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Brakes

There are generally two independent brakeson a motorcycle, one set on the front wheel and

one on the rear. However, some models have "linked brakes" whereby both can be applied at the

same time using only one control. Front brakes are generally much more powerful than rear

brakes: roughly two thirds of stopping power comes from the front brake - mainly a result ofweight transfer being much more pronounced compared to larger vehicles, due to the very short

wheelbase . Brakes can either bedrum ordisc based, with disc brakes being more common on

large, modern or expensive motorcycles for their far superior stopping power, particularly in wet

conditions. There are many brake-performance-enhancing aftermarket parts available for most

motorcycles including brake pads of varying compounds and steel braided brake lines.

In the 1980s, BMW introduced the antilock braking system (ABS) to the world of

motorcycling. This life-saving advance has since been adopted for civilian motorcycles by some

other manufacturers, including Honda, Suzuki, Yamaha, Kawasaki and Ducati. Some larger

scooters also offer ABS brakes.

Suspension

Plunger design suspensions were superceded by the swinging arm

Modern designs have the two wheels of a motorcycle connected to the chassis by a suspension

arrangement, however'chopper' style motorcycles often elect to forgo rear suspension, using a

rigid frame.

The front suspension generally consists of sliding aluminium tubes with long springs inside

calledforks

which use hydraulic fluid for dampingshock absorbers

. For handling, the frontfork is the most critical part of a motorcycle. The angle of rake determines how stable the

motorcycle feels. The rear suspension supports the swingarm, which is attached via the

swingarm pivot boltto the frame and holds theaxle of the rear wheel. The rear suspension can

consist of several shock arrangements:

Dual shocks, which are placed at the far ends of the swingarm
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Traditional monoshock, which is placed at the front of the swingarm, above the swingarm

pivot bolt

Softail style monoshock, which is mounted horizontally in front of the swingarm, below

the swingarm pivot bolt

Instruments

With dirtbikes excluded, almost all motorcycles have a speedometer, anodometer and a

tachometer. Fuel gauges are becoming more common, but traditionally a reserve tank

arrangement is used with a petcock(petrol tap) on the side of the motorcycle allowing the rider

to switch to a reserve fuel supply when the main fuel supply is exhausted. There is not actually a

separate reserve tank: The intake for the petcock has two pipes, one extending higher into the

fuel tank than the other. When fuel no longer covers the long pipe, the rider switches the petcock

to the "reserve" setting, which accesses the shorter pipe. Riders whose bikes lack a fuel gauge

(most machines prior to the past few years) usually learn how many miles/km they can go with afull tank of fuel, and then use a trip meter if available to judge when they must refill the tank.

Fairing

A full fairing on a 2006 BMW.

A plasticorfibreglass shell, known as afairing, is placed over the frame on some models to

shield the rider from the wind. Drag is the major factor that limits motorcycle speed, as it

increases at the square of the velocity, with the resultant required power increasing with the cube

of velocity. As can be seen from the streamlined appearance of new performance motorcycles,

there is much aerodynamic technology included in the design. Unfortunately, no one has been

able to overcome the effect of the turbulence caused by the spinning front wheel, which prevents

the motorcycle from cutting a clean path through the air. Another problem is that no designs

have been discovered that can improve aerodynamic performance without unacceptably

compromising the rider's ability to control the machine. In the absence of a fairing or windshield,

a phenomenon known as the windsock effectoccurs at speeds above 100 km/h, where the rider

becomes a major source of drag and is pushed back from the handlebars, tiring the rider.
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However, these motorcycles still effectively push their way through the atmosphere with brute

force.

Cabin cycle solved the problem of aerodynamics by isolating driver from outside air.

Fuel efficiency

Motorcycle fuel efficiency benefits from the relatively small mass of the vehicle, compared to its

passengers and to other motor vehicles, and subsequent small engine displacement. However,

poor aerodynamics of exposed passengers and engines designed for goals other than fuel

economy can work to reduce these benefits.

Fuel efficiency varies greatly with engine displacement from a low of 29 mpg U.S.

(8.1 L/100km) reported by a Honda VTR1000F rider[1] to 107 mpg U.S. (2.2 L/100km) reported

for the Verucci Nitro 50cc Scooter[2]. A specially designed Matzu Matsuzawa Honda XL125

achieved 470 mpg U.S. (0.5 L/100km) "on real highways - in real conditions."[3]

Dynamics

A motorcycle stays upright when it is steered to keep its centre of gravity over its wheels. Lock

the steering of a motorcycle and it is virtually impossible to ride. Cancel the gyroscopic effect of

its rotating wheels by adding counter-rotating wheels, and it can still be easily ridden.

A motorcycle must lean in order to turn. This lean is induced by a method known as

countersteering. This however is a separate action to the rider leaning their body, as it is

virtually impossible to steer a motorcycle through body leaning alone.

Short wheelbase motorcycles, such as sport bikes, can generate enough torque at the rear wheel

and enough stopping force at the front wheel in order to flip longitudinally. These actions,

especially if performed on purpose are known aswheelies andstoppies respectively.

Mobility

In many cultures, motorcycles are the primary means of motorized transport, not automobiles.

According to the Taiwanese government "the number of automobiles per ten thousands

population is around 2,500, and the number of motorcycles is about 5,000."

Safety

Motorcycles have a far higher rate of crippling and fatal accidents per unit distance than

automobiles. According to the US Highway Safety Authority, in 2002 20.9 cars out of

100,000 ended up in fatal crashes. The rate for motorcycles is 66.7 per 100,000. The most

common type of motorcycle accident is caused by inattentive drivers making a turn directly in

front of a motorcycle. Other leading causes of motorcycle accidents involve unlicensed and

untrained riders and drunk or drugged riding.
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Types of motorcycles

There are many different types of motorcycles for many different purposes.

Mopeds: small, light, inexpensive, efficient rides for getting around town. usually started

by pedalling (motorcycle + pedals = moped).

Dual-sport/enduro: Designed to be street legal (having turn signals and a headlight and

taillight) while still maintaining at least some off-road ability in such attributes as knobby

tires and high ground clearance.

Scooters: bike with a step-through frame and generally smaller wheels than those of

traditional motorcycles. Can be ridden without straddling any part of the bike. Available

in sport, commuter, and touring models.

Sport bikes: Fast, light, sleek motorcycles designed for maximum performance, for

racing homologation or spirited road riding. They are distinguishable by their brightlycoloured plastic bodywork and the rider's tipped-forward seating position.

Cruisers: A range of small to large motorcycles designed for comfort and looks with a

relaxed upright seating position. They are notable for their heavy use of chrome and are

often highly customized.

Choppers: Usually custom motorcycles with long rake (longer front forks) and wild

paint jobs. These are created more for show than dependability and ridability.

Touring motorcycles: designed for comfort, luggage carrying and reliability. Both

cruisers and sport bikes can be used as touring bikes.

Dirt bikes/motocross bikes/off-road bikes: designed for racing, recreation, or

sometimes long-distance touring in gravel/mud/sand conditions.

Pocket bikes: Small imitations of sport bikes designed for recreation or racing by all age

levels; see Pocketbike Racing

Mini bikes: Very small bikes designed to be simple and fun for children. Generally they

have no clutch or shifting to simplify operation

Train

In rail transport, a train consists of rail vehicles that move along guides to transport freight or

passengers from one place to another. The guideway (permanent way) usually consists of

conventional rail tracks, but might also be monorail ormaglev. Propulsion for the train is

provided by a separate locomotive, or from individual motors in self-propelled multiple

units. Most trains are powered by diesel engines or by electricity supplied by trackside
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systems. Historically the steam engine was the dominant form of locomotive power

through the mid-20th century, but other sources of power (such ashorses,rope (orwire),

gravity, pneumatics, orgas turbines) are possible.

In Americanrailway terminology, and increasingly within the railway industry in the United

Kingdom, a consist is used to describe the group of rail vehicles which make up a train.

In the United Kingdom Section 83(1) of the Railways Act 1993 defines train as follows:

a) two or more items of rolling stock coupled together, at least one of which is a locomotive; or

b) a locomotive not coupled to any other rolling stock.

A train can consist of a combination of a locomotive and attached railroad cars, or a

self-propelled multiple unit(or occasionally a single powered coach, called a railcar). Trains

can also be hauled by horses, pulled by a cable, or run downhill by gravity.

Special kinds of trains running on corresponding special 'railways' are atmospheric

railways, monorails, high-speed railways, Dinky Trains, maglev, rubber-tired

underground, funicular and cog railways.

A passenger train may consist of one or several locomotives, and one or more coaches.

Alternatively, a train may consist entirely of passenger carrying coaches, some or all of which

are powered as a "multiple unit". In many parts of the world, particularly Japan and

Europe,high-speed rail is utilized extensively for passenger travel.

Freight trains comprise wagons or trucks rather than carriages, though some parcel and mail

trains (especiallyTravelling Post Offices) are outwardly more like passenger trains.

In theUnited Kingdom, a train hauled by two locomotives is said to be "double-headed", and

in Canada and theUnited States it is quite common for a long freight train to be headed by

three, four, or even five locomotives. A train with a locomotive attached at each end is described

as 'top and tailed', this practice typically being used when there are no reversing facilities

available. Where the second locomotive is attached temporarily to assist a train up steep banks

(or down them by providing braking power) it is referred to as 'banking'.

Trains can also be mixed, hauling both passengers and freight, see e.g. Transportation in

Mauritania. Such mixed trains became rare in many countries, but were commonplace on thefirst 19th-century railroads.

Special trains are also used forTrack Maintenance; in some places, this is called

maintenance of way.

A single uncoupled rail vehicle is not technically a train, but is usually referred to as such for

signalling reasons.
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The first trains were rope-hauled, gravity powered or pulled by horses, but from the early 19th

century almost all were powered by steam locomotives. From the 1920s onwards they

began to be replaced by less labour intensive and cleaner (but more expensive) diesel

locomotives and electric locomotives, while at about the same time self-propelled

multiple unit vehicles of either power system became much more common in passenger

service. Most countries had replaced steam locomotives for day-to-day use by the1970s. A few

countries, most notably the People's Republic of China where coal is in cheap and

plentiful supply, still use steam locomotives, but this is being gradually phased out. Historic

steam trains still run in many other countries, for the leisure and enthusiast market.

Electric traction offers a lower cost per mile of train operation but at a very high initial cost,

which can only be justified on high traffic lines. Since the cost per mile of construction is much

higher, electric traction is less favoured on long-distance lines. Electric trains receive their

current via overhead lines or through a third rail electric system.

Passenger trains

Passenger trains have Passenger cars. Passenger trains travel between stations; the

distance between stations may vary from under 1 km to much more. Long-distance trains,

sometimes crossing several countries, may have a dining car or restaurant car; they may also

have sleeping cars, but not in the case of high-speed rail; these arrive at their destination

before the night falls and are in competition with airplanes in speed. Very long distance trains

such as those on theTrans-Siberian railway are usually not high-speed.

Very fast trains sometimes tilt, like the Pendolino orTalgo. Tilting is a system where the

passenger cars automatically lean into curves, reducing the centrifugal forces acting onpassengers and permitting higher speeds on curves in the track with greater passenger comfort.

For trains connecting cities, we can distinguish inter-city trains, which do not halt at small

stations, and trains that serve all stations, usually known as local trains or "stoppers" (and

sometimes an intermediate kind, see alsolimited-stop).

An electric multiple unit pulling into Tile Hill station;Coventry, England
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Interior of a passenger car in a long-distance train in Finland

For shorter distances many cities have networks ofcommuter trains, serving the city and its

suburbs. Some carriages may be laid out to have more standing room than seats, or to facilitate

the carrying of prams, cycles or wheelchairs. Some countries have some double-

decked passenger trains for use in conurbations. Double deck high speed and sleeper

trains are becoming more common in Europe.

Passenger trains usually have emergency brake handles (or a "communication cord") that

the public can operate. Abuse is punished by a fine.

Large cities often have a metro system, also called underground, subway or tube. The trains are

electrically powered, usually by third rail, and their railroads are separate from other traffic,

without level crossings. Usually they run in tunnels in the city centre and sometimes on

elevated structures in the outer parts of the city. They can accelerate and decelerate faster than

heavier, long-distance trains.

A light one- or two-car rail vehicle running through the streets is by convention not considered atrain but rather a tram, trolley, light-rail vehicle or streetcar, but the distinction is not always

strict. In some countries such as the United Kingdom the distinction between a tramway and a

railwayis precise and defined in law.

The term light rail is sometimes used for a modern tram, but it may also mean an intermediate

form between a tram and a train, similar to metro except that it may have level crossings. These

are often protected with crossing gates. They may also be called a trolley.

Maglev trains and monorails represent minor technologies in the train field.

The termrapid transit is used for public transport such as commuter trains, metro and lightrail. However, in New York City, lines on the New York City Subway have been referred to

as "trains".

Freight trains
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An electric container freight train

Freight wagons filled with limestone await unloading, at sidings in Rugby, England

An SP freight train west ofChicago in 1992.

Freight trains have freight cars.

Much of the world's freight is transported by train. In the USAthe rail system is used mostly for

transporting cargo (or freight).

Under the right circumstances, transporting freight by train is highly economic, and also more

energy efficient than transporting freight by road. Rail freight is most economic when freight is

being carried in bulk and over long distances, but is less suited to short distances and small loads.

Bulk aggregate movements of a mere twenty miles can be cost effective even allowing for trans-

shipment costs. These trans-shipment costs dominate in many cases and many modern practices

such as container freight are aimed at minimizing these.

The main disadvantage of rail freight is its lack of flexibility. For this reason, rail has lost much

of the freight business to road competition. Many governments are now trying to encourage

more freight onto trains, because of the environmental benefits that it would bring.
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There are many different types of freight trains, which are used to carry many different kinds of

freight, with many different types of wagons. One of the most common types on modern

railways are container trains, where containers can be lifted on and off the train by cranes and

loaded off or onto trucks orships.

This type of freight train has largely superseded the traditional boxcar type of freight train, withwhich the cargo has to be loaded or unloaded manually.

In some countries "piggy-back" trains are used: trucks can drive straight onto the train and

drive off again when the end destination is reached. A system like this is used on the Channel

Tunnel between England and France and between France and Italy (Modalohr road

trailer carriers). Piggy back trains are the fastest growing type of freight trains in the United

States, where they are also known as 'traileron flatcar' or TOFC trains. There are also some

"inter-modal" vehicles, which have two sets of wheels, for use in a train, or as the semi-trailer

of a road vehicle. This is obsolete, the current semi-trailers have road wheels only and are

carried on specially adapted truckswhen moving on rails, for specific details seeRoadrailer.

There are also many other types ofwagons, such as "low loader" wagons for transporting road

vehicles. There are refrigerator cars for transporting foods such as ice cream. There are

simple types ofopen-topped wagons for transporting minerals and bulk material such as

coal, andtankers for transporting liquids and gases. Today however most coal and aggregates

are moved in hopper wagons that can be filled and discharged rapidly, to enable efficient

handling of the materials.

Freight trains are sometimes illegally boarded by passengers who do not wish, or do not have the

money, to travel by ordinary means. This is referred to as "Hopping" and is considered by somecommunities to be a viable form of transport. Most hoppers sneak into train yards and stow away

in boxcars. More bold hoppers will catch a train "on the fly", that is, as it is moving, leading to

occasional fatalities, some of which go unrecorded.

Aircraft
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Airbus A380

An aircraft is any machine capable ofatmosphericflight.

Categories and classification

Aircraft fall into two broad categories:

Heavier than air

Heavier than air aircraft, oraerodynes, include autogyros, helicopters and variants, and

conventional fixed-wing aircraft (airplanes or aeroplanes). Fixed-wing aircraft generally use

an internal-combustion engine in the form of apiston engine (with a propeller) or a

turbine engine(jet orturboprop), to providethrust that moves the craft forward through

the air. The movement of air over the wings produces lift that causes the aircraft to fly.

Exceptions include gliders which have no engines and gain their thrust, initially, from

winches or tugs and then from gravity and thermal currents. For a glider to maintain its

forward speed it must descend in relation to the air (but not necessarily in relation to the ground).

Helicopters and autogyros use a spinning rotor (a rotary wing) to provide lift; helicopters also

use the rotor to provide thrust. Gyrodynes are aircraft intermediate between helicopters and

autogyros, whose rotor is sometimes powered (often by a jet at its tips) but which do not have a

tail rotor. Heliplanes are combination aircraft with both a rotor and wings; they can take off

and land vertically, and hover, like a helicopter, but use their wings for high-speed flight. The

abbreviation VTOL is applied to aircraft that can take off and land vertically. STOL stands for

Short Take Off and Landing.
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Lighter than air

A hot air balloon takes off from Royal Victoria Park, Bath, England

Lighter than airaerostats: balloonsand airships. Aerostats use buoyancyto float in

the air in much the same manner as ships float on the water. In particular, these aircraft use a

relatively low density gas such as helium,hydrogen or heated air, to displace the air around

the craft. The distinction between a balloon and an airship is that an airship has some means of

controlling both its forward motion and steering itself, while balloons are carried along with the

wind.

Types of aircraft

There are several ways to classify aircraft. Below, we describe classifications by design,

propulsion and usage.

By design
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A size comparison of some of the largest aircraft in the world. The Airbus A380-800 (largestairliner), the Boeing 747-8, the Antonov An-225 (aircraft with the greatest payload) and

the Hughes H-4 "Spruce Goose" (aircraft with greatest wingspan).

A first division by design among aircraft is between lighter-than-air, aerostat, and heavier-than-

air aircraft, aerodyne.

Examples of lighter-than-air aircraft include non-steerable balloons, such as hot air

balloons and gas balloons, and steerable airships (sometimes called dirigible balloons)

such as blimps (that have non-rigid construction) and rigid airships that have an internal

frame. The most successful type of rigid airship was the Zeppelin. Several accidents, such asthe Hindenburg fire at Lakehurst, NJ, in 1937 led to the demise of large rigid airships.

In heavier-than-air aircraft, there are two ways to produce lift: aerodynamic lift and engine lift.

In the case of aerodynamic lift, the aircraft is kept in the air by wings or rotors (see

aerodynamics). With engine lift, the aircraft defeats gravity by use of vertical thrust.

Examples of engine lift aircraft are rockets, and VTOL aircraft such as the Hawker-

Siddeley Harrier.
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Among aerodynamically lifted aircraft, most fall in the category offixed-wing aircraft,

where horizontal airfoils produce lift, by profiting from airflow patterns determined by

Bernoulli's equation and, to some extent, theCoanda effect.

The forerunner of these type of aircraft is the kite. Kites depend upon the tension between the

cord which anchors it to the ground and the force of the wind currents. Much aerodynamic workwas done with kites until test aircraft, wind tunnels and now computer modelling programs

became available.

In a "conventional" configuration, the lift surfaces are placed in front of a control surface or

tailplane. The other configuration is the canard where small horizontal control surfaces are

placed forward of the wings, near the nose of the aircraft. Canards are becoming more common

as supersonic aerodynamics grows more mature and because the forward surface

contributes lift during straight-and-level flight.

A collection ofNASA testing aircraft

The number of lift surfaces varied in the pre-1950 period, as biplanes (two wings) and

triplanes (three wings) were numerous in the early days of aviation. Subsequently most aircraft

are monoplanes. This is principally an improvement in structuresand not aerodynamics.

Other possibilities include the delta-wing, where lift and horizontal control surfaces are often

combined, and the flying wing, where there is no separate vertical control surface (e.g. the B-2

Spirit).

A variable geometry ('swing-wing') has also been employed in a few examples of combat aircraft

(the F-111, Panavia Tornado,F-14 Tomcat and B-1 Lancer, among others).

The lifting body configuration is where the body itself produce lift. So far, the only significant

practical application of the lifting body is in the Space Shuttle, but many aircraft generate lift

from nothing other than wings alone.
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A second category of aerodynamically lifted aircraft are the rotary-wing aircraft. Here, the

lift is provided by rotating aerofoils orrotors. The best-known examples are the helicopter,

the autogyro and the tiltrotor aircraft (such as the V-22 Osprey). Some craft have reaction-

powered rotors with gas jets at the tips but most have one or more lift rotors powered from

engine-driven shafts.

A further category might encompass the wing-in-ground-effect types, for example the

Russian ekranoplan also nicknamed the "Caspian Sea Monster" and hovercraft; most of the

latter employing a skirt and achieving limited ground or water clearance to reduce friction and

achieve speeds above those achieved by boats of similar weight.

A recent innovation is a completely new class of aircraft, the fan wing. This uses a fixed wing

with a forced airflow produced by cylindrical fans mounted above. It is (2005) in development in

the United Kingdom.

And finally the flapping-wing ornithopter is a category of its own. These designs may havepotential but currently have no major practical applications.

By propulsion

Gossamer Albatross, a human powered aircraft

Some types of aircraft, such as the balloon orglider, do not have any propulsion. Balloons drift

with the wind, though normally the pilot can control the altitude either by heating the air or by

releasing ballast, giving some directional control (since the wind direction changes with altitude).

For gliders, takeoff takes place from a high location, or the aircraft is pulled into the air by a

ground-based winch or vehicle, or towed aloft by a powered "tug" aircraft. Airships combine a

balloon's buoyancywith some kind of propulsion, usually propeller driven.

Until World War II, theinternal combustion piston engine was virtually the only type

of propulsion used for powered aircraft. (See also: Aircraft engine.) The piston engine is still

used in the majority of aircraft produced, since it is efficient at the lower altitudes used by small
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aircraft, but the radial engine (with the cylinders arranged in a circle around the

crankshaft) has largely given way to the horizontally-opposed engine (with the

cylinders lined up on two sides of the crankshaft). Water cooled V engines, as used in

automobiles, were common in high speed aircraft, until they were replaced by jet and turbine

power. Piston engines typically operate using avgas or regular gasoline, though some new ones

are being designed to operate on diesel or jet fuel. Piston engines normally become less efficient

above 7,000-8,000 ft (2100-2400 m) above sea level because there is less oxygen available for

combustion; to solve that problem, some piston engines have mechanically powered compressors

(blowers) or turbine-powered turbochargers or turbonormalizers that compress the air before

feeding it into the engine; these piston engines can often operate efficiently at 20,000 ft (6100 m)

above sea level or higher, altitudes that require the use of supplemental oxygen orcabin

pressurization. During the forties and especially following the 1973 energy crisis,

development work was done on propellers with swept tips or even scimitar-shaped blades for use

in high-speed commercial and military transports.

A turboprop-enginedDeHavilland Twin Otter adapted as afloatplane.

Pressurised aircraft, however, are more likely to use theturbine engine, since it is naturally

efficient at higher altitudes and can operate above 40,000 ft. Helicopters also typically use

turbine engines. In addition to turbine engines like the turboprop and turbojet, other types of

high-altitude, high-performance engines have included the ramjet and the pulse jet.Rocket

aircraft have occasionally been experimented with. They are restricted to rather specialised

niches, such as spaceflight, where no oxygen is available for combustion (rockets carry their

own oxygen).

By usage

The major distinction in aircraft usage is between military aviation, which includes all uses

of aircraft for military purposes (such as combat, patrolling, search and rescue, reconnaissance,
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transport, and training), and civil aviation, which includes all uses of aircraft for non-military

purposes.

Military aircraft

Prototypes of the Hindustan Aeronautics'Light Combat Aircraft.

Combat aircraft like fighters or bombers represent only a minority of the category. Many civilaircraft have been produced in separate models for military use, such as the civil Douglas DC-

3 airliner, which became the military C-47/C-53/R4D transport in the U.S. military and the

"Dakota" in the UK and the Commonwealth. Even the small fabric-covered two-seaterPiper

J3 Cub had a military version, the L-4 liaison, observation and trainer aircraft. In the past,

gliders and balloons have also been used as military aircraft; for example, balloons were used for

observation during the American Civil War and World War I, and cargo gliders were used

during World War IIto land troops.

Combat aircraft themselves, though used a handful of times for reconnaissance and

surveillance during the Italo-Turkish War, did not come into widespread use until theBalkan War when first air-dropped bomb was invented and widely used by Bulgarian

air forceagainstTurkey. On January 24, 1913 the first naval co-operation mission took place

by Greek Air Force planes above the Dardanelles. During World War I many types of

aircraft were adapted for attacking the ground or enemy vehicles/ships/guns/aircraft, and the first

aircraft designed asbombers were born. In order to prevent the enemy from bombing, fighter

aircraft were developed to intercept and shoot down enemy aircraft.Tankers were developed

afterWorld War II to refuel other aircraft in mid-air, thus increasing their operational range.

By the time of the Vietnam War, helicopters had come into widespread military use,

especially for transporting, supplying, and supporting ground troops.

Civil aviation
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Bell 206B JetRanger IIIhelicopter

Civil aviation includes both scheduled airline flights and general aviation, a catch-all

covering other kinds of private and commercial use. The vast majority of flights flown around

the world each day belong to the general aviation category, ranging from recreational balloon

flying to civilian flight training to business trips to firefighting to medevac flights to cargotransportation on freight aircraft.

Interior of Qatar Airways flight

Within general aviation, the major distinction is between private flights (where the pilot is not

paid for time or expenses) and commercial flights (where the pilot is paid by a customer or

employer). Private pilots use aircraft primarily for personal travel, business travel, or recreation.

Usually these private pilots own their own aircraft and take out loans from banks or specialized

lenders to purchase them. Commercial general aviation pilots use aircraft for a wide range of

tasks, such as flight training, pipeline surveying, passenger and freight transport, policing, crop

dusting, and medical transport (medevac). Piston-powered propeller aircraft (single-engine or

twin-engine) are especially common for both private and commercial general aviation, but even

private pilots occasionally own and operate helicopters like the Bell JetRanger or turbopropslike the Beechcraft King Air. Business jets are typically flown by commercial pilots,

although there is a new generation of small jets arriving soon for private pilots.

Future Developments

A number offuture aircraft development projects are under way, ranging from

relatively simple aerodynamic enhancements (e.g addition ofwinglets) to the development of
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new engine technologies (e.g.Pratt and Whitney's Geared Turbofan) to all-new designs

such as theBlended Wing-Body. The Peebles Fanwing is an example of a new approach to

lift.

To date there has been only limited consideration of alternative fuels for aircraft. Hydrogen is

perhaps the most obvious alternative to existing kerosene/gasoline-type fuels, but thetechnical and infrastructural challenges inherent in developing a commercially usable hydrogen-

powered aircraft are huge. The Russian manufacturerTupolev built a prototype hydrogen-

powered version of the Tu-154 airliner, named the Tu-155, which made its first flight in

1989[1].

Automobile

Karl Benz's "Velo" model (1894) - entered into the first automobile race

An automobile is a battery powered horseedpassengervehicle that carries its own

motor. Most definitions of the term specify that automobiles are designed to run primarily on

roads, to have seating for between one and six people, typically have four wheels and be

constructed principally for the transport of people rather than goods. However, the term is far

from precise. they say that some battery powered horses were created by Jerry from tom and

jerry i say no it can't be. other battery powered horses came from jack the evil robooto The term

automobile is derived from Greekauto- ("self") and Latin mobilis ("movable"), referring to the

fact that it "moves by itself". Earlier terms for automobile include motorwagon, and horseless

carriage. Although the term "car" is presumed to be derived through the shortening of the term

"carriage", the word has its origin before 1300 A.D. in English as, "carr"derived from similar

words in French and much earlier Greek wordsfor a vehicle that moves, especially on wheels,

that was applied tochariots, small carts, and laterto carriages that carried more people and

larger loads. Note, therefore, that carriage and chariot come from the same root as car, which in a
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sense predates them. As of 2002 there were 590 million passenger cars worldwide (roughly one

car for every eleven people), of which 140 million in the U.S. (roughly one car for every two

people) [1].

History

The automobile powered by the Otto gasoline engine was invented in Germany by Karl Benz

in 1885. Benz was granted a patent dated 29 January 1886 in Mannheim for that

automobile. Even though Benz is credited with the invention of the modern automobile, several

other German engineers worked on building automobiles at the same time. In 1886, Gottlieb

Daimlerand Wilhelm Maybach inStuttgart patented the first motor bike, built and tested

in 1885, and in 1886 they built a converted horse-drawn stagecoach. In 1870, German-

Austrian inventorSiegfried Marcus assembled a motorized handcart, though Marcus'

vehicle did not go beyond the experimental stage.

Internal combustion engine powered vehicles

Animation of a 4-stroke overhead-cam internal combustion engine

In 1806 Franois Isaac de Rivaz, a Swiss, designed the first internal combustion

engine (sometimes abbreviated "ICE" today). He subsequently used it to develop the world's
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first vehicle to run on such an engine that used a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen to

generate energy. The design was not very successful, as was the case with the British inventor,

Samuel Brown, and the American inventor, Samuel Morey, who produced vehicles

powered by clumsy internal combustion engines about 1826.

Etienne Lenoir produced the first successful stationary internal combustion engine in 1860,and within a few years, about four hundred were in operation in Paris. About 1863, Lenoir

installed his engine in a vehicle. It seems to have been powered by city lighting-gas in bottles,

and was said by Lenoir to have "travelled more slowly than a man could walk, with breakdowns

being frequent."Lenoir, in his patent of 1860, included the provision of a carburettor, so

liquid fuel could be substituted for gas, particularly for mobile purposes in vehicles. Lenoir is

said to have tested liquid fuel, such as alcohol, in his stationary engines; but it does not appear

that he used them in his own vehicle. If he did, he most certainly did not use gasoline, as this

was not well-known and was considered a waste product.

The next innovation occurred in the late 1860s, with Siegfried Marcus, a German working inVienna, Austria. He developed the idea of using gasoline as a fuel in a two-stroke internal

combustion engine. In 1870, using a simple handcart, he built a crude vehicle with no seats,

steering, or brakes, but it was remarkable for one reason: it was the world's first vehicle using an

internal combustion engine fueled bygasoline. It was tested in Vienna in September of 1870

and put aside. In 1888 or 1889, he built a second automobile, this one with seats, brakes, and

steering, and included a four-stroke engine of his own design. That design may have been tested

in 1890. Although he held patents for many inventions, he never applied for patents for either

design in this category.

The four-stroke engine already had been documented and a patent was applied for in 1862 by theFrenchman Beau de Rochasin a long-winded and rambling pamphlet. He printed about three

hundred copies of his pamphlet and they were distributed in Paris, but nothing came of this,

with the patent application expiring soon afterward and the pamphlet disappearing into obscurity.

Most historians agree that Nikolaus Ottoof Germany built the world's first four-stroke engine

although his patent was voided. He knew nothing of Beau de Rochas's patent or idea, and

invented the concept independently. In fact, he began thinking about the concept in 1861, but

abandoned it until the mid-1870s.

In 1883, Edouard Delamare-Deboutteville and Leon Malandinof France installed aninternal combustion engine powered by a tank of city gas on a tricycle. As they tested the

vehicle, the tank hose came loose, resulting in an explosion. In 1884, Delamare-Deboutteville

and Malandin built and patented a second vehicle. This one consisted of two four-stroke, liquid-

fueled engines mounted on an old four-wheeled horse cart. The patent, and presumably the

vehicle, contained many innovations, some of which would not be used for decades. However,

during the vehicle's first test, the frame broke apart, the vehicle literally "shaking itself to
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pieces,"in Malandin's own words. No more vehicles were built by the two men. Their venture

went completely unnoticed and their patent unexploited. Knowledge of the vehicles and their

experiments was obscured until years later.

Production of automobiles begins

Karl Benz

Replica of the Benz Patent Motorwagen built in 1886

Internal combustion engine automobiles were first produced in Germany by Karl Benz in

1885-1886, and Gottlieb Daimler between 1886-1889.
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Karl Benzbegan to work on new engine patents in 1878. At first he concentrated on creating a

reliable two-stroke gas engine, based on Nikolaus Otto's design of the four-stroke engine. A

patent on the design by Otto had been declared void. Benz finished his engine on New Year's

Eve and was granted a patent for it in 1879. Benz built his first three-wheeled automobile in

1885 and it was granted a patent in Mannheim, dated January of 1886. This was the first

automobile designed and built as such, rather than a converted carriage, boat, or cart. Among

other items Benz invented are the speed regulation system known also as an accelerator,

ignition using sparks from abattery, the spark plug, the clutch, thegear shift, and the

waterradiator. He built improved versions in 1886 and 1887 and went into production in 1888:

the world's first automobile production. His wife, Bertha, made significant suggestions for

innovation that he included in that model. Approximately twenty-five were built before 1893,

when his first four-wheeler was introduced. They were powered with four-stroke engines of his

own design. Emile Roger ofFrance, already producing Benz engines under license, now

added the Benz automobile to his line of products. Because France was more open to the early

automobiles, more were built and sold in France through Roger than Benz sold in Germany.

In 1886Gottlieb Daimler fitted a horse carriage with his four-stroke engine. In 1889, he built

two vehicles from scratch as automobiles, with several innovations. From 1890 to 1895 about

thirty vehicles were built by Daimler and his assistant, Wilhelm Maybach, either at the

Daimler works or in the Hotel Hermann, where they set up shop after falling out with their

backers. Benz and Daimler, seem to have been unaware of each other's early work and worked

independently. Daimler died in 1900. During the First World War, Benz suggested a co-

operative effort between the two companies, but it was not until 1926 that the they united under

the name of Daimler-Benz with a commitment to remain together under that name until the year

2000.

In 1890, Emile Levassor andArmand PeugeotofFrance began producing vehicles with

Daimler engines, and so laid the foundation of the motor industry in France. They were inspired

by Daimler's Stahlradwagen of 1889, which was exhibited in Paris in 1889.

The first American car with a gasoline internal combustion engine supposedly was designed in

1877 by George Baldwin Selden ofRochester, New York, who applied for a patent on

an automobile in 1879. Selden did not build an automobile until 1905, when he was forced to do

so, due to a lawsuit threatening the legality of his patent because the subject had never been built.

After building the 1877 design in 1905, Selden received his patent and later sued the Ford

Motor Company for infringing upon his patent. Henry Ford was notorious for opposing the

American patent system and Selden's case against Ford went all the way to the Supreme

Court, which ruled that Ford, and anyone else, was free to build automobiles without paying

royalties to Selden, since automobile technology had improved so significantly since the design

of Selden's patent, that no one was building according to his early designs.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Benzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Benzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mannheimhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accelerator_(car)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Car_batteryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Car_batteryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spark_plughttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clutchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gear_shifthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gear_shifthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertha_Benzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertha_Benzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emile_Roger&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottlieb_Daimlerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottlieb_Daimlerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Maybachhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Maybachhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emile_Levassor&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armand_Peugeothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armand_Peugeothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armand_Peugeothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Baldwin_Seldenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rochester%2C_New_Yorkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Motor_Companyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Motor_Companyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Fordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Benzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mannheimhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accelerator_(car)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Car_batteryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spark_plughttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clutchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gear_shifthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertha_Benzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emile_Roger&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottlieb_Daimlerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Maybachhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emile_Levassor&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armand_Peugeothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Baldwin_Seldenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rochester%2C_New_Yorkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Motor_Companyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Motor_Companyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Fordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States


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In Britain there had been several attempts to build steam cars with varying degrees of success

withThomas Ricketteven attempting a production run in 1860.[1] One of the major problems

was the poor state of the road network.Santler from Malvern is recognised by the Veteran Car

Club of Great Britain as having made the first petrol powered car in the country in 1894 [2]

followed by Frederick William Lanchester in 1895 [2] but these were both one-offs. The

first production vehicles came from the Daimler Motor Company founded in 1896 and

making their first cars made in 1897.[2]

Innovation

Ford Model T, 1927

Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot, a French inventor, is credited for having built the world's first self-propelled mechanical vehicle or automobile in 1765. The first automobile patent in the

United States was granted to Oliver Evans in 1789 for his "Amphibious Digger". It was a

harbor dredge scow designed to be powered by a steam engine and he built wheels to attach

to the bow. In 1804 Evans demonstrated his first successful self-propelled vehicle, which not

only was the first automobile in the US but was also the first amphibious vehicle, as his

steam-powered vehicle was able to travel on wheels on land as he demonstrated once, and via a

paddle wheelin the water. It was not successful and eventually was sold as spare parts.

The Benz Motorwagen, built in 1885, was patented on 29 January1886 byKarl Benzas the

first automobile powered by an internal combustion engine. In 1888, a majorbreakthrough came with the historic drive ofBertha Benz. She drove an automobile that her

husband had built for a distance of more than 106 km (i.e. - approximately 65 miles). This event

demonstrated the practical usefulness of the automobile and gained wide publicity, which was

the promotion she thought was needed to advance the invention. The Benz vehicle was the first

automobile put into production and sold commercially. Bertha Benz's historic drive is celebrated

as an annual holiday in Germany with rallies of antique automobiles.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rickett_(car)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rickett_(car)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rickett_(car)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobile#_note-V.26VCars%23_note-V.26VCarshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobile#_note-V.26VCars%23_note-V.26VCarshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santler_(car)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santler_(car)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobile#_note-Beaulieu%23_note-Beaulieuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_William_Lanchesterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobile#_note-Beaulieu%23_note-Beaulieuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daimler_Motor_Companyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobile#_note-Beaulieu%23_note-Beaulieuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Model_Thttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas-Joseph_Cugnothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Evanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphibious_vehiclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paddle_wheelhttp://en.wiki

engleski jezik - stručni 3

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