environmental and exploration geophysics ii tom.h.wilson department of geology and geography west...
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Environmental and Exploration Geophysics II
Department of Geology and GeographyWest Virginia University
Morgantown, WV
Radar Methods – General Radar Methods – General OverviewOverview
Part 2Part 2
Thinning layer response and resolution considerations.
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Horizontal resolution and the Fresnel zone
Destructive interference
Constructiveinterference
Horizontal Resolution: The Fresnel Zone
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2 16flR
The Fresnel Zone Radius Rf
44f
c
V tRf
Depth = 2000Velocity = 13500dominant frequency = 50two-way time = 0.296296dominant wavelength = 270Fresnel zone radius = 523.9812Approximation = 519.6152
An approximation
Topographic variations must also be compensated for.
Daniels, J., 1989
West Pearl Queen Field Area
Surface along the GPR line shown below was very irregular so that apparent structure in the section below is often the result of relief across features in the surface sand dune complex.
GPR data is often collected by pulling the GPR unit across the surface. Subsurface scans are made at regular intervals, but since the unit is often pulled at varying speeds across the surface, the records are adjusted to portray constant spacing between records. This process s referred to as rubbersheeting.
Daniels, J., 1989
Smith and Jol, 1995, AG
Smith and Jol, 1995, AG
Increased frequency and bandwidth reduce the dominant
period and duration of the wavelet
Smith and Jol, 1995, AG
Comparison of the 25MHz and 100 MHz records
Smith and Jol, 1995, AG
rsr eAA
We also expect to see decreased depth of penetration (i.e. increased attenuation) for higher frequency wavelets and components of the GPR signal.
Sensors & Software Inc. - Ekko Updates
In the acquisition of GPR data one must worry about overhead reflections.
Daniels, J., 1989
…. and tree branches!Daniels, J., 1989
GPR unitSensors & Software Inc. –
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Sensors & Software Inc. – Salt Water Infiltration
Sequestration occurred in a depleted oil field.
• Location near Hobbes, NM• West Pearl Queen formation, ~4500 feet
deep• About 20 years of oil and gas production• A few years of inactivity• Injection of ~2100 tons CO2 over 2 months• Subsequent production
Perry-Castaneda Library Map CollectionBromhal et al., 2004
MM&V activities cover a lot of ground
“MM&V is defined as the capability to measure the amount of CO2 stored at a specific sequestration site, monitor the site for leaks or other deterioration of storage integrity over time, and to verify that the CO2 is stored in a way that is permanent and not harmful to the host ecosystem…Subsurface MM&V involves tracking the fate of the CO2 within the geologic formations underlying the earth and possible migration to the surface.” - Sequestration Roadmap, 2004
Bromhal et al., 2004
First, geologic characterization of deep layers.
• Nine wells in immediate area• Several hundreds in
surrounding area• 3-D seismic survey
Bromhal et al., 2004
Simulation of flow in reservoir.
• Porosity and permeability maps generated
• Production history
• 4-D seismic for validation
Bromhal et al., 2004
The pilot site is located approximately 25 miles southwest of Hobbs, NM. Oil and gas fields in the area are highlighted in red. Map taken from Ward (1986) (http://geoinfo.nmt.edu/ staff/scholle/guadalupe.html An introduction and virtual geologic field trip to the Permian reef complex, Guadalupe and Delaware mountains, New Mexico-West Texas).
Short photo lineaments (yellow) are shown on an orthophoto of the test site. The locations of injection well (red) and capillary absorption tube samplers (black) are spotted on the photo.
Rose diagram of photolineaments picked from a contrast enhanced digital copy of a 1949 black and white aerial photo of the area (left) surrounding the West Pearl Queen pilot injection well and orthophoto on the right
Shallow Diffraction
Diffraction with
velocity of 0.19m/nsShallow
Diffraction
Diffraction with
velocity of 0.19m/ns
Diffraction hyperbola having a velocity of 0.19 m/ns is displayed next to a shallow diffraction originating in the near surface sand cover.
West Pearl Queen Field Area
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Local Topography in A rea o f G PR Survey W est Pearl Q ueen P ilo t S ite
Feet
E levation data p rovided by B ob Benson C olorado School o f M inesE levations were surveyed for seism ic source and receiver locations at the site
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S tructu re on Top of the M esca lero Ca licheD erived from C alcu lated Velocity o f 0 .2 m /ns
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S tructure on Top of M escalero C alicheCorrection Ve locity Set at the Anom alously Low Value o f 0.1 m /ns
R elative drop o f about 4 feet
Stivason #4CO2 injection well
Structure of the Mescalero caliche is superimposed on an orthophoto of the injection site. GPR survey lines are shown in yellow. Locations of the injection well, CATS, and interpreted faults are also shown.
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1.050.0100.0150.0200.0- 2 -250.0300.0350.0374.0SP:
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GPR profile located 275 meters northwest of the injection well illustrates the general character of the reflection events from the Mescalero caliche
observed across the site.
Mescalero caliche
Plio-Pleistocene
Upper MioceneOgallala Group
ray 0 10 20 30 40 50
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Gamma ray log from the Stivason #5 well 400 meters east of the Stivason #4 injection well. The low gamma ray response between 4 and 9 feet subsurface is associated with the Mescalero caliche.
Stivason #5Thickness of the Mescalero caliche estimated from interpreted two-way radar reflection travel times through the caliche using an interval velocity of 0.15m/ns. Interpreted faults/fracture zones and areas of missing caliche are highlighted.
Missing caliche zone
Missing caliche zone Abrupt thinning and
disappearance of caliche reflection events are illustrated in this GPR profile.
Concentrations of PDCH measured during a 54-day exposure period are superimposed on an orthophoto of the pilot site. The locations of the injection well, CATS, interpreted faults, and eroded caliche areas are shown for reference.
PTCH concentrations measured during the 54-day exposure period.
PDCH concentrations measured during the 54 day exposure period.
Near-surface flow models can help in locating samplers, examining results.
• Atmospheric transport • Diffusion in near-surface
Bromhal et al., 2004
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