x 160,000 kWh = 86,400 EUR
• Payback: 6 months
110
The economics of the fixture replacement will be less appealing:
Operating hours: 2,000 hours
Power savings: 20 kW
Cost of fixtures : 207,360 EUR
Savings: 20 kW x 2000 hrs = 40,000 kWh
Monetary savings : 0.54 EUR / kWh x 40,000 kWh = 21,600 EUR
Payback: 9.6 years (rejected)
Order Of Project Completion
111
But, if fixture is replaced first:
Hours of operation : 4,000 hours
Power savings: 20 kW
Cost of fixtures : 207,360 EUR
Savings: 20 kW x 4,000 hours = 80,000 kWh
Monetary savings :0.54 EUR / kWh x 80,000 kWh = 43,200 EUR
Payback : 4.8 years (well, much better)
Order Of Project Completion
112
Control is then replaced:
Hours reduced by 50% : 2,000 hrs
reduction
Reduced power power : 60 kW
Cost of control : 43,200 EUR
Savings: 60 kW x 2,000 hrs = 120,000 kWh
Monetary savings : 0.54 EUR / kWh x 120,000 kWh = 64,800 EUR
Payback : 0.66 years (still quite good)
Order Of Project Completion
113
If bundled into one measure:
200,000 EUR in savings
250,560 EUR in costs
1.25 years (perfectly acceptable)
• Order of calculation and presentation matters
Order Of Project Completion
114
Lighting And Effect On Cooling Load
Lighting project should be calculated before AC system improvement
The reduced load may result in lower chiller or ice storage capacity
In this case inverting measures do not equal the lighting control and fixture
measures
It will be more costly to calculate chiller replacement first as the chiller will
have excess capacity
115
Solar Films And Chillers
Measures of solar films should be calculated before the AC system improvement
Reduced AC load should be considered
Inverting measures are not equivalent here either
Less chiller capacity results in better economics
116
Hot Water Flow Reduction And Solar Water Heater
Aerators, low-flow showerhead and heat recovery measures should be
considered before sizing solar hot water systems.
117
Cost of Modifications
• Include and detail all costs by item
• These costs are actual costs, without administration, management, or contingent profits
• Finally, a global cost including overhead, profit, performance guarantee premium and financing will be determined and presented
Costs to be determined by the Project Manager
› Engineering: professional services for the preparation of drawings and specifications
› Proposal implementation: include specialists required to execute the work
› Work supervision
› M&V
› Project management
EMO Elaboration
118
DETAILED ENERGY AUDIT (ISO 50002)
Reporting
119
• Ensure that the energy audit requirements have been met • Identify the relevant measurements made during the audit • State the source of the information (calculations, simulations or estimates) • Summarize the analyses detailing any estimates, assumptions and uncertainty • State the limits of accuracy for savings and costs • Provide a prioritized list of energy performance improvement opportunities. • Suggest recommendations for the implementation of opportunities.
Reporting needs
Source: ISO 50002. Energy audits. Requirements with guidance for use. ISO 2014.
120
I. Executive summary
II. Introduction
III. Facility Description and Condition Assessment
IV. Energy Systems Analysis
V. Performance Improvement Alternatives Analysis
VI. Conclusions and Recommendations
VII. Appendices
Suggested Report Content
121
I. Executive summary
II. Background
III. Energy Audit Details
IV. Opportunities for Improving Energy Performance
V. Conclusions and Recommendations
Suggested Report Content (As per ISO 50002)
Source: ISO 50002. Energy audits. Requirements with guidance for use. ISO 2014.
Note: Presented only to show what is in the ISO 50001 standard. The previous format is preferred.
122
Summary of energy use and consumption
Summary of recommended measures with energy savings and costs
Summary of project economic performance indicators (e.g. NPV, IRR, etc.)
Summary of implementation approach and next steps
I. Executive Summary
Source: ISO 50002. Energy audits. Requirements with guidance for use. ISO 2014.
123
Overview of the organization
Rationale for the energy audit and description of initiatives it
supports
Descriptions of methods and accuracy
Description of audit team and details about time frames
Recognition of cooperation and assistance
II. Introduction and Background
Source: ISO 50002. Energy audits. Requirements with guidance for use. ISO 2014.
124
Location of facility, function, overview of processes, etc.
Description of facility development history and capital planning as relevant
Description of schedules, production modes, etc.
Description of climatic data
Overview of utility use (all utilities related to energy)
Description of utility supply arrangements
Description of utility charges and tariff structure
Description of key activities and drivers of energy use
Description of energy system arrangement overview and integrations
Individual energy systems descriptions and assessment of condition
Operations and maintenance practices and description of behaviors key to energy management
Description of outsourced O&M arrangements as relevant
III. Facility Description and Condition Assessment
125
Present the key energy intensity indicators at the facility level (e.g. kWh/m2, kWh / kilogram of product, kWh / guest, etc.)
Present the energy balance - state boundary considered, all assumptions, sources or error, operating modes analyzed, etc.)
Present key energy performance indicators at the system level as relevant and as the detail / accuracy requires
Discuss and deprecation of equipment efficiencies due to physical condition or operational practices (e.g. is the equipment operated as designed / at full load?)
Discuss interactive effects between energy system that affect performance Discuss energy source conversion efficiency and waste Examine facility level and system level energy use patterns Conduct a detailed utility rate analysis and affect of energy use patterns on
energy charges Detail of analysis for each system according to strategic business goals
(should be indicated in planning)
IV. Energy Systems Analysis
126
Reporting Follows energy systems analysis Performance improvement measures presented to improve indicators and reduce cost
drivers identified in analysis Discuss scenarios for implementing measures with view on technical, economic, and
strategic impacts
Measures should be presented as integrated project scenarios and the relative costs/benefits
All presented alternatives should discuss implementation risks: • Financial • Technical • Construction • Operational • Etc.
Present economic performance indicators for each scenario as relevant
Present the final recommended scenario and rational for selection Discuss finance planning and investment arrangements as relevant
V. Performance Improvement Alternatives Analysis
127
Present an overview of key findings of energy systems performance and
utility costs
Summary of strategic business challenges and how energy system
performance are inter-related
Summarize the recommended performance improvement measures
including costs and benefits
Discuss recommended implementation strategies including specific
technology solutions and potential partners
Discuss immediate next steps
VI. Conclusions and Recommendations
128
VII. Appendices
Place any data here that is lengthy and make the main narrative untidy
Extended lists of data Extended calculations if necessary More detailed schematics and plans
129
BASELINE DEVELOPMENT Industrial Benchmarking Techniques
130
Best Available Practice (BAP) / Best Available Technologies (BAT), Concept and History • Variously referred to as:
• Best Available Technology • Best Available Techniques • Best Available Practice • Etc.
• Reduce environmental emissions through establishment of proven, cost effective technologies / techniques / practices
• Implementing BAT viewed as key to achieving de-carbonization targets • BAP / BAT has the potential to reduce emissions by 12% - 23% • BAT was first used in the 1992 OSPAR Convention for marine environmental protections
from industrial installations • Concept used in the US clean Air Act which requires certain industries to use Best Available
Control Technology to control emissions • Introduced in the EU with Directive 84/360/EEC for air pollution from large industrial
enterprises – then superseded by the “Integrated Pollution and Control Directive” or IPPC 96/61/EC
131
BAP / BAT , Examples of Key Programs and Organizations
Program / Resource Type / Resources Organization(s)
EU - IPPC Directive (2008/1/EC) - Best Available Practice Reference Document (BREF)
General European Union
Super Efficient Equipment and Appliance Deployment (SEAD)
Appliance Minimum Efficiency Performance Standards (MEPS)
International Partnership for Energy Efficiency Cooperation (IPEEC), Clean Energy Ministerial
Top Tens Task Group on Global Energy Efficiency Best Practice
BAT / BAP knowledge sharing initiative
IPEEC
Energy Technology Transfer for Industry (2009)
BAT / BAP Strategy Guide International Energy Agency
132
BAP / BAT
BAP / BAT Process Specific
Iron / Steel Cement Pulp & Paper Aluminum
BAP / BAT Non-Process Technical Area
Combustion Steam Heat Recovery
Motor Drive Systems Compressed Air Pumping HVAC Lighting Drying
BAT / BAP Organizational Level
Energy Management System O&M Process Control Energy Audit /
diagnosis Benchmarking Communication Process Design
BAT / BAP Policy Level
MEPS Benchmarking / Data Collection Energy Management Finance / Incentives R&D Training Government Green
Procurement
133
Industrial Benchmarking, Barriers
Common Barriers
Information is often sensitive / proprietary
Integration of processes / difficulty draw boundary
Values are often regional specific
Lack of comparable metrics
134
Industrial Benchmarking, Sector Specific Indicators
135
Industrial Benchmarking, Strategies
136
Industrial Benchmarking, Strategies
137
Industrial Benchmarking, Strategies
138
Industrial Benchmarking, Strategies