Definition. Nature & Characteristics of Entrepreneurship.. Types of Entrepreneurship. Functions of Entrepreneurs. Barriers in entrepreneurship Development. Qualities of an Entrepreneur. Concept of Small Scale Industries. Growth of SSI in Developing Countries. Position of SSI.

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Definition of EntrepreneurshipEntrepreneurship is the purposeful activity of an individual or group of individual to initiate, maintain or generate profit by production or distribution of goods or services.Entrepreneurship is an attempt to create value through recognition of business opportunity, risk taking through the communicative and management skills to mobilize human, financial & material resources for a project.

Nature & Characteristics Innovation. High Achievement.

Managerial Skills. Leadership. Risk Taking. Limited Resources.

Types of Entrepreneurs Innovative Entrepreneurs. Adoptive Entrepreneurs. Fabian Entrepreneurs.

Drone Entrepreneurs.

Functions of Entrepreneur

Perceiving market Opportunities. Command over resources. Purchasing Input. Marketing of products. Managing Finance. Managing Production. New product Development. Managing Customers. Dealing with Public officials ( Taxes, licences) Upgrading Production Process & Product Quality. Industrial Engineering.

Barriers to Entrepreneurship Lack of market knowledge. Lack of Capital. Lack of Business Know how.

Legal Obligation/Regulation. Monopoly. Lack of Technical Skills. Social Stigma. Time pressure.

Qualities of an Entrepreneur Total Commitment & Determination. Drive to achieve & grow. Risk taker.

Innovative. Sense of humour. Problem Solving skills. Good decision maker. Low need for status & power. Seeking & using feedback.

OPPORTUNITIES FOR ENTREPRENEURS1.2. 3.

4.5. 6.

Manufacturing Wholesaling Retailing Services Franchising Outsourcing

SMALL SCALE INDUSTRIESA SSI may be defined in terms of size. Once an enterprise or unit goes beyond the size, it is no longer classified as small. The size limit for small firm may be laid down in any one or more of the following criteria. 1. The number of person employed 2. The amount of capital employed 3. The value of annual turnover.

TYPES OF SSISMALL SCALE INDUSTRY: Industrial undertaking, wherein the investment limit in fixed assets of plant and machinery does not exceed rupees five crore. 2. ANCILLARY SMALL UNIT: This type of unit is engaged in production of various components and spare parts to be used by a large industrial enterprises to produced the goods for consumer. Investment limit is not exceed rupees five crore. 3. TINY INDUSTRIES: It is defined as an industrial or business enterprises whose investment in plant and machinery is not more than rupee 25 lakh.1.

ROLE OF SSI IN ECONOMY1.2. 3.

4.5. 6. 7. 8.

Employment Balanced regional Development Use of local Skills Variety of products Equal Distribution of income Economical Operation Customized products Support to Large scale industries.

Growth of SSI In Developing CountriesYear Production (Billion ) Employment (Million) Exports (Billion ) Production (Billion)

1993-94 1994-95 1995-96 1996-97

2416.48 2988.86 3626.56 4118.58

13.93 14.65 15.26 16.00

253.07 290.68 364.70 392.70

2416.48 2988.86 3626.56 4118.58

1997-981998-99 1999-00 2000-01

4626.415206.50 5728.87 6454.96

16.7217.15 17.85 18.56

444.42489.79 542.00 599.78

4626.415206.50 5728.87 6454.96

Reason for Growth of SSI1.2. 3.

4.5. 6. 7.

Development of Entrepreneurship. Introduction to new product. Limited Demands Flexibility Personalized services Good relations with employees Support to large industries.

Position of SSIThe phenomal growth of industries in the Small Scale sector has been striking feature in the economic development of the country since independence. It has contributed to the overall growth or the Gross Domestic Product as well as in terms of employment generation and export. One of the measure of the policy support for promoting small scale industries is the policy of reservation of economically viable and technically feasible items for exclusive manufacture in the small scale sector. The policy of reservation initiated in 1967 primarily as promotional and protective measure vis-a-vis the large scale sector, grants protection to small scale sector, the only exception being the case of large units which undertake minimum level of exports as 75 per cent of their total roduction.The IDR Act was amended in March, 1984 empowering Government to reserve items for the small scale sector. Reservation/De-reservation of items for manufacture in the small scale sector is a continuing process regularly monitored by an Advisory committee on Reservation constituted under the IDR Act. at present the total number of items reserved for small scale sector are 799 as on 29.06.2001

Position of SSIThe small scale sector has acquired a prominent place in the socio-economic development of the country during the past four and a half decades. Performance of the small scale sector, which forms a part of total industrial sector, therefore, has direct impact on the growth of the national economy. There has been a steady increase in the number of SSI units, their production, employment and exports over the years. from 19,58,000 units in 1990-91, the number of units has increased to 33, 70,000 units in the year 200001. On the production front also, there has been a steady increase over the previous years ranging between 7%-10% during the period 1990-91 to 1994-95. the increase was 11.4% and11.3% in 1995-96 and 1996-97 respectively. In 199798 the increase over the previous year was registered at 8.43%. The increase in the year 1998-99 & 1999-2000 were 7.7%, and 8.16% respectively. The estimated increase for 2000-01 is 8.09%.

INVESTMENT LIMITS FOR SSISmall Scale Industrial Undertakings The following requirements are to be complied with by an industrial undertaking to be graded as Small Scale Industrial undertaking w.e.f. 21.12.1999. An industrial undertaking in which the investment in fixed assets in plant and machinery whether held on ownership terms on lease or on hire purchase does not exceed Rs 5 Crore. (Subject to the condition that the unit is not owned, controlled or subsidiary of any other industrial undertaking

INVESTMENT LIMIT FOR ANCILLARY UNITSAncillary Industrial Undertakings The following requirements are to be complied with by an industrial undertaking for being regarded as ancillary industrial undertaking: An industrial undertaking which is engaged or is proposed to be engaged in the manufacture or production of parts, components, sub-assemblies, tooling or intermediates, or the rendering of services and the undertaking supplies or renders or proposes to supply or render not less than 50 per cent of its production or services, as the case may be, to one or more other industrial undertakings and whose investment in fixed assets in plant and machinery whether held on ownership terms or on lease or on hire-purchase, does not exceed Rs 5 Crore.

INVESSTMENT LIMIT FOR TINY INDUSTRIESThe Enterprises Investment limit in plant and machinery in respect of tiny enterprises is Rs 25 lack irrespective of location of the unit.

ROLE OF SSI IN NATIONAL ECONOMYEmployment: Small scale firms use labour-intensive techniques and, therefore, they have high potential to provide employment to a larger number of people per unit of capital. For every worker employed in large scale industries about three workers are engaged in small scale and cottage industries with regard to large scale industry. Next to agriculture small business constitutes the most popular occupation of people in India. Small firms promote self-employment particularly among the educated and professional class. They also provide employment to agriculturists who remain idle during a part of the year. In fact, the healthy growth of small scale industries can be an effective approach to the pressing problem of unemployment in the country. Several empirical studies have revealed that the employment generating capacity of small scale industries in about in times more than that of the large scale industries.

ROLE OF SSI IN NATIONAL ECONOMYBalanced Regional Development: small scale industries promote decentralized development and help to remove regional disparities in industrialization. Decentralized development contributes to the process of self-sustained growth and avoids concentration of industries in particular areas. By providing employment in rural areas they help to check migration and overcrowding in urban areas. Small scale firms can be a useful means of rural reconstruction and development. Development of decentralized sector also improves the standard of living of people in backward regions.

ROLE OF SSI IN NATIONAL ECONOMYOptimization of Capital: Small scale firms require less capital per unit of output and, therefore, greater output can be obtained with small investment. The Annual Surveys of industries reveal that fixed capital per employee in case of small scale industry was Rs. 3,706 as compared to Rs. 27,757 in case of large scale industry. Small firms also provide quick returns after their establishment on account of short gestation period. In India where the rate of capital formation is low, small scale industries are very suitable.

ROLE OF SSI IN NATIONAL ECONOMYMobilization of Local Resources: Small scale industries facilitate Mobilization and utilization of local resources and family skills which might otherwise remain talent or utilized. Small business promotes a new cadre of small entrepreneurs and selfemployed and encourages local talent. The growth of small enterprises helps in tapping talent resources like entrepreneurial skills and small savings specially in rural areas. Small business helps to protect technical skills and handicrafts.

ROLE OF SSI IN NATIONAL ECONOMYExchange Earnings: Small scale industries help in reducing pressure on the country's balance of payments in two ways. First, they do not require imports of sophisticated machinery and equipment. Secondly, they earn valuable foreign exchange through exports of their products. The exports of small scale industries increased from Rs. 637 crores in 1975-76 to Rs. 2785 crores in 1985-86. Small scale sector accounts for 40 percent of the exports of non-traditional items and about 25 per cent of the country's total exports. About 90 per cent of its exports are of non-traditional items.

ROLE OF SSI IN NATIONAL ECONOMYFeeder to Large industries: small scale sector is complementary to the large scale industries. Small scale industries manufacture various types of components, spare parts, tools and accessories which are required by the large scale sector.

ROLE OF SSI IN NATIONAL ECONOMYSocial Advantage: Small scale units offer opportunity for an independent way of life to people with small means. They offer savings in social overheads like education, housing and medical facilities by taking industry nearer to the people. They help to raise per capita income an standard of living in the country. A system of widely diffused ownership permits wider participation of people in the process of economic development. Small scale sector provides a base for democracy, socialism and selfgovernment. At present there are about 16 lakh small scale units in India producing more than 500 times. The Seventh Fiver Year Plan envisages a growth rate of 10 per cent in the small scale sector. By the end of 1990 the production of small scale sector is expected to be Rs. 8,000 crores and employment 1.19 crore persons.

CHARECTERSTICS OF SSILabour intensive Small-scale industries are fairly labour-intensive. They provide an economic solution by creating employment opportunities in urban and rural areas at a relatively low cost of capital investment.

Flexibility Small-scale industries are flexible in their operation. They adopt quickly to various factors that play a large part in daily management. Their flexibility makes them best suited to constantly changing environment.

CHARECTERSTICS OF SSIOne-man show A small-scale unit is generally a one-man show. It is mostly set up by individuals. Even some small units are run by partnership firm or company, the activities are mainly carried out by one of the partners or directors. Therefore,' they provide an outlet for expression of the entrepreneurial spirit. As they are their own boss, the decision making process is fast and at times more innovative.

CHARECTERSTICS OF SSIUse of indigenous raw materials Small-scale industries use indigenous raw materials and promote intermediate and capital goods. They contribute to faster balanced economic growth in a transitional economy through decentralization and dispersal of industries in the local areas. Localized operation Small-scale industries generally restrict their operation to local areas in order to meet the local and regional demands of the people. They cannot enlarge their business activities due to limited resources.

CHARECTERSTICS OF SSILesser gestation period Gestation period is the period after which the return or investment starts. It is the time period between setting the units and commencement of production. Smallscale industries usually have a lesser gestation period than large industries. This helps the entrepreneur to earn after a short period of time. Capital will not be blocked for a longer period.

CHARECTERSTICS OF SSILower Educational level The educational level of the employees of small industries is normally low or moderate. Hardly there is any need of specialized knowledge and skill to operate and manage the SSI.

CHARECTERSTICS OF SSIProfit motive The owners of small industries are too much profit conscious. They always try to keep high margins in their pricing. This is one of the reason for which the unit may lead to closure.

TYPES OF SSIManufacturing Industries Those units which are producing complete articles for direct consumption and also for processing industries are called as manufacturing industries. For example : Power looms, engineering industries, coin industries, khadi industries, food processing industries etc. Ancillary Industries: The industries which are producing parts and components and rendering services to large industries are called as ancillary industries.

TYPES OF SSIService Industries Service industries are those which are covering light repair shops necessary to maintain mechanical equipments. These industries are essentially machinebased. Feeder Industries Feeder industries are those which are specializing in certain types of products and services, e.g. casting, electro-plating, welding, etc. Tiny Industries It consists village, Cottage, Handicraft etc.

DEMEND BASED ANCILLARIES UNIT I.T. Centre Cyber Caf. STD/ ISD/ Xerox Centre

Computer Hardware repairing/ servicing. Screen Printing. Book Binding. Electronic spare parts repair unit. Automobile repairing workshop.

DEMEND BASED ANCILLARIES UNIT Truck/ Bus Building. Tyre Retreading unit. Spray Painting/ denting.

Repairing/ Hiring of earth moving machine. Hotel/ Motel. Ball Point pen. Computer Paper/ Sheets. Packaged Drinking Water.

DEMEND BASED ANCILLARIES UNIT Infant Food. Dry Cleaning/ Laundry. Hair Dresser.

Phenyle manufacturing. File Covers/ Folders.

RESOURCE BASED ANCILLARY UNITS

Paddy Processing Churn/ Poha making. Badi & Papad making. Cup & plate making. Spices Grinding Honey Processing. Cattle Feed/ Poultry Feed manufacturing Jelly, Jam & Squash. Oil Mill.

GOVT. POLICY FOR SSIAfter attaining independence in 1947 India adopted mixed economic planning as a method to achieve economic development. Along with the Large Scale sector the thrust was on Small Scale sector because of it decentralized, its small size, use mainly indigenous technology, employment intensity and its suitability for rural area with limited techno-economic structure. Industrial policies over the year have focused to promote SSIs through various incentives related to financial, fiscal and infrastructure measure; along with a heavy industrial base.

INDUSTRIAL POLICY RESOLUTION 1948 SSIs are particularly suited for the utilization of local

resources and creation of employment opportunities . The primary responsibility for developing small industries by creating infrastructure has been provided to state government . Central government frame the broad policies and coordinates the efforts of State Government for development of SSIs.

INDUSTRIAL POLICY RESOLUTION 1956

It stated that besides continuing the policy support to cottage, village and small industries by differential taxation or directsubsidies, the aim of state policy would be that the development of this sector is integrated with that of large scale industry. The focus was to improve the competitive strength of SSIs. To achieve this 128 items were exclusively reserved for production in SSIs, and 166 items were reserved for exclusive purchase by government from this sector.

INDUSTRIAL POLICY RESOLUTION 1977 504 items were reserved for exclusive production in the

small scale industries . The concept of District Industrial Centers (DICs) was introduced to that in each district a single agency could meet all the requirement of SSIs under one roof. Technological up gradation was emphasized in traditional sector . Special marketing arrangement through the provision of services, such as, production standardization, quality control, market survey, were laid down.

INDUSTRIAL POLICY RESOLUTION 1990 It raised the investment ceiling in plant and machinery for

SSIs. It created central investment subsidy for this sector in rural and backward area. Also, assistance was granted to woman entrepreneurs for widening the entrepreneurial base. Reservation of items to be produced by SSIs was increased to 836. Small Industries Development Bank of India was established to ensure adequate flow of credit to SSIs. Stress was reiterated to upgrade technology to improve competitiveness. Special emphasis was laid on training of woman and youth under Entrepreneurial Development Programme. Activities of Khadi and Village Industries Commission and Khadi and Village Industrial Board were to expand.

INDUSTRIAL POLICY RESOLUTION 1991 SSIs were exempted from licensing for all articles of

manufacture. The investment limit for tiny enterprises was raised to Rs.25 lacs irrespective of location. Equity participation by other industrial undertaking was permitted up to a limit of 24% of shareholding in SSIs. Factoring services were to launch to solve the problem of delayed payment to SSIs. Priority was accorded to small and tiny units in allocation of indigenous and raw materials. Market promotion of products was emphasized through co-operatives, public institutions and other marketing agencies and corporations.

Small business houses will be given opportunity for

improvement of technology. The equity participation by large sector will stimulate technology flow to small sector. Technological development cell in the small industries development organization will be set up.

RESERVATION POLICY Out of 836 items reserved in 1989,39 items were dereserved

in four phases viz., 15 items in 1997 9 items on 1999 1 item on 2001 and, 14 item on 2001.subsequently, 51 item were dereserved in 2002, 75 item in 2003 and 85 items in 2004, 108 in March 2005 and 180 in May 2006. Now 298 items stand reserved for this sector.

PURCHASE PREFERENCE POLICY Under the Store Purchase Policy of the Government

409 items of store were reserved for exclusive purchase from KVIC/Womens Development Corporation/Small Scale units in 1989. In February2004, the Committee (set up to consider the question of inclusion of additional items) revised list and 358 items were approved , after deleting items having common nomenclature and addition of some new ones. This list also includes 8 handicraft items reserved for purchase from the Handicraft Sector.

PRICE PREFERENCE POLICY Price preference up to 15%in case of selected items.

No registration fee. A consortium to channelize and identify for the

production of SSIs both in India and abroad.

TECHNICAL ASSISTENCE

Technology audits and benchmarking Technology needs assessment Technology sourcing Application of new acquisition. Technology acquisition . Material testing facilities through accredited laboratories. Product design including Computer Aided Designs. Common facility support in machining Energy and environment services at selected centers. Classroom and practical training for skill up gradation.

NEW INITIATIVES Advisory and Mentoring services Technology Business Incubators > Information technology.

> Production design. > Energy and Environment > Bio-Technology . > Electronics and Communications Suppliers Rating Accreditation Services.

Product Renewal 2. Product scope and advantages1.

ROLE OF SSI1.2. 3.

4.5. 6.

Promotion of Industrialization in rural areas. Generation of Employment. Removal of Poverty. Better Standard of life. Support to Large Industries. Cultural Heritage.

Problems Faced By SSI1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Inadequate Capital. Storage of Raw Material. Old Technology. Lack of Trained Person. Low productivity. Low Quality. Difficulties in Marketing. Lack of Management. Industrial Sickness Global Competition.

Measures taken by Government1. Protective measures Reservation of items for exclusive production by SSI. Giving concession in excise, sales tax etc.

Preference by government department in purchase of

items.

2. Promotional Measures Supply of material to all SSI at reasonable prices and

setting up of raw material depots to effect quick supply of such material. Setting up common testing facility centre. Preference in land allocation and power connection to SSI. Setting up industrial estates and provisions of industrial sheds to enterprises on installment basis. Provision for concessional finance through commercial banks and other financial institutions.

3. Institutional Measures Small scale industrial development organization to

provide training to SSI. National small industrial corporation to supply to provide machinery on hire purchase basis. DIC in all district to serve as the local point of development of SSI. Khadi and village industries commission for encouraging the production and marketing of handicraft items. All India coir board, silk board to provide technical, financial and marketing facilities.

Establishment of SIDBI for smooth financing to SSI. Industrial parks for infrastructural development of SSI.

SETTING UP A SMALL SCALE INDUSTRYFollowing are the considerations in setting up a small scale industries/enterprises.1. Selection of industry. 2. Choice of form of ownership. 3. Size of firm. 4. Financing the proposition. 5. Location of plant.

6. Machines and equipment. 7. Plant Layout. 8. Human Resources. 9. Procedural Formalities. 10. Tax Planning 11. Launching the industrial enterprise.

STAGES IN SETTING UP SSI1. 2. 3.

4.5. 6.

7.

Scanning the environment for identification of business opportunities. Development of product/service idea. Assessment of feasibility of idea. Preparation of business plan. Appraisal by financial institution. Resource mobilization. Project launching.

IDENTIFICATION OF BUSINESS OPPROTUNITYBefore launching an industrial establishment, entrepreneur has to study all the possible factors which may influence the selection of the type of business. However, ideas need to be filtered through a multi-layer sieve. This model is shown in the following flow: - Does the idea fire up your motivation? - Is it a viable business proposition in your area? - Does it match the needs of your clientele? - Check it out with basic market research

- Test it out at market place - Consult with the experts - Look out for competition in the field - Is it a sunrise industry? - Your business opportunity - Project conceptualization

DEVELOPMENT OF IDEAThe foremost task of a dynamic entrepreneur is the generation of an idea that is new and appears to be worthwhile for further use. This involves a lot of creativity on the part of the entrepreneur. The business idea arises from the opportunity in the market. It originates from the real demand for any product or service that an entrepreneur should have a keen and open mind to look for opportunities and generates business idea.

While selecting a business idea, the following points need adequate consideration. 1. The business idea should enable the entrepreneur to utilize his skills. 2. It should enable the use of available raw material. 3. It should ensure making products that have a demand in market. 4. It should enable the entrepreneur to solve a current problem existing in the market.

Following are the sources of business ideas: 1. Survey reports. 2. Researches 3. Environment 4. Society 5. Area study

Practical steps in setting SSI1.2. 3.

4.5. 6. 7.

Project report No objection Certificate Formal sanction of loan Construction of building & installation of machinery. Detailing manpower Establishing market Network Application for permanent application.

Institutional Support to SSISelection of Project DIC, State financial Corporation

RegistrationFinance

National Small Industries Corporation Director General of Foreign Trade State trading Corporation

State financial Corporation Industrial Development Corporation SIDBI Directorate of drug control Central institute of plastic & eng. Tool. EDI( Entrepreneurship Dev. Ins. Of India National Institute of Small Industry Extension Training DIC, Electricity board, Local authority Mineral Dev. Corporation Small Ind. Corporation Mineral & Metal Trading Cor.

Technology

Training

Infrastructure Raw Material

Plant & machineryMarketing Product Standardization

SFCTechnical Consulting Organization Directorate of Export promotion BIS Directorate of Export promotion Registrar of Trade mark

Project & its NatureA project is the combination of human and nonhuman recourses pooled together in a temporary organization to achieve a specific purpose. The objectives and set of activities differ from one project to another . A project may involve establishment of new plant or it may also involve the provision of additional facilities or ventures. Whatever the purpose, a project will involve allocation and use of resources and generation of specific results.

Project Characteristics1. Specific Purpose/Objectives 2. Single entity 3. Team Work 4. Elements of risk 5. Uniqueness 6. Life cycle

Project IdentificationIt is concerned with the collection, compilation and analysis of economic data for eventual purpose of locating possible opportunities for the investment and with the development of the characteristics of such opportunities. An entrepreneur is an opportunity seeker. He should identify, explore and select the right opportunities. Opportunity is an attractive idea which an entrepreneur accepts as a basis for his investment decision. A good business idea must be capable of being converted into feasibility.

A good business opportunity must have two major ingredients. 1. Good market scope. 2. An acceptable return on investment ( ROI).

Process for Selection of Project1.2. 3. 4. 5.

Understanding own strength, capabilities, limitations and preferences. Exploring all opportunities. Comparative analysis of opportunities available. Business opportunity may be for manufacturing a product or a service. Start the project.

Exploring OpportunitiesThe process of exploring the opportunities requires intensive efforts and specialized skills. Following guideline can help us in opportunity identification. 1. ENVIRONMENT - Basic features of an area and its resource inventory. - Population, its components, occupational pattern. 2. CURRENT SCENE - Present pattern of trading - Local needs - Emerging trends - New demands

Sources of opportunity1.

2.3.

4.5. 6.

Resource based idea such as mineral, agricultural, marine, wasted items such as ago waste, wood waste and metal waste. Import and export related ideas Market shift such as change in demand, change in population, purchasing power, change in life cycle. Special product ideas such as BPO, KPO, NGO. Household repair and maintenance. Government policy.

Criteria for selecting a project1.2. 3.

4.5.

Investment. Location Technology Equipment & Machinery Marketing

Problems in Project Identification(A) Internal Constraints1. 2.

3.4. 5.

Improper preparation of feasibility report. Lack of project management. Unrealistic project objectives. Non availability of sufficient physical resources. Non availability of non physical resources such as patents, secret process, unique skills and experience.

External ConstraintsThe project may not fulfill socio-economic objectives of country. 2. NOCs, approvals, licenses, foreign collaboration, foreign exchange and other government policies. 3. The procedure and documents of financial institutions and banks may delay the implementation of the project.1.

Assessment of ViabilityIt means whether some idea will work or not. Viability is a multivariate concept, i.e., a project has to be viable not only in technical terms but also in economic and commercial terms. Moreover, There is always a possibility that a project that is technically feasible may not be economically viable. The decision to implement a project will be based on the expected revenues that the investment is going to generate. The project can be considered feasible only if it is expected to generate sufficient revenues and profit to justify the investment in it.

Evaluation of ProjectFollowing are the techniques to evaluation of project profitability: 1. Benefit Cost Analysis 2. Discounted Cash Flow method 3. Net Present Value (NPV) 4. Internal Rate of Return(IRR)

Benefit Cost Analysis methodUnder this method, the ratio of benefits to cost associated with a particular project producing the product is ascertained and decision is made either to accept or reject the proposal. A product is considered to be attractive only when the benefits to be derived from its production are much more than the cost associated with it. For the purpose of analysis, one has to calculate the benefits as well as disbenefits likely to arise from a product in financial terms. The net value shall be compared with the total cost associated with project less the salvage value.

Benefit Cost Ratio is equal to Benefits- Disbenefits- Maintenance and operation cost Total cost of project-Salvage ValueIf the value is less then or equal to 1, such a project is economically viable

Discounted Cash Flow MethodThe traditional methods of evaluating profitability like the accounting rate of return and the payback method suffer from two major deficiencies. Firstly, they do not evaluate the time value of money and secondly, they do not evaluate project profitability over its full life. These drawbacks are removed in DCF, IRR and NPV methods. The basis of discounted cash flow method is presence of time factor in evaluating the future returns of a project. The time value of money means that the money received in present has more value than an equal amount of money received in future.

If A is offered the two alternatives of either receiving 100 Rs today or 100 Rs after one year, he would prefer to receive 100 Rs today because of increasing value of money and after one year he will get Rs 110 if he invest these money with 10 percent interest. Under this techniques, one can get discount value of his money over a long future time.

Net Present ValueThis method is also recognize the time value of money for evaluating investment proposal. It is similar to IRR method. The present value of cash inflow less the present value of cash out flow gives the net present value. If the net present value is positive its means project is earning Higher rate of return but if the net present value is negative its means rate of return is lower and some better investment opportunities are required.

Internal Rate Of ReturnThis method uses the discounted cash flow rate which equates the present value of the future cash inflows with the initial investment. It is a type of discounted cash flow techniques which takes into account the time factor to value the future cash flow, The internal rate of return is the discounted rate which makes the net present value equal to zero. The cash flows through out the life of the project are forecasted and the discount rate is calculated.

IRR= CF0 + CF1 + CF2 + CF3 + . CFn (1+r)0 (1+r)1 (1+r)2 (1+r)3 (1+r)n

Project formulationProject formulation is the systematic development of a project idea for the final decision of investment. It is needed to safeguard against risk and difficulties in the implementation of the project. It involves step by step investigation and development of the project idea. A team of the following expertise is informed to investigate the project idea. 1. Industrial economist. 2. Market Analysis. 3. Engineer. 4. Management expert.

Elements of Project Formulation1.2. 3.

4.5. 6. 7.

Feasibility Analysis Techno-economic analysis Project design and network analysis Input analysis Financial analysis Social cost benefit analysis Project appraisal

Feasibility AnalysisIt is a process of evaluating the acceptability of a project idea within the limitation of project management and constraints imposed by the environment. The analysis is undertaken to analyzes the desirability of investing in future development of project idea. At the stage of project formulation three alternative can raise. Firstly, the project may appear to be positive and in such case the entrepreneur can proceed to invest further. Secondly, the project may turn out to be not feasible and, therefore, further investment in project idea is ruled out.

Thirdly, the idea is not adequate for arriving at a decision about the feasibility of the project. In such situation, additional information must be collected for taking an appropriate action/decision. Feasibility analysis has two type. Pre-feasibility analysis It refers to preliminary assessment of the project idea which helps in accepting or rejecting it. Normally, this study should be completed within the period of three months to enable entrepreneur to decide weather to accept the new venture or not. It enables to examine the potential demand, size of market, number of competitors, plant, machinery, location, size manpower etc.

Feasibility Analysis It is carried out to get a detailed information on different aspects relating to a project such as economic, technical, managerial, organizational, commercial and financial aspect of project. As compared to pre feasibility analysis with feasibility analysis, this analysis involve more specialized skills and more complicated. Further, the feasibility study is based on additional and more reliable data collected through research. The information gathered in feasibility study and analysis presented in various tables, reports or statement is consolidated into one single report which is called project report or feasibility report.

Techno Economic AnalysisTechno-economic analysis is primarily concerned with 1)identification of the project demand potential, and 2) selection of the optimal technology suitable for achieving the project objectives. It produces necessary information on which the project design can be based. It also indicates weather the economy is in a position to absorb the output of the project. An optical size of the and adoption of appropriate technology would help in deriving the economies of scale.

Project Design & Network AnalysisIt is highly useful for identification and quantification of the project inputs which are very much required for developing the financial and cost benefit analysis. Project design defines the individual activities comprising a project and inter-relationship between those activities. The interrelationship presented with the help of a network design. Network analysis is concerned with development of the detailed work plan of the project. Network design and analysis help in executing the project within the minimum time and ensuring effective utilization of the available resources. This plan is presented in the form of network diagram.

Input AnalysisInput analysis involves identification, quantification and evaluation of project inputs. The objectives of input analysis are to identify the nature of the resources that a project will consume to estimate the magnitudes of the required resources and to evaluate the possibility of uninterrupted supply of inputs. The resources required for the project are classified as human and non-human resources. Human resources refer to manpower and its management while nonhuman resources refers to material, money and machinery.

Input requirement constitute the basis of cost estimates of the project. These cost estimates are very much required for developing the financial requirements and cost benefit profile of the project.

Financial AnalysisThe purpose of financial analysis is to identify the financial characteristics of an investment proposition which would determine its financial feasibility. This analysis involves the estimates of project costs and revenues and funds required for the project. It also helps in examine the feasibility of the project in terms of generating revenues to attain the objectives of the project.

Financial analysis uses analytical tools like ratio analysis, profit analysis and fund flow analysis etc to determine the estimated financial performance of the project. It reduce the investment proposition to one common scale so as to permit comparison and eventually investment decision. It generates data for computing different profitability criteria with a view to establish the projects worth to the enterprise.

Social Cost Benefit AnalysisIt is an assessment of expected total cost to be incurred and benefits derived out of the project that is under consideration from community point of view. Social benefits includes possibility of financial and out of pockets reduction in service costs, availability of increased resources. Improvement in domestic resources capacity, increase in foreign exchange earning, possibility of import substitution, employment generation,

Improvement in industrial development. Improvement in living standards and environment etc. on the other hand, society is expected to incur scarifies in favour of expected benefits. These social cost include financial and out of pocket cost, reduction in foreign exchange, pollution costs and other spontaneous and instant cost.

Project AppraisalAppraisal is an independent examination of technical, managerial, commercial, economic and financial aspects of a proposal. It brings out quantitative data which help in project appraisal. In fact, the outcome of feasibility analysis, techno-economic analysis, design and network analysis, input analysis, cost benefit analysis are consolidated to give a final shape to a project which is presented in the form of a project report.

Project ReportAfter feasibility analysis, entrepreneur proceeds to prepare a detailed project report. It may be noted that project report serves as an action plan in case the entrepreneur proceeds with the implementation of the project. The project report also serves as an important document to process assistance from financial institutions and to fulfill other formalities for implementation of the project. A project report contains the following information: 1. Estimates for manpower required and material input needed. 2. Information on technology, competition, prices etc.

3. Plans for procurement of material input. 4. Manpower plans 5. Projection: production, sales, and profitability 6. Documents: Quotations, land lease deed, arrangement with suppliers of material and machinery.

Financing the projectFinancing is a critical element for success of a business or industry. Finance facilitates an entrepreneur to bring together the factors of production and produce the desired level of goods or services. The entrepreneur has to decide the need and sources of finance as per the projection in the project report.

Need for FinanceThe amount of finance depends upon the following factors: 1. Adequate money to purchase the fixed assets, i.e., land, building, plant & machinery, furniture, tools etc. 2. Sufficient capital to support the operation of the business for initial three months such as purchase of raw material, work-in-process, finished goods, salary to employee, power, water, transport etc. 3. Margin for unplanned expenses called contingencies.

Classification of Financial Needs1. Fixed capital or Long term capital

This is money invested in some fixed assets which are required for long period of time for permanent use. 2. Working Capital or Short term Capital This is the money invested in current assets and is required for short period to meet day to day expenses.

Sources of FinanceThe sources of finance can be broadly classified into two category: 1. Internal Sources The funds which are raised from within the enterprise, and may include1. Owners capital called equity. 2. Deposits and loan given by owner, partners, directors etc. 3. Personal loan of entrepreneur from PF, Life Insurance, mortgage of building, etc.

External SourcesThe funds which are raised from external sources and is called debts. This may include1. Borrowing from relatives 2. Borrowing from commercial banks 3. Credit facilities from financial institutions 4. Term loan from financial institutions 5. Hire purchase from government department 6. Subsidies from government department 7. Venture Capital of such institutions ( Money invested by investors )

Capital StructureThe funds raised from internal sources are the ownership capital and called equity. The funds raised from external sources are borrowed capital and called debts. Capital structure is the ratio between debt and equity capital and is expressed as debt-equity ration. The optimum capital structure is the financing mix incurring the least cost out but yielding maximum returns. The capital structure should have the following features:

Involve minimum cost and ensure maximum yield. 2. Flexible to fulfill future requirements of funds. 3. Debts should be within repaying capacity of the enterprise. 4. Should ensure proper control over the operations of enterprise.1.

Field Study : Collection of InformationThe entrepreneur requires a lot of information for taking various decisions and preparation of project report. For collecting the necessary information, a detailed field study or market survey is required. Field study involves gathering, recording and analyzing necessary data to judge the marketability of a product. The data or information relates to nature of demand, nature of competition, methods of marketing and aspect of distribution of products from production to consumer.

The sources of information for field study can be: 1. Published literature, i.e., news paper, trade journals etc. 2. Government publications 3. Industrial Consultations. 4. Distributors, wholesalers and retailers. 5. Prospective Customers.

Benefits of Field StudyIt helps in having advance idea of consumer acceptance of the production before it is produced on a commercial scale. 2. It provides an effective basis of sales forecast. 3. It promotes soundness of marketing decision. 4. It gathers data and carries out analysis to discover the market share of the product and location and types of consumers.1.

Information Relating to Raw Material1.2. 3. 4. 5.

List of manufacturers and suppliers of material required. Lead time required to get the material after ordering. Minimum order quantity. Price fluctuations in the market. Discount, packing, price, tax etc.

Information Relating to Machines & Equipment1.2. 3. 4. 5.

Availability of machines and equipment. List of manufacturers & suppliers. Requirement of motors, starters, switches, control equipment. Annual repair and maintenance List of spare parts.

Information Relating to Competitions1.2. 3.

4.5. 6.

Range of products. Prices Terms & Conditions of competitors. Future plan for expansions Market share Strengths and weaknesses.

Information Relating to Customers1.2. 3.

4.5. 6.

Annual consumption of customers. Present sources of supply. Purchasing power of supply. Consumption pattern of customers. Customers preferences Degree of satisfaction

DEMAND ANALYSISEmerging competition in market place is propelling managements to hear the voice of their customers. To survive in the market, management have to be forward-looking and carry out market and demand analyses of products and develop strategic business policies. As an essential part of project formulation and appraisal, market and demand analysis is vital so that capacity and facility location can be planned and implemented in line with the market requirements. A major error in demand forecast can throw painstaking capita expenditure on plant capacity and other hardware facility totally out of gear.

FORECAST VERSUS PREDICTIONForecast is an estimate of future events and trends and is arrived at by systematically combining past data and projecting it forward in a predetermine a manner. Prediction is an estimate of future events and trends in a subjective manner without taking into account the past data. The subjective considerations may not emerge from any predetermined analysis or approach.

NEED FOR DEMAND FORECASTINGAll business planning starts with forecasting Capital investment, like procurement of raw materials and production planning, has to relate to demand forecasting. High volume high technology mass production systems have further high-lighted the importance of accurate demand forecasts. Even in a batch type production, any major mismatch between forecast and manufacture will lead to higher capital tied up in finished products which are slow in selling.

UNCERTAINTIES IN DEMAND FORECASTINGDemand forecasting is the estimate of future demand. As the future is always uncertain, forecasting cannot be completely fool proof and correct. However, the very process of forecasting demand in future involves evaluating various forces and factors which influence demand. This exercise is very rewarding in itself as it enables the personnel to know about various market forces, currents, cross-currents and under-currents relevant to the demand behavior.

LEVELS OF DEMAND FORECASTING Firm Level If the exercise aims at forecasting demand

of firm's products locally at state, region or national level, it is a micro-level of demand forecasting. Sometimes, forecasts are required for company's products in specific industry or market segment. Industry Level such a demand forecasting exercise

focuses on an industry as a whole for the region and/or national level. These forecasts may be undertaken by a group of companies or by industry/trade associations.

National Level Demand forecasts at national level

include parameters like national income, expenditure, index of industrial and/or agricultural production etc. Estimating aggregate demand of products at national level facilitates governmental decisions for imports, exports, pricing policy etc.

International

Level Companies operating in multinational markets would require similar forecasting of demands for its products, trends in consumption etc at international level. Managerial Economists play a leading role in masterminding these forecasts at firm, industry, national and international levels. Time horizon of these demand forecasts usually varies from 1 to S years and in rare instances upto 10 years.

METHODS OF FORECASTING- DEMAND Collective Opinion Survey Sales personnel are closest to

the customers and have an intimate feel of the market. Thus they are most suited to assess consumers reaction to company's products. Herein each salesperson makes an estimate of the expected sales in their respective area, territory, state and/or region, These estimates are collated, reviewed and revised to take into account changes in design/features of products, changes in selling prices, projected advertising and sales promotion campaigns and anticipated changes in competitors :marketing policies covering product, people, price, promotion and place. Opinions of all managers involved at various levels of sales organization are also included in the survey. Thus "collective opinion survey forms the basic of market analysis and demand forecasting.

Although this method is simple, direct, first hand and most acceptable, it suffers from following weaknesses: Estimates are based on personal judgment which may not be free from bias. Adding together demand estimates of individual salespersons to obtain total demand of the country maybe risky as each person has knowledge about a small portion of market only. Salesperson may not prepare the demand estimates with the requisite seriousness and care. Owing to limited experience, usually in their employment, salesperson may not have the requisite knowledge and experience

Survey of Customers IntentionAnother method of demand forecasting is to carry out a survey of what consumers prefer and intend to buy. If the product is sold to a few large industrial buyers, survey would involve interviewing them. If it is a consumer durable product, a sample survey is carried out for questioning a few representative consumers about what they are planning or intending to buy. It is neither realistic nor desirable to query all consumers either through direct contact or through printed questionnaire by mail. These surveys serve useful purpose in establishing relationships between: demand and price demand and income of consumers demand and expenditure on advertisement etc

Delphi Method of Demand ForecastingDelphi method is a group process and aims at achieving a `consensus' of the members. Herein experts in the field of marketing research and demand forecasting are engaged in analyzing economic conditions carrying out sample surveys of market conducting opinion polls

Based on the above, demand forecast is worked out in following steps: Coordinator sends out a set of questions in writing to all the experts co-opted on the panel who are requested to write back a brief prediction. Written predictions of experts are collated, edited and summarized together by the Coordinator. Based on the summary, Coordinator designs a new set of questions and gives them to the same experts who answer back again in writing. Coordinator repeats the process of collating, editing and summarizing the responses. Steps 3 and 4 are repeated by the Coordinator to experts with diverse backgrounds until consensus is reached.

Nominal Group TechniqueThis is a further modification of Delphi method of forecasting. A panel of seven to ten experts is formed and allowed to interact, discuss 'and rank all the suggestions in descending order as per the following procedure: Experts sit around a table in full view of one another and are asked to speak to each other. Facilitator hands over copies of questionnaire needing a forecast and each expert is expected to write down a list of ideas about the questions. After everyone has written down their ideas, Facilitator asks each expert to share one idea out of own list with the group. The idea shared is written on the `flip chart' which everyone can see. Experts give ideas in rotation until all of them are written on the `flip chart'. No discussion takes place in this phase and usually 15 to 25 ideas emerge from this format.

In the next phase, experts discuss ideas presented by

them. Facilitator ensures that all ideas have been adequately discussed. During discussions similar ideas are combined and paraphrased appropriately. This reduces the number of ideas. After completing group discussions, experts are asked to give in writing ranks to ideas according to their perception of priority.

Simple Average MethodAmong the quantitative techniques for demand analysis, simple Average Method is the first one that comes to one's mind. Herein, we take simple average of all past periods - simple monthly average of all consumption figures collected every month for the last twelve months or simple quarterly average of consumption figures collected for several quarters in the immediate past. Thus, Simple Average : Sum of Demands of all periods Number of periods

Moving Average MethodMethod of Simple Average is faulted on account of the fact that all past periods are given same importance whereas it is justifiable to accord higher importance to recent past periods. Moving Average Method takes a fixed number of periods and after the elapse of each period, data for the oldest time period is discarded and the most recent past period is included. Whatever the period selected, it must be kept constant - it may be three, four or twenty periods by once it decided, we must continue with same number of periods. Simple Average : Sum of Demands of Chosen periods Number of chosen periods

Regression AnalysisPast data is used to establish a functional relationship between two variables. For example, demand for consumer goods has a relationship with disposable income of individuals and family; demand for tractors is linked to the agriculture income and demand for cement, bricks etc is dependent upon value of construction contracts at any time.

Weighted Moving AverageIn Moving Average Method, weighted given to the selected number of periods is same. This has been refined to include the Weighted Moving Average which allows varying weightages for demands in old periods. Depending upon the age of the period, withage can be varied: Weighted Moving Average = W1 x D1 + W2D2 + ..+ Wn x Dn

PROJECT APPRAISALProject appraisal is the analysis of cost and benefits of a proposed project with the purpose of ensuring a rational allocation of limited funds among alternative investment opportunities in view of the specified goals. Project appraisal is carried out by the financial institutions before financing any project. The rationale of project appraisal lies in the fact that the number of project to satisfy the identified needs always exceeds the availability of resources and a choice among alternative projects is to be made.

Project appraisal is undertaken with the following objectives: 1. To arrive at specific and predicted results of the project. 2. To identify the expected costs and benefits of the project. 3. To lay down the benchmarks to determine the success or failure of a project.

Project Appraisal V/S Project EvaluationProject appraisal is different from project evaluation which is basically an analysis and examination of an executed project. Project appraisal is an preinvestment decision making technique whereas the project evaluation is an post analysis of executed project. Project appraisal is done by the financing institution before the project is approved and implemented whereas project evaluation is done after the project has been implemented. Appraisal is a conscious scrutiny which helps to design a conceptual framework to monitor and evaluate the project after its execution.

ASPECTS/TYPES OF PROJECT APPRAISALFINANCIAL ANALYSIS Following are the methods of assessing firms profitability of capital investment proposal: Payback Period Accounting rate of return NPV IRR Profitability Index1.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

PAY BACK PERIODIt is defined as the number of years requires for the saving of cost or net cash flow ( after tax but before depreciation) to recoup the original cost of project. In other words it represents the number of years in which the investment is expected to pay itself. A pay back period locate the break even point or period between outgo and income. Pay back period= original cost of project/Investment Annual cash flow

This techniques is suitable when: 1. Cost is small 2. Project is expected to complete in short period 3. Project is productive so soon as investment is made. 4. Project carries high risk.

MERITS OF PAY BACK PERIOD1.2. 3. 4. 5.

It is highly suitable when project has shortest gestation period. It is simple to operate and understand. It is suitable for high risk project. It is useful for the firm which is eager to get back the cash invested in the project as early as possible. It enable the entrepreneur to select an investment proposal which would yield quick return of funds invested.

Limitations1.2. 3. 4. 5.

It does not take into account the cash inflow after pay back period. It ignore the time value of money. It avoids the cost of capital. It suits to only small project. It fails to examine shortest period of payback.

ACCOUNTING RATE OF RETURNThis method is considered to be an improvement over the payback period method as it is considers the earning of a project during its entire economic life. This method is also known as average rate of return or return on investment. This ratio relates project earning to investment. This techniques is based on accounting profits rather than cash inflows. It is defined as the percentage of average profit after tax to capital employed.

The following formula is used to calculate the ARRARR = Average profit after taxes Average Investment

MERITS OF ARRIt is simple to calculate ARR and this method is easily understandable. 2. It is based on readily available accounting information. 3. It considered total benefits during the entire life of the project.1.

Demerits1. It ignore time value of money 2. It places more emphasis on profit and not on cash flows. 3. It does not considered the reinvestment of profits earned over a period of time. 4. It fails to differentiate between the size of the investment required for each project.

ECONOMIC APPRAISALEconomic appraisal is done with a view point of society and economy. Thus it is done from a wider angle not merely in financial terms. The economic appraisal should cover weather it fits into national priorities and contribution to the development of society. Economic appraisal is also called social cost benefit analysis ( SCBA). It is an assessment of the expected total cost to be incurred and benefits derived out a project that is under consideration from society point of view. A project is considered to be socially viable if the benefits which accrue from the project serve the larger social purpose.

SCBA is primarily used for evaluating public investment to be financed by the government. SCBA is also relevant to private investment which have to be approved by various government and quasi government agencies which bring to bear larger national consideration in their decision. So the acceptance or rejection of a project is depends upon total social or national benefit like impact on planning, employment, saving and foreign exchange etc.

TECHNOLOGICAL ANALYSISIt refers to the review of product mix, production capacities, process of manufacturing, engineering know how and technical collaboration, sources of raw material, location, size, manpower requirement, facilities like transport, railway, airway, latest technology to be adopted etc. Following are the determinants of technological appraisal: 1. Type of technology 2. Scale of operation 3. Location 4. Layout plan

5. Construction schedule 6. Supply of water 7. Supply of power 8. Supply of Fuel. 9. Waste, Effluents and disposal 10. Cost estimate

COMMERCIAL APPRAISALThe proposed project should be commercially viable. To know the commercial viability of the project, it is necessary to examine the demand and availability of the product in the market, selection of market place, requirement of raw material, banking, transportation, insurance facilities etc. Among all the aspect are examined, the demand and availability of the product to be manufactured of the demand should also be examine.

MANAGERIAL APPRAISALIt deals with the evaluation of competencies, skills and reliability of management. This would also involve review of their past track record and competence. Actually, quality of management affects the success of an industrial project to a large extent. Generally, it is not expected that an entrepreneur should have experience in a particular industry, but he is supposed to appoint adequate experience personnel in the area of production, finance, marketing, accounting etc.

ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSISIt refers to environment planning, protection, monitoring, assessment, research, education, conservation and substantial use of resources. For effective environmental analysis, a wide network of legislation is also in force. There are two technique of environmental analysis: 1. Environment Impact Assessment 2. Environment Impact Statement

Environment impact assessment is defined as a process designed to identify, predict, interpret and communicate information about the impact of an action on human health and well being. Environmental impact statement is a report based on studies, disclosing the likelihood of certain environmental consequences of a proposed project.