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Logical Vocabulary

Vocabulary

Proposition T or F in an argument, but not alone. Can be a premise or conclusion. Is not equal to a sentence.

Premise Proposition used as evidence in an argument.

Conclusion Proposition used as a thesis in an argument.

Argument A group of propositions of which one is claimed to follow from the others.

Induction A process through which the premises provide some basis for the conclusion.

Deduction A process through which the premises provide conclusive proof for the conclusion.

Argument Indicators: Premise Indicators: Conclusion Indicators:

should

must

ought

necessarily

since

because

for

as

in as much as

for the reason that

first

therefore

hence

thus

so

consequently

it follows that

one may infer

one may conclude

When dealing with persuasive writing, it will be helpful for you to outline the argument by premises and conclusions. By looking at the structure of the argument, it is easy to spot logical error.

Example 1

"Universities are full of knowledge. The freshmen bring a little in, and the seniors take none away, and knowledge accumulates."

--Harvard President A. L. Lowell

Premise 1Premise 2Premise 3

Conclusion

Freshmen bring a little (knowledge) inSeniors take none awayKnowledge accumulatesUniversities are full of knowledge

Example 2

(Here, the conclusion of one argument is used as a premise in another. This is very common.)

"Even though there may be a deceiver of some sort, very powerful and very tricky, who bends all his efforts to keep me perpetually deceived, there can be no slightest doubt that I exist, since he deceives me; and let him deceive me as much as he will, he can never make me be nothing as long as I think I am something. Thus, after having thought well on this matter, and after examining all things with care, I must finally conclude and maintain that this proposition: I am, I exist, is necessarily true every time that I pronounce it or conceive it in my mind."

-- René Descartes, Meditations

Argument 1 Premise 1:

Conclusion of Argument 1Argument 2 Premise 1:

Conclusion:

To be deceived ... I must exist

When I think that I exist I cannot bedeceived about that

I am, I exist, is necessarily true ... .

 Reaching Logical Conclusions

This article is reprinted from pages 78-79 of Pearson-Allen: Modern Algebra, Book One. In the book it is one of several between-chapter articles that add interest and provoke thought on subjects related to the topics discussed in the text.

Consider the two statements:

1. Any member of a varsity squad is excused from physical education.

2. Henry is a member of the varsity football squad.

Our common sense tells us that if we accept these two statement as true, then we must accept the following third statement as true:

3. Henry is excused from physical education.

We say that the third statement follows logically from the other two.

In drawing logical conclusions it does not matter whether the statements we accept as true are reasonable or sensible. This is because we depend entirely upon the form of the statements and not upon what we are talking about. Thus, if we accept the following statements as true:

1. All whales are mammals;

2. All mammals are warm-blooded animals;

3. All warm-blooded animals are subject to colds;

then we must conclude that

4. All whales are subject to colds.

Do you see that statements 1, 2, and 3 are arranged in logical order ?

In the diagram at the right the set of whales is represented by W, the set of mammals by M, the set of warm-blooded animals by B, the set of animals subject to colds by C, and the set of all animals by A. The diagram shows that W is a subset of M as required by statement 1, that M is a subset of B as required by statement 2, and that B is a subset of C as required by statement 3. The only conclusion that uses all of our given statements is that W is a subset of C, as asserted by statement 4.

Had our third statement been "no warm-blooded animals are subject to colds," our diagram would have been the one shown at the right and our conclusion would have been "no whales are subject to colds."

If you have read Alice's Adventures in Wonderland or Through the Looking-Glass, you know that author Lewis Carroll delights in giving sets of nonsense statements which lead to logical conclusions. One such set is the following:

Babies are illogical;

Nobody is despised who can manage a crocodile;

Illogical persons are despised.

When these statements are arranged in logical order we have:

1. Babies are illogical;2. Illogical persons are despised;3. Nobody is despised who can manage a crocodile.

From these we can draw the logical conclusion:

4. Babies cannot manage crocodiles.

 

Fallacies

A fallacy is an error of reasoning. It can be used against you in an argument, but if you are familiar with them, you will be able to refute the fallacious argument. Likewise, if you are clever, you can use them to convince others.

Fallacies fall into two major categories:

Fallacies of Relevance

Fallacies of relevance occur when the premises of an argument are irrelevant to the conclusion.

Fallacies of Ambiguity

Fallacies of ambiguity occur when ambiguous, changeable wording in the propositions can lead to there being more than one meaning in an argument.

Here are examples of each of the major fallacies. Reflect upon them and write in a definition that makes sense to you.

Fallacies of Relevance

1. Argumentum ad Bacculum (appeal to force)

"Pay back the loan and 10 % daily interest by Thursday, or be sure that you have you hospital insurance paid up."

2. Argumentum ad Hominem (abusive)

"Don't believe anything John says; he's a nerd."

3. Argumentum ad Hominem (circumstantial)

"Of course he thinks fraternities are great. He's a Phi Delta."

4. Argumentum ad Ignorantiam (argument from ignorance)

There is no proof that witches exist; therefore, they do not.

5. Argumentum ad Misericordiam (appeal to pity)

"Your honor, how can the prosecution dare try to send this poor, defenseless child to jail for the murder of his father and mother. Have a heart; the boy is now an orphan."

6. Argumentum ad Populum

"Don't be left out! Buy your Chevette today!"

7. Argumentum ad Vericundiam (appeal to authority)

Joe Namath selling pantyhose; Joe DiMaggio selling Mr. Coffee.

8. Accident

"What you bought yesterday, you eat today; you bought raw meat yesterday; therefore, you eat raw meat today."

9. Converse Accident (hasty generalization)

"That man is an alcoholic. Liquor should be banned."

10. False cause (Post hoc ergo propter hoc) (Many of our superstitions stem from use of this fallacy.)

"A black cat crossed Joe's path yesterday, and he died last night. The black cat caused Joe's death."

11. Petitio Principii (begging the question)

"It's time to come in the house now, Billy."

"Why?""Because I said so!""Why?""Because it's time, and I said so."

12. Complex Question

"Have you given up cheating on exams?"

13. Ignoratio Elenchi (irrelevant conclusion)

In a law court, in attempt to prove that the accused is guilty of theft, the prosecution may argue that theft is a horrible crime for anyone to commit.

Fallacies of Ambiguity

1. Equivocation

Some dogs have fuzzy ears. My dog has fuzzy ears. My dog is some dog!

2. Amphibole (grammatical construction)

"Woman without her man would be lost." or "Save Soap and Waste Paper."

3. Accent

"We should not speak ill of our friends."

4. Composition

"Each part of this stereo weighs under one pound. This is a very light stereo."

5. Division

"Purdue is a great engineering school. Mike went there; he must be a great engineer."

 

Listen to your roommate, the TV, and even your profs. You'll be amazed how many fallacies we encounter each day.

More important, check your papers. Does your argument have premises and conclusions stated

properly? Have you been guilty of fallacious reasoning?

Improprieties

A functional impropriety is the use of a word as the wrong part of speech. The wrong meaning for a word can also be impropriety.

Mark improprieties in the following phrases and correct them in the blanks at the right. If you find none, write C in the blank.

Example: (occupation) hazards -- occupational

1. reforming institution policies

2. percent aging students by grades

3. dead trees as inhabitants for birds

4. an initiate story about a young girl

5. a recurrence theme in literature

6. a wood chisel

7. a wood baseball bat

8. a frivolity conversation on the weather

9. a utopia hideaway of alpine villas

10. a utilize room complete with workbench

11. the unstable chemical compounds

12. the unschooled labor force

13. the vandals who rapined Rome

14. an erupting volcano crevassing the hills

15. criticism writing which is often abstract

16. abstracted beyond understanding

17. classified as an absorbent

18. a handwriting letter

19. banjoed their way to the top ten

20. a meander stream

21. hoboing across the country

22. holidayed the time away

23. the redirective coming from the officer

24. grain-fed slaughter cattle

25. ivy tendoned to the walls

 

Coherence

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When sentences, ideas, and details fit together clearly, readers can follow along easily, and the writing is coherent. The ideas tie together smoothly and clearly. To establish the links that readers need, you can use the methods listed here.

Repetition of a Key Term or Phrase

This helps to focus your ideas and to keep your reader on track.

Example: The problem with contemporary art is that it is not easily understood by most people. Contemporary art is deliberately abstract, and that means it leaves the viewer wondering what she is looking at.

Synonyms

Synonyms are words that have essentially the same meaning, and they provide some variety in your word choices, helping the reader to stay focused on the idea being discussed.

Example: Myths narrate sacred histories and explain sacred origins. These traditional narratives are, in short, a set of beliefs that are a very real force in the lives of the people who tell them.

 

Pronouns

This, that, these, those, he, she, it, they, and we are useful pronouns for referring back to something previously mentioned. Be sure, however, that what you are referring to is clear.

Example: When scientific experiments do not work out as expected, they are often considered failures until some other scientist tries them again. Those that work out better the second time around are the ones that promise the most rewards.

Transitional Words

There are many words in English that cue our readers to relationships between sentences, joining sentences together. See the handout on Transitional Devices (Connecting Words) at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_transition.html. There you'll find lists of words such as however, therefore, in addition, also, but, moreover, etc.

Example: I like autumn, and yet autumn is a sad time of the year, too. The leaves turn bright shades of red and the weather is mild, but I can't help thinking ahead to the winter and the ice storms that will surely blow through here. In addition, that will be the season of chapped faces, too many layers of clothes to put on, and days when I'll have to shovel heaps of snow from my car's windshield.

Sentence Patterns

Sometimes, repeated or parallel sentence patterns can help the reader follow along and keep ideas tied together.

Example: (from a speech by President John F. Kennedy) And so, my fellow Americans: ask not what your country can do for you--ask what you can do for your country.

Transitional Devices (Connecting Words)

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Transitional devices are like bridges between parts of your paper. They are cues that help the reader to interpret ideas in the way that you, as a writer, want them to understand. Transitional devices help you carry over a thought from one sentence to another, from one idea to another, or from one paragraph to another with words or phrases. And finally, transitional devices link your sentences and

paragraphs together smoothly so that there are no abrupt jumps or breaks between ideas.

There are several types of transitional devices, and each category leads your reader to make certain connections or assumptions about the areas you are connecting. Some lead your reader forward and imply the "building" of an idea or thought, while others make your reader compare ideas or draw conclusions from the preceding thoughts.

Here is a list of some common transitional devices that can be used to cue your reader in a given way.

To Add:

and, again, and then, besides, equally important, finally, further, furthermore, nor, too, next, lastly, what's more, moreover, in addition, first (second, etc.),

To Compare:

whereas, but, yet, on the other hand, however, nevertheless, on the other hand, on the contrary, by comparison, where, compared to, up against, balanced against, vis a vis, but, although, conversely, meanwhile, after all, in contrast, although this may be true

To Prove:

because, for, since, for the same reason, obviously, evidently, furthermore, moreover, besides, indeed, in fact, in addition, in any case, that is

To Show Exception:

yet, still, however, nevertheless, in spite of, despite, of course, once in a while, sometimes

To Show Time:

immediately, thereafter, soon, after a few hours, finally, then, later, previously, formerly, first (second, etc.), next, and then

To Repeat:

in brief, as I have said, as I have noted, as has been noted,

To Emphasize:

definitely, extremely, obviously, in fact, indeed, in any case, absolutely, positively, naturally, surprisingly, always, forever, perennially, eternally, never, emphatically, unquestionably, without a

doubt, certainly, undeniably, without reservation

To Show Sequence:

first, second, third, and so forth. A, B, C, and so forth. next, then, following this, at this time, now, at this point, after, afterward, subsequently, finally, consequently, previously, before this, simultaneously, concurrently, thus, therefore, hence, next, and then, soon

To Give an Example:

for example, for instance, in this case, in another case, on this occasion, in this situation, take the case of, to demonstrate, to illustrate, as an illustration, to illustrate

To Summarize or Conclude:

in brief, on the whole, summing up, to conclude, in conclusion, as I have shown, as I have said, hence, therefore, accordingly, thus, as a result, consequently, on the whole,

For information about using many of these words and phrases, see the Purdue OWL handout Sentence Variety

Conciseness: Methods of Eliminating Wordiness

Brought to you by the Purdue University Online Writing Lab at http://owl.english.purdue.edu

For practice editing sentences to make them more concise, see our exercises on this topic at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_conciseEX1.html

1. Eliminate unnecessary determiners and modifiers

Writers sometimes clog up their prose with one or more extra words or phrases that seem to determine narrowly or to modify the meaning of a noun but don't actually add to the meaning of the sentence. Although such words and phrases can be meaningful in the appropriate context, they are often used as "filler" and can easily be eliminated.

Wordy

Any particular type of dessert is fine with me.

Balancing the budget by Friday is an impossibility without some kind of extra help.

More Concise

Any dessert is fine with me.

Balancing the budget by Friday is impossible without extra help.

Here's a list of some words and phrases that can often be pruned away to make sentences clearer:

kind ofsort oftype ofspecific

reallybasicallyfor all intents and purposesparticular

definitelyactuallygenerallyindividual

Wordy

For all intents and purposes, American industrial productivity generally depends on certain factors that are really more psychological in kind than of any given technological aspect.

More Concise

American industrial productivity depends more on psychological than on technological factors.

 

2. Change phrases into single words

Using phrases to convey meaning that could be presented in a single word contributes to wordiness. Convert phrases into single words when possible.

Wordy

The employee with ambition...

The department showing the best performance...

Jeff Converse, our chief of consulting, suggested at our last board meeting the installation of microfilm equipment in the department of data processing.

As you carefully read what you have written to improve your wording and catch small errors of spelling, punctuation, and so on, the thing to do before you do

anything else is to try to see where a series of words expressing action could replace the ideas found in nouns rather than verbs.

More Concise

The ambitious employee...

The best-performing department...

At our last board meeting, Chief Consultant Jeff Converse suggested that we install microfilm equipment in the data processing department.

As you edit, first find nominalizations that you can replace with verb phrases.

 

3. Change unnecessary that, who, and which clauses into phrases

Using a clause to convey meaning that could be presented in a phrase or even a word contributes to wordiness. Convert modifying clauses into phrases or single words when possible.

Wordy

The report, which was released recently...

All applicants who are interested in the job must...

The system that is most efficient and accurate...

More Concise

The recently released report...

All job applicants must...

The most efficient and accurate system...

 

4. Avoid overusing expletives at the beginning of sentences

Expletives are phrases of the form it + be-verb or there + be-verb. Such expressions can be rhetorically effective for emphasis in some situations, but overuse or unnecessary use of expletive constructions creates wordy prose. Take the following example: "It is imperative that we find a solution." The same meaning could be expressed with this more succinct wording: "We must find a

solution." But using the expletive construction allows the writer to emphasize the urgency of the situation by placing the word imperative near the beginning of the sentence, so the version with the expletive may be preferable. Still, you should generally avoid excessive or unnecessary use of expletives. The most common kind of unnecessary expletive construction involves an expletive followed by a noun and a relative clause beginning with that, which, or who. In most cases, you can create a more concise sentence by eliminating the expletive opening, making the noun the subject of the sentence, and eliminating the relative pronoun.

Wordy

It is the governor who signs or vetoes bills.

There are four rules that should be observed: ...

There was a big explosion, which shook the windows, and people ran into the street.

More Concise

The governor signs or vetoes bills.

Four rules should be observed:...

A big explosion shook the windows, and people ran into the street.

 

5. Use active rather than passive verbs

See our document on active and passive voice for a more thorough explanation of this topic. It is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_actpass.html

Wordy

An account was opened by Mrs. Simms.

Your figures were checked by the research department.

More Concise

Mrs. Simms opened an account.

The research department checked your figures.

 

6. Avoid overusing noun forms of verbs

Use verbs when possible rather than noun forms known as nominalizations. Sentences with many nominalizations usually have forms of be as the main verbs. Using the action verbs disguised in nominalizations as the main verbs--instead of forms of be--can help to create engaging rather than dull prose.

Wordy

The function of this department is the collection of accounts.

The current focus of the medical profession is disease prevention.

More Concise

This department collects accounts.

The medical profession currently focuses on disease prevention.

 

7. Reword unnecessary infinitive phrases

Some infinitive phrases can be converted into finite verbs or brief noun phrases. Making such changes also often results in the replacement of a be-verb with an action verb.

Wordy

The duty of a clerk is to check all incoming mail and to record it.

A shortage of tellers at our branch office on Friday and Saturday during rush hours has caused customers to become dissatisfied with service.

More Concise

A clerk checks and records all incoming mail.

A teller shortage at our branch office on Friday and Saturday during rush hours has caused customer dissatisfaction.

 

8. Replace circumlocutions with direct expressions

Circumlocutions are commonly used roundabout expressions that take several words to say what

could be said more succinctly. We often overlook them because many such expressions are habitual figures of speech. In writing, though, they should be avoided since they add extra words without extra meaning. Of course, occasionally you may for rhetorical effect decide to use, say, an expletive construction instead of a more succinct expression. These guidelines should be taken as general recommendations, not absolute rules.

Wordy

At this/that point in time...

In accordance with your request...

More Concise

Now/then...

As you requested...

Here are some other common circumlocutions that can be compressed into just one word:

the reason forfor the reason thatowing/due to the fact thatin light of the fact thatconsidering the fact thaton the grounds thatthis is why

=because, since, why

on the occasion ofin a situation in whichunder circumstances in which

=when

as regardsin reference towith regard toconcerning the matter ofwhere ________ is concerned

=about

it is crucial thatit is necessary thatthere is a need/necessity forit is important that

=must, should

cannot be avoided

  is able tohas the opportunity tohas the capacity forhas the ability to

 

=can

it is possible thatthere is a chance thatit could happen thatthe possibility exists for

=may, might, could

Wordy

It is possible that nothing will come of these preparations.

She has the ability to influence the outcome.

It is necessary that we take a stand on this pressing issue.

More Concise

Nothing may come of these preparations.

She can influence the outcome

We must take a stand on this pressing issue.

 

9. Omit words that explain the obvious or provide excessive detail

Be sure always to consider your readers as you draft and revise your writing. If you find passages that explain or describe in detail what would already be obvious to readers, delete or reword them.

Wordy

I received your inquiry yesterday. Yes, we do have...

It goes without saying that we are acquainted with your policy on filing tax returns, and we have every intention of complying with the regulations that you have mentioned.

Imagine a mental picture of someone engaged in the intellectual activity of trying to learn what the rules are for how to play the game of chess.

Baseball, one of our oldest and most popular outdoor summer sports in terms of total attendance at ball parks and viewing on television, has the kind of rhythm of play on the field that alternates between times when players passively wait with no action taking place between the pitches to the batter and then times when they explode into action as the batter hits a pitched ball to one of the players and the player fields it.

More Concise

Yes, we do have...

We intend to comply with the tax-return regulations that you have mentioned.

Imagine someone trying to learn the rules of chess.

Baseball has a rhythm that alternates between waiting and explosive action.

 

10. Omit repetitive wording

Watch for phrases or longer passages in your writing in which you repeat words with similar meanings. Below are some general examples of unnecessary repetition contrasted with more concise versions, followed by lists and examples of specific redundant word pairs and categories.

Wordy

I would appreciate it if you would bring to the attention of your drafting officers the administrator's dislike of long sentences and paragraphs in messages to the field and in other items drafted for her signature or approval, as well as in all correspondence, reports, and studies. Please encourage your section to keep their sentences short.

The supply manager considered the correcting typewriter an unneeded luxury.

Our branch office currently employs five tellers. These tellers do an excellent job Monday through Thursday but cannot keep up with the rush on Friday and Saturday.

More Concise

Please encourage your drafting officers to keep sentences and paragraphs in letters, reports, and studies short. Dr. Lomas, the administrator, has mentioned that reports and memos drafted for her approval recently have been wordy and thus time-

consuming.

The supply manager considered the correcting typewriter a luxury.

Our branch office currently employs five tellers, who do an excellent job Monday through Thursday but cannot keep up with Friday and Saturday rush periods.

 

Redundant Pairs

Many pairs of words imply each other. Finish implies complete, so the phrase completely finish is redundant in most cases. So are many other pairs of words:

past memoriesvarious differenceseach individual basic fundamentalstrue factsimportant essentialsfuture plans

terrible tragedyend resultfinal outcomefree giftpast historyunexpected surprisesudden crisis

A related expression that's not redundant as much as it is illogical is very unique. Since unique means "one of a kind," adding modifiers of degree such as very, so, especially, somewhat, extremely, and so on is illogical. One-of-a-kind-ness has no gradations; something is either unique or it is not.

Wordy

Before the travel agent was completely able to finish explaining the various differences among all of the many very unique vacation packages his travel agency was offering, the customer changed her future plans.

More Concise

Before the travel agent finished explaining the differences among the unique vacation packages his travel agency was offering, the customer changed her plans.

Redundant Categories

Specific words imply their general categories, so we usually don't have to state both. We know that a period is a segment of time, that pink is a color, that shiny is an appearance. In each of the following phrases, the general category term can be

dropped, leaving just the specific descriptive word:

large in sizeoften timesof a bright colorheavy in weightperiod in timeround in shapeat an early timeeconomics field

of cheap qualityhonest in characterof an uncertain conditionin a confused stateunusual in natureextreme in degreeof a strange type

 

Wordy

During that time period, many car buyers preferred cars that were pink in color and shiny in appearance.

The microscope revealed a group of organisms that were round in shape and peculiar in nature.

More Concise

During that period, many car buyers preferred pink, shiny cars.

The microscope revealed a group of peculiar, round organisms.

Non-Sexist Language

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The National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) suggests the following guidelines:

Generic Use

Although MAN in its original sense carried the dual meaning of adult human and adult male, its meaning has come to be so closely identified with adult male that the generic use of MAN and other words with masculine markers should be avoided.

Examples Alternatives mankind humanity, people, human beings

man's achievements human achievementsman-made synthetic, manufactured, machine-madethe common man the average person, ordinary peopleman the stockroom staff the stockroomnine man-hours nine staff-hours

 

Occupations

Avoid the use of MAN in occupational terms when persons holding the job could be either male or female.

Examples Alternatives chairman coordinator (of a committee or department), moderator

(of a meeting), presiding officer, head, chair

businessman business executivefireman firefightermailman mail carriersteward and stewardess flight attendantpoliceman and policewoman police officercongressman congressional representative 

Pronouns

Because English has no generic singular--or common-sex--pronoun, we have used HE, HIS, and HIM in such expressions as "the student needs HIS pencil." When we constantly personify "the judge," "the critic," "the executive," "the author," and so forth, as male by using the pronoun HE, we are subtly conditioning ourselves against the idea of a female judge, critic, executive, or author. There are several alternative approaches for ending the exclusion of women that results from the pervasive use of masculine pronouns.

a. Recast into the plural.

Example AlternativeGive each student his paper as soon as he is finished.

Give students their papers as soon as they are finished.

 

b. Reword to eliminate gender problems.

Example AlternativeThe average student is worried about his grade.

The average student is worried about grades.

 

c. Replace the masculine pronoun with ONE, YOU, or (sparingly) HE OR SHE, as appropriate.

Example AlternativeIf the student was satisfied with his performance on the pretest, he took the post-test.

A student who was satisfied with her or his performance on the pretest took the post-test.

 

d. Alternate male and female examples and expressions. (Be careful not to confuse the reader.)

Example AlternativeLet each student participate. Has he had a chance to talk? Could he feel left out?

Let each student participate. Has she had a chance to talk? Could he feel left out?

 

Indefinite Pronouns

Using the masculine pronouns to refer to an indefinite pronoun (everybody, everyone, anybody, anyone) also has the effect of excluding women. In all but strictly formal uses, plural pronouns have become acceptable substitutes for the masculine singular.

Example AlternativeAnyone who wants to go to the game should bring his money tomorrow.

Anyone who wants to go to the game should bring their money tomorrow.

Strategies for Improving Sentence Clarity

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Go from old to new information

Introduce your readers to the "big picture" first by giving them information they already know. Then they can link what's familiar to the new information you give them. As that new information becomes familiar, it too becomes old information that can link to newer information.

The following example sentence is clear and understandable because it uses old information to lead to new information:

Every semester after final exams are over, I'm faced with the problem of what to do with books of lecture notes (new information). They (old) might be useful some day, but they just keep piling up on my bookcase (new). Someday, it (old) will collapse under the weight of information I might never need.

Here is a sentence that is not as clear. It moves from new information to old information:

Lately, most movies I've seen have been merely second-rate entertainment, but occasionally there are some with worthwhile themes. The rapid disappearance of the Indian culture (new) is the topic of a recent movie (old) I saw.

Did you find the second sentence hard to read or understand? If so, it could be because the old information comes late in the sentence after the new information. A clearer version that moves from old information to new information might look like this:

Lately, most movies I've seen have been merely second-rate entertainment, but occasionally there are some with worthwhile themes. One recent movie (old) I saw was about the rapid disappearance of the Indian culture. (new)

Be careful about placement of subordinate clauses

Avoid interrupting the main clause with a subordinate clause if the interruption will cause confusion:

clear (subordinate clause at the end):

Industrial spying is increasing rapidly because of the growing use of computers to store and process corporate information.

clear (subordinate clause at the beginning):

Because of the growing use of computers to store and process corporate information, industrial spying is increasing rapidly.

not as clear (subordinate clause embedded in the middle):

Industrial spying,because of the growing use of computers to store and process corporate information, is increasing rapidly.

Use active voice

Sentences in active voice are usually easier to understand than those in passive voice because active-voice constructions indicate clearly the performer of the action expressed in the verb. In addition, changing from passive voice to active often results in a more concise sentence. So use active voice unless you have good reason to use the passive. For example, the passive is useful when you don't want to call attention to the doer; when the doer is obvious, unimportant, or unknown; or when passive voice is the conventional style among your readers.

For more on this topic, consult our handout on active and passive voice at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_actpass.html.

clear (active):

The committee decided to postpone the vote.

not as clear (passive):

A decision was reached to postpone the vote.

Use parallel constructions

When you have a series of words, phrases, or clauses, put them in parallel form (similar grammatical construction) so that the reader can identify the linking relationship more easily and clearly.

clear (parallel):

In Florida, where the threat of hurricanes is an annual event, we learned that it is important (1) to become aware of the warning signs, (2) to know what precautions to take, and (3) to decide when to seek shelter.

not as clear (not parallel):

In Florida, where the threat of hurricanes is an annual event, we learned that it is important (1) to become aware of the warning signs. (2) There are precautions to take, and (3) deciding when to take shelter is important.

In the second sentence, notice how the string of "things to be aware of in Florida" does not create a parallel structure. Also, notice how much more difficult it is for a reader to follow the meaning of the second sentence compared to the first one.

Avoid noun strings

Try not to string nouns together one after the other because a series of nouns is difficult to understand. One way to revise a string of nouns is to change one noun to a verb.

unclear (string of nouns):

This report explains our investment growth stimulation projects.

clearer:

This report explains our projects to stimulate growth in investments.

Avoid overusing noun forms of verbs

Use verbs when possible rather than noun forms known as "nominalizations."

unclear (use of nominalization):

The implementation of the plan was successful.

clearer:

The plan was implemented successfully.We implemented the plan successfully.

Avoid multiple negatives

Use affirmative forms rather than several negatives because multiple negatives are difficult to understand.

unclear (multiple negatives, passive):

Less attention is paid to commercials that lack human interest stories than to other kinds of commercials.

clearer:

People pay more attention to commercials with human interest stories than to other kinds of commercials.

Choose action verbs over forms of be

When possible, avoid using forms of be as the main verbs in your sentences and clauses. This problem tends to accompany nominalization (see above). Instead of using a be verb, focus on the actions you wish to express, and choose the appropriate verbs. In the following example, two ideas are expressed: 1) that there is a difference between television and newspaper news reporting, and 2) the nature of that difference. The revised version expresses these two main ideas in the two main verbs.

Unclear (overuse of be verbs):

One difference between television news reporting and the coverage provided by newspapers is the time factor between the actual happening of an event and the time it takes to be reported. The problem is that instantaneous coverage is physically impossible for newspapers.

Clearer:

Television news reporting differs from that of newspapers in that television, unlike newspapers, can provide instantaneous coverage of events as they happen.

Avoid unclear pronoun references

Be sure that the pronouns you use refer clearly to a noun in the current or previous sentence. If the

pronoun refers to a noun that has been implied but not stated, you can clarify the reference by explicitly using that noun.

Unclear (unclear pronoun reference):

With the spread of globalized capitalism, American universities increasingly follow a corporate fiscal model, tightening budgets and hiring temporary contract employees as teachers. This has prompted faculty and adjunct instructors at many schools to join unions as a way of protecting job security and benefits.

Clearer:

With the spread of globalized capitalism, American universities increasingly follow a corporate fiscal model, tightening budgets and hiring temporary contract employees as teachers. This trend has prompted faculty and adjunct instructors at many schools to join unions as a way of protecting job security and benefits.

Unclear (unclear pronoun reference):

Larissa worked in a national forest last summer, which may be her career choice.

Clearer:

Larissa worked in a national forest last summer; forest management may be her career choice.Larissa worked in a national forest last summer, and she may choose a forest management career.

 

Using Metaphors in Creative Writing

What is a metaphor?

The term metaphor meant in Greek "carry something across" or "transfer," which suggests many of the more elaborate definitions below:

a comparison between two things, based on resemblance or similarity, without using "like" or "as" most dictionaries

and textbooks

the act of giving a thing a name that belongs to something else Aristotle

the transferring of things and words from their proper signification to an improper similitude for the sake of beauty, necessity, polish, or emphasis Diomedes

a device for seeing something in terms of something else

Kenneth Burke

understanding and experiencing one thing in terms of another

John Searle

a simile contracted to its smallest dimensions

Joseph Priestly

 

 

Related terms

extended or telescoping metaphor: A sustained metaphor.

The teacher descended upon the exams, sank his talons into their pages, ripped the answers to shreds, and then, perching in his chair, began to digest.

implied metaphor: A less direct metaphor.

John swelled and ruffled his plumage (versus John was a peacock)

mixed metaphor: The awkward, often silly use of more than one metaphor at a time. To be avoided!

The movie struck a spark that massaged the audience's conscience.

dead metaphor: A commonly used metaphor that has become over time part of ordinary language.

tying up loose ends, a submarine sandwich, a branch of government, and most clichés

simile: A comparison using "like" or Her face was pale as the moon.

"as"

metonym: The substitution of one term for another with which it is commonly associated or closely related.

the pen is mightier than the sword, the crown (referring to a Queen or King), hands (referring to workers who use their hands),

synecdoche: The substitution of a part for the whole or vice versa (a kind of metonym).

give us this day our daily bread

 

Why use metaphors?

They enliven ordinary language.

People get so accustomed to using the same words and phrases over and over, and always in the same ways, that they no longer know what they mean. Creative writers have the power to make the ordinary strange and the strange ordinary, making life interesting again.

 

They are generous to readers and listeners; they encourage interpretation.

When readers or listeners encounter a phrase or word that cannot be interpreted literally, they have to think--or rather, they are given the pleasure of interpretation. If you write "I am frustrated" or "The air was cold" you give your readers nothing to do--they say "so what?" On the other hand, if you say, "My ambition was Hiroshima, after the bombing," your readers can think about and choose from many possible meanings.

 

They are more efficient and economical than ordinary language; they give maximum meaning with a minimum of words.

By writing "my dorm is a prison," you suggest to your readers that you feel as though you were placed in solitary, you are fed lousy food, you are deprived of all of life's great pleasures, your room is poorly lit and cramped--and a hundred other things, that, if you tried to say them all, would probably take several pages.

 

They create new meanings; they allow you to write about feelings, thoughts, things, experiences, etc. for which there are no easy words; they are necessary.

There are many gaps in language. When a child looks at the sky and sees a star but does not know the word "star," she is forced to say, "Mommy, look at the lamp in the sky!" Similarly, when computer software developers created boxes on the screen as a user interface, they needed a new language; the result was windows. In your poems, you will often be trying to write about subjects, feelings, etc. so complex that you have no choice but to use metaphors.

 

They are a sign of genius.

Or so says Aristotle in Poetics: "[T]he greatest thing by far is to be a master of metaphor." It is "a sign of genius, since a good metaphor implies an intuitive perception of the similarity in dissimilars."

 

Creative ways to use metaphors

Most books give rather boring examples of metaphors such as my father is a bear or the librarian was a beast. However, in your poetry (and fiction for that matter) you can do much more than say X is Y, like an algebraic formula. Definitely play with extended metaphors (see above) and experiment with some of the following, using metaphors...

as verbs The news that ignited his face snuffed out her smile.

as adjectives and adverbs Her carnivorous pencil carved up Susan's devotion.

as prepositional phrases The doctor inspected the rash with a vulture's eye.

as appositives or modifiers On the sidewalk was yesterday's paper, an ink-stained sponge.

 

Examples

Scratching at the window with claws of pine, the wind wants in.

Imogene Bolls, "Coyote Wind"

What a thrill--my thumb instead of an onion. The top quite gone except for a sort of hinge of skin....A celebration this is. Out of a gap a million soldiers run, redcoats every one.

Sylvia Plath, "Cut"

The clouds were low and hairy in the skies, like locks blown forward in the gleam of eyes.

Robert Frost, "Once by the Pacific"

Little boys lie still, awake wondering, wondering delicate little boxes of dust.

James Wright, "The Undermining of the Defense Economy"

Literary Terms

Brought to you by the Purdue University Online Writing Lab

Many literary terms describe how an author communicates his or her ideas. Look through the text and try to identify some of methods he or she uses to convey the patterns of ideas you are most interested in. The following terms will help you express the methods you see:

characterization: the author's expression of a character's personality through the use of action, dialogue, thought, or commentary by the author or another character.

conflict: the struggle within the story. Character divided against self, character against character, character against society, character against nature, character against God. Without it, there is no story.

dialogue: vocal exchange between two or more characters. One of the ways in which plot, character, action, etc. are developed.

imagery: the collection of images within a literary work. Used to evoke atmosphere, mood, tension. For example, images of crowded, steaming sidewalks flanking streets choked with lines of shimmering, smoking cars suggests oppressive heat and all the

psychological tensions that go with it. point of view: the vantage point from which the author presents action of the story. Who

is telling the story? An all-knowing author? A voice limited to the views of one character? The voice and thoughts of one character? Does the author change point of view in the story? Why? Point of view is often considered the technical aspect of fiction which leads the critic most readily into the problems and meanings of the story.

symbol: related to imagery. It is something which is itself yet stands for or means something else. It tends to be more singular, a bit more fixed than imagery. For example, in Lessing's "A Woman on a Roof," the brief red sun suit seems to symbolize the woman's freedom and independence from externally imposed standards of behavior.

tone: suggests an attitude toward the subject which is communicated by the words the author chooses. Part of the range of tone includes playful, somber, serious, casual, formal, ironic. Important because it designates the mood and effect of a work.

Image in Poetry

Introduction

What is an image? This is a question that philosophers and poets have asked themselves for thousands of years and have yet to definitively answer. The most widely used definition of an image these days is:"...an intellectual and emotional complex in an instant of time." (Ezra Pound)

But this definition from Pound has a history to it. Before Pound outlined his definition, the image was seen very differently by most people. Therefore, the question "what is an image?" immediately breaks down into three fundamental parts:

1) Where do images come from?

2) Once an image is created, what is it?

3) How can an image function in a poem?

Before we answer these questions, we'll want to discuss some terms related to image so that we can use them in our answers.

Related Terms

ImageryThe category of which all images, as varied and lively as they are, fall into. "Imagery is best defined as the total sensory suggestion of poetry" (John Ciardi, World Book Dictionary def. of "Imagery.")

Imagination1) The mental laboratory used for the creation of images and new ideas. 2) "n. A warehouse of facts, with poet and liar in joint ownership." (Ambrose Bierce, 60)

3) "Imagination is not, as its etymology would suggest, the faculty of forming images of reality; it is rather the faculty of forming images which go beyond reality, which sing reality." (Gaston Bachelard ,"On Poetic Imagination and Revery," 15)

ImagismA school of poetry and poetics made popular by Ezra Pound, Amy Lowell and H.D. (Hilda Doolittle) in the early 20th century that focused on "direct treatment of the thing, whether subjective or objective." H.D.’s "Sea Garden" (available at http://www.cichone.com/jlc/hd/hdpoet.html) is often seen as a good example of this style.

Concrete detailA detail in a poem that has a basis in something "real" or tangible, not abstract or intellectual, based more in things than in thought.

Sensory detailA detail that draws on any of the five senses. This is very often also a concrete detail.

Where do images come from?

The first question is one best left to psychologists and philosophers of language. Perhaps one of the most complete philosophical inquiries (and the one that seemed to create a dramatic break from classical philosophy), was that of Gaston Bachelard. Bachelard believed that the image originated straight out of human consciousness, from the very heart of being. Whereas before the image was seen merely as a representation of an object in the world, Bachelard believed that the image was its own object and that it could be experienced by a reader who allowed him or herself the opportunity to "dream" the image (the "revery" of reading poetry). The image then could not be intellectualized so much as experienced.

He even went so far as to claim that "Intellectual criticism of poetry will never lead to the center of where poetic images are formed." ("Poetic Imagination" 7) He believed that the image erupts from the mind of the poet— that the poet is not entirely in control of the image and therefore is not seen as "causing" the image to come into being. Since the image has no "cause," the image has no past, and, subsequently, is an object in and of itself, separate from its maker and separate from the object it describes. He claims "[The image] becomes a new being in our language, expressing us by making us what it expresses; in other words, it is at once a becoming of expression, and a becoming of our being."

Bachelard is, of course, just one person’s opinion on the matter, but his philosphy does hold true to the somewhat enigmatic and difficult-to-pin-down nature of the image. Where the image comes from is an issue that will

"So this is what happens at the moment of writing: the wave takes the shape of the fire. What is 'out there' moves inside. The poet becomes threshold."

(Larry Levis, ”Some Notes on the Gazer Within")

probably never be solved, but suffice to say that if you approach its making as a mystery (and allow it to simply happen without too much intellectualizing) you will at least keep in line with one major aspect of its origin, that of the unknown.

What is an image?

The image is often seen, after it has been written, as being one of two things. It is either something that represents a thing in the "real" world, or it is seen as its own thing, divorced from the burden of representing anything other than itself. Again, it is the latter definition that has come into more common use. As many philosophers have recently shown, written language is more than simply representational. This means that the image, rather than being something that stands in for something else, is seen as something in and of itself; tied to the things of the world, but not burdened by "representing them directly".

Instead of staying in the abstract, let’s look at an example of the formation of an image. We’ll start with the following phrase:

The yellow lemon

If image were merely a stand-in for something, then the phrase "The yellow lemon" would be an image. While we can perhaps see a lemon (albeit a redundant "yellow" one,) there is little evidence of a mind at work in this phrase. This particular lemon lacks certain characteristics that would convey that it is being truly experienced by a person, characteristics that more recent poets have defined more accurately.

Ezra Pound made perhaps the most widely used definition of image in the 20th century: "An ‘Image’ is that which presents an intellectual and emotional complex in an instant of time." (Pound 143) In Pound’s definition, the image is not just a stand in for something else; it is a putting-into-words of the emotional, intellectual and concrete stuff that we experience in any given moment. It is also important to note that an image in poetry, contrary to popular belief, is not simply visual. It can engage any of the senses. And, in fact, for it to be an image, it must engage at least one of the senses by using sensory detail.

Take, for example, the following image (we’ll build on our previous example):

The sunlight in a lemon makes me wince.

"An ‘Image’ is that which presents an intellectual and emotional complex in an instant of time." (Ezra Pound)

The words don’t simply stand in for an absent object. There is suddenly a full experience in the words. It feels more human. There is something intellectual (one must convert the sunlight into vitamin C in order to know how the sunlight is involved), there is something sensual (taste, sour), and a bit of emotion (probably based on whether the reader, unlike the speaker in the poem, likes lemons). The instant of time is that of the speaker eating the lemon. The moment is frozen, so to speak, and given to the reader every time they read the image.

Poet Larry Levis felt this "freezing an instant of time" is what makes the image poignant. He said:

The image draws on, comes out of, the "world of the senses" and, therefore, originates in a world that passes, that is passing, every moment. Could it be, then, that every image, as image, has this quality of poignancy and vulnerability since it occurs, and occurs so wholeheartedly, in time? (117)

It is the potential of losing the image that gives it its power. The job of the poet is to freeze the image as well as possible in a way that feels very real and human (concrete, intellectual and emotional). Taste a lemon and the sensation last for only a few seconds; write an image that conveys what it is like to eat a lemon and the sensation lives longer.

What are the uses of an image?

Once an image is created, there is often a need to place it in the context of a larger poem. While many aspects of an image may be endlessly debatable, this one rarely is: images are the concrete, gut-level part of a poem. And their function within a poem reflects that.

The poet Tony Hoagland often speaks about poems having many levels, or chakras, as he calls them. The heady and purely intellectual stuff of a poem he calls the "rhetorical". This is where questions are asked, statements are made and hypotheses are hypothesized. The second level is diction. This is where the voice of the poet comes through and doesn’t concern our discussion too much here. The gut level is the image. The image, says Hoagland, comes in to fill the spaces made in the rhetorical moves of the poem. Say the poet states:

We find sunlight in the strangest places.

Now there is nothing resembling an image here. This statement is purely

"[The literary image] is polyphonic because it is polysemantic. If meanings become too profuse, it can fall into word play. If it restricts itself to a single meaning, it can fall into didacticism. The true poet avoids both dangers." (Gaston Bachelard)

intellectual, or, in Hoagland’s language, "rhetorical". This statement serves to open space in the poem, allowing something more grounded and earthy to come in. Our image from earlier may work after this somehow, or many other images could follow.

The amount of space opened by a rhetorical statement or question reflects how much room there is to fill in a poem. A small question or statement may merit a simple, small image. A more grandiose rhetorical movement may call for long lists of images. Walt Whitman’s lists are a good example; he posits something and then lists sometimes hundreds of variations on the theme.

This way of looking at the placement of an image into a poem is somewhat limiting and by no means exhaustive. The key to using images well in a poem is to remember that images tend to produce gut-level responses in our readers. They feel the most real. They do, ultimately, convey (in very short order) a complete human experience in words. And that is why a study of poetry almost always begins with the image. It is the backbone, the grounding rod, of the poem. Few other aspects of our language can boast such a strength.

Exercises

Breadbasket of Images

1. Go outside and find 5 objects and describe them briefly in your notebook. 2. Take one of the five objects and add something that makes it "intellectual," something

that shows that it is being observed by a thinking person. Do not just describe the thing; that is not image. Think of it as augmenting the object with your thoughts.

3. Take the same object and find a way to get something emotional into it. Again, raw description is not the key here; make it something that evokes an emotional response in you about the object.

4. Repeat with all five objects.

The Poet as Robber Baron

1. Find three images from three different poems that you really admire. 2. Replace the key element of each of the images with a new word. ie: if the key element

of the image is "sun," try making it "whiffleball".3. Now take the emotional and intellectual elements of the image and change them

slightly to fit the word.4. Using all three images, write a short poem where all three images come into play with

each other.

Introduction to Sound and Meter

When most people think of poetry, the first things they think of are sound and meter. For thousands of years, poetic form has been defined by its cadence, its sing-song rhythms, and its sound effects.

Contrary to what many readers of contemporary poetry believe, free verse is not mostly a random display of words and phrases; that couldn’t be any further from the truth.

While it is true that free verse poetry does not subscribe to the set meters and forms that defined earlier forms of verse, it must still deal with these elements. If form in a poem relies almost entirely on two major aspects: the visual and aural elements of a poem— then the poet who seeks to shape a poem has little choice but to learn the elements of sound. While on the surface it may seem that free verse has pulled the poet away from the sound elements in a poem, in reality it has made the poet’s task more complex. Since the poet is now free to irregularly change the rhythms and sounds throughout a poem, he/she has many more choices to make with every word put on the page. T. S. Eliot said in his essay"The Music of Poetry" in 1942 that "no verse is free for the man who wants to do a good job", and, although written 60 years ago, it still holds true. The early 20th century changed forever the way we look at poetic form.

When dealing with the aural aspects of a poem, two words always come up: sound and meter. These words are difficult to define and have many different aspects. Because of these difficulties, perhaps it is useful to think of these terms in the language of metaphor. If you think of the aural elements of a poem in terms of musical notation, you could think of meter as the rhythm created by the words (the horizontal movement of a piece of music, cutting up time into bigger or smaller increments) and sound as the notes of the piece of music (or the vertical movement, repeating sounds and syllables to create a "melody.") Each of these two elements are complex and require an in-depth definition. First, let’s start with meter.

Meter

The bible of most poets today regarding meter and sound is a book by Paul Fussell called Poetic Meter and Poetic Form. Although some of Fussell’s ideas are a bit outdated (namely, he doesn’t deal with the visual elements of a poem), his approach is complete, concise and useful. Fussell defines meter as "what results when the natural rhythmical movements of colloquial speech are heightened, organized, and regulated so that [repetition] emerges from the relative phonetic haphazard of ordinary utterance." (4-5) To "meter" something, then, is to "measure" it (the word meter itself is derived from the Greek for measure), and there are four common ways to view meter.

Syllabic: A general counting of syllables per line. Accentual: A counting of accents only per line. Syllables may vary

between accents. Accentual-syllabic: A counting of syllables and accents. Syllables may not

vary between accents. Quantitative: Measures the duration of words.

Of the ways of looking at meter, the most common in English are those that are accentual. English, being of Germanic origin, is a predominantly accentual language. This means that its natural rhythms are not found naturally from syllable to syllable, but rather from one accent to the next. There may be two or three

"The nature of music is that you must hear all the digressions." From "The Blue Swan" by Diane Wakowski

syllables between accents. For this reason most English language poets opt to look at their own meter as accentual or accentual-syllabic. The former is the more common; adherence to the latter often leads an English language poet toward self-conscious verse, as their predictable rhythms are counter to natural English speech.

To get a bearing on what these rhythms look and sound like, let’s start with a method for writing out the rhythms of a poem. This technique is called scansion, and is important because it puts visual markers onto an otherwise entirely heard phenomenon.

Scansion

There are three kinds of scansion: the graphic, the musical and the acoustic. Since the most commonly and most easily used is graphic, we will use it in our discussion. For a discussion of the others, I refer you to Fussell, page 18. To begin to look at graphic scansion, we first must look at a couple of symbols that are used to scan a poem.

~ = an unaccented syllable ` = an accented syllable /= a break between poetic feet _= a caesura, or metrical pause

Syllables can either be accented, meaning they are naturally given more emphasis when spoken, or unaccented, meaning they receive less emphasis when spoken. A poetic foot is a unit of accented and unaccented syllables that is repeated or used in sequence with others to form the meter. A caesura is a long pause in the middle of a line of poetry.

To show an example of these symbols, let’s look at a poem written with the less common, the accentual-syllabic meter, in mind. Here are three scanned lines from Dante Gabriel Rossetti’s "Autumn Idleness":

You can then see, when comparing the reading of the poem to the scansion marks, how they compare. The accented syllables are marked by ‘ and the non-accented with ö. The symbol / shows the break between the feet of the poem, and _ shows a caesura in the line.

These lines are taken from a sonnet and thus somewhat predictably written in iambic pentameter. They thus have five accents per line and their syllable counts are 10/10/10. The term iambic pentameter often comes up in discussions of Shakespeare or any sonneteer, but the meaning of the

term is often mistaken or simply overlooked. Defining iambic pentameter helps us break down two important parts of meter: poetic feet and line length.

Poetic Feet

There are two parts to the term iambic pentameter. The first part refers to the type of poetic foot being used predominantly in the line. A poetic foot is a basic repeated sequence of meter comprised of two or more accented or unaccented syllables. In the case of an iambic foot, the sequence is ö ‘, or "unaccented, accented". There are other types of poetic feet commonly found in English language poetry.

The primary feet are referred to using these terms (an example word from Fussell’s examples is given next to them):

Iambic: destroy Anapestic: intervene Trochaic: topsy Dactylic: merrily

The substitutive feet (feet not used as primary, instead used to supplement and vary a primary foot) are referred to using these terms:

Spondaic: hum drum Pyrrhic: the sea/ son of/ mists

The second part of defining iambic pentameter has to do with line length.

Line Length

The poetic foot then shows the placement of accented and unaccented syllables. But the second part of the term, pentameter, shows the number of feet per line. In the case of pentameter, there are basically five feet per line.

The types of line lengths are as follows:

One foot: Monometer Two feet: Dimeter Three feet: Trimeter Four feet: Tetrameter Five feet: Pentameter Six feet: Hexameter Seven feet: Heptameter Eight feet: Octameter

Rarely is a line of a poem longer than eight feet seen in English language poetry.

Line length and poetic feet are most easily seen in more formal verse. The example above from D.G. Rossetti is pretty obviously iambic pentameter. And Rossetti uses an accentual-syllabic meter to

flesh out his poem with quite a bit of success. What most free verse poets find more useful than this strict form is accentual meter, where the accents only are counted in the line (although when scanned, the syllables are still marked off...it is just that their number is not of as much import.)

Sound

When getting away from the straight rhythms of a poem, we get into the sounds. As mentioned above, if the meter is the poetic equivalent of the horizontal movement in a piece of music, then sound is the vertical movement. If meter serves to cut up the poem into time, then sound serves to configure the poem into a melody or sorts. This means that repeated sounds cohere the poem in much the same way that repeated rhythms do. There are nearly as many aspects to sound as there is to rhythm. The first is perhaps the one with which people are typically most familiar.

Rhyme

A major aspect of sound in more formal verse is rhyme. Poetry with a set rhyme scheme is less common now than it once was, but it is still used, and can still be powerful. Used effectively, it is one of the many important tools in the poet’s toolbox. The presence of rhyme in a free verse poem serves to offset those lines that rhyme. Think of the non-rhyming lines in free verse as establishing a pattern of not rhyming, then the use of rhyme breaks the aural and visual pattern and creates emphasis by variation from that pattern.

Take, as an example, this rather whimsical poem from Robert Creeley," The Conspiracy":

You send me your poems,I’ll send you mine.

Things tend to awakeneven through random communication.

Let us suddenlyproclaim spring. And jeer

at the others,all the others.

I will send a picture tooif you will send me one two.

(Creeley 39)

"I believe in a poetry determined by the language of which it is made....I look to words, and nothing else, for my own redemption either as a man or poet." From "A Note" by Robert Creeley, 1960

The last stanza varies from the rest of the poem in that it rhymes (the two "others" in the previous stanza rhyme too, but, as he repeats the same word, it is probably more of a way of ramping up to the final stanza (visually and aurally) than a "hard" rhyme.) This serves to set the last stanza apart and to

draw the poem to a close. Merrill’s poem above also uses a similar device, although in separate stanzas. But because of the abnormal pattern of rhyme in the poem, it can hardly be said to have a "rhyme scheme."

The term rhyme scheme simply refers to the repetition of a rhyme throughout a poem. A rhyme scheme is typically shown with letters representing the patterns that the rhymes make throughout the poem. Take, for example, this poem from Gerard Manley Hopkins:

The Candle Indoors

SOME candle clear burns somewhere I come by.I muse at how its being puts blissful backWith yellowy moisture mild night’s blear-all black,Or to-fro tender trambeams truckle at the eye.By that window what task what fingers ply,I plod wondering, a-wanting, just for lackOf answer the eagerer a-wanting Jessy or JackThere God to aggrándise, God to glorify.—

Come you indoors, come home; your fading fireMend first and vital candle in close heart’s vault:You there are master, do your own desire;What hinders? Are you beam-blind, yet to a faultIn a neighbour deft-handed? Are you that liarAnd, cast by conscience out, spendsavour salt?

(From http://www.bartleby.com/122/26.html)

Here the rhyme schemes would be labeled ABBACDDC for the first stanza and EFEFEF for the second. Take the rhyming words and put them next to the letters and you will see the reasoning:

A byB backB blackA eyeC plyD lackD JackC glorify

E fireF vault

E desireF faultE liarF salt

Hopkins here is using a variation on the traditional Petrachan sonnet form (evidenced first in the fact that, like all sonnets, it has 14 lines.) And the rhyme scheme is now obvious. the patterns put forth in the rhyme scheme create a notable pattern. Hopkins uses what most readers are familiar with— what is called perfect rhyme, where the two (or three or four) words are in complete aural correspondence. These are rhymes like certain and curtain or any of the rhymes in the Hopkins example above. But we have not yet discussed the other varieties of rhyme.

One issue that the poet must contend with is that in order to use rhyme well, it can’t be forced. All of us have read ineffective poems where the rhymes sounded like "the cat sat on the mat" and we felt like we were being forced into a box that felt both unnatural and unnerving. This type of rhyme is actually called forced rhyme, because it does exactly that; forces the rhyme where it should not otherwise be. This method of rhyme can be used at times, but the poet should know that its effect is typically comic. Since one of the poet’s end goals is inevitably to make their structure work for the poem so well that it is not obvious at first that it is even there at all, then the effective use of the different kinds of rhyme can serve these ends.

Types of Rhyme

Perfect Rhyme: The words are in complete aural correspondence. An example would be: Certain and Curtain.

Forced Rhyme: An unnatural rhyme that forces a rhyme where it should not otherwise be.

Slant Rhyme: The words are similar but lack perfect correspondence. Example: found and kind, grime and game.

Masculine Rhyme: Has a single stressed syllable rhyme. Example: fight and tight, stove and trove.

Feminine Rhyme: A stressed syllable rhyme followed by an unstressed syllable. Example: carrot and garret, sever and never.

Visual Rhyme: A rhyme that only looks similar, but when spoken sound different. Example: slaughter and laughter. This type of rhyme can be used more to make a visual pattern than to make a aural rhyme.

Again we can see, using the examples from the Creeley and Merrill poems, one way that rhyme can be used effectively in free verse. Here, as with the meter, the effect of variance comes from the establishment of the poem having no set rhyme scheme and then putting a rhyme into the poem.

Another often-seen rhyme technique is internal rhyme. With internal rhyme, the rhyme comes in the middle of the line rather than the end.

A good example of this is in the first stanza of Edgar Allan Poe’s "The Raven":

Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary,Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore,

While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping,As of someone gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door." 'Tis some visitor," I muttered, "tapping at my chamber door;Only this, and nothing more."

Note that in lines 1 and 3 you get an internal rhyme with "dreary" and "weary," and "napping" and "tapping." This technique can sometimes be used to de-emphasize a rhyme that would otherwise be too obvious.

Take, for example, these lines from Gary Snyder’s poem "Riprap":

Lay down these wordsBefore your mind like rocks.            placed solid, by handsIn choice of place, setBefore the body of the mind           in space and time:(Snyder 32)

There are a lot of things going on here, but the places worth pointing out in regard to internal rhyme are "place" and "space" in lines 4 and 6, and the internal slant rhyme in line 4, "choice" and "place."

Other Matters of Sound

The other major matters of sound that have yet to be discussed but are just as important are assonance, consonance, and alliteration.

Assonance: The same or similar vowel sound repeated in the stressed syllable of a word, followed by uncommon consonant sounds. Examples would be: hate and sale, or drive and higher.

Consonance: The same or similar consonant sound repeated in the stressed syllable, preceded by uncommon vowel sounds. Examples: urn and shorn, or irk and torque.

Alliteration: Repetition of sounds through more than one word or syllable. Example: Take the (extreme use of) the "L" sound that repeats in the following phrase— "The lurid letters of Lucy Lewis are luscious, lucid and libidinous."

All of these aural elements are mostly found within the lines of a poem rather than at the end. Sometimes they carry from one line to the next or over several lines. These are often used when a line or two seem to lack cohesion (the repeated sounds create structure) or to create a repeated set of sounds that will either A) stand apart from the words around them (because they are aurally different) or B) will make a pattern with their own sounds that can then be varied for emphasis. Take the use of alliteration as an example. The (rather simple) line above can easily illustrate two possibilities.

If the line came on the heels of something like:

The video clips taken by Frank in Louisville are dull butthe lurid letters of Lucy Lewis are luscious, lucid and libidinous.Surely we haven’t seen anything like them in years.

The alliteration in the second line makes it stand out from the others that surround it. Conversely, if we added a variance from the alliteration and made it:

The lurid letters of Lucy Lewis are luscious, crude and libidinous.

The emphasis is obviously on the word "crude," as it now stands apart from all the "L" sounds around it.It is important to remember when implementing any of these techniques that the goal of structure in a poem is to contain the poem, to allow order and chaos to co-exist.

If the structure becomes too apparent (to the point that it detracts from the experience of the poem, as in the "Lucy Lewis" example above,) it is doing its job poorly.

Sentence Punctuation Patterns

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To punctuate a sentence, you can use and combine some of these patterns. For more information on independent and dependent clauses plus independent and dependent markers, see the following page on independent and dependent clauses. (http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_clause.html for those of you reading a print copy.)

Pattern One: Simple sentence

Independent clause .

Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma.

Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma .

 

This pattern is an example of a simple sentence.

Pattern Two : Compound Sentence

Independent clause , coordinating conjunction independent clause .

There are seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet.

Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma, but they don't know the reasons for it.

Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma , but they don't know the reasons for it .

 

This pattern is an example of a compound sentence.

Pattern Three: Compound Sentence

Independent clause ; Independent clause .

 

Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma; they are unsure of its cause.

Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma ; they are unsure of its cause .

 

This pattern is an example of a compound sentence.

Pattern Four: Compound Sentence

Independent clause ; independent marker , independent clause .

Examples of independent markers are the following: therefore, moreover, thus, consequently, however, also.

Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma; therefore, they have called for more research into its causes.

Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma ; therefore , they have called for more research

into its causes .

 

This pattern is an example of a compound sentence.

Pattern Five: Complex Sentence

Dependent marker + dependent clause , Independent clause .

Examples of dependent markers are as follows: because, before, since, while, although, if, until, when, then, after, as, as if.

Example: Because doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma, they have called for more research into its causes.

Because doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma , they have called for more research into its

causes .

 

This pattern is an example of a complex sentence.

Pattern Six

Independent clause dependent marker + dependent clause .

Examples of dependent markers are as follows: because, before, since, while, although, if, until, when, then, after, as, as if.

Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma because it is a common, treatable illness.

Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma

because it is a common, treatable illness .

 

This pattern is an example of a complex sentence.

Pattern Seven

 

First part of an independent clause , non-essential clause or

phrase , rest of the independent clause .

For an example of non-essential clauses and phrases, see Commas With Non Essential Elements (http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaess.html for those of you reading a print copy).

Example: Many doctors, including both pediatricians and family practice physicians, are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma.

Many doctors , including both pediatricians and

family practice physicians , are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma .

 

Pattern Eight

First part of an independent clause

essential clause or phrase rest of the independent clause .

For an example of non-essential clauses and phrases, see Commas With Non Essential Elements (http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaess.html for those of you reading a print copy).

Example: Many doctors who are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma have called for more research into its causes.

Many doctors

who are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma

have called for more research into its causes .

 

For more about punctuating sentences and grammar, see our grammar handouts section at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/index.html.

Run-ons - Comma Splices - Fused Sentences

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The above are all names given to compound sentences that are not punctuated correctly. The best way to avoid such errors is to punctuate compound sentences correctly by using one or the other of these rules.

1. Join the two independent clauses with one of the coordinating conjunctions (and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet), and use a comma before the connecting word. (For more help on independent clauses, see http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_clause.html)

_________________________, and _________________________.

(He enjoys walking through the country, and he often goes backpacking on his vacations.)

2. When you do not have a connecting word (or when you use a connecting word other than and, but, for, or nor, so, or yet between the two independent clauses) use a semicolon (;).

__________________________;_____________________________.

(He often watched TV when there were only reruns; she preferred to read instead.)

or

__________________________; however,____________________.

(He often watched TV when there were only reruns; however, she preferred to read instead.)

So, run-ons and fused sentences are terms describing two independent clauses which are joined together with no connecting word or punctuation to separate the clauses.

Incorrect: They weren't dangerous criminals they were detectives in disguise.Correct: They weren't dangerous criminals; they were detectives in disguise.

Incorrect: I didn't know which job I wanted I was too confused to decide.Correct: I didn't know which job I wanted, so I was too confused to decide.

The Apostrophe

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The apostrophe has three uses:

1) to form possessives of nouns2) to show the omission of letters3) to indicate certain plurals of lowercase letters.

Apostrophes are NOT used for possessive pronouns or for noun plurals, including acronyms.

Forming possessives of nouns

To see if you need to make a possessive, turn the phrase around and make it an "of the..." phrase. For example:

the boy's hat = the hat of the boy

three days' journey = journey of three days

If the noun after "of" is a building, an object, or a piece of furniture, then no apostrophe is needed!

room of the hotel = hotel room

door of the car = car door

leg of the table = table leg

Once you've determined whether you need to make a possessive, follow these rules to create one.

• add 's to the singular form of the word (even if it ends in -s):

the owner's car

James's hat

• add 's to the plural forms that do not end in -s:

the children's game

the geese's honking

• add ' to the end of plural nouns that end in -s:

houses' roofs

three friends' letters

• add 's to the end of compound words:

my brother-in-law's money

 • add 's to the last noun to show joint possession of an object:

Todd and Anne's apartment

Showing omission of letters

Apostrophes are used in contractions. A contraction is a word (or set of numbers) in which one or more letters (or numbers) have been omitted. The apostrophe shows this omission. Contractions are common in speaking and in informal writing. To use an apostrophe to create a contraction, place an

apostrophe where the omitted letter(s) would go. Here are some examples:

don't = do not

I'm = I am

he'll = he will

who's = who is

shouldn't = should not

didn't = did not

could've = could have (NOT "could of"!)

'60 = 1960

Forming plurals of lowercase letters

Apostrophes are used to form plurals of letters that appear in lowercase; here the rule appears to be more typographical than grammatical, e.g. "three ps" versus "three p's." To form the plural of a lowercase letter, place 's after the letter. There is no need for apostrophes indicating a plural on capitalized letters, numbers, and symbols (though keep in mind that some editors, teachers, and professors still prefer them). Here are some examples:

p's and q's = a phrase indicating politeness, possibly from "mind your pleases and thankyous"?

Nita's mother constantly stressed minding one's p's and q's.

three Macintosh G4s = three of the Macintosh model G4

There are two G4s currently used in the writing classrom.

many &s = many ampersands

That printed page has too many &s on it.

Don't use apostrophes for possessive pronouns or for noun plurals.

Apostrophes should not be used with possessive pronouns because possessive pronouns already

show possession -- they don't need an apostrophe. His, her, its, my, yours, ours are all possessive pronouns. Here are some examples:

 

wrong: his' book

correct: his book

 

wrong: The group made it's decision.

correct: The group made its decision.

(Note: Its and it's are not the same thing. It's is a contraction for "it is" and its is a possesive pronoun meaning "belonging to it." It's raining out= it is raining out. A simple way to remember this rule is the fact that you don't use an apostrophe for the possesives his or hers, so don't do it with its!)

 

wrong: a friend of yours'

correct: a friend of yours

 

wrong: She waited for three hours' to get her ticket.

correct: She waited for three hours to get her ticket.

Proofreading for apostrophes:

A good time to proofread is when you have finished writing the paper. Try the following strategies:

• If you tend to leave out apostrophes, check every word that ends in -s or -es to see if it needs an apostrophe.

• If you put in too many apostrophes, check every apostrophe to see if you can justify it with a rule for using apostrophes.

Using Hyphens

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For information on dashes and other punctuation, see our handout Semicolons, Parentheses, Dashes, Quotation Marks, and Italics at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_overvw.html.

Two words brought together as a compound may be written separately, written as one word, or connected by hyphens. For example, three modern dictionaries all have the same listings for the following compounds:

hair stylisthairsplitterhair-raiser

Another modern dictionary, however, lists hairstylist, not hair stylist. Compounding is obviously in a state of flux, and authorities do not always agree in all cases, but the uses of the hyphen offered here are generally agreed upon.

1. Use a hyphen to join two or more words serving as a single adjective before a noun:

a one-way streetchocolate-covered peanutswell-known author

However, when compound modifiers come after a noun, they are not hyphenated:

The peanuts were chocolate covered.The author was well known.

2. Use a hyphen with compound numbers:

forty-sixsixty-threeOur much-loved teacher was sixty-three years old.

3. Use a hyphen to avoid confusion or an awkward combination of letters:

re-sign a petition (vs. resign from a job)semi-independent (but semiconscious)shell-like (but childlike)

4. Use a hyphen with the prefixes ex- (meaning former), self-, all-; with the suffix -elect; between a prefix and a capitalized word; and with figures or letters:

ex-husbandself-assuredmid-Septemberall-inclusivemayor-electanti-AmericanT-shirtpre-Civil Warmid-1980s

5. Use a hyphen to divide words at the end of a line if necessary, and make the break only between syllables:

pref-er-encesell-ingin-di-vid-u-al-ist

For line breaks, divide already hyphenated words only at the hyphen:

mass-producedself-conscious

For line breaks in words ending in -ing, if a single final consonant in the root word is doubled before the suffix, hyphenate between the consonants; otherwise, hyphenate at the suffix itself:

plan-ningrun-ningdriv-ingcall-ing

Never put the first or last letter of a word at the end or beginning of a line, and don't put two-letter suffixes at the beginning of a new line:

lovely (Do not separate to leave ly beginning a new line.)eval-u-ate (Separate only on either side of the u; do not leave the initial e- at the end of a line.)

Brief Overview of Punctuation: Semicolon, Colon,Parenthesis, Dash, Quotation Marks, and Italics

Brought to you by the Purdue University Online Writing Lab at http://owl.english.purdue.edu

Punctuation marks are signals to your readers. In speaking, we can pause, stop, or change our tone of voice. In writing, we use the following marks of punctuation to emphasize and clarify what we mean. Punctuation marks discussed in other OWL documents include commas at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_comma.html, apostrophes at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_apost.html, quotation marks at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_quote.html, and hyphens at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_hyphen.html.

Semicolon ;

In addition to using a semicolon to join related independent clauses in compound sentences, you can use a semicolon to separate items in a series if the elements of the series already include commas. (For more help with independent clauses, look here: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_clause.html.)

Members of the band include Harold Rostein, clarinetist; Tony Aluppo, tuba player; and Lee Jefferson, trumpeter.

Colon :

Use a colon . . .

in the following situations: for example:

after a complete statement in order to introduce one or more directly related ideas, such as a series of directions, a list, or a quotation or other comment illustrating or explaining the statement.

The daily newspaper contains four sections: news, sports, entertainment, and classified ads.

The strategies of corporatist industrial unionism have proven ineffective: compromises and concessions have left labor in a weakened position in the new "flexible" economy.

in a business letter greeting. Dear Ms. Winstead:

between the hour and minutes in time notation.

5:30 p.m.

between chapter and verse in biblical references.

Genesis 1:18

Parentheses ()

Parentheses are occasionally and sparingly used for extra, nonessential material included in a sentence. For example, dates, sources, or ideas that are subordinate or tangential to the rest of the sentence are set apart in parentheses. Parentheses always appear in pairs.

Before arriving at the station, the old train (someone said it was a relic of

frontier days) caught fire.

Dash --

Use a dash (represented on a typewriter, a computer with no dashes in the type font, or in a handwritten document by a pair of hyphens with no spaces) . . .

in the following situations: for example:

to emphasize a point or to set off an explanatory comment; but don't overuse dashes, or they will lose their impact.

To some of you, my proposals may seem radical--even revolutionary.

In terms of public legitimation--that is, in terms of garnering support from state legislators, parents, donors, and university administrators--English departments are primarily places where advanced literacy is taught.

for an appositive phrase that already includes commas.

The boys--Jim, John, and Jeff--left the party early.

For more help with appositives, look here: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_appos.html

As you can see, dashes function in some ways like parentheses (used in pairs to set off a comment within a larger sentence) and in some ways like colons (used to introduce material illustrating or emphasizing the immediately preceding statement). But comments set off with a pair of dashes appear less subordinate to the main sentence than do comments in parentheses. And material introduced after a single dash may be more emphatic and may serve a greater variety of rhetorical purposes than material introduced with a colon.

Quotation Marks " "

Use quotation marks . . .

in the following situations: for example:

to enclose direct quotations. Note that commas and periods go inside the closing quotation mark in conventional American usage; colons and semicolons go outside; and placement of question and exclamation marks depends on the

He asked, "Will you be there?" "Yes," I answered, "I'll look for you in the foyer."

situation (see our quotation marks document).

to indicate words used ironically, with reservations, or in some unusual way; but don't overuse quotation marks in this sense, or they will lose their impact.

History is stained with blood spilled in the name of "civilization."

For more information on writing research papers and using quotations, see our workshop on writing research papers here http://owl.english.purdue.edu/workshops/hypertext/ResearchW/index.html.

Underlining and Italics

Underlining and italics are not really punctuation, but they are significant textual effects used conventionally in a variety of situations. Before computerized word-processing was widely available, writers would underline certain terms in handwritten or manually typed pages, and the underlining would be replaced by italics in the published version. Since word processing today allows many options for font faces and textual effects, it is generally recommended that you choose either underlining or italics and use it consistently throughout a given document as needed. Because academic papers are manuscripts and not final publications and because italics are not always easily recognized with some fonts, many instructors prefer underlining over italics for course papers. Whichever you choose, italics or underlining should be used . . .

in the following situations: for example:

to indicate titles of complete or major works such as magazines, books, newspapers, academic journals, films, television programs, long poems, plays of three or more acts

Faulkner's last novel was The Reivers.

The Simpsons offers hilarious parodies of American culture and family life.

foreign words that are not commonly used in English

Wearing blue jeans is de rigueur for most college students.

words used as words themselves The English word nuance comes from a Middle French word meaning "shades of color."

words or phrases that you wish to emphasize

The very founding principles of our nation are at stake!

Quotation Marks with Direct and Indirect Quotations

Quoting Prose

Direct quotations are another person's exact words--either spoken or in print--incorporated into your own writing.

Use a set of quotation marks to enclose each direct quotation included in your writing. Use a capital letter with the first word of a direct quotation of a whole sentence. Do not

use a capital letter with the first word of a direct quotation of part of a sentence. If the quotation is interrupted and then continues in your sentence, do not capitalize

the second part of the quotation.

Mr. and Mrs. Allen, owners of a 300-acre farm, said, "We refuse to use that pesticide because it might pollute the nearby wells."

Mr. and Mrs. Allen stated that they "refuse to use that pesticide" because of possible water pollution.

"He likes to talk about football," she said, "especially when the Super Bowl is coming up."

Indirect quotations are not exact words but rather rephrasings or summaries of another person's words. Do not use quotation marks for indirect quotations.

According to their statement to the local papers, the Allens refuse to use pesticide because of potential water pollution.

Below are some further explanations and examples of how to integrate quoted prose into your own writing.

Quotation within a quotationUse single quotation marks for a quotation enclosed inside another quotation. For example:

The agricultural reporter for the newspaper explained, "When I talked to the Allens last week, they said, 'We refuse to use that pesticide.' "

Omitted words in a quotationIf you leave words out of a quotation, use an ellipsis mark to indicate the omitted words. If you need

to insert something within a quotation, use a pair of brackets to enclose the addition. For example:

full quotationThe welfare agency representative said, "We are unable to help every family that we'd like to help because we don't have the funds to do so."

omitted material with ellipsis

The welfare agency representative said, "We are unable to help every family . . . because we don't have the funds to do so."

added material with brackets

The welfare agency representative explained that they are "unable to help every family that [they would] like to help."

Block quotationsA quotation that extends more than four typed lines on a page should be indented one inch from the left margin (the equivalent of two half-inch paragraph indentations). Maintain double spacing as in the main text, and do not use quotation marks for the block quotation.

Quoting Poetry

Short quotationsWhen you quote a single line of poetry, write it like any other short quotation. Two lines can be run into your text with a slash mark to indicate the end of the first line. Use quotation marks.

In his poem "Mending Wall," Robert Frost writes: "Something there is that doesn't love a wall, / That sends the frozen-ground-swell under it."

Long quotationsIf the quotation is three lines or longer, set it off like a block quotation (see above). Some writers prefer to set off two-line verse quotations also, for emphasis. Quote the poem line by line as it appears on the original page, and do not use quotation marks. Indent one inch from the left margin.

In his poem "Mending Wall," Robert Frost questions the building of barriers and walls:

Before I built a wall I'd ask to knowWhat I was walling in or walling out,And to whom I was like to give offense.

Writing Dialogue

Write each person's spoken words, however brief, as a separate paragraph. Use commas to set off dialogue tags such as "she said" or "he explained." Closely related narrative prose can be included in

a paragraph with dialogue. If one person's speech goes on for more than one paragraph, use quotation marks to open the speech and at the beginning--but not the end--of each new paragraph in the speech. To close the speech, use quotation marks at the end of the final paragraph.

Quotation Marks for Titles of Minor Works and Parts of Wholes

Use quotation marks for:

titles of short or minor works, such as songs, short stories, essays, short poems, one-act plays, and other literary works that are shorter than a three-act play or a complete book.

titles of parts of larger works, such as chapters in books; articles in newspapers, magazines, journals, or other periodical publications; and episodes of television and radio series.

Use underlining or italics for titles of major works or of works that contain smaller segments such as books; plays of three or more acts; newspapers, magazines, journals, or other periodical publications; films; and television and radio series.

Do not use quotation marks for referring to the Bible or other sacred texts or to legal documents.

Quotation Marks for Words

Use quotation marks to indicate words used ironically, with reservations, or in some unusual way.

The great march of "progress" has left millions impoverished and hungry.

For words used as words themselves or for technical or unfamiliar terms used for the first time (and defined), use italics.

The English word nuance comes from a Middle French word meaning "shades of color."

The use of chiasmus, or the inversion of syntactic elements in parallel phrases, can create rhetorically powerful expressions.

Punctuation with Quotation Marks

Use a comma to introduce a quotation after a standard dialogue tag, a brief introductory phrase, or a dependent clause, for example, "He asked," "She stated," "According to Bronson," or "As Shakespeare wrote." Use a colon to introduce a quotation after an independent clause.

As D. H. Nachas explains, "The gestures used for greeting others differ greatly from

one culture to another."

D. H. Nachas explains cultural differences in greeting customs: "Touching is not a universal sign of greeting. While members of European cultures meet and shake hands as a gesture of greeting, members of Asian cultures bow to indicate respect."

Put commas and periods within closing quotation marks, except when a parenthetical reference follows the quotation.

He said, "I may forget your name, but I never remember a face."

History is stained with blood spilled in the name of "civilization."

Mullen, criticizing the apparent inaction, writes, "Donahue's policy was to do nothing" (27).

Put colons and semicolons outside closing quotation marks.

Williams described the experiment as "a definitive step forward"; other scientists disagreed.

Benedetto emphasizes three elements of what she calls her "Olympic journey": family support, personal commitment, and great coaching.

Put a dash, question mark, or exclamation point within closing quotation marks when the punctuation applies to the quotation itself and outside when it applies to the whole sentence.

Philip asked, "Do you need this book?"

Does Dr. Lim always say to her students, "You must work harder"?

Sharon shouted enthusiastically, "We won! We won!"

I can't believe you actually like that song, "If You Wanna Be My Lover"!

 Unnecessary Quotation Marks

Do not put quotation marks around the titles of your essays. Do not use quotation marks for common nicknames, bits of humor, technical terms that

readers are likely to know, and trite or well-known expressions.

A Little Help with Capitals

This handout lists some guidelines for capitalization. If you have a question about whether a specific word should be capitalized that doesn't fit under one of these rules, try checking a dictionary to see if the word is capitalized there.

Use capital letters in the following ways:

The first words of a sentence

When he tells a joke, he sometimes forgets the punch line.

The pronoun "I"

The last time I visited Atlanta was several years ago.Proper

nouns (the names of specific people, places, organizations, and sometimes things)

Worrill Fabrication CompanyGolden Gate BridgeSupreme CourtLivingston, MissouriAtlantic OceanMothers Against Drunk Driving

Family relationships (when used as proper names)

I sent a thank-you note to Aunt Abigail, but not to my other aunts.Here is a present I bought for Mother.Did you buy a present for your mother?

The names of God, specific deities, religious figures, and holy books

God the Fatherthe Virgin Marythe Biblethe Greek godsMosesShivaBuddhaZeus

Exception: Do not capitalize the non-specific use of the word "god."

The word "polytheistic" means the worship of more than one god.

Titles preceding names, but not title that follow names

She worked as the assistant to Mayor Hanolovi.I was able to interview Miriam Moss, mayor of Littonville.

Directions that are names (North, South, East, and West when used as sections of the country, but not as compass directions)

The Patels have moved to the Southwest.Jim’s house is two miles north of Otterbein.

The days of the week, the months of the year, and holidays (but not the seasons used generally)

HalloweenOctoberFridaywinterspringfall

Exception: Seasons are capitalized when used in a title.

The Fall 1999 semester

The names of countries, nationalities, and specific languages

Costa RicaSpanishFrenchEnglish

The first word in a sentence that is a direct quote

Emerson once said, "A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds."

The major words in the titles of books, articles, and songs (but not short prepositions or the articles "the," "a," or "an," if they are not the first word of the title)

One of Jerry’s favorite books is The Catcher in the Rye.

Members of national, political, racial, social, civic, and athletic groups

Green Bay PackersAfrican-AmericansAnti-SemiticDemocratsFriends of the WildernessChinese

Periods and events (but not century numbers)

Victorian EraGreat DepressionConstitutional Conventionsixteenth century

Trademarks

PepsiHondaIBMMicrosoft Word

Words and abbreviations of specific names (but not names of things that came from specific things but are now general types)

Freudian NBCpasteurizeUNfrench friesitalics

Spelling: Common Words that Sound Alike

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Many words sound alike but mean different things when put into writing. This list will help you distinguish between some of the more common words that sound alike. Click on any of the blue underlined links to open a longer and more complete definition of the word in a new window.

Forms to remember

Accept, Except

accept = verb meaning to receive or to agree: He accepted their praise graciously. except = preposition meaning all but, other than: Everyone went to the game except

Alyson.

For more information on these words, plus exercises, see our document on accept/except and affect/effect.

Affect, Effect

affect = verb meaning to influence: Will lack of sleep affect your game? effect = noun meaning result or consequence: Will lack of sleep have an effect on your

game? effect = verb meaning to bring about, to accomplish: Our efforts have effected a major

change in university policy.

A memory-help for affect and effect is is RAVEN: Remember, Affect is a Verb and Effect is a Noun.

For more information on these words, plus exercises, see our document on accept/except and affect/effect.

Advise, Advice

advise = verb that means to recommend, suggest, or counsel: I advise you to be cautious.

advice = noun that means an opinion or recommendation about what could or should be done: I'd like to ask for your advice on this matter.

Conscious, Conscience

conscious = adjective meaning awake, perceiving: Despite a head injury, the patient remained conscious.

conscience = noun meaning the sense of obligation to be good: Chris wouldn't cheat because his conscience wouldn't let him.

Idea, Ideal

idea = noun meaning a thought, belief, or conception held in the mind, or a general notion or conception formed by generalization: Jennifer had a brilliant idea -- she'd go to the Writing Lab for help with her papers!

ideal = noun meaning something or someone that embodies perfection, or an ultimate object or endeavor: Mickey was the ideal for tutors everywhere.

ideal = adjective meaning embodying an ultimate standard of excellence or perfection, or the best; Jennifer was an ideal student.

Its, It's

its = possessive adjective (possesive form of the pronoun it): The crab had an unusual growth on its shell.

it's = contraction for it is or it has (in a verb phrase): It's still raining; it's been raining for three days. (Pronouns have apostrophes only when two words are being shortened into one.)

Lead, Led

lead = noun referring to a dense metallic element: The X-ray technician wore a vest lined with lead.

led = past-tense and past-participle form of the verb to lead, meaning to guide or direct: The evidence led the jury to reach a unanimous decision.

Than, Then

Than used in comparison statements: He is richer than I.

used in statements of preference: I would rather dance than eat.used to suggest quantities beyond a specified amount: Read more than the first paragraph.

Then a time other than now: He was younger then. She will start her new job then.next in time, space, or order: First we must study; then we can play.suggesting a logical conclusion: If you've studied hard, then the exam should be no problem.

Their, There, They're

Their = possessive pronoun: They got their books. There = that place: My house is over there. (This is a place word, and so it contains the

word here.) They're = contraction for they are: They're making dinner. (Pronouns have apostrophes

only when two words are being shortened into one.)

To, Too, Two

To = preposition, or first part of the infinitive form of a verb: They went to the lake to swim.

Too = very, also: I was too tired to continue. I was hungry, too. Two = the number 2: Two students scored below passing on the exam.

Two, twelve, and between are all words related to the number 2, and all contain the letters tw.Too can mean also or can be an intensifier, and you might say that it contains an extra o ("one too many")

We're, Where, Were

We're = contraction for we are: We're glad to help. (Pronouns have apostrophes only when two words are being shortened into one.)

Where = location: Where are you going? (This is a place word, and so it contains the word here.)

Were = a past tense form of the verb be: They were walking side by side.

Your, You're

Your = possessive pronoun: Your shoes are untied. You're = contraction for you are: You're walking around with your shoes untied.

(Pronouns have apostrophes only when two words are being shortened into one.)

One Word or Two?

All ready/already

all ready: used as an adjective to express complete preparedness

already: an adverb expressing time

At last I was all ready to go, but everyone had already left.

All right/alright

all right: used as an adjective or adverb; older and more formal spelling, more common in scientific & academic writing: Will you be all right on your own?

alright: Alternate spelling of all right; less frequent but used often in journalistic and business publications, and especially common infictional dialogue: He does alright in school.

All together/altogether

all together: an adverb meaning considered as a whole, summed up: All together, there were thirty-two students at the museum.

altogether: an intensifying adverb meaning wholly, completely, entirely: His comment raises an altogether different problem.

Anyone/any one

anyone: a pronoun meaning any person at all: Anyone who can solve this problem deserves an award.

any one: a paired adjective and noun meaning a specific item in a group; usually used with of: Any one of those papers could serve as an example.

Note: There are similar distinctions in meaning for everyone and every one

Anyway/any way

anyway: an adverb meaning in any case or nonetheless: He objected, but she went anyway.

any way: a paired adjective and noun meaning any particular course, direction, or manner: Any way we chose would lead to danger.

Awhile/a while

awhile: an adverb meaning for a short time; some readers consider it nonstandard; usually needs no preposition: Won't you stay awhile?

a while: a paired article and noun meaning a period of time; usually used with for: We talked for a while, and then we said good night.

Maybe/may be

maybe: an adverb meaning perhaps: Maybe we should wait until the rain stops. may be: a form of the verb be: This may be our only chance to win the championship.

 

Plurals of nouns can be created in the following ways:

(See our handout on Count and Non-Count Nouns at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/esl/eslcount.html for more information on nouns.)

1. Add an -s to form the plural of most words.

elephant--elephants stereo--stereos

2. For words that end in a "hissing" sound (-s, -z, -x, -ch, -sh), add an -es to form the plural.

box--boxes church--churches

3. If the word ends in a vowel plus -y (-ay, -ey, -iy, -oy, -uy), add an -s to the word.

tray--trays key--keys

4. If the word ends in a consonant plus -y, change the -y into -ie and add an -s to form the plural.

enemy--enemies baby--babies

5. For words that end in -is, change the -is to -es to make the plural form.

synopsis--synopses thesis--theses

6. Some words that end in -f or -fe have plurals that end in -ves.

knife--knives self--selves 

7. The plurals of words ending in -o are formed by either adding -s or by adding -es. The plurals of many words can be formed either way. To determine whether a particular word ends in -s or -es (or if the word can be spelled either way), check your dictionary or the list below. There are two helpful rules:

a. All words that end in a vowel plus -o (-ao, -eo, -io, -oo, -uo) have plurals that end in just -s:

stereo--stereos studio--studios duo--duos

b. All musical terms ending in -o have plurals ending in just -s.

piano--pianos cello--cellos solo--solos

c. Plural forms of words ending in -o:

-os -oes -os or -oes

albinos armadillos autos bravos broncos cantos casinos combos gazebos infernos kimonos logos maraschinos ponchos sombreros tacos torsos tobaccos typos

echoes embargoes heroes potatoes tomatoes torpedoes vetoes

avocados/oes buffaloes/os cargoes/os desperadoes/os dodoes/os dominoes/os ghettos/oes grottoes/os hoboes/os innuendoes/os lassos/oes mangoes/os mosquitoes/os mottoes/os mulattos/oes noes/os palmettos/oes peccadilloes/os tornadoes/os volcanoes/os zeros/oes

8. The plurals of single capital letters, acronyms, and Arabic numerals (1,2,3,...) take an -s WITHOUT an apostrophe:

Z (the capital letter Z)--Zs UPC (Universal Product Code)--UPCs ATM (Automatic Teller Machine)--ATMs GUI (Graphical User Interface)--GUIs 3 (the Arabic numeral 3)--3s

Spelling: -ible vs. -able

Brought to you by the Purdue University Online Writing Lab at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/index.htm.

Rule

-ible -ableIf the root is not a complete word, add -ible.

If the root is a complete word, add -able.

aud + ible = audible

Examples:

visible horrible terrible possible edible eligible incredible

permissible

accept + able = acceptable

Examples:

fashionable laughable suitable dependable comfortable

If the root is a complete word ending in -e, drop the final -e and add -able.

excuse - e+ able = excusable

Examples:

advisable desirable valuable

debatable

Some exceptions:

contemptible digestible flexible responsible irritable inevitable

A or An?

Brought to you by the Purdue University Online Writing Lab

"A" goes before all words that begin with consonants.

a cat a dog a purple onion a buffalo a big apple

with one exception: Use an before unsounded h.

an honorable peace an honest error

"An" goes before all words that begin with vowels:

an apricot an egg an Indian an orbit an uprising

with two exceptions: When u makes the same sound as the y in you, then a is used.

a union a united front a unicorn a used napkin a U.S. ship

Note: The exceptions for the articles are based upon the orthographic or written representation of the word-initial letter not the phonetic or sound quality of the letter. So, if you consider the rule from a phonetic perspective, there aren't any exceptions. Since the 'h' hasn't any phonetic representation, no audible sound, in the first exception, the sound that follows the article is a vowel; consequently, 'an' is used. In the second exception, the word-initial 'y' sound (unicorn) is actually a glide [j] phonetically, which has consonantal properties; consequently, it is treated as a consonant, requiring 'a'.