environmental management in arcticoil and gas operations:good practice guide

7/29/2019 Environmental management in Arcticoil and gas operations:Good practice guide

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Environmental management in Arcticoil and gas operations:Good practice guide

I n t e r n a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n o f O i l & G a s P r o d u c e r s

Report No. 449May 2013


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P ublications

Global experience

The International Association o Oil & Gas Producers has access to a wealth o technical knowledgeand experience with its members operating around the world in many di erent terrains. We collateand distil this valuable knowledge or the industry to use as guidelines or good practice by individualmembers.

Consistent high quality database and guidelines

Our overall aim is to ensure a consistent approach to training, management and best practicethroughout the world.

The oil & gas exploration & production industry recognises the need to develop consistent databasesand records in certain elds. The OGPs members are encouraged to use the guidelines as a startingpoint or their operations or to supplement their own policies and regulations which may apply locally.

Internationally recognised source of industry informationMany o our guidelines have been recognised and used by international authorities and sa ety andenvironmental bodies. Requests come rom governments and non-government organisations around theworld as well as rom non-member companies.

Disclaimer

Whilst every e ort has been made to ensure the accuracy o the in ormation contained in this publication, neither the OGP nor any o its members past present or uture warrants its accuracy or will, regardless o its or their

negligence, assume liability or any oreseeable or un oreseeable use made thereo , which liability is hereby excluded. Consequently, such use is at the recipients own risk on the basis that any use by the recipient constitutesagreement to the terms o this disclaimer. The recipient is obliged to in orm any subsequent recipient o such terms.

This document may provide guidance supplemental to the requirements o local legislation. Nothing herein,however, is intended to replace, amend, supersede or otherwise depart rom such requirements. In the event o any confict or contradiction between the provisions o this document and local legislation, applicable laws shall prevail.

Copyright notice

The contents o these pages are The International Association o Oil & Gas Producers. Permission is given to reproduce this report in whole or in part provided (i) that the copyright o OGP and (ii) the source are acknowledged.All other rights are reserved. Any other use requires the prior written permission o the OGP .

These Terms and Conditions shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the laws o England and Wales. Disputes arising here rom shall be exclusively subject to the jurisdiction o the courts o England and Wales.


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Environmental management in

Arctic oil and gas operations:Good practice guideReport No: 449

May 2013

Revision historyVersion Date Amendments1 May 2013 First issued


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ContentsPre ace 11. Introduction 3

1.1 Background .......................................................................................................41.2 Objectives .........................................................................................................51.3 Scope ...............................................................................................................51.4 De nition and geographical extent .......................................................................6

1.5 Structure ...........................................................................................................72. Arctic oil and gas context 9

2.1 Hydrocarbon basins and reserves ...................................................................... 102.2 Historical and current production and discoveries. ................................................ 102.3 Undiscovered hydrocarbons .............................................................................. 112.4 Arctic challenges .............................................................................................. 112.5 Oil and gas industry cooperation ....................................................................... 122.6 A changing Arctic ............................................................................................ 13

3. Arctic peoples and governance 153.1 Sovereignty and boundary issues ...................................................................... 163.2 Political and strategic signi cance ...................................................................... 163.3 International cooperation and agreements or environmental protection ................... 183.4 Circumpolar research and technical institutions .....................................................203.5 National legislation ..........................................................................................203.6 Population .......................................................................................................203.7 Social challenges ............................................................................................. 24

4. The physical and biological environment 25

4.1 Temperature, precipitation and light ....................................................................264.2 Weather patterns ............................................................................................. 274.3 Ocean and marginal seas ................................................................................. 284.4 Landmass ........................................................................................................ 314.5 Habitats and species ........................................................................................334.6 Protected areas ................................................................................................404.7 Ecosystem services ........................................................................................... 41

5. Arctic sensitivity to development 435.1 Human environment ..........................................................................................455.2 Biodiversity .....................................................................................................455.3 Soils and sediments ..........................................................................................475.4 Air quality .......................................................................................................48

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5.5 Water quality and resources ..............................................................................485.6 Visual impacts .................................................................................................485.7 Noise impacts ................................................................................................495.8 Landscape and seascape ..................................................................................495.9 Interaction with other users o sea and land ......................................................... 49

6. Upstream oil & gas potential impacts 516.1 E&P project li ecycle .........................................................................................526.2 Environmental aspects during project li e cycle and Arctic considerations .................58

7. Risk management and planning 597.1 Risk management .............................................................................................607.2 Stakeholder engagement ................................................................................... 617.3 Planning ......................................................................................................... 617.4 Mitigation hierarchy and good practices .............................................................63

8. Arctic mitigation practices onshore 658.1 Exploration surveys ..........................................................................................668.2 Drilling............................................................................................................ 678.3 Production acilities and operations.....................................................................698.4 Decommissioning and rehabilitation ....................................................................708.5 Environmental protection measures or the human environment ...............................728.6 Environmental protection measures or exploration & production support operations..73

9. Arctic mitigation practices o shore 83

9.1 Exploration surveys ..........................................................................................849.2 Exploration and appraisal drilling.......................................................................85

9.3 Development drilling and production ..................................................................8910. Re erences and other sources 97

10.1 Re erences ......................................................................................................9810.2 Selected organisations and data sources ........................................................... 101

11. Appendices 103Appendix 11.1 Summary o potential environmental impacts o onshoreand o shore E&P operations .................................................................................... 104Appendix 11.2 Summary o environmental protection measures. .....................................112


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PrefaceSince the International Association o Oil and GasProducers (OGP) issued guidelines or oil and gasin the Arctic onshore 1993 (jointly with IUCN)and o shore (2002), there has been increasingglobal interest in the Arctic. The global contextincludes concerns about impacts o developedregions on the Arctic, including long distancetransport o contaminants, e ects o a changingclimate particularly on sea ice, and the health andsustainability o communities.

Through its long experience o Arctic operations,stretching back to the early 20th century, oil andgas companies have continued to play a role in thedevelopment o environmental standards or oil andgas; social issues have also come to the ore in recent

years. Since 1996, the Arctic Council has provided aninternational orum or bringing together the countries o the Arctic and those countries with interests in the region,the indigenous peoples, policy makers and scientists.

This guideline has been prepared by membercompany experts combines; it combines and updatesthe content o two earlier OGP guidance documents.

The guide will help provide the reader with essentialin ormation on the oil and gas interests in the Arcticand the challenges aced by operators; it describesthe legislative and governance across the Arcticnations and the role o the peoples o the Arctic; it

provides in some detail a description o the physicaland biological environment o both the onshore ando shore, including the sensitivities to development. Itexamines potential environmental impacts o oil andgas developments and the mitigation measures thatare normally adopted.

Industry is committed to improving environmental andsocial per ormance in its operational areas, and toprotecting its workers and the community. To this end,OGP and its individual member companies work withinstitutions and communities to ensure that there is acommon understanding o community needs, industrysobjectives and activities and the reduction o risk topeople, property and the environment.

The OGP guideline complements the Arctic O shoreOil and Gas Guidelines o the Arctic Council (2009)which are designed primarily or its member states.In publishing this guideline, OGP is demonstratinga willingness to share industry knowledge across itsmembers and with the wider public. Industry willinglyaccepts comments and updates to this guideline.


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1.Introduction

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1.1 Background

The oil and gas industry has decades o experiencein developing the oil and gas resources o theArctic; onshore production started in the 1920s ando shore production in the 1970s. To date, signi cantvolumes o oil, gas and natural gas liquids have beenproduced, primarily rom the West Siberian Basin andNorth Slope o Alaska, and more recently rom thenorthern Norwegian Sea (AMAP, 2007).

The hydrocarbon basins in the Arctic are thoughtto hold a signi cant proportion o the worldsremaining undiscovered hydrocarbon reserves (USGS,2008) and continue to be explored by oil and gascompanies and resource owners.

There is international interest in the variousgovernance aspects o the Arctic, and an appreciationthat its peoples need to be respected and its naturalresources developed with proper regard or theenvironmental and social settings. Each countryregulates the exploration and development o its natural resources under domestic legislation,with appropriate environmental controls, and inaccordance with the international treaties to whichthey are party.

In addition to the regulatory regimes, there are numerousvoluntary measures to protect the Arctic. In particular theArctic Council acilitates international cooperation on theArctic environment, involving representatives o the Arcticcountries (Box 1), indigenous peoples and observerstates and organisations.

The Arctic Council has recently published severalassessments o the state o the Arctic that are relevantto oil and gas development. These include the Arctic

Climate Impact Assessment (ACIA, 2005); ArcticHuman Development Report (SDWG, 2004); ArcticSocial Indicators Report (SDWG, 2010); Arctic Oiland Gas Assessment (AMAP, 2007); Arctic MarineShipping Assessment (PAME, 2009a); and the Reporton the impact o Black Carbon on Arctic Climate(AMAP, 2011). The Arctic Council is also undertakingthe Arctic Biodiversity Assessment (planned or 2013)and has produced the interim Arctic BiodiversityTrends (2010) report.

The Arctic Council also produced guidance or memberstates with existing or potential Arctic oil and gasdevelopments, namely the Arctic O shore Oil & GasGuidelines (2009); speci c guidance has also beenissued or dealing with emergencies in the Field Guide

or Oil Spill Response in Arctic Waters (1998) and oroil trans er operations in Guidelines or Trans er o Oiland Oil Products in Arctic Waters (2004).

The International Association o Oil & Gas Producers(OGP) has actively contributed to the developmento Arctic standards or guidelines or environmentalprotection. OGP (and its predecessor E&P Forum)published Oil & Gas Exploration and Production in

Arctic and Sub-Arctic Onshore Regions Guidelinesor Environmental Protection (OGP, 1993), and Oil& Gas Exploration & Production in Arctic O shoreRegions Guidelines or Environmental Protection(OGP, 2002). OGP is currently coordinating ajoint industry project on Arctic oil spill responsetechnology. IPIECA (the global oil and gas association

or environmental and social issues) along with theAmerican Petroleum Institute (API) is developingcomplementary guidance on oil spills in ice.

Recognising the advances in design, technologyand operational practice, along with the

increased interest and experience in Arctic oiland gas and the need or the highest level o environmental protection, OGP is updating its twoOGP Environmental Guidelines documents in thisconsolidated Good Practice Guide (GPG).

Several other OGP publications support this Guide, orexample, Fact Sheets on Arctic Oil and Gas; Guidelines

or Waste Management (2008); HSE Guidelines orMetocean and Arctic Surveys (2011); and HealthAspects o Work in Extreme Climates (2008a).

Box1COUNTRIES WITH ARCTIC TERRITORIES

Canada

FinlandDenmark (Greenland)IcelandNorwa SwedenRussiaUnited States of America


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1.2 Objectives

The overall objective o this Good Practice Guide(GPG) is to provide in ormation which helpscompanies to identi y and manage potential impactsto Arctic environment and its peoples rom oil andgas activities by sharing good management practicesacross operating companies.

This Guide is designed primarily or oil and gasoperators to provide a high-level summary o goodenvironmental practices or development activities inthe Arctic and similar ice-prone environments.

The Guide also provides operators with an overviewo the Arctic environment and issues related to oiland gas exploration and development, it describesthe potential risks and it outlines practices that helpminimise environmental impacts throughout the oil andgas development li ecycle while maximising bene ts

to society. The GPG is designed to complementthe Arctic Council Guidelines which are designedprimarily or the Arctic nations.

This Guide is intended or use by E&P pro essionalswith responsibility or advising on environmentalaspects associated with oil and gas development inthe Arctic. Those planning and managing E&P projectsat all stages o the oil and gas development li ecycleshould also consult the GPG.

The Guide may also be consulted by regulatoryagencies and other stakeholders in Arctic States, asan indication o the likely approach the industry willtake to address the broad range o environmentalchallenges arising rom operating in the Arcticenvironment.

1.3 Scope

The Guide is designed or oil and gas exploration andproduction activities through the complete petroleumli ecycle rom licensing and exploration, through

engineering, alternatives evaluation, construction,commissioning and production operations, todecommissioning and site reinstatement (Figure 1.1).

Figure 1.1A Typical oil and gas field lifecycle

It covers the assessment requirements andmanagement actions including potential mitigationand monitoring measures that are considered duringeach developmental phase.

The scope o the Guide covers the Arctic as variouslyde ned, but may include relevant managementpractices used in other ice-prone environments.

Operators will need to re er to other sources orspeci c in ormation on the peripheral seas and landswhere the hydrocarbon basins are located.

Oil and gas operators are subject to the regulatoryrequirements o the Arctic states in which theyoperate, including the speci c conditions on

individual activities. They are also regulated by therelevant international standards that apply to their

acilities eg MARPOL. Operators are also boundby their internal policies and standards. These legaland other requirements are not within the scope o the GPG. Oil and gas companies may also make

ormal agreements with stakeholders, including theindigenous people.

DECOMMISSIONINGPRE-BID

Risk assessmentstudies

EXPLORATION &APPRAISAL

Seismic & drilling

DEVELOPMENT

Drilling &construction

OPERATIONS

Production,maintenance &transportation

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Broader general guidance or the management o health, sa ety and the environmental aspects o oiland gas operations is published by OGP. Speci cprocesses or environmental and social managementand per ormance are also provided by OGP andIPIECA. These include, or instance, guidance on HSEManagement Systems (OGP, 1994), EnvironmentalMangement (OGP, 1997) and Environmental, Social

and Health Risk and Impact Management Process(OGP, 2007), to which operators should re er. Theseprocesses can be applied to oil and gas operations andare only covered in the GPG where they need to beelaborated or Arctic circumstances. Arctic EnvironmentalImpact Assessment (ARIA, 1997) describes the specialconsiderations that should be applied to environmentalimpact assessment in the Arctic.

1.4 Defnition and geographical extent

The Arctic occupies almost 30 million km2. Itincludes open ocean and marginal seas totallingover 14 million km2, and a coastline length o approximately 45,390 km. The Arctic includes theterritories o eight countries (Box 1), ve o which areconsidered to be coastal states, namely, the RussianFederation, United States o America, Canada,Norway and Greenland (Kingdom o Denmark).Although the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) o Iceland is within the Arctic, its landmass lies just to thesouth o the Arctic Circle. Sweden and Finland do nothave coastlines within the Arctic.

There are a number o de nitions o the Arctic incommon use (UNEP Grid Arendal, 2005) and these

are illustrated in Figure 1.2:1. The area north o the Arctic Circle (66 33 N),which is the approximate limit o the midnightsun (24 hour sunlight) and the polar night (24hours o darkness).

2. The region where the average temperature orthe warmest month (July) is below 10 C (50 F);The northernmost tree line roughly ollows theisotherm at the boundary o this region.

3. The eight Arctic states have their ownde nitions o Arctic territories (PAME, 2009c)but these o ten include subarctic areas.

4. The Arctic Councils Conservation o ArcticFlora and Fauna working group (CAFF) hasadopted a broader de nition o the Arctic basedon vegetation, comprising the areas o tundravegetation bounded to the south by the treeline.

Other speci c de nitions are in place, eg or shippingin the code or ships operating in Polar waters(IMO, 2002). For the purpose o this GPG the Arcticenvironment will include the Arctic lands and theArctic Ocean with its marginal seas and adjoiningwater bodies prone to extensive permanent orseasonal ice cover. These include the Bering,

Chukchi, East Siberian, Laptev, Kara, White, Barents,Norwegian, Greenland, Labrador, and Beau ort Seas

and the northern Sea o Okhotsk, as well as Hudsonand James Bay and the Davis Strait.

In ISO 19906:2010 Petroleum and natural gasindustries Arctic o shore structures re erence toarctic and cold regions includes both the Arctic andother cold regions that are subject to similar sea ice,iceberg and icing conditions.

Sub-Arctic is used here in a general sense to includethose areas immediately to the south o the Arctic Circle.

Figure 1.2Definitions of Arctic (UNEP Grid Arendal). Philippe Rekacewicz, UNEP/GRID-Arendal, http://www.grida.no/


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1.5 Structure

The Good Practice Guide is presented in theollowing chapters: Chapter 1: The background and general

introduction as context or the GPG. Chapter 2: The business context or oil and

gas exploration and development, including thedistribution o hydrocarbon resources, and thechallenges aced by business.

Chapter 3: The people, governance,institutions and organisations o the Arctic.

Chapter 4: The Arctic environment(physical, biological).

Chapter 5: The sensitivities o the Arcticenvironment to development.

Chapter 6: The li ecycle phases o oil andgas development and provides an overview o the aspects o operations which interact withthe environment and peoples, and the types o potential impacts that may be associated withthese activities.

Chapter 7: Risk management approaches inexploration and production, the involvement o stakeholders and the use o planning to reducerisk during the project li ecycle.

Chapter 8: Use ul mitigation actions andpractices or use in onshore environments.

Chapter 9: Use ul mitigation actions andpractices or use in o shore environments.

Chapter 10: Re erences and other resources,including important websites.

Chapter 11: Appendices summarisingpotential impacts o E&P operations andenvironmental protection measures.

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This section introduces the Arctic in a business context or oil and gas exploration and

production companies. It describes how hydrocarbons have been extracted in the past,the uture prospects or development and the challenges aced by oil and gas resource development in the Arctic.

2.1 Hydrocarbon basins and reserves

The hydrocarbon basins are distributed primarily onland and on the continental shel o the Arctic Oceansmarginal seas (Figure 2.1). Development o hydrocarbonreserves is regulated by the individual Arctic states inwhose territory the resources are located.

There are only small areas o the Arctic whoseboundaries remain to be resolved (Chapter 3) andthese disputes are unlikely to present a hindrance to

oreseeable hydrocarbon development.

2.2 Historical and current production and discoveries

Onshore development began around 1920 with theNorman Wells oil discoveries in Canada; elds inWestern Siberia started producing in the 1960s andare currently producing almost 90 per cent o Russiasgas. Onshore production in Arctic Alaska started

in 1977. Several near-shore hydrocarbon reservoirsare developed via onshore wells drilled directionally(AMAP, 2008).

Because o the technical challenges o operating inice-bound environments, o shore production hasdeveloped at a slower pace. Some Alaskan eldshave used gravel islands or drilling and production.The Snhvit gas eld has been developed in the

ice- ree conditions o the northern Norwegian Sea.Russian o shore oil in the Pechora Sea is underdevelopment and gas development under the BarentsSea is at the design stage. In the sub-Arctic areas,

Figure 2.1Major Oil and Gas Provincesand basins around the Arctic(AMAP, 2007) John Bellamy/ AMAP


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valuable design and operating experience has beengained in seas that are regularly ice-bound or parto the year, or instance in the oil developments o Sakhalin Island.

The Arctic is currently the source o about 10 percent o the worlds oil production and 25 per cent o the worlds gas production (USGS, 2008). Russia iscurrently the major contributor o the Arctic oil (80per cent) and gas (99 per cent) to world production(AMAP, 2007). The largest volumes o Russian oil andgas are rom the onshore Timan-Pechora and WestSiberian basins. Within its Arctic basins, Russia holdsover 75 per cent o the known oil and over 90 percent o the known gas reserves. Russia expects to start

its rst Arctic o shore oil production in 2012 or 2013rom the Prirazlomnoye eld in the Pechora Sea. In theuture, gas and condensate are likely to be producedrom the Shtokman eld in the Russian Barents Sea.

The North Slope o Alaska, dominated by the PrudhoeBay elds, has the largest oil production in the UnitedStates Arctic, comprising 20 per cent o the countrysproduction; a large amount o gas remains to bedeveloped and there is signi cant urther onshore ando shore exploration.

Canada has produced oil rom its Arctic territories (north

o 60o

latitude) since the discovery o the Norman Wells

elds in the 1920s, but many discoveries, particularlythe Mackenzie Delta gas elds, remain undeveloped.The Canadian Federal Cabinet approved the MackenzieValley Pipeline in 2011.

Norway has recently commenced Arctic production o gas rom the Snhvit eld in the northern NorwegianSea (west Barents Sea) with the rst Arctic LNG plantcommissioned. The Goliat oil and gas eld is underdevelopment and is expected to start productionduring 2013.

Many Arctic oil and gas discoveries have not yet beendeveloped. In particular, the large gas resources o the United States. and Canadian Arctic regions awaitthe construction o export pipelines. The Beau ort andChuckchi Seas hold substantial proven reserves o oil. In Russia, substantial discoveries o gas similarlyawait export pipelines or the construction o LNGplants. Discoveries in the Norwegian Sea also awaitdevelopment.

The exploration and development potential o Greenland has not yet been veri ed. Results o recentdrilling o shore Western Greenland in 2010 indicatedthe presence o hydrocarbon systems but these are not

yet proven in commercial quantities.

2.3 Undiscovered hydrocarbons

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS, 2008) haspublished an authoritative appraisal o possibleoil, gas and natural gas liquids discoveries inthe recognised hydrocarbon basins north o theArctic Circle. The USGS assessment deals withconventional hydrocarbon and excludes coal bedmethane, gas hydrate, oil shale and oil sands.

There is also thought to be a substantial volume o undiscovered or yet-to- nd hydrocarbons: according

to USGS (2008) the Arctic may account or about 13per cent o the undiscovered oil (90 billion barrels o undiscovered, technically recoverable, oil), 30 per cento the undiscovered natural gas (47.3 trillion m3) and20 per cent o the undiscovered natural gas liquids(44 billion barrels), concluding that overall the Arcticmay contain 22 per cent o the undiscovered, technically

recoverable hydrocarbons o the world. O this,approximately 84 per cent is believed to be o shore.

2.4 Arctic challenges

Development o oil and gas in the Arctic aces manysocial and environmental challenges. The pace andlocation o uture development will be determinedby a number o actors including acceptability tosociety, a continuing demand or hydrocarbons,viable economics, avourable regulatory regimes,technology development and the sa ety and wellbeingo employees and communities. Operators willcontinue to be responsible to the wider society ordemonstrating that risks are recognised and managed.

For the oreseeable uture, conventional hydrocarbonsare expected to represent the major (75 percent) energy source or society, even though therenewable energy business continues to expandand unconventional hydrocarbons are accessed(IEA, 2011). Globally, the more readily accessiblehydrocarbon sources are mostly under development,so uture hydrocarbons are almost certain to come

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From the knowledge o discovered and yet to ndhydrocarbons, it is likely that many uture developmentswill take place in the Arctic. Although the timescale isdi cult to predict, it is likely to be decades be ore anyo these developments materialise.

In the Arctic, the time taken to access acreage,to explore and appraise nds, and to take thediscoveries to production is expected to greatlyexceed the time o development in lower latitudes.The distances to re neries and to commercialmarkets or gas add signi cantly to the costs o development. There are also many constraints tonavigation in Arctic waters. Similarly, the lack o local construction materials adds to construction,

maintenance and operating costs.O shore, the main technical challenges are thecosts o ice-resistant acilities and pipelines, and theability to operate in o shore locations where large,continuously moving ice masses are present, either assea ice or as icebergs calved rom glaciers.

Onshore, the presence o perma rost poses di cultiesor construction and maintenance o oundations; therozen tundra wetlands restrict construction activities

to winter periods when access over ice and snow ispossible, and the summer thaw makes cross-country

travel by land extremely di cult.All Arctic developments are subject to the regulatoryrequirements o the individual countries, each withvarying degrees o public involvement in the process,with sometimes ormal requirements to involve theindigenous peoples o the Arctic. These legal and

related requirements, combined with short operatingseasons, may also constrain the pace o explorationand development.

In the context o this Good Practice Guide, thereshould be a considerable lead-time available toensure that the lessons learned in current Arcticoperations and in other hydrocarbon basins areapplied to all Arctic planning and development.Clearly, oil and gas companies must have a soundknowledge o Arctic regulations, societies and theenvironment to acilitate responsible development.The o shore hydrocarbon basins o ten coincidewith ecologically sensitive marine ecosystems, andwith areas o traditional hunting, commercial shing,

other natural resources, and areas o cultural, andconservation importance.

2.5 Oil and gas industry cooperation

International and national operator and contractororganisations acilitate communication and knowledgesharing between industry sectors and with externalorganisations. The industry is represented by:

International Oil and Gas ProducersAssociation (OGP)

IPIECA, the global oil and gas industryassociation or environmental and social issues

International Association o GeophysicalContractors (IAGC)

International Association o Drilling Contractors(IADC)

OGP also maintains ormal links with shipping andother industries, eg:

Oil Companies International Marine Forum(OCIMF)

International Marine Contractors Association(IMCA)

OGP also represents member companies in discussionswith organisations including the International MaritimeOrganization (IMO), International Whaling Commission(IWC), International Union or the Conservation o Nature (IUCN) and relevant Non-GovernmentalOrganisations (NGOs).

OGP maintains ormal and in ormal links with theArctic Council and its Working Groups.

An increase in cross-sector and business orums todiscuss uture Arctic developments is expected.

Box 2.1EXAMPLES OF ARCTIC CHALLENGES

Remote location Changing ecolog Icebergs Prolonged darkness Mobile pack ice Severe storms Permafrost Earthquakes Sensitive environment Deep water Climate change Short operating season


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2.6 A changing Arctic

Physical conditions in the Arctic with regard to oil andgas development are changing. Changes in weatherand oceanographic patterns have had consequencesover various timescales or example or sea icecover, sea level, iceberg calving, coastal erosion andperma rost integrity. Seasonal loss o ice cover hasbeen projected on various time scales.

Changes in the maritime environment haveimplications or the construction and operation o o shore acilities, and the associated export routes orhydrocarbons. Changes to the terrestrial environmentmay infuence the construction and operation o land-based acilities.

The oil and gas industry designs its acilities orextremes o weather in areas where it operates andthis is also true or Arctic conditions. As it pursues itsArctic strategy, the oil and gas industry is monitoringclosely the uture changes in the Arctic and willadopt appropriate practices to ensure sa e design or

oreseeable conditions.

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This Chapter describes the peoples and governance o the Arctic, including

international boundaries, inter-governmental and non-governmental organisations, and the indigenous and resident populations.

3.1 Sovereignty and boundary issues

Under the United Nations Convention o the Law o theSea (UNCLOS, 1982) coastal states exercise sovereignty,sovereign rights and jurisdiction over substantialportions o the seas. The 1982 Convention xed thelimits o the territorial sea at up to 12 nautical miles,24 nautical miles or the contiguous zone and200 nautical miles or the exclusive economic zone. Thecoastal states in the Arctic, Russia, the United States,Canada, Norway, Greenland (Kingdom o Denmark)and Iceland have territorial seas up to 12 nautical miles

rom their coastal baselines and exclusive economiczones (EEZ) o up to 200 nautical miles (Figure 3.1).

Where the continental shel extends beyond200 nautical miles rom baselines, the area o jurisdiction is determined in consultation with the UNCommission on the Limits o the Continental Shel . TheEEZ brings exclusive economic rights to any naturalresource that is present on or beneath the sea foorwithin this zone. In the Arctic, this gives the coastalstates rights to the o shore hydrocarbon resourceswithin their own de ned boundaries.

Currently, some international boundaries areunresolved (Box 3.1), IBRU (2010) or CIA WorldFactbook (2012).

There are no signi cant land boundary disputes, withthe possible exception o Hans Island. Figure 3.1

Arctic jurisdictions and disputed territories (IBRU, 2010). International Boundaries Research Unit, Durham University, UK

http://www.durham.ac.uk/ibru/resources/arctic

3.2 Political and strategic signifcance

-In addition to petroleum hydrocarbons, the Arctic alsocontains substantial mineral deposits (both industrialand precious metals) and biological resources ( orestryproducts and sh) (Lindholt, 2006).

The Arctic has large onshore coal and mineral

reserves. Russia currently extracts the greatestquantities o these minerals, including nickel, copper,platinum, apatite, tin, diamonds and gold, mostlyon the Kola Peninsula but also in Siberia. Lead,

zinc, copper, diamonds and gold are mined inthe Canadian territories o the Yukon, NorthwestTerritories and Nunavut. In Alaska, lead and zincdeposits in the Red Dog Mine (containing two-thirdso U.S. zinc resources), are mined; gold deposits areworked in the Chandalar District. Greenland also hassigni cant reserves o copper, nickel and zinc as wellas uranium deposits. The mining activities in the Arcticare an important contributor o raw materials to theworld economy.

Box 3.1DISPUTES INTERNATIONAL

Arctic Ocean

Canada and the United States dispute how to divide theBeaufort Sea and the status of the Northwest Passage but continue to work cooperativel to surve the Arcticcontinental shelf; Denmark (Greenland) and Norwa have made submissions to the Commission on the Limits of the Continental shelf (CLCS) and Russia is collectingadditional data to augment its 2001 CLCS submission;record summer melting of sea ice in the Arctic hasrenewed interest in maritime shipping lanes and sea floor exploration; Norwa and Russia signed a comprehensivemaritime boundar agreement in 2010.

Ref. CIA World Factbook, 2012


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n d

G r e

e n l a

n d

U S A

Polar stereographic projection

0 400nautical miles at 66N

0 600kilometres

R

U

S

S

I

A

C

A

N

A

D

A

A r c t i c

C i r c l e

( 6 6 3 3 N

)

180 E / W

0E / W

4 5 W 4 5 E

1 3 5 E 1 3 5 W

90E90W

Unclaimed or unclaimable continentalshelf (note 1)

Denmark territorial sea and EEZ

Denmark claimed continental shelfbeyond 200 nm (note 2)

Canada territorial sea andexclusive economic zone (EEZ)

Iceland EEZ

Iceland claimed continental shelfbeyond 200 nm (note 2)

Norway territorial sea and EEZ / Fishery zone(Jan Mayen) / Fishery protection zone (Svalbard)

Internal waters

Potential Canada continental shelfbeyond 200 nm (see note 1)

Potential Denmark continental shelfbeyond 200 nm (note 1)

Norway claimed continental shelfbeyond 200 nm (note 3)

Russia territorial sea and EEZ

USA territorial sea and EEZ

Russia claimed continental shelfbeyond 200 nm (note 4)

Potential USA continental shelfbeyond 200 nm (note 1)

Norway-Russia Special Area (note 5)

Overlapping Canada / USA EEZ (note 6)

Eastern Special Area (note 7)

Straight baselines

Agreed boundary

Median line

350 nm from baselines (note 1)

100 nm from 2500 m isobath(beyond 350 nm from baselines) (note 1)

Svalbard treaty area (note 8)


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The Arctic is an area o strategic military interest,with some legacy o abandoned constructions andcontaminated sites. The Arctic Military EnvironmentalCooperation (AMEC) is a orum or dialogue and jointactivities o certain Arctic states to solve environmentalproblems caused by military activities. AMECoperates under a ormal Declaration o 1996 agreedbetween the participating countries, Russia, UnitedStates and Norway.

The Arctic is signi cant in global terms both as astrategic resource base and as a maritime route

or the Arctic countries and or the wider globalcommunity. This will ensure a continuing interest o thesovereign states in security o the region.

3.3 International cooperation and agreements or environmental protection

3.3.1 International treaties and conventions There is a binding legal regime that applies in theArctic under the UN Convention o the Law o theSea (UNCLOS, 1982). In addition, many internationaltreaties apply to the Arctic and several bi-lateraltreaties have been established between Arctic nations.Signatories to these conventions apply the provisionsvia their domestic legislation.

Some signi cant International Conventions that applyto the Arctic include:

Vienna Convention or the Protection o theOzone Layer Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete

the Ozone Layer Basel Convention on the Control o

Transboundary Movements o HazardousWastes and their Disposal

United Nations Framework Convention onClimate Change

Kyoto Protocol to the United NationsFramework Convention on Climate Change

United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic

Pollutants.

Shipping is regulated under the MARPOL Conventionand its Annexes.

The Arctic states are responsible or licensing o hydrocarbon exploration and production in theirterritories and or the protection o the environmentvia their domestic legislation. AMAP (2007) includesa summary o the pollution control and environmentalprotection regimes o each Arctic state.

Governance o Arctic marine ecosystems includesinternational treaties and conventions:

Global convention on all mattersrelating to maritime law: The UnitedNations Convention on the Law o the Sea(UNCLOS).

Regulation o speci c species o the Arctic marine ecosystems: Examples arethe International Convention on the Regulationo Whaling, the UN Fish Stocks Agreementor the International Agreement or theConservation o Polar Bears.

Regulation in speci c geographicalsegments o the Arctic marine area: These include both ecosystem and single-species approaches (the Convention on theProtection o the Marine Environment o theNorth-East Atlantic (OSPAR, Box 3.2), the Six-nation agreement on the protection o Pollockstocks in the Bering Sea or North AtlanticMarine Mammal Commission (NAMMCO).

Regulation o speci c activitiespotentially infuencing the Arcticmarine area: Examples are, the International

Convention or the Prevention o Pollution romShips (MARPOL) or the Convention on thePrevention o Marine Pollution by Dumping o Wastes and Other Matter.

In addition, there are non-binding policies that requirethe continuing support o participating countries,which are a unction o current national priorities andinterests. These include Arctic Shipping Guidelines(IMO, 2002) and Code o Conduct or ResponsibleFisheries (FAO).


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3.3.2 Pan-Arctic cooperation The Arctic Council is the most important orum orinternational cooperation on environmental and socialissues in the Arctic. It was established in 1996 andcomprises the eight Arctic nations, the PermanentParticipants and the Observers.

The Member States are represented at Ministerial leveland are supported by the Senior Arctic O cials; theChair o the Council is taken in rotation or 2 yearsby each member state. The main work o the Arctic

Council is carried out by Working Groups, each witha permanent Secretariat (Box 3.3).

The Indigenous Populations o the Arctic arePermanent Participants o the Arctic Council. These arethe Saami Council, Russian Association o IndigenousPeople o the North (RAIPON), Inuit CircumpolarCouncil (ICC), Gwichin Council International(GCI), Arctic Athabaskan Council (AAC) and AleutInternational Association (AIA).

Observer bodies include those countries which areaccepted by the Council as having clear interestsin the Arctic. International organisations and non-governmental organisations (eg representatives o conservation interests) make up the remainder o theObserver Group.

3.3.3 Multilateral and bilateral agreements There are many multilateral and bilateral agreementsbetween individual Arctic states on, or example,shipping, resource management, sheries, wildli e andpollution prevention and response (Rothwell, 1996;Ecologic, 2008).

The European Union operates various agreements thatare relevant to the Arctic. EU interests stem rom themembership o Denmark (Greenland) and through theparticipation o Iceland and Norway in the EuropeanEconomic Area (EEA). The EU participates in the

Barents Euro-Actic Council with Denmark, Finland,Iceland, Norway, Russia and Sweden.

Other multilateral agreements are designed orthe protection o a single species, eg Canada,Norway, Russia, the United States and Denmarkcooperate within the International Agreement on theConservation o Polar Bears.

The International Council or the Exploration o theSeas (ICES) coordinates sheries and environmentalquality data collection and reporting across theNorth Atlantic Ocean and adjacent seas. ICESprovides advice on marine sheries and ecosystem

management to governments and internationalregulatory bodies. The North Paci c Marine ScienceOrganization (PICES), an intergovernmental scienti corganization, promotes and coordinates marine

Box 3.2OSPAR OFFSHORE OIL AND GAS INDUSTRy STRATEGy

sets out the development and implementation of programmes and measures in respect of all phases of offshore activities. It requires the OSPAR Commission tocollect information about threats to the marineenvironment, establish priorities for taking action anddevelop and periodicall review environmental goals. Theoil and gas industr related work is implemented b OSPARs Offshore Industr Committee (OIC).

Ref. OSPAR (www.ospar.org)

Box 3.3

ARCTIC COUNCIL WORKING GROUPS Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP) Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna (CAFF) Emergenc Prevention, Preparedness and

Response (EPPR) Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment (PAME) Sustainable Development Working Group (SDWG) Arctic Contaminants Action Program (ACAP)


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research in the northern North Paci c and adjacentseas. The Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organisation(NAFO), an intergovernmental sheries science andmanagement body, contributes to the managementand conservation o the sheries resources within theNAFO Convention Area.

Bilateral Agreements have also been used in manyinstances to manage single species or example polarbears, beluga whale, caribou herds and pollock

stocks. Cross-border cooperation is also established inagreements on emergency response, oil spill clean-upand search and rescue.

To these must be added the many initiatives o thegovernments and non-governmental organisationsto work across borders to improve communicationsbetween the regulatory authorities, indigenouspeoples organisations, academic researchprogrammes and conservation interests.

3.4 Circumpolar research and technical institutions

Academic, research, policy and technical institutionscollaborate on a circumpolar basis. The University o the Arctic, individual universities in Arctic and othercountries, government- and privately- unded instituteshave continuous research and teaching commitmentsin the region. These institutions work continuouslyto improve scienti c knowledge o the Arctic, carryout contract work or governments, non-governmentorganisations and industry, and provide a continualsource o graduates in Arctic science. They alsoprovide ormulators o opinion on Arctic policy.

The oil and gas industry traditionally creates workingrelationships with various institutions helping to buildcapacity on geology, technology and environmentalprotection or Arctic hydrocarbon development.

The International Arctic Sciences Committee (IASC)is a non-governmental organisation that promotescooperation at a global level on Arctic research. IASCworks via its Working, Action and Advisory Groupsto achieve its aims. ICES and IASC have a ormalagreement to cooperate on Arctic science.

3.5 National legislationEach Arctic state regulates the oil and gas industryby nationwide and sub-national (eg state or local)legislation and regulation. Comparative descriptionso the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) process

or oil and gas developments in the Arctic Councilmember states are presented in the Arctic O shore Oiland Gas Guidelines (PAME, 2009c). Operators arere erred to the regulatory authorities in each country

or guidance on the licensing process and regulationo oil and gas activities.

3.6 Population

The total population o the Arctic is approximately4 million, including both indigenous and settled people.Within each Arctic nation, the local populations playvarying roles in the management o natural resources,including oil and gas. The Arctic Human DevelopmentReport (2004) gives a ull account o the populations,their development and social issues acing the Arcticpeoples. The ollowing sections describe the distributionand composition o the population, their li estyle andemployment, and how they are organised, particularlyto address the social issues that occur.


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3.6.1 Demographics

The Arctic was inhabited by indigenous peoples a terthe last ice age ended around 10 thousand yearsago, and more recently by migration during thenineteenth and twentieth centuries as natural resourceshave been discovered and developed. Today, theindigenous people number around 354,000 orsomewhat less than 10 per cent o the total populationin the Arctic (Figure 3.2).

The main indigenous populations within the ArcticCircle are Evenks, Evens, Inuit, Koryaks, Nenets,Khanty, Chukchi, Saami and Yugaghirs.

There has been a signi cant infux o non-indigenousresidents into the Arctic, many o whom came, or inthe case o Russia, were relocated rom the south,to work in the resource industries. As a result, non-indigenous residents now ar outnumber indigenouspeoples in many parts o the Arctic.

Local governments are increasingly autonomous withrespect to management o local resources and decision-making and, along with indigenous communities,are important stakeholders and concerned with themanagement o these areas and resources.

3.6.2 Li estyle, employment and traditional knowledge

Over the centuries the indigenous inhabitants haveaccumulated environmental knowledge about thephysical, ecological and climatological conditionso the terrestrial, coastal and marine environmento the Arctic. Much o this traditional knowledgestill remains within the indigenous communities andevery attempt is being made to tap into this valuableresource (Fenge, T. and Funston, B. (2009).

New economic enterprises have emerged and nowdominate the Arctic industrial landscape. These aretypically the mineral resource based industries thatinclude oil and gas development and mining. Theseenterprises are highly capital intensive, large scaleand have their decision-making centralised in centres

ar removed rom the local peoples o the Arctic.

Traditionally, Arctic peoples lived seasonally orpermanently in small settlements. However, since thearrival o Europeans and other non-aboriginal groups,there has been a steady migration rom smallersettlements into larger centres. For example, in Alaska,

over a third o the population o that State now lives inand around Anchorage. Despite the growth in urbancentres, a percentage o Arctic people still residein smaller communities and practise a subsistenceli estyle based on hunting and trapping, whaling,

shing and reindeer husbandry (SDWG, 2004).

Other sources o jobs and income include tourism,which is growing in many regions o the Arctic.Originally tourism was based on sport hunting and

shing but this has now expanded to ecotourism.Other contributions to the local economy may come

rom the sale o traditional arts and cra ts.

While people are connected to the modern marketeconomy by cash and wages, they still rely heavilyon traditional li estyles, acquiring ood rom the landand sea, sharing and bartering ood and other goodsand services. Hunting, shing, herding and gatheringcontinue to be o major signi cance to indigenouspeoples o the Arctic in providing ood, socialrelationships and cultural identity.

Figure 3.32Indigenous and total population.

Hugo Ahlenius, UNEP/GRID-Arendal.

http://www.grida.no/


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With the majority o the indigenous population underthe age o 30 (IISD, 2009) and with the traditionalways o li e quickly changing and being replaced bya wage-driven economy, local indigenous peoplesin the circumpolar region o ten eel marginalisedand are now ocusing on sustainable development,economic security and sel -determination.

Despite their resilience to change, it is neverthelessimportant or Arctic indigenous peoples to maintaintheir cultural identity and share it with uturegenerations. Cultural resources may be tangible such

as sites o unique natural environmental eatures witharchaeological, paleontological, historical, cultural,artistic and religious values. Intangible resourcesmay include language, oral traditions, per ormancearts, environmental and resource knowledge (IPIECA,2011a). Traditional knowledge about such thingsas animal migrations, ice patterns, vegetationand weather which may be used or hunting andharvesting, may also supplement scienti c data onchanges being observed in the Arctic. (Fenge &Funston, 2009).

3.6.3 Organisation and cooperation Many indigenous peoples o the north are organisedpolitically and socially and infuence the use o Arctic resources. Domestic governments o the Arcticcountries o ten assist these political initiatives. The maininternational indigenous peoples organisations are:

Inuit Circumpolar Con erence (ICC) ormed in 1980, represents around 150,000

Inuit o Canada, Greenland, United Statesand Russia. It aims to strengthen unity amongInuit o the circumpolar region; promote Inuitrights and interests on an international level;develop and encourage long-term policiesthat sa eguard the Arctic environment;and seek ull and active partnership in thepolitical, economic and social development o circumpolar regions. The ICC is managed by aCouncil with representation rom each countryand has a rotating presidency.

Saami Council is a voluntary organisationwith member organisations in Finland, Russia,Norway and Sweden. Founded in 1956, itsprimary aim is the promotion o Saami rightsand interests in the our countries where theSaami live, to consolidate the eeling o a nityamong the Saami people, to attain recognition

or the Saami as a nation and to maintaineconomic, social and cultural rights o theSaami in the legislation o the our states. TheSaami number around 50,000 people.

Russian Association o IndigenousPeoples o the North (RAIPON) , thelargest indigenous peoples organisation in theArctic, was ounded in 1990 and representsover 250,000 indigenous people rom 41indigenous groups in Russia. RAIPONs unction

is to protect the human rights and legal interestso the northern indigenous peoples, to helpsolve their environmental, social and economicproblems, and to promote cultural development

and education. It works to ensure rights tonative homelands, traditional ways o li e andsel -government.

Gwichin Council International (GCI) wasestablished in 1999 to ensure all regions o theGwichin Nation in the Northwest Territories,Yukon and Alaska were represented at theArctic Council, as well as playing a role inthe development o policies that relate to thecircumpolar Arctic. The ounding members o the Gwichin Council represent approximately9,000 indigenous peoples o Gwichin descent.

Arctic Athabascan Council (AAC) is anorganisation established in 2000 to de endthe rights and urther the interests o Americanand Canadian Athabascan member FirstNation governments in the Arctic Council. AACrepresents approximately 32,000 Americanand Canadian people o Athabascan descent.

Aleut International Association (AIA )is an Alaska native not- or-pro t corporation,

ormed in 1998. AIA is governed by a Boardo Directors comprising our Alaskan and

our Russian Aleuts under the leadership o a president. The organisation was ormed toaddress environmental and cultural concernso the Bering Sea and North Paci c. AIArepresents the peoples o the mostly subArcticAleutian and Pribilo Islands.

These organisations represent the indigenous peopleo most o the Arctic (Figure 3.3) and as PermanentParticipants in the Arctic Council (Box 3.4) they

ormally represent the indigenous people.


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In parts o the Arctic, indigenous peoples havesuccess ully gained a measure o control over theirresources and decision-making. For example, in June2009, Greenland was empowered with sel -government.Through the Sel Government legislation, Greenlanders(ca 90 per cent Inuit) are ormally recognised as apeople under international law. Greenland elects its ownparliament and government, and has sovereignty andadministration over nance, industry, domestic a airs,housing, in rastructure, education, health, environment,trade and natural resources.

Indigenous peoples in Canada have negotiated theNunavut and the Inuvialuit Settlement Agreements, whichhave trans erred ownership o territory and resources

collectively to them. The agreements include guaranteesand regulations or access to o shore resources, provideor co-management o those resources, and to also make

conservation arrangements to protect the resourceswhere needed. The United States government hasnegotiated agreements with Alaska natives.

Operators undertaking oil and gas developmentsneed to consider and include in their planning therole that indigenous peoples, their communitiesand their representative organisations play at eachdevelopmental phase.

Box 3.4PERMANENT PARTICIPANTS OF THE ARCTIC COUNCIL

Aleut International Association Arctic Athabaskan Council Gwichin Council International Inuit Circumpolar Conference Saami Council Russian Association of the Indigenous Peoples

of the North

Figure 3.3Distribution of Arctic indigenous peoples

and main representative organisations. Norwegian Polar Institiute


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3.7 Social challenges

Local initiatives, national legislation andinternational conventions help protect the culturalheritage in the Arctic. There have been manysuccesses in social development including theadoption o advanced technology, education andgovernance and political structures.

The Arctic indigenous people and settlers arecon ronted with a number o social problems (SDWG,2004). These include the impacts o environmentaldegradation (eg coastal erosion, impacts o construction), loss o language, mental and physicalhealth and wel are.

Oil and gas developments and the associatedactivities will there ore be carried out in a challengingand evolving social context, but can provide newopportunities or the populations to address thechallenges they ace.


L a w r e n c e

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4.The physicalandbiologicalenvironment I m a g e c o

u r t e s y o f

M i k e

D u n n , N

C S t a t e

M u s e u m o f

N a t u r a

l S c i e n c e s

/ N O A A


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This section is designed to acquaint oil and gas E&P operators with the physical eatures and

characteristics o the Arctic natural environment which are relevant to oil and gas operations o shore and onshore.

4.1 Temperature, precipitation and light

There are two main climate divisions: maritime andcontinental. The maritime climate is characteristico Iceland, the Norwegian coast and adjoiningparts o Russia, and the Alaska coast. Here there isrelatively high precipitation (up to 1400 mm per year)and moderate air temperatures averaging between5 oC and 10 oC in summer, and between 1 oC inIceland to minus 11 oC along the Kola Peninsula inwinter. The continental climate zone is associatedwith the land-masses o North America and Eurasia.Here, precipitation is lower (70-200 mm per year)and temperatures more extreme. For example, in

January the temperatures range between minus20 oC and minus 60 oC. Most precipitation is in the

orm o snow, with rain more likely in the exposedcoastal areas. When combined with wind, extremelylow temperatures present a hazard to people and

equipment, complicate reshwater supply and impedeorganic waste decomposition.

The seasonal changes at these latitudes are alsoaccompanied by periods o continuous light anddarkness (Figure 4.1). The almost continuous darknessor semi-darkness stretches rom late autumn to earlyspring. This is gradually replaced by a state o continuous or near-continuous daylight the remaindero the year. In June, the sun is visible or 24 hours aday. This cycle also presents challenges to industry,

or instance responding to day to day operationsduring continuous darkness.

Early settlement patterns indicate that parts o theArctic were once much warmer than the currentperiod (ACIA, 2005) and or example Drange et al(2005) comment on a time some 9,000 to 5,000

years ago when the present day glaciers in Norwayand Svalbard were completely melted.

The Arctic has also experienced recent climatechange. A marked warming took place, or example,between the 1930s and the 1950s, when mean wintertemperatures were over 5 C higher than in the early

years o the century. A period o cooling ollowed inthe 1960s and 1970s which was most pronounced inthose regions which had previously experienced thegreatest warming. Similar fuctuations may occur in the

uture, but their scale and extent are di cult to predictnot least because o uncertainty surrounding the widerglobal temperature increase o the past century.

Figure 4.1Seasonal variation in daylight in the Arctic.

Hugo Ahlenius, U NEP/GRID-Arendal, http://www.grida.no


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4.2 Weather patterns

The Arctic weather shows high variability and isinfuenced both by maritime and continental landmasses. The low sun angle in the high latitudes createsmicroclimates in the shade o even relatively smalltopographical eatures. Much o the solar radiation is notabsorbed due to the high refectivity o snow and ice.

The Arctic experiences a number o weatherpatterns including cyclones, anticyclones (eg theBeau ort High), polar vortex, semi-permanent highand low pressures, short-lived polar lows, the ArcticOscillation and eedback loops (eg the temperature albedo eedback).

Longer term temperatures are infuenced by the ArcticOscillation, which is an alternating strong (positivephase) and weak (negative phase) atmosphericcirculation over the North Pole (Figure 4.2). Sincethe 1970s the oscillation has tended towards thepositive phase, causing lower air pressure and highertemperatures in much o the USA and Eurasia.

Prevailing winds are westerly or south-westerlybetween Iceland and Scandinavia transporting warm,humid air into the Arctic rom the Atlantic. This causes

og, an operational and navigation hazard in parts o the Arctic marine environment. Fog can be extensiveand occur on more than 100 days a year wherewarmer air or water meets the colder Arctic ice edgeor air mass. In summer, the traditional peak og periodis August but og also occurs during winter in areaso open water known as polynyas or leads, whichare described below.

Air currents moving through industrialised countrieslying to the South are responsible or transportingvarious contaminants to the Arctic; these are depositedby precipitation (ACIA, 2006).

WARM & WET

COLDER STRATOSPHERE

STRONGER TRADE WINDS

COOL & DRYWARM

COLD & MORESEA ICE

COLD & DRY

LESS COLD STRATOSPHERE

WEAKER TRADE WINDS

WARM &WET

COLD & SNOWY

WARM & LESSSEA ICE

POSITIVE MODE NEGATIVE MODE

Figure 4.2Air currents over Arctic and sub-Arctic

Based upon image courtesy of J. Wallace, University of Washingtonand the National Snow and Ice Data Center, University of Colorado, Boulder


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4.3 Ocean and marginal seas

4.3.1 Ocean currents and circulation

The Arctic Ocean proper is divided into our mainbasins the Nansen and Amundsen on the Europeanside and the Makorov and Canada basins on theNorth American side, separated by the LomonosovRidge. These basins are over 4,000 m deep. TheGreenland, Norwegian and Iceland seas are alsorelatively deep.

The remaining portions o the Arctic Ocean arecomparatively shallow and include the two largestshel areas in the world the Barents and the Beringshel systems, each over 1 million km2. The Barentsshel extends out to Svalbard, to the North Sea andto within a ew hundred miles o the east Greenlandshel . The Bering shel system, on the Alaskan side,extends just beyond the Aleutian island chain and, onthe Russian side, to the Laptev Sea. The shel systemo the Russian northern coast is shallow, averaging50 m, and extends over 2,000 km at its widest point.The shel system o the Canadian archipelago is alsoextensive and relatively shallow. These shel areas o

the marginal seas are the important areas or oil andgas exploration.

Circulation patterns on an Arctic scale (Figure 4.3) areimportant in understanding pack ice movement andiceberg transport paths when considering a potentialoil and gas development.

Seawater salinity and temperature distributions helpidenti y the di erent water masses that comprise theArctic Ocean; the open ocean has three distinct layerso di erent temperature and salinity. The top 200 mare the buoyant Sur ace Layer, o lowered salinity(32.534 ppt) and low temperature water. There tendsto be a distinct boundary between the Sur ace Layerand the lower layers, which have salinity generallyexceeding 34 ppt. Between 200 and 900 m is theAtlantic Layer which fows to and rom the AtlanticOcean around Greenland. Below the Atlantic Layer isthe Arctic Deep Water Layer.

While some Paci c oceanic water enters the Arcticbasin through the Bering Sea and Strait, the greatestvolume fows into the Arctic are rom the AtlanticOcean o the east coast o Greenland (see Figure4.3). Here it enters the Beau ort gyre, a clockwisecirculating current system on the Canadian side. A terapproximately ve or six years average residencetime, it then fows back to the Atlantic down theGreenland coast via the Transpolar Dri t or downthrough the Davis Strait via the Labrador current.

The average water temperature in the shel areasin winter is just below minus 1oC. During summer,it increases to between 4 and 5 oC. These coldtemperatures, especially when combined with verylow air temperatures in winter, pose serious challenges

and hazards to oil and gas operations, equipment andpersonnel in both normal and emergency situations.

Cold Arctic waters rom the deep Greenland Sea arealso a major input to what is known as the globalocean conveyer belt that regulates the world climateand ocean regimes. Oceanic currents transport locallyand remotely generated persistent contaminants anddeposit them in Arctic sediments (AMAP, 2011).

Figure 4.3Water Circulation Patterns in the Arctic ( Philippe Rekacewicz, UNEP/GRID-Arendal

http://www.grida.no/db/maps)


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The Arctic marine system also receives a signi cantinfow o reshwater rom river systems. The Eurasianrivers (ie Kolyma, Ob, Pechora, Yenisy and Lena)deliver approximately 1,500 km3 per year while theMackenzie and Yukon o North America contribute anadditional 550 km3. A dominant eature o the Arcticriver systems is the intense seasonality o fow, whichpeaks in the late Arctic spring carrying with it hugequantities o nutrients and a range o contaminants,especially rom the Russian landmass.

4.3.2 Ice

The Arctic marine environment is characterised by thepresence o ice, which occurs in three main orms: asperma rost in the seabed, as permanent or seasonalpack-ice ( rozen salt-water) or as icebergs or ice foes( rozen reshwater rom land-based glacial sources).

In the marine environment, perma rost is ound inshallow waters (up to 3 m deep) primarily along thenorthern Russian coastline, where land perma rostextends into the sea).

Pack ice is a foating layer o ice o variable ageand thickness. During summer, pack ice composed

o multi-year ice covers the central Arctic Ocean,averaging (over the years 19792000) approximately7 million km2. During the autumn and wintermonths, as temperatures drop and new ice orms,this rst year ice expands the ice covered area toapproximately 14 million km2. The ice layer can thenextend southward as ar as latitude 48o N, except inthe Norwegian and the Barents Seas which remainice- ree due to the warming infuence o the NorthAtlantic Dri t. The thickest Arctic ice occurs o theCanadian Archipelago. During spring and summer,the ice recedes through a massive process o break-upand melt. When ice is detached and moved bycurrents, wind and waves, it is termed dri t ice.

Pack-ice begins orming in late summer and earlyautumn. As it orms, it goes through several stages,each posing its own hazards. It begins as individualice crystals appearing in the water (termed razilice). In the next stage, it coagulates to orm a smooththin sheet or, where agitated by waves or current, asoupy sur ace layer called grease ice. As it reezes

urther, it orms thin elastic sheets termed nilas or,where there is wave action, pancake ice (circularpieces with upturned edges) up to 3 m wide. As the

ice thickens and pieces merge into each other, it ormsvery hard irregular shaped foes that can reach upto 4 m thick. Wind and currents keep ice in constantmotion and ridges will orm where foes collide.

Sea ice attached to the landmass is termed ast orland- or shore- ast ice. It remains in place throughoutthe winter, held stationary by pressure ridgesgrounded on the seabed. Fast ice usually reachesout to depths o 20 to 30 m rom shore.

Sea ice can be measured in a number o ways. Seaice extent de nes all areas with over 15 per cent iceconcentrations, including some ice- ree water.Seaice area re ers to the actual area covered with ice,but not including any open water. Other importantattributes o sea ice are thickness and volume, butdata on these are sparse.

Figure 4.4Trends in area of sea ice in the Northern Hemisphere

University of Illinois, 2012http://arctic.atmos.uiuc.edu

The area or extent o maximum and minimum sea

ice coverage has been decreasing over the past30 years the period or which there are satelliterecords (Figure 4.4); with evidence o loss o moremultiyear ice and reduced thickness. The ice cover


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in the marginal seas also varies signi cantly rom year to year, in response to the infow o warmerAtlantic water, to the variations in windspeed anddirection, and to the strength and direction o seacurrents. It is not possible to predict the uture trendin ice cover with high con dence; thus, there aremany uncertainties that must be considered or utureArctic o shore oil and gas developments. The readeris re erred to the scienti c sources or the up-to-datedata on area and extent and or analysis o sea icetrends (eg National Sea Ice Data Center).

The third main orm o ice is icebergs which calverom terrestrial, resh-water glaciers or ice shelves

especially along the Greenland coast (10,000 to

30,000 per year), Ellesmere Island and to a lesserextent, Svalbard, Franz Joseph Land, Severnya Zemlya,and Novaya Zemlya (Diemand, 2001). Once brokeno , they become ice islands (nine-tenths submerged),and enter the Arctic current systems (and shippinglanes) where they can circulate or years be ore movingdown the coasts o Greenland and into the AtlanticOcean, where they progressively melt. Up to 1500icebergs per year reach as ar south as 48 o N. Someicebergs can reach several hundred metres long withdeep keels and there ore pose a hazard to o shore

acilities and pipelines situated near iceberg lanes.

The main rivers also transport masses o reshwater iceinto the Arctic seas during spring.

4.3.3 Ice- ree areas, polynyas and leads

There are two eatures in the pack ice that have openwater all year round or or varying periods o time,namely leads and polynyas.

Leads are long, linear, cracks in the ice that canopen and close in a matter o a ew hours or days inresponse to changes in wind direction or speed. They

orm important arteries or navigation and or marine

mammal and bird migration, allowing signi cantpopulations to survive in the ice pack even in thedepths o the winter.

Polynyas are areas o open water that can reachthousands o square kilometres in size. Polynyas o tenrecur at the same location year a ter year (Figure4.5). The largest at 80,000 km 2, is the North WaterPolynya in northern Ba n Bay between Canada andGreenland. Another is the St. Lawrence polynya inthe Bering Sea, north o the Aleutians. Other recurrentpolynyas occur o north east Greenland, o Franz

Joseph Land, north o the New Siberian Islands and

along the Kara, Laptev and East Siberian Seas andnear Cape Bathurst in the eastern Beau ort Sea.

Polynyas that orm close to shore are termed coastalpolynyas or faw leads and are caused by strongo shore winds that separate dri t ice rom the land astice that is rozen to the shore. They occur all along thecontinental shelves. Such polynyas are major areaso ice ormation and are o ten called ice actories.Open ocean polynyas are ormed at regions o up-welling o warmer water rom the deep ocean.

Figure 4.5Approximate maximum sea ice extent

and locations of major leads and polynyas.

Philippe Rekacewicz and Emmanuelle Bournay (GRID-Arendal)Appears in AMAP Assessment Report: Arctic Pollution Issues (1998)


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4.4 Landmass

The Arctic landmass includes rugged shorelines, fatcoastal plains, rolling hills and mountains exceeding6,000 m (UNEP Grid-Arendal). There are three largegeographical divisions: polar desert (includingthe Greenland and other ice caps, montane areaso relatively barren rocks, and ice- ree but mainlyunvegetated lower areas on the more northerly Arctic

islands, such as Ellesmere Island and Novaya Zemlya);the tree-less tundra ; and the zone o closedconi erous orest , or taiga. In the Canadian andRussian sectors o the Arctic, there is an open canopyzone o intergradation between the tundra and theclosed coni erous orest, known asorest-tundra .

4.4.1 Temperatures

In the high Arctic, which is dominated by a persistenthigh-pressure system, and where the potentialwarming e ect o the Arctic Ocean is largelyprevented by ice cover, mean temperatures rise above

reezing point or only 2 to 3 months a year. Meantemperatures o the coldest month range rom - 5Cto -10 C at the southern margin o the true Arctic,to -30 C or -35 C (or occasionally even lower),on its northern margin. The mean minimum wintertemperature at Devon Island in the Canadian highArctic, or example, is -40.5C.

At other times o the year, or example high summer(July), the temperature may rise to 20 to 25C in

the tundra regions, even as ar as 80 N. Directwarming by solar radiation is extremely importantecologically in high-polar regions during summermonths. Rock sur ace temperatures as well as thoseo the upper part o the soil can reach 30oC at thistime. Wind is also an important actor in severalrespects, or example, a ecting the distribution o snow, and causing wind chill actor. The latter, ratherthan ambient air temperatures, is a constant danger(particularly to man): a 40 km/h wind with an airtemperature o -15C results in an equivalent windchill temperature o -37C.

4.4.2 Perma rost

Large areas o the Arctic are underlain by permanentlyrozen ground, termed perma rost (Figure 4.6). Only the

sur ace active layer thaws during the summer months.

There are two main types o perma rost: dryperma rost, containing little or no ice, as usually

ound in areas o rock, gravel or coarse sand; andwet perma rost which generally has a high icecontent and is ound in ne-grained soils. Continuousperma rost exists at higher latitudes (where it mayhave existed or thousands o years), its southern limitcoinciding, in general, with the -8C mean annualair temperature isotherm. Further south, discontinuousperma rost extends broadly between the -8C andthe 0 C isotherm. Relict perma rost is present in someSubarctic regions.

Figure 4.6Distribution of Arctic permafrost. Philippe Rekacewicz (UNEP/GRID-Arendal)

http://www.grida.no

Perma rost generally occurs in the upper 500 m o the Earths sur ace but has been ound as deep as1,500 m, especially in areas with low air temperatureand thin snow cover. The climatic conditions o the


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Arctic region are basic to the ormation and continuedexistence o perma rost. Its presence depends on lowannual temperatures, rather than on temperaturesexperienced during a particular time period, orexample, the summer growing season. Its importancecannot be underestimated; the thermal stability o thepolar region depends largely on the volume o thisground ice.

A complex pattern o drainage and vegetationoverlies the perma rost. Much o the Arctic terrainundergoes natural thermokarst, a process in which

subsidence occurs as a result o melting ground ice.Patterned ground is another product o rost actionon polar terrain, unsorted high-centre and low-centrepolygons being the most common eatures. Some o the characteristic sur ace eatures that are associatedwith perma rost are illustrated in Figure 4.7.

Figure 4.7 Schematic diagram of permafrost features. (See text for description)

4.4.3 Hydrology

Lakes, drained lake basins and beaded drainagepatterns are characteristic eatures o Arctichydrological systems. Arctic lakes, also known asthermokarst or thaw lakes (Figure 4.7), are shallowwater bodies ormed by the melting o the perma rost.Numerous Arctic lakes occur on the coastal plainso northern Siberia, Alaska and Canada and mayoccupy as much as 90 per cent o the sur ace area.These lakes have a number o eatures in common.Many are ultra-oligotrophic and, in general, arecharacterised by their biological simplicity. Watertemperature is low (except in extremely shallow lakes),thermocline ormation is rare, and they are subject tosevere seasonal variation in insolation. The chemistry

o large Arctic lakes is unusual because o the near-absence o annual cycles o nutrients and micro-organisms and the low quantities o dissolved solids.

Due to the extended winter and presence o perma rost at very shallow depths, groundwater ispresent only in the thawing active layer. Its movementis typically limited, or even non-existent, because o the slight topographical relie over much o the region.The presence o groundwater is more likely in the

sub-Arctic, although it still depends on the limit o theperma rost zone. Groundwater may be restricted toareas beneath, or near, large bodies o sur ace water.Many lakes and rivers are shallow and reeze solidly

ice wedges &patterned ground

thaw lake thermokast pits

permafrost (up to 1000m thick) unfrozen water

ice

unfrozen basal rock

acrtive layer (up to 1m thick)

sheet ofground ice

ground icelenses

pingo melting pingo


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during the long winters. The majority o northern riversare completely or partially covered by ice or at

environmental management in arcticoil and gas operations:good practice guide

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