1. 1. Environmental Biotechnology For further volumes: http://www.springer.com/series/7645
2. 2. VOLUME 10 HANDBOOK OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING Environmental Biotechnology Edited by Lawrence K. Wang, PhD, PE, DEE Lenox Institute of Water Technology, Lenox, MA Krofta Engineering Corporation, Lenox, MA Zorex Corporation, Newtonville, NY Volodymyr Ivanov, PhD Nanyang Technological University, Singapore Joo-Hwa Tay, PhD, PE Nanyang Technological University, Singapore Yung-Tse Hung, PhD, PE, DEE Cleveland State University, Cleveland, OH
3. 3. Editors Dr. Lawrence K. Wang Lenox Institute of Water Technology, Lenox, MA, USA Krofta Engineering Corporation, Lenox, MA, USA Zorex Corporation, Newtonville, NY, USA larrykwang@juno.com lawrencekwang@gmail.com Dr. Volodymyr Ivanov Nanyang Technological University School of Civil & Environmental Engineering Singapore cvivanov@ntu.edu.sg Dr. Joo-Hwa Tay Nanyang Technological University School of Civil & Environmental Engineering Singapore cjhtay@ntu.edu.sg Dr. Yung-Tse Hung Cleveland State University Cleveland, OH, USA y.hung@csuohio.edu ISBN: 978-1-58829-166-0 e-ISBN: 978-1-60327-140-0 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-60327-140-0 Springer New York Dordrecht Heidelberg London Library of Congress Control Number: 2009941061 c Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2010 All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of the publisher (Humana Press, c/o Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, 233 Spring Street, New York, NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden. The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if they are not identied as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subject to proprietary rights. Printed on acid-free paper Humana Press is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)
4. 4. Dedications The Editors of the Handbook of Environmental Engineering series dedicate this volume to late Thomas L. Lanigan (19382006), the founder and former president of Humana Press, who encouraged and vigorously supported the editors and many contributors around the world to embark on this ambitious, life-long handbook project (1978 to present) for the sole purpose of protecting our environment, in turn, beneting our entire mankind. The Editors of this Handbook series also would like to dedicate this volume to Dr. Jao Fan Kao (19232008) of National Cheng Kung University (NCKU), Tainan, Taiwan, ROC. Dr. Kao was the founder and former Professor of the Universitys Department of Environmental Engineering. He educated over 1,500 environmental and civil engineers to serve the planet of earth. Both Dr. Lawrence K. Wang, Chief Editor, and Dr. Yung-Tse Hung, Co-editor, were Dr. Kaos students at National Cheng Kung University. v
5. 5. Preface The past 30 years have seen the emergence of a growing desire worldwide that positive actions be taken to restore and protect the environment from the degrading effects of all forms of pollution air, water, soil, and noise. Since pollution is a direct or indirect consequence of waste production, the seemingly idealistic demand for zero discharge can be construed as an unrealistic demand for zero waste. However, as long as waste continues to exist, we can only attempt to abate the subsequent pollution by converting it to a less noxious form. Three major questions usually arise when a particular type of pollution has been identied: (1) How serious is the pollution? (2) Is the technology to abate it available? and (3) Do the costs of abatement justify the degree of abatement achieved? This book is one of the volumes of the Handbook of Environmental Engineering series. The principal intention of this series is to help readers formulate answers to the last two questions above. The traditional approach of applying tried-and-true solutions to specic pollution problems has been a major contributing factor to the success of environmental engineering, and has accounted in large measure for the establishment of a methodology of pollution control. However, the realization of the ever-increasing complexity and interrelated nature of current environmental problems renders it imperative that intelligent planning of pollution abatement systems be undertaken. Prerequisite to such planning is an understanding of the performance, potential, and limitations of the various methods of pollution abatement available for envi- ronmental scientists and engineers. In this series of handbooks, we will review at a tutorial level a broad spectrum of engineering systems (processes, operations, and methods) currently being utilized, or of potential utility, for pollution abatement. We believe that the unied interdisciplinary approach presented in these handbooks is a logical step in the evolution of environmental engineering. Treatment of the various engineering systems presented will show how an engineering formulation of the subject ows naturally from the fundamental principles and theories of chemistry, microbiology, physics, and mathematics. This emphasis on fundamental sci- ence recognizes that engineering practice has in recent years become more rmly based on scientic principles rather than on its earlier dependency on empirical accumulation of facts. It is not intended, though, to neglect empiricism where such data lead quickly to the most economic design; certain engineering systems are not readily amenable to fundamental scientic analysis, and in these instances we have resorted to less science in favor of more art and empiricism. Since an environmental engineer must understand science within the context of application, we rst present the development of the scientic basis of a particular subject, followed by exposition of the pertinent design concepts and operations, and detailed explanations of their applications to environmental quality control or remediation. Throughout the series, methods of practical design and calculation are illustrated by numerical examples. These examples clearly demonstrate how organized, analytical reasoning leads to the most direct and clear solutions. Wherever possible, pertinent cost data have been provided. vii
6. 6. viii Preface Our treatment of pollution-abatement engineering is offered in the belief that the trained engineer should more rmly understand fundamental principles, be more aware of the similar- ities and/or differences among many of the engineering systems, and exhibit greater exibility and originality in the denition and innovative solution of environmental pollution problems. In short, the environmental engineer should by conviction and practice be more readily adaptable to change and progress. Coverage of the unusually broad eld of environmental engineering has demanded an expertise that could only be provided through multiple authorships. Each author (or group of authors) was permitted to employ, within reasonable limits, the customary personal style in organizing and presenting a particular subject area; consequently, it has been difcult to treat all subject material in a homogeneous manner. Moreover, owing to limitations of space, some of the authors favored topics could not be treated in great detail, and many less important topics had to be merely mentioned or commented on briey. All authors have provided an excellent list of references at the end of each chapter for the benet of interested readers. As each chapter is meant to be self-contained, some mild repetition among the various texts was unavoidable. In each case, all omissions or repetitions are the responsibility of the editors and not the individual authors. With the current trend toward metrication, the question of using a consistent system of units has been a problem. Wherever possible, the authors have used the British system (fps) along with the metric equivalent (mks, cgs, or SIU) or vice versa. The editors sincerely hope that this duplicity of units usage will prove to be useful rather than being disruptive to the readers. The goals of the Handbook of Environmental Engineering series are: (1) to cover entire environmental elds, including air and noise pollution control, solid waste processing and resource recovery, physicochemical treatment processes, biological treatment processes, biosolids management, water resources, natural control processes, radioactive waste disposal, and thermal pollution control; and (2) to employ a multimedia approach to environmental pollution control since air, water, soil, and energy are all interrelated. As can be seen from the above handbook coverage, no consideration is given to pollution by the type of industry, or to the abatement of specic pollutants. Rather, the organization of the handbook series has been based on the three basic forms in which pollutants and waste are manifested: gas, solid, and liquid. In addition, noise pollution control is included in the handbook series. This particular book, Vol. 10, Environmental Biotechnology, mainly deals with theories and principles of biotechnologies, and is a sister book to Vol. 11, Environmental Bioengineering, which mainly deals with environmental applications of microbiological processes and tech- nologies. Specically this book, Vol. 10, Environmental Biotechnology, introduces the mechanisms of environmental biotechnology processes, different microbiological classications useful for environmental engineers, microbiology, metabolism, and microbial ecology of natural and environmental engineering systems, microbial ecology and bioengineering of isolated life support systems, classication and design of solid-state processes and reactors, value- added biotechnological products from organic wastes, design of anaerobic suspended bio- processes and reactors, selection and design of membrane bioreactors, natural environmental
7. 7. Preface ix biotechnologies systems, aerobic and anoxic suspended-growth systems, aerobic and anaero- bic attached-growth systems, and sequencing batch reactors. This books sister book, Environmental Bioengineering, Vol. 11, however, introduces var- ious environmental applications, such as land disposal of biosolids, heavy metal removal by crops, pretreatment of sludge for sludge digestion, biotreatment of sludge, fermentaion of kitchen garbage, phytoremediation for sludge treatment, phyotoremediation for heavy metal removal from contaminated soils, vetiver grass bioremediatioon, wetland treatment, biosorp- tion of heavy metals, rotating biological contactors (RBC) for carbon and nitrogen removal, anaerobic biolm reactor, biological phosphorus removal, black and grey water treatment, milk wastewater treatment, tomato wastewater treatment, gelatine and animal glue production from skin wastes, fungal biomass protein production, algae harvest energy conversion, and living machine for wastewater treatment. Both books together (Vols. 10 and 11) have been designed to serve as comprehensive biotechnology textbooks as well as wide-ranging reference books. We hope and expect they will prove of equal high value to advanced undergraduate and graduate students, to designers of water and wastewater treatment systems, and to scientists and researchers. The editors welcome comments from readers in all of these categories. The editors are pleased to acknowledge the encouragement and support received from their colleagues and the publisher during the conceptual stages of this endeavor. We wish to thank the contributing authors for their time and effort, and for having patiently borne our reviews and numerous queries and comments. We are very grateful to our respective families for their patience and understanding during some rather trying times. Lawrence K. Wang, Lenox, Massachusetts Volodymyr Ivanov, Singapore Tay Joo Hwa, Singapore Yung-Tse Hung, Cleveland, Ohio
8. 8. Contents Preface...................................................................................................................................... vii Contributors............................................................................................................................. xxiii 1. Applications of Environmental Biotechnology Volodymyr Ivanov and Yung-Tse Hung............................................................................ 1 1. Introduction............................................................................................................................................................................. 2 2. Comparison of Biotechnological Treatment and Other Methods........................................................................................ 3 3. Aerobic Treatment of Wastes................................................................................................................................................. 4 3.1. Aerobic Treatment of Solid Wastes............................................................................................................................... 4 3.2. Aerobic Treatment of Liquid Wastes............................................................................................................................ 6 3.3. Aerobic Treatment of Gaseous Wastes......................................................................................................................... 6 4. Anaerobic Treatment of Wastes............................................................................................................................................. 7 5. Treatment of Heavy Metals-Containing Wastes................................................................................................................... 9 6. Enhancement of Biotechnological Treatment of Wastes..................................................................................................... 10 7. Biosensors............................................................................................................................................................................... 14 References.................................................................................................................................................................................... 16 2. Microbiology of Environmental Engineering Systems Volodymyr Ivanov............................................................................................................... 19 1. Microbial Groups and Their Quantication.......................................................................................................................... 20 1.1. Groups of Microorganisms............................................................................................................................................ 21 1.2. Microbiological Methods Used in Environmental Engineering.................................................................................. 24 1.3. Comparison of Physical, Chemical, Physico-chemical and Microbiological Processes........................................... 28 2. Microbial Ecosystems............................................................................................................................................................ 29 2.1. Structure of Ecosystems................................................................................................................................................. 29 2.2. Interactions in Microbial Ecosystems........................................................................................................................... 32 3. Microbial Growth and Death................................................................................................................................................. 38 3.1. Nutrients and Media....................................................................................................................................................... 38 3.2. Growth of Individual Cells............................................................................................................................................ 40 3.3. Growth of Population..................................................................................................................................................... 42 3.4. Effect of Environment on Growth and Microbial Activities....................................................................................... 43 3.5. Death of Microorganisms.............................................................................................................................................. 45 4. Diversity Of Microorganisms................................................................................................................................................ 49 4.1. Physiological Groups of Microorganisms.................................................................................................................... 49 4.2. Phylogenetic Groups of Prokaryotes............................................................................................................................. 50 4.3. Connection Between Phylogenetic Grouping and G + C Content of Chromosomal DNA................................................................................................................................................... 53 4.4. Comparison of rRNA-Based Phylogenetic Classication and Conventional Phenotypic Taxonomy..................................................................................................................... 54 4.5. Periodic Table of Prokaryotes........................................................................................................................................ 60 5. Functions of Microbial Groups in Environmental Engineering Systems........................................................................... 63 5.1. Functions of Anaerobic Prokaryotes............................................................................................................................. 63 5.2. Functions of Anaerobic Respiring Prokaryotes............................................................................................................ 65 5.3. Functions of Facultative Anaerobic and Microaerophilic Prokaryotes...................................................................... 68 5.4. Functions of Aerobic Prokaryotes................................................................................................................................. 71 5.5. Functions of Eukaryotic Microorganisms..................................................................................................................... 77 References.................................................................................................................................................................................... 78 xi
9. 9. xii Contents 3. Microbial Systematics Aharon Oren....................................................................................................................... 81 1. Introduction........................................................................................................................................................................... 82 2. Systematics, Taxonomy, and Nomenclature of Prokaryotes.............................................................................................. 83 2.1. General Denitions.................................................................................................................................................... 83 2.2. The Denition of the Prokaryote Species................................................................................................................. 84 2.3. The Number of Prokaryotes that Have Been Described.......................................................................................... 87 3. Classication of Prokaryotes............................................................................................................................................... 88 3.1. Genotypic Properties Used in Prokaryote Classication......................................................................................... 90 3.2. Phenotypic Properties Used in Prokaryote Classication....................................................................................... 92 3.3. The Polyphasic Approach Toward Prokaryote Classication................................................................................. 94 4. Naming of Prokaryotes........................................................................................................................................................ 95 4.1. The Binomial System of Naming Prokaryotes......................................................................................................... 95 4.2. The Bacteriological Code.......................................................................................................................................... 96 4.3. The International Committee on Systematics of Prokaryotes................................................................................. 96 4.4. The International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology............................................................. 97 4.5. Information on Nomenclature of Prokaryotes on the Internet................................................................................ 97 5. Culture Collections of Prokaryotes and Their Importance in Taxonomy and Identication........................................... 98 6. Small-Subunit rRNA-Based Classication of Prokaryotes............................................................................................... 98 6.1. 16S rRNA as a Phylogenetic Marker........................................................................................................................ 99 6.2. The Differences Between Bacteria and Archaea......................................................................................................106 6.3. An Overview of the Bacteria.....................................................................................................................................109 6.4. An Overview of the Archaea.....................................................................................................................................110 7. Sources of Information on Prokaryote Systematics...........................................................................................................111 7.1. Bergeys Manual of Systematic Bacteriology..........................................................................................................111 7.2. The Prokaryotes.........................................................................................................................................................111 8. Identication of Prokaryote Isolates...................................................................................................................................112 9. The Number of Different Species of Prokaryotes in Nature..............................................................................................114 10. Conclusions...........................................................................................................................................................................116 Nomenclature...............................................................................................................................................................................117 References....................................................................................................................................................................................117 4. Microbial Ecology Nicolai S. Panikov...............................................................................................................121 1. Introduction...........................................................................................................................................................................121 2. The Major Terms, Principles, and Concepts of General and Microbial Ecology.............................................................123 2.1. From Molecule to Biosphere: The Hierarchy of Organizational Levels in Biology..............................................123 2.2. The Ecosystem Concept............................................................................................................................................125 2.3. Environmental Factors...............................................................................................................................................132 2.4. Population Dynamics, Succession and Life Strategy Concept...............................................................................134 3. Methods of Microbial Ecology............................................................................................................................................147 3.1. Natural Microbial Populations and Laboratory Artifacts....................................................................................148 3.2. Great Plate Count Anomaly...................................................................................................................................149 3.3. Estimation of the Microbial Numbers and Biomass in Soils and Water................................................................151 3.4. Estimating Microbial Growth Rates In Situ.............................................................................................................153 4. Diversity of Microbial Habitats in Nature..........................................................................................................................158 4.1. Terms and General Principles (How to Classify Habitats)......................................................................................158 4.2. Atmosphere.................................................................................................................................................................160 4.3. Aquatic Ecosystems...................................................................................................................................................162 4.4. Terrestrial Ecosystems...............................................................................................................................................170 Nomenclature...............................................................................................................................................................................177 Glossary........................................................................................................................................................................................178 References....................................................................................................................................................................................188
10. 10. Contents xiii 5. Microbial Metabolism: Importance for Environmental Biotechnology Aharon Oren.......................................................................................................................193 1. Introduction: the Metabolic Diversity of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Microorganisms.................................................194 2. Dissimilatory Metabolism of Microorganisms: Thermodynamic and Mechanistic Principles.......................................195 2.1. General Overview of the Metabolic Properties of Microorganisms: A Thermodynamic Approach....................195 2.2. Modes of Energy Generation of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Microorganisms.....................................................202 3. Assimilatory Metabolism of Microorganisms....................................................................................................................211 3.1. Carbon Assimilation..................................................................................................................................................211 3.2. Nitrogen Assimilation................................................................................................................................................213 3.3. Phosphorus Assimilation...........................................................................................................................................215 3.4. Sulfur Assimilation....................................................................................................................................................215 3.5. Iron Assimilation........................................................................................................................................................216 4. The Phototrophic Way of Life.............................................................................................................................................216 4.1. Oxygenic Photosynthesis...........................................................................................................................................217 4.2. Anoxygenic Photosynthesis......................................................................................................................................217 4.3. Retinal-Based Phototrophic Life...............................................................................................................................219 5. Chemoheterotrophic Life: Degradation of Organic Compounds In Aerobic and Anaerobic Environments..................220 5.1. Aerobic Degradation..................................................................................................................................................221 5.2. Anaerobic Respiration: Denitrication.....................................................................................................................222 5.3. Fermentation...............................................................................................................................................................223 5.4. Anaerobic Respiration: Dissimilatory Iron and Manganese Reduction.................................................................227 5.5. Anaerobic Respiration: Dissimilatory Sulfate Reduction.......................................................................................228 5.6. Methanogenesis..........................................................................................................................................................229 5.7. Proton-Reducing Acetogens and Interspecies Hydrogen Transfer.........................................................................231 6. The Chemoautotrophic Way of Life....................................................................................................................................234 6.1. Reduced Nitrogen Compounds as Energy Source...................................................................................................234 6.2. Reduced Sulfur Compounds as Energy Source........................................................................................................236 6.3. Reduced Iron and Manganese as Energy Source.....................................................................................................238 6.4. Hydrogen as Energy Source......................................................................................................................................238 6.5. Other Substrates as Energy Sources for Chemoautotrophic Growth......................................................................239 7. The Biogeochemical Cycles of the Major Elements..........................................................................................................240 7.1. The Carbon Cycle......................................................................................................................................................240 7.2. The Nitrogen Cycle....................................................................................................................................................242 7.3. The Sulfur Cycle........................................................................................................................................................242 7.4. Biogeochemical Cycles of Other Elements..............................................................................................................242 8. Epilogue................................................................................................................................................................................245 Nomenclature...............................................................................................................................................................................245 References....................................................................................................................................................................................245 Appendix: Compounds of Environmental Signicance and the Microbial Processes Responsible for Their For- 6. Microbial Ecology of Isolated Life Support Systems Lydia A. Somova, Nickolay S. Pechurkin, Mark Nelson, and Lawrence K. Wang......257 1. Introduction...........................................................................................................................................................................258 2. Functional and Regulator Role of Microbial Populations.................................................................................................259 2.1. Microalgae and Bacteria Communities as Bioregenerators in Life Support Systems...........................................259 3. Microecological Risks for Human Life Support Systems.................................................................................................266 3.1. Man and His Microora as a Single Ecosystem......................................................................................................266 3.2. Environmental Microora in Different Types of LSS.............................................................................................271 3.3. Unsolved Problems and Prospects............................................................................................................................276 4. The Indicator Role and Monitoring of Microorganisms in LSS.......................................................................................278 4.1. Microbial Diagnostics Method..................................................................................................................................279 4.2. The Use of Skin Bacteria and Bactericidal Activity to Estimate Immune Responsiveness..................................279 mation and Degradation.......................................................................................................................................................248
11. 11. xiv Contents 4.3. The Use of Microecosystem Response to Indicate Human Health.........................................................................280 4.4. The Estimation of the Health and Normal Functioning of LSS and Its Links..................................................................................................................................................281 5. Conclusion............................................................................................................................................................................282 References....................................................................................................................................................................................283 7. Environmental Solid-State Cultivation Processes and Bioreactors David Alexander Mitchell, Nadia Krieger, Oscar Felippe von Meien, Luiz Fernando de Lima Luz Jnior, Jos Domingos Fontana, Lorena Benathar Ballod Tavares, Mrcia Brando Palma, Geraldo Lippel SantAnna Junior, Leda dos Reis Castilho, Denise Maria Guimares Freire, and Jorge Alfredo Arcas.....................................................................................................................................287 1. Denition of Solid-State Cultivation Processes.................................................................................................................288 2. Classication of Environmental Applications of Solid-State Cultivation Processes.......................................................290 2.1. General Scheme for Classifying Solid-State Processes Used in Environmental Biotechnology..........................290 2.2. Examples of Environmentally-Related Processes that Use Solid Residues...........................................................291 3. Classication of Process Types...........................................................................................................................................299 4. The Functions that the Solid-State Cultivation Bioreactor Must Fulll...........................................................................301 5. Classication of Bioreactors Used in Environmentally-Related Solid-State Cultivation Processes...............................304 5.1. Group I Bioreactors: Not Aerated Forcefully and Not-Mixed................................................................................304 5.2. Group II Bioreactors: Aerated Forcefully but Not-Mixed.......................................................................................305 5.3. Group III Bioreactors: Not Aerated Forcefully but Mixed......................................................................................307 5.4. Group IV Bioreactors: Aerated Forcefully and Mixed............................................................................................307 6. Design of Bioreactors for Environmentally-Related Solid-State Cultivation Processes.................................................310 6.1. General Considerations for the Selection and Design of Bioreactors....................................................................310 6.2. The Importance of Characterizing the Growth Kinetics of the Microorganism....................................................315 6.3. Design of Group I Bioreactors..................................................................................................................................316 6.4. Design of Group II Bioreactors.................................................................................................................................319 6.5. Design of Group III Bioreactors...............................................................................................................................326 6.6. Design of Group IV Bioreactors...............................................................................................................................331 7. Associated Issues That Must Be Considered in Bioreactor Design..................................................................................333 7.1. A Challenge in all Bioreactor Types: Design of the Air Preparation System........................................................333 7.2. Monitoring and Control Systems for Bioreactors....................................................................................................334 8. Future Perspectives...............................................................................................................................................................337 Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................................................................338 Nomenclature...............................................................................................................................................................................338 References....................................................................................................................................................................................339 8. Value-Added Biotechnological Products from Organic Wastes Olena Stabnikova, Jing-Yuan Wang, and Volodymyr Ivanov........................................343 1. Organic Wastes as a Raw Material for Biotechnological Transformation........................................................................344 2. Biotechnological Products of Organic Waste Transformation..........................................................................................344 2.1. Solid-State Fermentation for Bioconversion of Agricultural and Food Processing Waste into Value- Added Products..........................................................................................................................................................345 2.2. Production of Enzymes..............................................................................................................................................350 2.3. Production of Organic Acids.....................................................................................................................................353 2.4. Production of Flavors.................................................................................................................................................358 2.5. Production of Polysaccharides..................................................................................................................................361 2.6. Mushroom Production...............................................................................................................................................363 2.7. Production of Biodegradable Plastics.......................................................................................................................364 2.8. Production of Animal Feed.......................................................................................................................................366 2.9. Use of Organic Waste for Production of Fungi Biomass for Bioremediation........................................................368 2.10. Dietary Fiber Production from Organic Waste.........................................................................................................368 2.11. Production of Pharmaceuticals from Organic Waste...............................................................................................369
12. 12. Contents xv 2.12. Production of Gibberellic Acid.................................................................................................................................371 2.13. Production of Chemicals...........................................................................................................................................371 2.14. Production of Fuel......................................................................................................................................................374 3. Value-Added by-Products of Environmental Biotechnology............................................................................................380 3.1. Composting.................................................................................................................................................................380 3.2. Aerobic Intensive Bioconversion of Organic Wastes into Fertilizer.......................................................................383 3.3. Recovery of Metals from Mining and Industrial Wastes.........................................................................................383 3.4. Recovery of Metals from Waste Streams by Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria...............................................................384 3.5. Recovery of Phosphate and Ammonia by Iron-Reducing and Iron-Oxidizing Bacteria.......................................386 References....................................................................................................................................................................................388 9. Anaerobic Digestion in Suspended Growth Bioreactors Gerasimos Lyberatos and Pratap C. Pullammanappallil...............................................395 1. Introduction...........................................................................................................................................................................396 2. Fundamentals of Anaerobic Bioprocesses..........................................................................................................................397 2.1. Microbiology and Anaerobic Metabolism of Organic Matter.................................................................................398 2.2. Stoichiometry and Energetics....................................................................................................................................401 2.3. Kinetics.......................................................................................................................................................................403 3. Effect of Feed Characteristics on Anaerobic Digestion.....................................................................................................408 3.1. Anaerobic Biodegradability.......................................................................................................................................409 3.2. Inhibition and Toxicity...............................................................................................................................................409 3.3. Availability of Nutrients............................................................................................................................................410 3.4. Flow-Rate Variations.................................................................................................................................................410 4. Reactor Congurations.........................................................................................................................................................411 4.1. Conventional Systems................................................................................................................................................411 4.2. High-Rate Systems.....................................................................................................................................................412 4.3. Two-Stage Systems....................................................................................................................................................415 4.4. Natural Systems.........................................................................................................................................................415 5. Suspended Growth Anaerobic Bioreactor Design..............................................................................................................416 5.1. Operating Parameters.................................................................................................................................................416 5.2. Sizing Bioreactors......................................................................................................................................................419 5.3. Biogas Collection and Exploitation..........................................................................................................................422 5.4. StartUp and Acclimation...........................................................................................................................................422 6. Control and Optimization of Anaerobic Digesters.............................................................................................................423 6.1. Monitoring..................................................................................................................................................................423 6.2. Process Control..........................................................................................................................................................424 6.3. Optimization...............................................................................................................................................................424 7. Applications..........................................................................................................................................................................426 7.1. Anaerobic Sludge Digestion......................................................................................................................................426 7.2. Comparison Between UASB and CSTR for Anaerobic Digestion of Dairy Wastewaters....................................427 7.3. Biogas Production from Sweet Sorghum.................................................................................................................430 7.4. Anaerobic Digestion of Solid Wastes.......................................................................................................................431 Nomenclature...............................................................................................................................................................................432 References....................................................................................................................................................................................434 10. Selection and Design of Membrane Bioreactors in Environmental Bioengineering Giuseppe Guglielmi and Gianni Andreottola................................................................439 1. Introduction........................................................................................................................................................................440 2. Theoretical Aspects of Membrane Filtration...................................................................................................................443 2.1. Membrane Classication........................................................................................................................................445 2.2. Types of Packaging of Membranes........................................................................................................................447 2.3. Membrane Technologies.........................................................................................................................................449 2.4. Factors Affecting Membrane Processes.................................................................................................................452 2.5. Mathematical Models for Flux Prediction.............................................................................................................456
13. 13. xvi Contents 3. Membrane Biological Reactors for Solid/Liquid Separation.........................................................................................458 3.1. Process Congurations...........................................................................................................................................458 3.2. Fouling in MBRs.....................................................................................................................................................460 3.3. Commercial Membrane..........................................................................................................................................470 4. Design of the Biological Tank for COD and Nitrogen Removal....................................................................................477 4.1. Introduction.............................................................................................................................................................477 4.2. Inuent COD and TKN Fractioning......................................................................................................................480 4.3. Impact of Environmental Conditions on the Bacterial Growth and the Substrate Removal.....................................................................................................................................482 4.4. Design Procedure....................................................................................................................................................488 4.5. Design Example......................................................................................................................................................497 Nomenclature............................................................................................................................................................................509 References.................................................................................................................................................................................514 11. Closed Ecological Systems, Space Life Support and Biospherics Mark Nelson, Nickolay S. Pechurkin, John P. Allen, Lydia A Somova, and Josef I. Gitelson.........................................................................................................517 1. Introduction........................................................................................................................................................................518 2. Terminology of Closed Ecological Systems: From Laboratory Ecospheres to Manmade Biospheres........................519 2.1. Materially-Closed Ecospheres................................................................................................................................520 2.2. Bioregenerative Technology...................................................................................................................................520 2.3. Controlled Environmental Life Support Systems.................................................................................................520 2.4. Closed Ecological Systems for Life Support.........................................................................................................521 2.5. Biospheric Systems.................................................................................................................................................521 3. Different Types of Closed Ecological Systems...............................................................................................................522 3.1. Research Programs in the United States................................................................................................................522 3.2. Russian Research in Closed Ecosystems...............................................................................................................542 3.3. European Research on Closed Ecological Systems..............................................................................................551 3.4. Japanese Research in Closed Ecological Systems................................................................................................556 4. Conclusion.........................................................................................................................................................................559 References.................................................................................................................................................................................561 12. Natural Environmental Biotechnology Nazih K. Shammas and Lawrence K. Wang..................................................................567 1. Aquaculture Treatment: Water Hyacinth System............................................................................................................568 1.1. Description...............................................................................................................................................................568 1.2. Applications.............................................................................................................................................................568 1.3. Limitations...............................................................................................................................................................569 1.4. Design Criteria........................................................................................................................................................569 1.5. Performance.............................................................................................................................................................570 2. Aquaculture Treatment: Wetland System.........................................................................................................................570 2.1. Description...............................................................................................................................................................570 2.2. Constructed Wetlands.............................................................................................................................................571 2.3. Applications.............................................................................................................................................................573 2.4. Limitations...............................................................................................................................................................573 2.5. Design Criteria........................................................................................................................................................573 2.6. Performance.............................................................................................................................................................573 3. Evapotranspiration System................................................................................................................................................576 3.1. Description...............................................................................................................................................................576 3.2. Applications.............................................................................................................................................................577 3.3. Limitations...............................................................................................................................................................577 3.4. Design Criteria........................................................................................................................................................577
14. 14. Contents xvii 3.5. Performance.............................................................................................................................................................578 3.6. Costs.........................................................................................................................................................................578 4. Land Treatment: Rapid Rate System................................................................................................................................578 4.1. Description...............................................................................................................................................................579 4.2. Applications.............................................................................................................................................................581 4.3. Limitations...............................................................................................................................................................581 4.4. Design Criteria........................................................................................................................................................581 4.5. Performance.............................................................................................................................................................582 4.6. Costs.........................................................................................................................................................................583 5. Land Treatment: Slow Rate System.................................................................................................................................584 5.1. Description...............................................................................................................................................................584 5.2. Applications.............................................................................................................................................................586 5.3. Limitations...............................................................................................................................................................586 5.4. Design Criteria........................................................................................................................................................588 5.5. Performance.............................................................................................................................................................588 5.6. Costs.........................................................................................................................................................................588 6. Land Treatment: Overland Flow System.........................................................................................................................590 6.1. Description...............................................................................................................................................................590 6.2. Application..............................................................................................................................................................592 6.3. Limitations...............................................................................................................................................................592 6.4. Design Criteria........................................................................................................................................................592 6.5. Performance.............................................................................................................................................................593 6.6. Costs.........................................................................................................................................................................593 7. Subsurface Inltration.......................................................................................................................................................595 7.1. Description...............................................................................................................................................................596 7.2. Applications.............................................................................................................................................................598 7.3. Limitations...............................................................................................................................................................598 7.4. Design Criteria........................................................................................................................................................598 7.5. Performance.............................................................................................................................................................598 8. Facultative Lagoons and Algal Harvesting......................................................................................................................599 9. Vegetative Filter Systems..................................................................................................................................................600 9.1. Conditions for System Utilization..........................................................................................................................601 9.2. Planning Considerations.........................................................................................................................................601 9.3. Component Design Criteria....................................................................................................................................601 9.4. Specications for Vegetation Establishment.........................................................................................................603 9.5. Operation and Maintenance Criteria......................................................................................................................604 9.6. Innovative Designs..................................................................................................................................................604 9.7. Outline of Design Procedure..................................................................................................................................605 9.8. Procedure to Estimate Soil Inltration Rate..........................................................................................................605 9.9. Procedure to Determine Slopes..............................................................................................................................606 10. Design Example.................................................................................................................................................................607 References.................................................................................................................................................................................609 Appendix...................................................................................................................................................................................614 13. Aerobic and Anoxic Suspended-Growth Biotechnologies Nazih K. Shammas and Lawrence K. Wang..................................................................623 1. Conventional Activated Sludge.........................................................................................................................................624 1.1. Description...............................................................................................................................................................624 1.2. Performance and Design Criteria...........................................................................................................................626 1.3. Mechanical Aeration...............................................................................................................................................627 2. High Rate Activated Sludge..............................................................................................................................................628 2.1. Description...............................................................................................................................................................628 2.2. Performance and Design Criteria...........................................................................................................................629
15. 15. xviii Contents 3. Pure Oxygen Activated Sludge, Covered.........................................................................................................................629 3.1. Description...............................................................................................................................................................629 3.2. Performance and Design Criteria...........................................................................................................................630 4. Contact Stabilization.........................................................................................................................................................632 4.1. Description...............................................................................................................................................................632 4.2. Applications.............................................................................................................................................................632 4.3. Performance and Design Criteria...........................................................................................................................633 5. Activated Sludge With Nitrication.................................................................................................................................633 5.1. Description...............................................................................................................................................................633 5.2. Performance and Design Criteria...........................................................................................................................634 6. Separate Stage Nitrication..............................................................................................................................................635 6.1. Description...............................................................................................................................................................635 6.2. Performance and Design Criteria...........................................................................................................................635 7. Separate Stage Denitrication..........................................................................................................................................636 7.1. Description...............................................................................................................................................................636 7.2. Performance and Design Criteria...........................................................................................................................637 8. Extended Aeration.............................................................................................................................................................637 8.1. Description...............................................................................................................................................................637 8.2. Performance and Design Criteria...........................................................................................................................638 9. Oxidation Ditch.................................................................................................................................................................638 9.1. Description...............................................................................................................................................................638 9.2. Performance and Design Criteria...........................................................................................................................639 10. Powdered Activated Carbon Treatment............................................................................................................................640 10.1. Types of PACT Systems..........................................................................................................................................640 10.2. Applications and Performance...............................................................................................................................641 10.3. Process Equipment..................................................................................................................................................643 10.4. Process Limitations.................................................................................................................................................643 11. Carrier-Activated Sludge Processes (Captor And Cast Systems)...................................................................................643 11.1. Advantages of Biomass Carrier Systems...............................................................................................................644 11.2. The CAPTOR Process............................................................................................................................................644 11.3. Development of CAPTOR Process........................................................................................................................644 11.4. Pilot-Plant Study.....................................................................................................................................................645 11.5. Full-Scale Study of CAPTOR and CAST.............................................................................................................645 12. Activated Bio-Filter...........................................................................................................................................................653 12.1. Description...............................................................................................................................................................653 12.2. Applications.............................................................................................................................................................654 12.3. Design Criteria........................................................................................................................................................654 12.4. Performance.............................................................................................................................................................655 13. Vertical Loop Reactor........................................................................................................................................................655 13.1. Description...............................................................................................................................................................655 13.2. Applications.............................................................................................................................................................656 13.3. Design Criteria........................................................................................................................................................656 13.4. Performance.............................................................................................................................................................657 13.5. EPA Evaluation of VLR..........................................................................................................................................657 13.6. Energy Requirements..............................................................................................................................................658 13.7. Costs.........................................................................................................................................................................660 14. Phostrip Process.................................................................................................................................................................660 14.1. Description...............................................................................................................................................................660 14.2. Applications.............................................................................................................................................................661 14.3. Design Criteria........................................................................................................................................................661 14.4. Performance.............................................................................................................................................................662 14.5. Cost..........................................................................................................................................................................662 References.................................................................................................................................................................................664 Appendix...................................................................................................................................................................................670
16. 16. Contents xix 14. Aerobic and Anaerobic Attached Growth Biotechnologies Nazih K. Shammas and Lawrence K. Wang..................................................................671 1. Trickling Filter...................................................................................................................................................................671 1.1. Low-Rate Trickling Filter, Rock Media.................................................................................................................673 1.2. High-Rate Trickling Filter, Rock Media................................................................................................................674 1.3. Trickling Filter, Plastic Media................................................................................................................................676 2. Denitrication Filter..........................................................................................................................................................679 2.1. Denitrication Filter, Fine Media...........................................................................................................................679 2.2. Denitrication Filter, Coarse Media......................................................................................................................680 3. Rotating Biological Contactor..........................................................................................................................................681 3.1. Operating Characteristics........................................................................................................................................683 3.2. Performance.............................................................................................................................................................686 3.3. Design Criteria........................................................................................................................................................686 4. Fluidized Bed Reactor.......................................................................................................................................................687 4.1. FBR Process Description........................................................................................................................................688 4.2. Process Design........................................................................................................................................................689 4.3. Applications.............................................................................................................................................................689 4.4. Design Considerations............................................................................................................................................691 4.5. Case Study: Reno-Sparks WWTP..........................................................................................................................691 5. Packed Bed Reactor...........................................................................................................................................................692 5.1. Aerobic PBR............................................................................................................................................................692 5.2. Anaerobic Denitrication PBR..............................................................................................................................694 5.3. Applications.............................................................................................................................................................696 5.4. Design Criteria........................................................................................................................................................696 5.5. Performance.............................................................................................................................................................698 5.6. Case Study: Hookers Point WWTP (Tampa, Florida)..........................................................................................698 5.7. Energy Requirement...............................................................................................................................................700 5.8. Costs.........................................................................................................................................................................700 6. Biological Aerated Filter...................................................................................................................................................702 6.1. BAF Process Description........................................................................................................................................702 6.2. Applications.............................................................................................................................................................704 6.3. BAF Media..............................................................................................................................................................704 6.4. Process Design and Performance...........................................................................................................................705 6.5. Solids Production....................................................................................................................................................709 7. Hybrid Biological-activated Carbon Systems..................................................................................................................710 7.1. General Introduction...............................................................................................................................................710 7.2. Downow Conventional Biological GAC Systems..............................................................................................710 7.3. Upow Fluidized Bed Biological GAC System....................................................................................................712 References.................................................................................................................................................................................714 Appendix...................................................................................................................................................................................720 15. Sequencing Batch Reactor Technology Lawrence K. Wang and Nazih K. Shammas..................................................................721 1. Background and Process Description...............................................................................................................................721 2. Proprietary SBR Processes................................................................................................................................................723 2.1. Aqua SBR................................................................................................................................................................724 2.2. Omnio....................................................................................................................................................................724 2.3. Fluidyne...................................................................................................................................................................725 2.4. CASS........................................................................................................................................................................725 2.5. ICEAS......................................................................................................................................................................726 3. Description of a Treatment Plant Using SBR..................................................................................................................727 4. Applicability......................................................................................................................................................................729 5. Advantages and Disadvantages.........................................................................................................................................729 5.1. Advantages..............................................................................................................................................................729 5.2. Disadvantages..........................................................................................................................................................729
17. 17. xx Contents 6. Design Criteria...................................................................................................................................................................730 6.1. Design Parameters...................................................................................................................................................730 6.2. Construction............................................................................................................................................................734 6.3. Tank and Equipment Description...........................................................................................................................735 6.4. Health and Safety....................................................................................................................................................736 7. Process Performance.........................................................................................................................................................736 8. Operation and Maintenance..............................................................................................................................................738 9. Cost.....................................................................................................................................................................................739 10. Packaged SBR for Onsite Systems...................................................................................................................................740 10.1. Typical Applications...............................................................................................................................................741 10.2. Design Assumptions...............................................................................................................................................741 10.3. Performance.............................................................................................................................................................742 10.4. Management Needs.................................................................................................................................................742 10.5. Risk Management Issues........................................................................................................................................743 10.6. Costs.........................................................................................................................................................................743 References.................................................................................................................................................................................744 Appendix...................................................................................................................................................................................747 16. Flotation Biological Systems Lawrence K. Wang, Nazih K. Shammas, and Daniel B. Guss.....................................749 1. Introduction..............................