Environmental Impact Environmental Impact AssessmentAssessment

ENVRE 115ENVRE 115

Oct. 24, 2007Oct. 24, 2007

AnnouncementsAnnouncements

Assignment #3 dueAssignment #3 due

Schedule midterm reviewSchedule midterm review– Can people make Thurs, Nov 1?Can people make Thurs, Nov 1?

Graduate Student ProjectsGraduate Student Projects– Require topic approval by Tues., Oct. 30Require topic approval by Tues., Oct. 30 thth

– Make appointment to meet with Molly or KaziMake appointment to meet with Molly or Kazi

AgendaAgenda

Connections between infrastructure & Connections between infrastructure & environemtnenvironemtn

Regulatory FrameworkRegulatory Framework

Conducting an EIAConducting an EIA

Case Study: Natural gas pipeline, PRCCase Study: Natural gas pipeline, PRC

““To say that infrastructure development has impact is To say that infrastructure development has impact is to state the obvious. No industrial country has to state the obvious. No industrial country has advanced to such status without developing solid advanced to such status without developing solid infrastructure facilities. And no low-income country has infrastructure facilities. And no low-income country has managed to escape poverty in the absence of managed to escape poverty in the absence of infrastructure.infrastructure.

In addition to economic growth, infrastructure In addition to economic growth, infrastructure development has a very tangible impact on people's development has a very tangible impact on people's daily lives, and especially on the lives of poor peopledaily lives, and especially on the lives of poor people ” ”

- - Liqun JinLiqun JinVice President, ADBVice President, ADB

What do we mean by What do we mean by development and what development and what makes it sustainable?makes it sustainable?

Infrastructure DevelopmentInfrastructure Development

““the stock of the stock of facilities, services facilities, services and equipment that are and equipment that are needed for the needed for the economy and society economy and society to function properly”to function properly”

Infrastructure Linked to Economics Infrastructure Linked to Economics

Poverty reduction and economic development Poverty reduction and economic development depend on sustained growthdepend on sustained growth

Growth depends on productive activities Growth depends on productive activities supported by roads, railways, seaports and supported by roads, railways, seaports and airports, power generation and transmission and airports, power generation and transmission and other infrastructure servicesother infrastructure services

For example-For example-Reliable transport networks allow access to markets, schools Reliable transport networks allow access to markets, schools and hospitals. and hospitals. Electricity minimizes the need for bio-fuelsElectricity minimizes the need for bio-fuels

Challenges for infrastructureChallenges for infrastructure

Per capita GDP in developing Asia as a whole grew Per capita GDP in developing Asia as a whole grew on average by 6% a year from 1999-2004 (and only on average by 6% a year from 1999-2004 (and only 3.1%/annum for the poorest countries)3.1%/annum for the poorest countries)

Realities in developing AsiaRealities in developing Asia– 36% of households have no access to electricity36% of households have no access to electricity– 31% of the rural population has no access to all-season 31% of the rural population has no access to all-season

roads (23% in all Asia)roads (23% in all Asia)– 90% have no telephone connections (73% in all Asia)90% have no telephone connections (73% in all Asia)– 20% have no access to safe drinking water20% have no access to safe drinking water– 67% have no access to sanitation67% have no access to sanitation

Improve Infrastructure Improve Infrastructure Decrease Poverty Decrease Poverty

Predicated on two assumptions:Predicated on two assumptions:

1.1. Infrastructure development is managed well and in a Infrastructure development is managed well and in a cost-effective mannercost-effective manner

Reduces constraints to economic activities by lowering costs of Reduces constraints to economic activities by lowering costs of doing business and creating job opportunitiesdoing business and creating job opportunities

2.2. Appropriate social, environmental and governance Appropriate social, environmental and governance policies are in place to ensure tangible benefits to policies are in place to ensure tangible benefits to people, especially poor peoplepeople, especially poor people

Direct revenue generation from infrastructure projects and from Direct revenue generation from infrastructure projects and from the improved competitiveness of the economy are allocated to the improved competitiveness of the economy are allocated to improving human capital (education, health, and other vital improving human capital (education, health, and other vital social services)social services)

Infrastructure development can also bring about capacity building in other related, and critical, areas– Mobilization of resources stimulates:

financial sector development

institutional capacity building

human resources development

legal and regulatory buildup

Well-designed and well-managed infrastructure investment allows a government to move to higher levels of sophistication– Broadens the horizons and raising the intellectual capital of the

society as a whole

Improve Infrastructure Improve Infrastructure Build Capacity Build Capacity

Consider EnvironmentConsider Environment

provide the basic life provide the basic life support services and support services and facilities which underpin facilities which underpin human production and human production and consumptionconsumption

inseparable from other inseparable from other parts of development parts of development infrastructureinfrastructure

maintenance and upkeep maintenance and upkeep requires an equal – or even requires an equal – or even greater – investment prioritygreater – investment priority

Costs of environmental Costs of environmental degradationdegradation

ecosystem degradation ecosystem degradation leads to real losses and costsleads to real losses and costs

has tangible impacts on has tangible impacts on economic functioning and economic functioning and social and wellbeing social and wellbeing

undermines profits and growthundermines profits and growthat all levels and for all sectorsat all levels and for all sectors

disproportionate impacts disproportionate impacts on poorer and more on poorer and more vulnerable groupsvulnerable groups

ecosystems and well-being

Source: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005

Security

• Personal safety• Secure resource access• Security from disasters

Basic material for good life

• Adequate livelihoods• Sufficient nutritious food• Shelter• Access to goods

Health

• Strength• Feeling well• Access to clean air & water

Good social relations

• Social cohesion• Mutual respect• Ability to help others

Freedom of choice and

action

Opportunity to be able to

achieve what an

individual values being

and doing

HUMAN WELL-BEING

Supporting

• Nutrient cycling• Soil formation• Primary production• etc. …

Provisioning

• Food• Fresh water• Wood and fibre• Fuel• etc. …

Regulating

• Climate regulation• Flood regulation• Disease prevention• Water purification• etc. …

Cultural

• Aesthetic• Spiritual• Educational• Recreational• etc. …

ECOSYSTEM SERVICES

Lessons Learned?Lessons Learned?

Air PollutionAir Pollution

Air pollution in Harlesden London-Winter 1952. By Dr. Keith Ball

Environ Health Perspect. 2001 109(S3):389–394

Over 3 billion people cook using wood, dung, crop waste, coal and charcoal. The World Health Organization estimates that ~1.5 million people die each year from smoke in their homes.

Ezzati and Kammen (2002) The Health Impacts of Exposure to Indoor Air Pollution from Solid Fuels in Developing Countries: Knowledge, Gaps, and Data Needs. Env. Health Perspect. 110(11):

Water PollutionWater PollutionFrom 1936 through 1960’s, the Cuyahoga River wouldcatch fire because of oil and debris in the river.

http://web.ulib.csuohio.edu/SpecColl/croe/accfire.html

Hazardous ChemicalsHazardous Chemicals“…Trees and gardens were turning black and dying…Everywhere the air had a faint, choking smell. Children returned from play with burns on their hands and faces.And then there were the birth defects…” – EPA Journal (1978)

e-Waste in Africa, Env. Health Perspect. 2006 114(4)

NY Times, Feb. 15, 2007

Regulatory FrameworkRegulatory Frameworkforfor

EIAsEIAs

US National Environmental US National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)Policy Act (NEPA)

Requires federal agencies to consider Requires federal agencies to consider environmental impactsenvironmental impacts of of their proposed actions and their proposed actions and reasonable alternativesreasonable alternatives to those to those actionsactions

Declaration of National Environmental Policy (Title I) requires the Declaration of National Environmental Policy (Title I) requires the federal government to use all practicable means to create and federal government to use all practicable means to create and maintain conditions under which man and nature can exist in maintain conditions under which man and nature can exist in productive harmonyproductive harmony

– Use a systematic interdisciplinary approach for incorporating Use a systematic interdisciplinary approach for incorporating environmental considerations in their planning and decision-makingenvironmental considerations in their planning and decision-making

– Support initiatives and programs designed to anticipate and prevent a Support initiatives and programs designed to anticipate and prevent a decline in the quality of mankind’s world environment decline in the quality of mankind’s world environment

National Goals of NEPANational Goals of NEPA

Fulfill the responsibilities of each generation as a Fulfill the responsibilities of each generation as a trustee of the environment for succeeding trustee of the environment for succeeding generationsgenerations

Assure for all Americans safe, healthful, productive, Assure for all Americans safe, healthful, productive, and aesthetically and culturally pleasing surroundingsand aesthetically and culturally pleasing surroundings

Attain the widest range of beneficial uses of the Attain the widest range of beneficial uses of the environment without degradation, risk to health or environment without degradation, risk to health or safety, or other undesirable and unintended safety, or other undesirable and unintended consequencesconsequences

National Goals of NEPANational Goals of NEPA

Preserve historical, cultural, and natural aspects of our Preserve historical, cultural, and natural aspects of our heritage and maintain, where possible, an environment heritage and maintain, where possible, an environment that supports diversity and a variety of individual choicethat supports diversity and a variety of individual choice

Achieve a balance between population and resource Achieve a balance between population and resource use that permits a high standard of living and a wide use that permits a high standard of living and a wide sharing of life’s amenitiessharing of life’s amenities

Enhance the quality of renewable resources and Enhance the quality of renewable resources and approach the maximum attainable recycling of approach the maximum attainable recycling of depletable resourcesdepletable resources

NEPA Does NotNEPA Does Not

Decide which alternative to choseDecide which alternative to chose

Prevent environmental impacts from happeningPrevent environmental impacts from happening

Guarantee decisions you like Guarantee decisions you like

Prohibit any actionsProhibit any actions

International BanksInternational BanksThe World Bank requires environmental assessments as part The World Bank requires environmental assessments as part of Operational Directive 4.01 issued in 1989of Operational Directive 4.01 issued in 1989– Apply to any Bank-financed or implemented projectsApply to any Bank-financed or implemented projects

Natural environmentNatural environment

Human health and safetyHuman health and safety

Social aspects (involuntary resettlement, indigenous peoples, Social aspects (involuntary resettlement, indigenous peoples, and physical cultural resources)and physical cultural resources)

Transboundary and global environmental aspectsTransboundary and global environmental aspects

– Designed to be used as a tool to improve project performance Designed to be used as a tool to improve project performance and sustainability and sustainability

Asian Development Bank requires environmental Asian Development Bank requires environmental assessmentsassessments– http://www.adb.org/Projects/reports.asp?key=reps&val=ERDhttp://www.adb.org/Projects/reports.asp?key=reps&val=ERD

WBWB & ADB EIA Categories & ADB EIA Categories Category A ProjectCategory A Project

Projects with many significant environmental impacts requiring mitigation measures

In-depth studies needed

Examples– Forest industries (large scale)– Irrigation (large scale with new source of development)– River Basin Development or Large Water Impoundments– Medium and Large Scale Thermal or Hydropower Power Plant– New Railways/Mass Transit/Roads– Ports and Harbors– Large Municipal Water Supplies

WBWB & ADB EIA Categories & ADB EIA Categories Category B ProjectCategory B Project

Projects with a few significant environmental impacts and for which mitigation measures may be readily prescribed

Examples– Agro-industries (small-scale or no wet processing)– Renewable Energy or Power Plants (medium scale)– Aquaculture and Mariculture– Rehabilitation, maintenance and upgrading projects– Industries (small scale and without toxic/ harmful pollutants)– Watershed projects (management or rehabilitation)– Water Supply (without impoundments or new river intakes)– Tourism Projects

WBWB & ADB EIA Categories & ADB EIA Categories Category C ProjectCategory C Project

Projects unlikely to have significant adverse environmental impacts

Examples– Forest Research and Extension

– Primary and Rural Health Surveys

– Geological or Mineral Surveys

– Education

– Family Planning

– Capital Market Development Study

Assessment ProcessAssessment Process

Environmental Impact AssessmentEnvironmental Impact Assessment

EIA “ a systematic processof identifying futureconsequences of a currentor proposed action”

Transparency

Certainty

Participation

Practicality

Feasibility

Cost-effective

CredibilityAccountability

8 Guiding Principles

Function of the EIAFunction of the EIA

Considered a management tool for collecting and Considered a management tool for collecting and analyzing information on the environmental effects of a analyzing information on the environmental effects of a projectproject

– identify potential environmental impacts identify potential environmental impacts – examine the significance of environmental implications examine the significance of environmental implications – assess whether impacts can be mitigated assess whether impacts can be mitigated – recommend preventive and corrective mitigating measures recommend preventive and corrective mitigating measures – inform decision makers and concerned parties about the inform decision makers and concerned parties about the

environmental implicationsenvironmental implications– advise whether development should go ahead advise whether development should go ahead

                                                                                                                                                                                   

Project CycleProject Cycle

Source: ADB, 1997

1. Project Concept/Identification1. Project Concept/Identification

Initial stage of the project planningInitial stage of the project planning

– Basic nature of the project is known including Basic nature of the project is known including the site(s) where the project is being the site(s) where the project is being proposed to be implementedproposed to be implemented

– ““Screen” project to determine if project Screen” project to determine if project requires a full EIArequires a full EIA

ScreeningScreening

ProjectProject

EnvironmentalEnvironmentalimpactimpact

EconomicEconomicimpactimpact

SocialSocialimpactimpact

Screening• Identify environmental issues of concern• Determine whether EIA is needed• Establish need for project

Not requireEIA

RequireEIA

Impactsunclear

Threshold criteria Impact criteria

• Size • Location • Output • Cost/Finances• Environmental effects • etc.

• Significant but easily identifiable impacts

• Significant impacts • Sensitive area

Methods for Scoping

B. Pre-feasibility StageB. Pre-feasibility Stage

Identify alternatives for proposed Identify alternatives for proposed projectsprojectsdetermine the assessment determine the assessment methods to be used methods to be used identify all affected interests identify all affected interests provide an opportunity for public provide an opportunity for public involvement in determining the involvement in determining the factors to be assessedfactors to be assessedfacilitate early agreement on facilitate early agreement on contentious issues contentious issues establish terms of reference establish terms of reference (TOR) for EIA study (TOR) for EIA study

Making a plan for public involvement

Identifying major issues of public concern

Establishing priorities for environmental assessment

Developing a strategy for addressing priorities

Evaluating the significance of issues

Distribution of information to interested parties

Assemble relevant existing information

““Scope” the project to Scope” the project to identify issues/impacts for identify issues/impacts for investigationinvestigation

Baseline data are collected for two main purposes:Baseline data are collected for two main purposes:

to provide a description of the status and trends of to provide a description of the status and trends of environmental factors (e.g., air pollutant environmental factors (e.g., air pollutant concentrations) against which predicted changes can concentrations) against which predicted changes can be compared and evaluated in terms of importancebe compared and evaluated in terms of importance

to provide a means of detecting actual change by to provide a means of detecting actual change by monitoring once a project has been initiated monitoring once a project has been initiated

Identify any potential impacts from the projectIdentify any potential impacts from the project– social, economic, environmental, cultural, and healthsocial, economic, environmental, cultural, and health

Environmental Environmental activities which may affect the bio-physical component of activities which may affect the bio-physical component of the surrounding environment should be evaluated and the surrounding environment should be evaluated and measured to avoid adverse impactsmeasured to avoid adverse impacts

the composition, structure, and abundances of flora and the composition, structure, and abundances of flora and fauna should be recorded and protected from any likely fauna should be recorded and protected from any likely damagedamage

Identify mitigation measures thatIdentify mitigation measures that reduce, avoid or reduce, avoid or offset the potential adverse environmental offset the potential adverse environmental consequences of development activitiesconsequences of development activities

1. Preventative measures - reduce potential adverse impacts before occurrence– Health education

– Public awareness

2. Compensatory measures - actions that compensate for unavoidable adverse impacts– restoration of damaged resources

– creation of similar resources elsewhere

– compensation to affected persons

3. Corrective measures - reduces the adverse impact to an acceptable level– Installation of pollution control devices

– Specialized construction

C. Feasibility StageC. Feasibility Stage

Conduct the EIA and determine if the project is viableConduct the EIA and determine if the project is viable

Magnitude of impact Magnitude of impact of each potential impact and indicate whether of each potential impact and indicate whether the impact is irreversible or, reversible and estimated potential rate the impact is irreversible or, reversible and estimated potential rate of recoveryof recovery

Extent of impact (Extent of impact (spatial extent) should be determined [e.g limited spatial extent) should be determined [e.g limited to the project area; a locally occurring impact within the watershed to the project area; a locally occurring impact within the watershed of the proposed project; a regional impact; and a national impact]of the proposed project; a regional impact; and a national impact]

Duration of Impact Duration of Impact arising at different phases of the project cycle arising at different phases of the project cycle and the length of the impact [e.g. short term (during construction-9 and the length of the impact [e.g. short term (during construction-9 yrs), medium term (10-20 yrs), long term (20+ yrs)]yrs), medium term (10-20 yrs), long term (20+ yrs)]

D. Implement & Audit the ProjectD. Implement & Audit the Project

The EIA is a "reference" guide during implementationThe EIA is a "reference" guide during implementation

Outlines mitigation strategies and monitoring schemesOutlines mitigation strategies and monitoring schemes

Recommendations can form a part of contract tenderRecommendations can form a part of contract tender

Audit to determine lessons learnedAudit to determine lessons learned

After the project is completed determine how close the After the project is completed determine how close the EIA's predictions were to the actual impacts of the EIA's predictions were to the actual impacts of the projectproject– This forms a valuable records for others conducting EIAs on This forms a valuable records for others conducting EIAs on

similar projects in the future.similar projects in the future.

E. Environmental MonitoringE. Environmental Monitoring

Environmental monitoring provides feedback about the actual environmental impacts of a project

Helps judge the success of mitigation measures in protecting the environment

Ensure compliance with environmental standards

Facilitate any needed project design or operational changes

Benefits FlawsProvides systematic methods of impact

assessmentTime-consuming

Estimates the cost/benefit trade-off of alternative actions

Costly

Facilitates the public participation Little public participation in actual implementation

Provides an effective mechanism for • coordination• environmental integration• negotiations• feed back

Unavailability for reliable data (mostly in developing countries)

Top-level decision making Too focused on scientific analysis (sometimes)

Triggers an institutional building Poor presentation of EIA report (bulky volumes, scientific explanation, difficult to understand)

Achieve a balance between the impact of developmental and environmental concern

Compliance monitoring after EIA is seldom carried out

Case StudyCase Study

Beijing Environmental Improvement Beijing Environmental Improvement Project, People’s Republic of ChinaProject, People’s Republic of China

http://www.adb.org/Documents/PCRs/PRC/pcr-prc-25371.pdfhttp://www.adb.org/Documents/PCRs/PRC/pcr-prc-25371.pdf

19%

5%

9%

10%

13%

17%

27%US

Russia

China

India

Australia

South Africa

Others

Source: Energy information administration, DOE

Who has the coal?

China

US

India

Russia

Europe

Other

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

Who uses coal now? Who will use coal tomorrow?

Mill

ion

s o

f to

ns

Source: Energy information administration, DOE

Coal in the future?Coal in the future?

Beijing Environmental Improvement Beijing Environmental Improvement ProjectProject

Sub-projects Classification

1. District heating system B

2. Natural gas distribution system B

3. Pollution abatement at drinking water reservoirs B

4. Relocation and renovation of chemical plant A

5. Treatment and disposal of hazardous waste A

6. Institutional Strengthening

Beijing Environmental Protection Bureau

Beijing Research Institute of Environmental Protection

Beijing Environmental Monitoring Center

Beijing Technical Training Center for Environmental Protection

C

Beijing Environmental Improvement Beijing Environmental Improvement ProjectProject

http://www.adb.org/Documents/PCRs/PRC/pcr-prc-25371.pdf

Summary Initial Environmental Examinations Summary Initial Environmental Examinations (SIEE)(SIEE)

Project description:Project description:1.1. Supply co-generated steam and hot water from Huaneng Supply co-generated steam and hot water from Huaneng

Power Station in a closed loop system to 21 factoriesPower Station in a closed loop system to 21 factories

2.2. Install a natural gas distribution Install a natural gas distribution system pipeline to distribute system pipeline to distribute 0.7 billion cubic meters of 0.7 billion cubic meters of natural gas/yearnatural gas/year

SIEESIEE

Anticipated impacts during Anticipated impacts during construction:construction:Effects associated with laying pipesEffects associated with laying pipes

– Soil excavationSoil excavation

– Interfere with pedestrian and road traffic Interfere with pedestrian and road traffic and potential injury hazardand potential injury hazard

– Increased noise and dustIncreased noise and dust

Displace houses, people, treesDisplace houses, people, trees– 365 families (1,456 people) for the district 365 families (1,456 people) for the district

heating systemheating system

– 120 families (480 people) for the natural 120 families (480 people) for the natural gas pipelinegas pipeline

SIEESIEE

Anticipated impacts after construction:Anticipated impacts after construction:Material failure leading to accidental releaseMaterial failure leading to accidental release

– Steam pipelines- loss of powerSteam pipelines- loss of power

– Natural gas pipelines- fire, explosionNatural gas pipelines- fire, explosion

Mitigation Measures:Mitigation Measures:Impacts during construction are negative but reversible or can be minimizedImpacts during construction are negative but reversible or can be minimized

– Construction during daylight hours in residential neighborhoods when Construction during daylight hours in residential neighborhoods when noise is less bothersomenoise is less bothersome

– Construction in commercial areas at night when less likely to impact Construction in commercial areas at night when less likely to impact businessesbusinesses

SIEESIEE

Mitigation Measures:Mitigation Measures:Budget for re-locating families into improved housing that Budget for re-locating families into improved housing that includes amenities such as potable water supply, sewage includes amenities such as potable water supply, sewage collection, drainage, hot water, gas, and electricitycollection, drainage, hot water, gas, and electricity

– Include expenses for re-training forInclude expenses for re-training for

– Employment near their new residencesEmployment near their new residences

Small trees can be re-planted and pipeline will be sited to Small trees can be re-planted and pipeline will be sited to avoid larger mature trees when possibleavoid larger mature trees when possible

Fence off construction sitesFence off construction sites

SIEESIEE

Monitoring programMonitoring programOrganize an environmental management and protection section to oversea Organize an environmental management and protection section to oversea project and coordinate with appropriate agenciesproject and coordinate with appropriate agencies

Annual report to ADB of project’s compliance with environmental standardsAnnual report to ADB of project’s compliance with environmental standards

Monitor natural gas equipment with a continuous hydrocarbon analyzer, Monitor natural gas equipment with a continuous hydrocarbon analyzer, inflammable gas analyzer, and noise meterinflammable gas analyzer, and noise meter

Pipe integrity to be tested continuously using impressed electric currentsPipe integrity to be tested continuously using impressed electric currents

Automatic control values, pressure release valves, rupture valves, Automatic control values, pressure release valves, rupture valves, firefighting equipment and other safety devices checked periodicallyfirefighting equipment and other safety devices checked periodically

SIEESIEE

Economic BenefitsEconomic BenefitsJobsJobs– Heating project will employ 1,400 persons permanentlyHeating project will employ 1,400 persons permanently– Natural gas project will employ 1,500 persons permanentlyNatural gas project will employ 1,500 persons permanently– Temporary employment during construction phaseTemporary employment during construction phase

FuelFuel– Cost savings resulting from the substitution of coal for natural gasCost savings resulting from the substitution of coal for natural gas

Environmental benefits after constructionEnvironmental benefits after constructionHeat and steam could reduce coal use by 1.16 million metric tons Heat and steam could reduce coal use by 1.16 million metric tons which equates to a removal of which equates to a removal of – 19,900 metric tons of sulfur dioxides19,900 metric tons of sulfur dioxides– 10,000 metric tons of total suspended materials10,000 metric tons of total suspended materials– Eliminates the need to removal and disposal of 336,900 metric tons of Eliminates the need to removal and disposal of 336,900 metric tons of

ash and slagash and slag

Financial ReturnFinancial Return

Original financial internal rate of return (FIRR)Original financial internal rate of return (FIRR)– Steam heating project was 7.3%Steam heating project was 7.3%

Calculated at end of project to be 5.9% Calculated at end of project to be 5.9%

– Natural gas network was 10.0%Natural gas network was 10.0%

Calculated at end of project to be 11.1%Calculated at end of project to be 11.1%

http://www.adb.org/Documents/PCRs/PRC/pcr-prc-25371.pdf

Environmental Monitoring DataEnvironmental Monitoring Data

Other Benefits … lower air pollutionOther Benefits … lower air pollution

PHOTOS: Bob Zerbonia

Other Benefits … less acid rainOther Benefits … less acid rain

Other Benefits … children’s healthOther Benefits … children’s health

Lewis et al. MJA 1998; 169: 459-463

Other Benefits … reduced arsenicOther Benefits … reduced arsenic

Liu et al. EHP(2002) Vol. 110

Other Benefits …lower CO2Other Benefits …lower CO2

Carbon content of natural gas is 60% that of coal per unit of energyCarbon content of natural gas is 60% that of coal per unit of energy

Can calculate the amount of COCan calculate the amount of CO22 per ton of coal per ton of coal

Conversion factor: 1 metric ton of coal * 2,419 = 2,419 kg COConversion factor: 1 metric ton of coal * 2,419 = 2,419 kg CO22

1,160,000 * 2419 = 2,806,040,000 kgs CO1,160,000 * 2419 = 2,806,040,000 kgs CO22

One tree removes about 22 kg of COOne tree removes about 22 kg of CO22 from the atmosphere each year from the atmosphere each year

So equivalent to approximately 1,400,000 trees that are 40 yrs old So equivalent to approximately 1,400,000 trees that are 40 yrs old

COCO22 calculator can be found at: calculator can be found at:

http://www.nef.org.uk/energyadvice/co2calculator.htmhttp://www.nef.org.uk/energyadvice/co2calculator.htm

US Emission Factors can be found at:US Emission Factors can be found at:

http://www.epa.gov/cleanrgy/emissions.htmhttp://www.epa.gov/cleanrgy/emissions.htm

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SOURCE: IPCC