environmental reporting for african journalists handbook of key environmental issues and concepts

United Nations Environment ProgrammeP.O. Box 30552 Nairobi, Kenya

Tel.: +254 20 762 1234Fax: +254 20 762 3927

E-mail: [email protected]: www.unep.org

www.unep.org

UNEPUNEP

UNEP

ISBN: 978-92-807-2767-8JOB NO.: DPD/0883/NA

ENV

IRO

NM

ENTA

L REPO

RTIN

G FO

R A

FRIC

AN

JOU

RN

ALISTS

A H

an

db

oo

k of Ke

y Enviro

nm

en

tal Issu

es a

nd

Co

nc

ep

ts

ENVIRONMENTAL REPORTING FOR AFRICAN JOURNALISTSA Handbook of Key Environmental Issues and Concepts

�

Environmental reportingfor African journalists:

Handbook of key environmental issues and

concepts

��

Publ�shed �n December 2006. © 2006 UNEP. ISBN: 978-92-807-2767-8.UNEP Job number: DPD/0833/NA

Produced by the D�v�s�on of Env�ronmental Pol�cy Implementat�on (DEPI)

D�v�s�onal D�rectors: D�v�s�on of Reg�onal Cooperat�on - Cr�st�na Boelcke;D�v�s�on of Env�ronmental Pol�cy Implementat�on - Veerle Vandeeweerd

Project Superv�sors: Akpez� Ogbu�gwe, Angele Luh

In House Team: Dav�es Okoko; Lev�s Kavag�; T�mey�n Uweja; Kwame Ansong-Gy�mah; Dav�d Bwakal�; Sarah Dorothy At�eno and Rose Ogot

Des�gn and layout: Jenn�fer Odallo

Cover des�gn and layout concept: Celeste Wam�ru

Illustrat�ons: Celeste Wam�ru and Amako Ob�figbo Chukwunonso

UNEP Rev�ew: Angele Luh; Esther Re�l�nk; Fatou Ndoye; Sylv�a Bankobeza; Meryem C. Amar; Desta Mebratu; Verleye Ines; Mart�n Krebs; Chr�s Ambala; Aaban Al� Bhutt.

We also acknowledge the extens�ve rev�ew that was carr�ed out by the Afr�ca Network of Env�ronmental Journal�sts (ANEJ), Sylv�a Wach�ra and Nk�rote La�bon. The photographs �ncluded �n th�s handbook are from the follow�ng sources: Peter Manyara, Celeste Wam�ru, Dav�d Bwakal� and EET Team.

© 2006 Un�ted Nat�ons Env�ronment ProgrammeISBN: 978-92-807-2767-8Job No.: DPD/0883/NA

DisclaimerThe contents and v�ews expressed �n th�s publ�cat�on do not necessar�ly reflect the v�ews or pol�c�es of UNEP or contr�butory organ�zat�ons.

��

The op�n�ons, figures and est�mates set forth �n th�s publ�cat�on may not necessar�ly be cons�dered as reflect�ng the v�ew or carry�ng the endorsement of UNEP.

The des�gnat�ons employed and the presentat�ons do not �mply the express�ons of any op�n�on whatsoever on the part of UNEP or contr�butory organ�zat�ons concern�ng the legal status of any country, terr�tory, c�ty or area or �ts author�ty, or concern�ng the del�m�tat�on of �ts front�ers or boundar�es.

Ment�on of a commerc�al company or product�on �n th�s publ�cat�on does not �mply the endorsement of UNEP.

ReproductionTh�s publ�cat�on may be reproduced �n whole or �n part and �n any form for educat�onal or non-profit purposes w�thout spec�al perm�ss�on from the copyr�ght holder, prov�ded acknowledgement of the source �s made. The Un�ted Nat�ons Env�ronment Programme would apprec�ate rece�v�ng a copy of any publ�cat�on that uses th�s publ�cat�on as a source.

No use of th�s publ�cat�on may be made for resale or for any other commerc�al purpose whatsoever w�thout pr�or perm�ss�on �n wr�t�ng from the Un�ted Nat�ons Env�ronment Programme.

Un�ted Nat�ons Env�ronment ProgrammeD�v�s�on of Env�ronmental Pol�cy Implementat�on (DEPI)P.O. Box 30552, Na�rob�, 00100, KenyaTel: +254 20 7621234Fax�m�le: +254 20 7623927Ema�l: [email protected]

Pr�nt�ng: UNON Pr�ntshop, Un�ted Nat�ons Office at Na�rob�

Pr�nted on chlor�ne free paper w�th plant based �nk.

�v

Contents

Foreword............................................................................................................................................v�

Preface ............................................................................................................................................. v��

L�st of abbrev�at�ons...........................................................................................................................x

Introduct�on ......................................................................................................................................1

How to use th�s handbook .................................................................................................................3

I. Afr�ca Env�ronment Outlook (AEO) ......................................................................................5

II. Key env�ronmental �ssues ........................................................................................................15A. Poverty and the env�ronment ........................................................................................15B. Env�ronmental law .........................................................................................................16C. Env�ronmental partnersh�ps ..........................................................................................21D. Health and the env�ronment ..........................................................................................24E. Gender and the env�ronment .........................................................................................25F. Youth and the env�ronment ..........................................................................................27G. Env�ronmental educat�on and tra�n�ng ........................................................................29

III. Un�ted Nat�ons and the env�ronment ....................................................................................33A. Env�ronment Management Group (EMG) ...................................................................34 B. Un�ted Nat�ons Env�ronment Programme (UNEP) .....................................................34C. Food and Agr�cultural Organ�zat�on of the Un�ted Nat�ons (FAO) ............................45D. Un�ted Nat�ons Development Programme (UNDP) ....................................................47E. Un�ted Nat�ons Human Settlements Programme (UN-Hab�tat) ................................48F. Un�ted Nat�ons Educat�onal, Sc�ent�fic and Cultural Programme (UNESCO) .........51G. Un�ted Nat�ons Industr�al Development Organ�zat�on (UNIDO) ..............................52H. World Meteorolog�cal Organ�zat�on (WMO) ...............................................................52I. World Health Organ�zat�on (WHO) .............................................................................53J. World Food Programme (WFP) ....................................................................................55K. Un�ted Nat�ons campa�gns and �nter-agency network�ng ............................................56

IV. Development banks and �nst�tut�ons financ�ng env�ronmental act�v�t�es ............................59A. World Bank .....................................................................................................................59

v

B. Afr�can Development Bank ............................................................................................60C. Mult�lateral Fund for the Implementat�on of the Montreal Protocol .........................60

V. Internat�onal env�ronment-focused organ�zat�ons ...............................................................63

VI. Afr�ca Network of Env�ronmental Journal�sts (ANEJ)..........................................................65

VII. Mult�lateral env�ronmental agreements ................................................................................67A. B�od�vers�ty convent�ons ................................................................................................70B. Atmosphere convent�ons................................................................................................85C. Chem�cals and hazardous wastes convent�ons ..............................................................94D. Land convent�ons .........................................................................................................101E. MEAs on seas and �nsland water .................................................................................106

VIII. Internat�onal env�ronmental governance .............................................................................115

IX. Key m�lestones .......................................................................................................................119

X. Major env�ronmental �nst�tut�ons �n Afr�ca .........................................................................125A. Afr�can M�n�ster�al Conference on the Env�ronment (AMCEN) ..............................125B. Afr�can M�n�sters’ Counc�l on Water (AMCOW) .......................................................127C. New Partnersh�p for Afr�ca’s Development (NEPAD) ...............................................130D. Afr�can Roundtable for Susta�nable Consumpt�on and Product�on (ARSCP) .........134

XI. Report�ng on the env�ronment .............................................................................................137

X. Conclus�on .............................................................................................................................143

Append�ces .....................................................................................................................................145I. Informat�on resources on Afr�ca..................................................................................145II. Un�ted Nat�ons system .................................................................................................146III. Env�ronmental contacts and networks ........................................................................151

A. UNEP ...................................................................................................................151B. M�n�str�es of env�ronment �n Afr�ca...................................................................152

IV. M�llenn�um Development Goals .................................................................................161

v�

Foreword

“Knowledge is power. Information is liberating. Education is the premise of progress, in every society, in every family.” These words by Kofi Annan underscore the �mmense �mportance of

�nformat�on �n our soc�ety. An �nformed soc�ety w�ll be better equ�pped and pos�t�oned to tackle the challenges of the twenty-first century.

Env�ronmental �nformat�on forms the crux of env�ronmental act�on. Thanks to the prom�nent role that they play �n d�ssem�nat�ng �nformat�on, the mass med�a can ensure w�despread d�str�but�on of env�ronmental �nformat�on and thus catalyse env�ronmental act�on.

In pursuance of �ts m�ss�on to prov�de leadersh�p and encourage partnersh�ps and access to env�ronmental �nformat�on as help�ng to contr�bute to susta�nable development, UNEP recogn�zes the need to support journal�sts �n the d�fficult task of �nterpret�ng complex env�ronmental �ssues. Th�s handbook was wr�tten �n a user-fr�endly reference style that w�ll ensure speedy access to the �nformat�on needed both �n the handbook �tself and �n the further read�ngs suggested. The ava�lab�l�ty of such spec�fic �nformat�on and references w�ll enable env�ronmental �ssues to be w�dely �ncorporated �nto ma�nstream report�ng, thus ensur�ng that accurate env�ronmental �nformat�on becomes duly and strateg�cally �ntegrated �nto the publ�c doma�n sooner, rather than later; systemat�cally, rather than sporad�cally.

Afr�ca �s one of the five pr�or�ty areas �dent�fied by UNEP, accord�ngly Afr�can journal�sts need to be tra�ned �n env�ronmental report�ng. Accurate and balanced env�ronmental journal�sm requ�res a firm grasp of global, reg�onal and local env�ronmental �ssues. Th�s handbook �s geared towards prov�d�ng the Afr�can journal�st w�th spec�fic background �nformat�on and gu�del�nes for accurate env�ronmental report�ng. It h�ghl�ghts and outl�nes key �ssues and the env�ronmental convent�ons related to them, because of the�r global s�gn�ficance and the local �mpact they have. Env�ronmental convent�ons are part�cularly �mportant for Afr�ca because of �ts extreme vulnerab�l�ty to env�ronmental change. Th�s handbook w�ll prov�de journal�sts w�th a firm grasp of the essent�als of these v�tal convent�ons and how they play out on the w�der env�ronmental field.

v��

The Afr�ca Env�ronment Outlook (AEO) process w�th�n UNEP has produced two h�ghly �nformat�ve and comprehens�ve �ntegrated env�ronmental assessment reports. The second ed�t�on of the AEO report sets out clearly the �mmense opportun�t�es afforded by Afr�ca’s natural resources. The report probes more deeply �nto the extens�ve �nterplay between env�ronmental and econom�c factors and, �n do�ng so, has set a new benchmark �n hol�st�c assessment that looks at both the past and the future. The handbook prov�des an overv�ew of th�s cutt�ng-edge AEO process wh�ch w�ll enable journal�sts to apprec�ate both the b�gger p�cture of the Afr�can env�ronment and the emerg�ng w�der context of env�ronmental act�on.

The Bal� Strateg�c Plan for Technology Support and Capac�ty-bu�ld�ng has underl�ned the need to base the dec�s�on-mak�ng process on sound �nformat�on. Th�s v�tal pr�nc�ple of information for action was also stressed by global env�ronmental m�n�sters at the�r s�xth spec�al sess�on �n Malmö, Sweden, �n May 2000. The Malmö m�n�ster�al declarat�on states �n part that “the role of c�v�l soc�ety at all levels should be strengthened through freedom of access to env�ronmental �nformat�on to all.”

The med�a cont�nue to play a strateg�c role �n ra�s�ng env�ronmental awareness, channell�ng env�ronmental �nformat�on and �nsp�r�ng env�ronmental act�on and, as such, �s cruc�al to the work carr�ed out by UNEP. For th�s reason Afr�can journal�sts, through the Afr�ca Network of Env�ronmental Journal�sts, were extens�vely consulted �n the product�on of th�s handbook and the�r �nput has ensured that the handbook truly reflects the�r concerns and needs.

Because of the dynam�c nature of env�ronmental �nformat�on, env�ronmental report�ng must be concerted, cons�stent and �nformed. Th�s handbook answers that need and prov�des journal�sts w�th the necessary tools to del�ver such report�ng.

Achim Steiner,Un�ted Nat�ons Under-Secretary-General and

Execut�ve D�rector,Un�ted Nat�ons Env�ronment Programme

v��

Preface

Env�ronmental �nformat�on �s l�ke a journey. Somet�mes you don’t know what’s around the corner but you must always proceed respons�bly towards that corner. The key env�ronmental �ssues and concepts that th�s handbook profiles are meant to

ass�st Afr�can journal�sts and the w�der publ�c to nav�gate respons�bly and cons�stently along th�s dynam�c env�ronmental journey. An anc�ent Ch�nese proverb underscores th�s, ‘to get through the hardest journey, we need to take only one step at a t�me, but we must keep on stepp�ng.’

S�nce �ts �ncept�on �n 1972, the Un�ted Nat�ons Env�ronment Programme has undertaken several projects and publ�cat�ons �n l�ne w�th �ts m�ss�on to provide leadership and encourage partnership in caring for the environment by inspiring, informing and enabling nations and peoples to improve their quality of life without compromising that of future generations.

UNEP recogn�ses that �nformat�on d�ssem�nat�on �s cruc�al for the ach�evement of global goals such as the M�llenn�um Development Goals and the Decade of Educat�on for Susta�nable Development. The med�a and med�a pract�t�oners play a cruc�al role �n �nformat�on d�ssem�nat�on and awareness ra�s�ng about susta�nable development and �n promot�ng act�on for soc�al change.

To help equ�p Afr�can journal�sts w�th relevant sk�lls and tools for ra�s�ng the qual�ty of env�ronmental report�ng �n both electron�c and pr�nt med�a, UNEP has been act�ve �n develop�ng programmes and publ�cat�ons for Afr�can Journal�sts. UNEP has held several workshops for Afr�can journal�sts between 2002 and 2006. As a result of these meet�ngs, the Afr�can Network of Env�ronmental Journal�sts (ANEJ) was formed. A webs�te has been created to fac�l�tate commun�cat�on and access to resources. A resource k�t for Afr�can journal�sts has also been publ�shed. These act�v�t�es contr�buted towards th�s handbook.

�x

The ab�l�ty to be both factual and �nvest�gat�ve �s a cornerstone of journal�sm. Th�s handbook �s des�gned to prov�de po�nters to help that pract�ce. It encourages and fac�l�tates the appl�cat�on of �nd�v�dual �n�t�at�ves. It �s based on the prem�se that the users have a natural �nterest �n nature and have the profess�onal task of report�ng on the env�ronment and env�ronmental sc�ence. However, �t �s des�gned to be of general �nterest to the average journal�st as well as all env�ronmental educators and students.

It �s our hope that th�s handbook w�ll greatly enhance the work of Afr�can journal�sts as they cont�nue w�th the�r sacred duty of keep�ng the publ�c �nformed. Indeed, we must keep on walk�ng th�s env�ronmental road. I w�sh you all an enl�ghten�ng journey as you traverse through th�s publ�cat�on.

Cr�st�na BoelckeD�rector, D�v�s�on of Reg�onal Cooperat�on Un�ted Nat�ons Env�ronment Programme

x

List of abbreviations

ABS Access to genet�c resources and benefit-t shar�ng AEWA Afr�can-Euras�an Waterb�rd AgreementAMCEN Afr�can M�n�ster�al Conference on the Env�ronment AMCOW Afr�can M�n�sters’ Counc�l on Water ANEJ Afr�can Network of Env�ronmental Journal�sts ARSCP Afr�can Roundtable on Susta�nable Consumpt�on and Product�on BPOA Barbados Plan of Act�onCBD Convent�on on B�olog�cal D�vers�ty CCOL Coord�nat�ng Comm�ttee of the Ozone Layer CILSS Com�te Permanent Inter-Etats de Lutte contre la Séecheresse dans le

Sahel (Permanent Interstate Comm�ttee for Drought Control �n the Sahel)

CITES Convent�on on Internat�onal trade �n Endangered Spec�es of W�ld Fauna and Flora

COP Conference of Part�esEAC East Afr�can Commun�tyECOWAS Econom�c Commun�ty of West Afr�ca StatesEIA Env�ronmental �mpact assessmentEMG Env�ronment Management GroupGMO Genet�cally mod�fied organ�smsIAS Invas�ve �nvas�ve al�en spec�esICRI Internat�onal Coral Reef In�t�at�veIGAD Intergovernmental Author�ty for DevelopmentIPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Cl�mate Change IUCN World Conservat�on Un�onIWRM Integrated water resource managementMEA Mult�lateral env�ronmental agreementNBI N�le Bas�n In�t�at�ve

x�

NEAP Nat�onal env�ronment act�on planNEPAD New Partnersh�p for Afr�ca’’s Development ODS Ozone-deplet�ng substances PIC Pr�or �nformed consentPOP Pers�stent organ�c pollutantSADC Southern Afr�can Development Commun�tySIDS Small �sland develop�ng StatesUNCCD Un�ted Nat�ons Convent�on to Combat Desert�ficat�onUNDESD Un�ted Nat�ons Decade of Educat�on for Susta�nable

Development UNFCCC Un�ted Nat�ons Framework Convent�on on Cl�mate ChangeWSSD World Summ�t on Susta�nable DevelopmentWWF World W�ldl�fe Fund

x��

1

Introduction

Th�s handbook seeks to equ�p Afr�can journal�sts w�th an �nformat�on tool for env�ronmental report�ng. It covers the follow�ng top�cs:

Africa Environment Outlook

Th�s sect�on prov�des an overv�ew of Afr�ca’s env�ronment, based on that g�ven �n the second ed�t�on of the Afr�ca Env�ronment Outlook report (AEO-2). Th�s report portrays Afr�ca’s env�ronmental resources as an asset for the cont�nent’s development, thus h�ghl�ght�ng the potent�al of the reg�on’s natural resource base �n support�ng the development agenda of the New Partnersh�p for Afr�ca’s Development (NEPAD) and also po�nt�ng out the env�ronmental cost of the m�suse of these resources.

Key environmental issues

Th�s sect�on prov�des outl�nes of key env�ronmental �ssues, �ntroduc�ng the UNEP d�v�s�ons that deal w�th these �ssues. The �dea �s to g�ve Afr�can journal�sts an overall p�cture of d�verse env�ronmental �ssues and concepts.

United Nations and the environment

Th�s sect�on prov�des �nformat�on on the Un�ted Nat�ons and the major bod�es w�th�n the Un�ted Nat�ons that are concerned w�th the env�ronment. It also prov�des �nformat�on on several env�ronment-related Un�ted Nat�ons programmes and projects. Global �n�t�at�ves such as the M�llenn�um Development Goals and the Decade of Educat�on for Susta�nable Development are also d�scussed here.

Multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs)

Th�s sect�on d�scusses MEAs and �ntroduces the reader to the MEA draft�ng process, meet�ngs, negot�at�ons and s�gnatures, and also the rat�ficat�on procedures. It also descr�bes

2

how an MEA comes �nto force, the overall procedure and the dec�s�ons made by the conference of part�es and the development of protocols. Th�s sect�on also outl�nes the major global env�ronmental convent�ons currently �n force.

Reporting on the environment

Th�s sect�on prov�des key po�nters on env�ronmental concerns that journal�sts may w�sh to report on. It prov�des br�ef �nformat�on on organ�zat�ons, networks and processes that deal w�th the management of env�ronmental �nformat�on. Th�s sect�on also presents some �deas on target aud�ence and focus groups, prov�des suggest�ons on how to avo�d errors �n env�ronmental report�ng and d�scusses some challenges and opportun�t�es �n env�ronmental report�ng.

Environmental contacts and networks

In order to be effect�ve every journal�st depends on access to �nformat�on and contacts. Th�s sect�on prov�des a l�st of relevant contacts that may serve as rel�able sources of �nformat�on. It also l�sts networks and tra�n�ng opportun�t�es that are ava�lable to journal�sts wr�t�ng on the env�ronment.

3

How to use this handbook

The ma�n focus of th�s handbook �s to prov�de read�ly ava�lable access to key env�ronmental �ssues and concepts. Careful cons�derat�on has been g�ven to the cho�ce of the var�ous top�cs covered �n terms of the�r �mportance and relevance to

the Afr�can cont�nent. Each sect�on deals w�th a spec�fic aspect of the env�ronment and �s des�gned to prov�de a qu�ck but deta�led reference gu�de for journal�sts on each top�c.

• If you are a journal�st who occas�onally works on env�ronmental �ssues,• If you are an env�ronmental journal�st who always reports on env�ronmental �ssues,• If you are a journal�st who would l�ke to start report�ng on env�ronmental �ssues,• If you are keen on env�ronmental �ssues,

then th�s handbook �s for you! It w�ll help you to answer �nvest�gat�ve and analyt�cal quest�ons l�ke the follow�ng:

• What are the key �ssues on the env�ronmental scene?• Who are the key players �n d�fferent env�ronmental fields?• When were landmark env�ronmental dec�s�ons made and what are the�r

consequences?• How are MEAs concluded?• Why �s the env�ronment suffer�ng �n some Afr�can reg�ons and flour�sh�ng �n others? • Where can I get add�t�onal �nformat�on on the env�ronment?

Where relevant, the �nformat�on �n the handbook �s preceded by the correspond�ng quest�on: who, what, why, when, where and how. Th�s w�ll make �t eas�er for the reader to zero �n on the sect�on they w�sh to consult. The append�ces prov�de a l�st of webs�tes, contact �nformat�on on env�ronment m�n�str�es �n Afr�ca and contact �nformat�on on the Afr�can network of env�ronmental journal�sts.

“We face neither East nor West: we face forward”

Kwame Nkrumah, founding President of Ghana

5

I. Africa Environment Outlook (AEO)

What?

The Afr�can M�n�ster�al Conference on the Env�ronment (AMCEN) �n�t�ated the Afr�ca Env�ronment Outlook (AEO) report�ng process �n 2000. The AEO report �s a UNEP flagsh�p report wh�ch analyses the current state of the env�ronment

and env�ronmental trends �n the reg�on, as well as exam�n�ng emerg�ng �ssues. Th�s report cont�nues to �nsp�re d�alogue �n the reg�on and has been used as the pr�mary background document �n the preparat�on of the NEPAD env�ronmental act�on plan – show�ng strong l�nks between env�ronmental assessment and pol�cy-mak�ng.

The AEO assessment methodology �s based on the UNEP Global Env�ronment Outlook (GEO) process. It br�ngs together �nformat�on and �ns�ghts that are usually d�spersed across d�sc�pl�nes and �nst�tut�ons. It also fosters commun�cat�on between sc�ence and pol�cy-mak�ng. Th�s h�ghly part�c�patory process a�ms to prov�de comprehens�ve, cred�ble env�ronmental �nformat�on �n a form that �s relevant to pol�cy-mak�ng. The structure, wh�ch comb�nes comprehens�ve env�ronmental �nformat�on w�th pol�cy analys�s, m�ndful of the overall context of soc�al and econom�c cond�t�ons and development �mperat�ves, �s thus �deally su�ted to th�s purpose.

When?

AEO was comm�ss�oned at the e�ghth sess�on of AMCEN. The first AEO report was launched dur�ng the n�nth sess�on of AMCEN and was ha�led as an h�stor�c advance for the state of the env�ronment �n Afr�ca. It was the first ever comprehens�ve and �ntegrated report on the Afr�can env�ronment. The second AEO report was launched dur�ng the eleventh sess�on of AMCEN �n Brazzav�lle, Congo.

“The AEO-2 report challenges the myth that Africa is poor. Indeed, it points out that its vast natural wealth can, if sensitively, sustainably and creatively managed, be the basis for an African renaissance – a renaissance that meets and goes beyond the internationally agreed Millennium Development Goals. But this is not inevitable and, as the AE0-2 points out, African nations face stark choices”.

Achim Steiner, UNEP Executive Director

6

How?

Th�s report has brought people �nto the heart of susta�nable development, thus underl�n�ng the �mportance of the human element �n env�ronmental dynam�cs. The report probes deeply �nto the close �nterconnect�on between soc�al and econom�c factors. In do�ng th�s, �t has set a new benchmark �n hol�st�c assessment.

AEO-2 prov�des an �ntegrated and mult�level analys�s of the state of the env�ronment and the opportun�t�es �t offers for Afr�ca. It emphas�zes the concept of susta�nable l�vel�hood, and the �mportance of env�ronmental �n�t�at�ves �n support�ng that concept. It d�scusses what should and can be done w�th the rema�n�ng env�ronmental assets, �n the context of �dent�fied constra�nts, rather than focus�ng on what has been already lost. Success can be ach�eved by adopt�on of the follow�ng measures:

• Adding value to the resource that st�ll rema�ns �n ex�stence; • Using natural resources efficiently and sustainably to der�ve max�mum benefit; • Mitigating constra�nts and negat�ve effects; • Maximizing the total value of Afr�ca’s natural assets;• Mak�ng a case for safeguarding and improving the rema�n�ng assets;

Why?

As �s ev�dent from �ts content, AEO-2 has defined Afr�ca’s env�ronmental resources as an asset for the cont�nent’s development. In do�ng th�s, �t shows that the reg�on’s natural resource base can be used to support’ the development agenda of NEPAD and �t also demonstrates the pr�ce to be pa�d for m�suse of that resource base. The report serves as a mon�tor�ng and evaluat�on tool for the �mplementat�on of the programmes and act�v�t�es conta�ned �n the act�on plan of the NEPAD env�ronment �n�t�at�ve.

“Safeguarding the environment is a crosscutting United Nations’ activity. It is a guiding principle of all our work in support of sustainable development. It is an essential component of poverty eradication and one of the foundations of peace and security.”

Kofi Annan, United Nations Secretary-General

7

The AEO-2 report covers the follow�ng:

Environment for development

The env�ronment and human development are the pr�nc�pal focuses of susta�nable development. The product�v�ty and susta�nab�l�ty of Afr�ca’s env�ronment �s heav�ly dependent on how th�s asset �s managed. Th�s, �n turn, can affect the ava�lab�l�ty, stocks and funct�on�ng of the rema�n�ng assets, e�ther enhanc�ng opportun�t�es or putt�ng l�vel�hoods at r�sk. The range of l�vel�hoods, w�th �ts opportun�t�es for human development and allev�at�on of extreme poverty and hunger, extends from total dependence on natural resource systems e�ther for subs�stence or as part of bus�ness, to total dependence on wage earn�ngs, from trade or �ndustry.

Th�s sect�on ma�nly focuses on the central role that people and l�vel�hoods play �n the field of susta�nable development, explor�ng the concept and range of l�vel�hoods to be found �n Afr�ca. In th�s context, the range of opportun�t�es for earn�ng a l�vel�hood �n Afr�ca �s cons�dered to extend from those who are wholly dependent on natural resource systems for subs�stence, to those who are ent�rely dependent on wage earn�ng, or trade or �ndustr�es.

Th�s sect�on also exam�nes the �nteract�on between culture and natural resources. In many Afr�can soc�et�es, not only are natural resources �mportant assets, but they also help define group �dent�ty.

Th�s sect�on also rev�ews d�fferent �n�t�at�ves that are �nfluenc�ng the env�ronmental agenda �n the reg�on and the way they are operat�ng at subreg�onal, nat�onal and local levels. It has �dent�fied common po�nts �n the �n�t�at�ves and h�ghl�ghted areas of agreement on the pr�or�t�es.

State of the environment and environmental trends: 20-year retrospective

Th�s sect�on has drawn from AEO-1 and NEPAD programme areas to prov�de a br�ef summary of the state of the env�ronment, �n the context of opportun�t�es for development.

“However improbable it may sound to the sceptics, Africa will prosper! Whoever we may be, whatever our immediate interest, however much we carry baggage from our past, however much we have been caught by the fashion of cynicism and loss of faith in the capacity of the people, let us err today and say – nothing can stop us now!”

Thabo Mbeki, then Deputy President of South Africa (Mbeki 1996)

8

What?

The areas covered �n th�s chapter are the follow�ng:

• Soc�al and econom�c �ssues• Land• Forests and woodlands• Atmosphere• Freshwater• B�od�vers�ty• Coastal and mar�ne• Human settlements• Health and env�ronment (malar�a, TB, HIV/AIDS, �nfant mortal�ty)• Energy• Technology solut�ons (cons�dered as cross-cutt�ng)• Natural d�sasters and env�ronmental performance• Gender d�spar�t�es (an �nterd�sc�pl�nary �ssue relevant to all the themes)• Interl�nkages: The env�ronment and pol�cy web

How?

Each theme �dent�fies potent�al opportun�t�es for revers�ng env�ronmental degradat�on, focuss�ng on add�ng value to what rema�ns by us�ng �t effic�ently to ach�eve max�mum poverty allev�at�on. Econom�c evaluat�on of the resources emphas�zes the need to safeguard and �mprove them.

Emerging challenges

What?

Emerg�ng �ssues can s�mply be ex�st�ng �ssues looked at �n a d�fferent l�ght. They can also be completely new env�ronmental phenomena. One of the funct�ons of AEO, as a mon�tor�ng

“Like winds and sunsets, wild things were taken for granted until progress began to do away with them”

Aldo Leopold, US environmentalist (1887–1948)

9

tool, �s to keep track of env�ronmental problems (or solut�ons) that may suddenly become s�gn�ficant, and br�ng them to the attent�on of pol�cy makers.

Some of the emerg�ng �ssues dealt w�th �n AEO-2 are set out below.

Genetically modified crops

Mod�fied non-l�v�ng organ�sms �nclude products such as drugs, vacc�nes, and food add�t�ves, canned, processed and preserved foods. B�otechnology techn�ques and products appl�cable �n the health sector that may be of value �n develop�ng countr�es �nclude molecular d�agnost�cs, recomb�nant vacc�nes, vacc�ne and drug-del�very techn�ques, sequenc�ng pathogens, genomes, m�crob�c�des, b�o�nformat�cs, recomb�nant therapeut�c prote�ns, and comb�nator�al chem�stry. Env�ronmental management techn�ques that may be useful �nclude b�oremed�at�on.

There are three cr�t�cal �ssues to be cons�dered: first, the �mpl�cat�ons of the use of modern b�otechnology for b�osafety as well as for human health and well-be�ng; second, whether or not genet�cally mod�fied organ�sms (GMOs) wh�ch were eng�neered us�ng modern b�otechnology offer a susta�nable food secur�ty opt�on; and, th�rd, the extent to wh�ch, w�th �ts ex�st�ng capac�ty, Afr�ca �s able to undertake research and effect�vely to mon�tor and evaluate genet�cally mod�fied products and the�r use.

Another set of quest�ons relat�ng to pol�cy-mak�ng processes �s the grow�ng �nfluence of the sc�ent�fic and pr�vate sector �n pol�cy development and how th�s can be reconc�led w�th publ�c concerns. Issues of publ�c trust, accountab�l�ty and transparency, as well as farmers’ and consumers’ r�ghts, account for much of these.

Invasive alien species

Al�en – that �s non-nat�ve – spec�es have been �ntroduced both acc�dentally and �ntent�onally. Intent�onal �ntroduct�ons are, and have been, mot�vated by econom�c, env�ronmental and soc�al cons�derat�ons. Many al�en spec�es, �nclud�ng some that are

“…future generations are likely to look back to our time and either thank us or curse us for what we do – or don’t do – about GMOs and biosafety. Doing the right thing is not simple.”

CBD and UNEP 2003

“Invasive alien species are emerging as one of the major threats to sustainable development, on a par with global warming and the destruction of life-support systems. These aliens come in the form of plants, animals and microbes that have been introduced into an area from other parts of the world, and have been able to displace indigenous species.”

Preston and Williams, Working for Water Programme, South Africa 2003

10

�nvas�ve, have been of �mmense econom�c value for Afr�ca. In general, however, the�r �mpact on susta�nab�l�ty of resources (on wh�ch l�vel�hoods and development are often based) has been adverse: they have a negat�ve �mpact on human well-be�ng and opportun�t�es and contr�bute to �ncreased human vulnerab�l�ty. Invas�ve al�en spec�es are a ser�ous �mped�ment to the susta�nable use of global, reg�onal and local b�od�vers�ty; th�s has �mpl�cat�ons for freshwater and mar�ne resources, tour�sm, and forest and woodlands. The prol�ferat�on of �nvas�ve al�en spec�es affects the potent�al of countr�es to meet the�r development and env�ronmental object�ves. Resources spent on try�ng to control �nvas�ve al�en spec�es could be red�rected to other development �n�t�at�ves, such as the �mplementat�on of the M�llenn�um Development Goals. Th�s �s an �mportant reason to adopt approaches that control and prevent such �ntroduct�ons.

In Afr�ca there are �mportant ecosystems under threat from �nvas�ve al�en spec�es; th�s underm�nes development and l�vel�hood opportun�t�es, �ncreases human vulnerab�l�ty and threatens human well-be�ng. The �nvas�ve spec�es may outcompete nat�ve spec�es, repress�ng or exclud�ng them, thus fundamentally chang�ng the ecosystem. They may �nd�rectly transform the structure and spec�es compos�t�on of the ecosystem by chang�ng the way �n wh�ch nutr�ents are cycled through the ecosystem. Ent�re ecosystems could be placed at r�sk through the knock-on effects. G�ven the cr�t�cal role played by b�od�vers�ty �n the ma�ntenance of essent�al ecosystem funct�ons, �nvas�ve al�en spec�es may cause changes �n env�ronmental serv�ces such as flood control and water supply, water ass�m�lat�on, nutr�ent recycl�ng, conservat�on and regenerat�on of so�ls. Invas�ve spec�es may also affect nat�ve spec�es by �ntroduc�ng pathogens or paras�tes that may br�ng them d�sease or even death.

Chemicals

Chem�cal substances and the�r der�vat�ves are w�dely used �n many development and econom�c fields, �nclud�ng �ndustry, agr�culture, m�n�ng, water pur�ficat�on, publ�c health (part�cularly d�sease erad�cat�on), and �nfrastructure development. The use of chem�cals has brought �mmense benefits to human�ty, but at the same t�me has had negat�ve �mpacts on human health and safety, (espec�ally for the very poor and the very young), on the �ntegr�ty of terrestr�al and mar�ne ecosystems, and on the qual�ty of a�r and water. The

“Never look down to test the ground before taking your next step; only he who keeps his eye fixed on the far horizon will find the right road.”

Dag Hammarskjold, United Nations Secretary-General 1953-1961

“To live is to choose. But to choose well, you must know who you are and what you stand for, where you want to go and why you want to get there.”

Kofi Annan, Secretary-General of the United Nations

“Safeguarding the environment is… an essential component of poverty eradication and one of the foundations of peace and security.”

Kofi Annan, Secretary-General of the United Nations

11

“By our actions we have denigrated our country and jeopardized the future of our children …indigenous people often do not realise what is happening to them until it is too late. More often than not, they are the victims of the actions of greedy outsiders.”

Ken Saro-Wiwa, Nigerian writer, human rights activist and environmentalist

unsound management of obsolete chem�cals, stockp�les and waste underm�nes human health and poses threats to human well-be�ng at many levels, �nclud�ng the susta�nab�l�ty of the env�ronment, wh�ch prov�des essent�al goods and serv�ces for the l�vel�hood of m�ll�ons. It poses a threat to phys�cal secur�ty and also reduces the ab�l�ty of commun�t�es to care for themselves and, espec�ally, for the�r ch�ldren.

The challenge fac�ng Afr�ca �s how to harness the benefits of chem�cals, wh�le m�n�m�z�ng the costs. Wh�le Afr�ca has made s�gn�ficant progress �n develop�ng a reg�onal framework for the management of chem�cals throughout the�r l�fe-cycle – product�on, transportat�on, storage, use and d�sposal – much st�ll needs to be done for th�s approach to be �mplemented �nto nat�onal and subreg�onal systems.

Develop�ng a more effect�ve chem�cal management system w�ll requ�re tackl�ng the spec�fic challenges that Afr�ca faces. There �s already an extens�ve global system for chem�cal management, and �t �s �mportant not to dupl�cate efforts but to create synerg�es and better systems for �mplementat�on. Afr�ca faces challenges related to the ava�lab�l�ty of �nformat�on and the commun�cat�on of th�s to users; �nadequate capac�ty to mon�tor the use of chem�cals effect�vely; lack of access to cleaner product�on systems and technolog�es for waste management; �nadequate capac�ty to deal w�th po�son�ng and contam�nat�on. Recogn�t�on of the r�sks that chem�cals pose to human health and the env�ronment has led to s�gn�ficant progress be�ng made at �nternat�onal levels to address th�s through Agenda 21, the World Summ�t on Susta�nable Development, the Rotterdam Convent�on and the Stockholm Convent�on.

Environment for peace and regional cooperation

Th�s sect�on looks at some of the l�nks between env�ronment, populat�on, and secur�ty, part�cularly �n areas of confl�ct where there are problems w�th scarc�ty, d�str�but�on of and access to env�ronmental resources.

Confl�ct �s a major dr�ver of env�ronmental change, and �t has s�gn�ficant �mpl�cat�ons for development and human well-be�ng. Many of the confl�cts �n the reg�on are �nternal and

12

cross-border d�sagreements that are often related to the use of natural resources. There �s a strong negat�ve correlat�on between confl�ct and human development: �n 2005 most of the countr�es w�th the lowest human development �ndex (HDI) rank�ngs were also those wh�ch were �mmersed �n confl�ct or had recently emerged from �t.

S�nce 1970, more than 30 wars have been fought �n Afr�ca. Severe m�l�tary confl�ct �n sub-Saharan Afr�ca �s reported to cut l�fe expectancy by between four and s�x years. Between 1980 and 2000, Afr�ca lost over 50 per cent of �ts �nfrastructure to confl�ct. By the end of 2003, more than half of the total 24 m�ll�on �nternally d�splaced people worldw�de were to be found �n 20 Afr�can States. In 2004, there were almost 2.9 m�ll�on offic�ally reg�stered refugees �n Afr�ca, and many more people l�v�ng outs�de the�r country of or�g�n w�thout legal protect�on. By 2005, th�s number had r�sen to 4.9 m�ll�on. It �s est�mated that one �n three Afr�can c�ty-dwellers l�ves �n l�fe-threaten�ng cond�t�ons. In Angola, for example, a comb�nat�on of war-related factors resulted �n rap�d and unplanned urban�zat�on. The populat�on of the cap�tal c�ty, Luanda, doubled between 1990 and 2001.

Afr�ca has made cons�derable progress towards bu�ld�ng peace. In 1998, there were 14 countr�es engaged �n armed confl�ct or c�v�l str�fe; by August 2005, the Un�ted Nat�ons Secretary-General reported that only three countr�es were engaged �n major confl�ct although many more countr�es were �nvolved �n c�v�l str�fe of a lower �ntens�ty. Most countr�es have greatly �mproved the�r governance system, yet a comb�nat�on of h�stor�cal, external and �nternal factors cont�nue to contr�bute to confl�ct.

Outlook

Back to our common future: a renaissance for the environment

The AEO-2 report looks at the future through the lens of four scenar�os – Market forces, Policy reform, Fortress world, and Great transitions. Analys�s of these scenar�os prov�des a framework for understand�ng the ways �n wh�ch var�ous �ssues or sectors �mp�nge on one another and the �mpl�cat�ons that any part�cular pol�cy cho�ce w�ll have for the future.

13

When?

The t�me frame env�saged �s between now and the year 2025; th�s would fit �n w�th the nat�onal development v�s�ons and poverty reduct�on strateg�es wh�ch have already been developed by a number of countr�es �n the reg�on.

How?

Th�s chapter focuses on strateg�c partnersh�ps, pol�c�es and early warn�ng systems or other mechan�sms to ach�eve NEPAD goals. It also h�ghl�ghts the role of sc�ence and technology and exam�nes d�fferent development paths towards ach�ev�ng the M�llenn�um Development Goals, based on selected scenar�os.

Strengthening implementation and policy

What?

Th�s chapter looks at ways of �mprov�ng �mplementat�on of act�v�t�es and pol�cy development, keep�ng �n m�nd the emerg�ng �ssues w�th�n the global context. Spec�al focus �s placed on the opportun�t�es ava�lable. Some of the �ssues d�scussed �nclude:

• Analys�s of the costs and benefits of pr�or�ty pol�c�es• Governance and capac�ty-bu�ld�ng for compl�ance w�th MEAs• The pr�or�t�es for research and development that are needed to �mprove pol�cy

development• Partnersh�ps focus�ng on �ssues concerned w�th the empowerment of the pr�vate

sector, commun�t�es and c�v�l soc�ety to ach�eve NEPAD goals.

14

Conclusions and recommendations

What?

The follow�ng are some of the �ssues h�ghl�ghted �n the conclus�on:

• An analys�s of the overall env�ronmental performance. Are th�ngs �mprov�ng or gett�ng worse?

• Whether the responses, pol�cy and act�on, are the most appropr�ate or could th�ngs have been done d�fferently?

How?

AEO-2 recommendat�ons are formulated on the pr�nc�ple that people are central to susta�nable development. Some of the success stor�es h�ghl�ghted �n the analys�s g�ve r�se to recommendat�ons for act�ons to be taken. Spec�fic recommendat�ons are made for Afr�can small �sland develop�ng States �n the context of the meet�ng held �n Maur�t�us to rev�ew �mplementat�on of the Barbados Plan of Act�on 10 years on (Barbados+10) and �ts outcome. There are also recommendat�ons for the next set of pr�or�t�es for Afr�ca.

References

AMCEN/UNEP (2006). Africa Environment Outlook: Our Environment, Our Wealth. Earthpr�nt L�m�ted, London

15

II. Key environmental issues

A. Poverty and the environment

Poverty should be stud�ed through a mult�-d�mens�onal approach that encompasses a mult�tude of const�tuents and determ�nants of well-be�ng. The absence of these const�tuents and determ�nants can be defined as poverty. Accord�ng to the publ�cat�on,

Exploring the Links: Human Well-being, Poverty and Ecosystem Services (UNEP and IISD, 2004), the ten const�tuents and determ�nants that are essent�al for �mprov�ng well-be�ng and reduc�ng poverty are:

• Adequate nour�shment• Freedom from avo�dable d�sease• Env�ronmentally clean and safe shelter• Adequate supply of clean dr�nk�ng water• Access to clean a�r• Suffic�ent energy for warmth and cook�ng• Use of trad�t�onal med�c�ne• Use of natural elements found �n ecosystems for trad�t�onal cultural and sp�r�tual

pract�ces• Ab�l�ty to cope w�th extreme natural events such as floods, trop�cal storms and

landsl�des• Ab�l�ty to make susta�nable management dec�s�ons that respect natural resources and

enable the ach�evement of a steady, susta�nable �ncome.

The well-be�ng of present and future human populat�ons depends on the�r atta�n�ng ecolog�cally susta�nable and soc�ally equ�table ways of l�v�ng. Wh�le ecosystems adapt and evolve, humans are vulnerable, espec�ally when ecosystem product�v�ty drops. In order to reduce th�s vulnerab�l�ty and �ncrease the res�l�ence of the poor we need:

• To move away from a one-s�ze-fits-all approach towards a more adaptable �ntervent�on strategy that embraces, understands and respects the complex�ty of ecosystems

“If a free society cannot help the many who are poor, it cannot save the few who are rich.”

John F. Kennedy US President 1961 - 1963

“A society is judged not so much by the standards attained by its more affluent and privileged members as by the quality of life which it is able to assure for its weakest members.”Javier Perez de Cuellar, United Nations Secretary-General, 1982–1991

“There can be no peace without equitable develop-ment; and there can be no development without sustainable management of the environment in a democratic and peaceful space.”

Wangari Maathai, Nobel Peace Laureate, 2004

16

• To ensure that �ntervent�on strateg�es do not fight aga�nst the dynam�cs of the ecosystems but rather work w�th them.

References

http://www.unep.org/delc/poverty_env�ronment/�ndex.asp

B. Environmental law

S�nce the establ�shment of UNEP �n 1972, env�ronmental law has always been one of �ts pr�or�t�es. The development of adequate env�ronmental law �s an essent�al adjunct to the �mplementat�on of the pol�c�es, strateg�es and recommendat�ons of UNEP. In 2000, the Malmö M�n�ster�al Declarat�on acknowledged that the evolv�ng framework of �nternat�onal env�ronmental law and the development of nat�onal law prov�ded a sound bas�s for address�ng major env�ronmental threats.

17

Env�ronmental law was also covered �n Agenda 21, wh�ch stated that, “the overall object�ve of the rev�ew and development of �nternat�onal env�ronmental law should be to evaluate and to promote the efficacy of that law and to promote the �ntegrat�on of env�ronment and development pol�c�es through effect�ve �nternat�onal agreements or �nstruments tak�ng �nto account both un�versal pr�nc�ples and the part�cular and d�fferent�ated needs and concerns of all countr�es.”

Nat�onal and �nternat�onal env�ronmental leg�slat�on �s complex and vast, compr�s�ng thousands of rules that a�m to protect the Earth’s l�v�ng and non-l�v�ng elements and �ts ecolog�cal processes. The laws of these ecolog�cal processes are �nescapable and must be acknowledged. One such law �s that all human act�v�t�es have an �mpact on the env�ronment. Indeed, each �nd�v�dual has an “ecolog�cal footpr�nt” that reflects the extent of that person’s use of natural resources and the extent to wh�ch that use has contr�buted to pollut�on. The ecolog�cal footpr�nts of �nd�v�duals vary cons�derably both w�th�n States and from one reg�on of the world to another.http://www.footprintnetwork.org

Global comm�tments are v�tal to the susta�nable protect�on and conservat�on of env�ronmental features. In Afr�ca, landmark natural resources that are �nd�spensable to l�fe, such as the N�le r�ver, can only be conserved through transboundary leg�slat�on and act�on. Hence env�ronmental law at the global, reg�onal and nat�onal level �s at once a cornerstone and a gu�depost for the env�ronment. Env�ronmental law �s w�dely recogn�zed as an effect�ve tool to catalyse and ma�nta�n nat�onal and �nternat�onal env�ronmental act�on.

Montevideo Programme

S�nce 1982, UNEP has conducted �ts env�ronmental law act�v�t�es on the bas�s of three consecut�ve �ssues of the Montev�deo Programme for the Development and Per�od�c Rev�ew of Env�ronmental Law. Each sets a ten-year strategy for the �nvolvement of UNEP �n the field of env�ronmental law. The Montev�deo Programme has prov�ded a long-term strateg�c approach for the development and �mplementat�on of the UNEP �nternat�onal env�ronmental law programme, wh�ch responds to the var�ous env�ronmental challenges of each decade.

18

In 1981, a group of sen�or government offic�als, expert �n env�ronmental law, developed a long-term, strateg�c gu�dance plan for UNEP �n the field of env�ronmental law, wh�ch was adopted by the Govern�ng Counc�l of UNEP �n 1982 and became known as Montev�deo Programme I. As part of �ts mandate, UNEP was to undertake programme act�v�t�es on the conclus�on of �nternat�onal agreements and the development of �nternat�onal pr�nc�ples, gu�del�nes and standards. Dur�ng the 1980s and 1990s, the Programme and �ts successor (Montev�deo Programme II) adopted by the Govern�ng Counc�l �n 1993 formed the bas�s for any act�on taken by UNEP concern�ng the progress�ve development of env�ronmental law. The content was largely based upon the requ�rements outl�ned �n Agenda 21 adopted at the Un�ted Nat�ons Conference on Env�ronment and Development �n 1992 – the Earth Summ�t. UNEP �s currently �mplement�ng the Montev�deo Programme III, the Programme for the Development and Per�od�c Rev�ew of Env�ronmental Law for the first Decade of the Twenty-first Century. The Govern�ng Counc�l adopted the programme �n February 2001, by dec�s�on 21/23. The Montev�deo Programme III �ncludes 20 components, grouped under three major themes:

(a) Effect�veness of env�ronmental law• Implementat�on, compl�ance and enforcement • Capac�ty-bu�ld�ng• Prevent�on and m�t�gat�on of env�ronmental damage• Avo�dance and settlement of �nternat�onal env�ronmental d�sputes• Strengthen�ng and development of �nternat�onal env�ronmental law• Harmon�zat�on and coord�nat�on• Publ�c part�c�pat�on and access to �nformat�on• Informat�on technology and �nnovat�ve approaches to env�ronmental law

(b) Conservat�on and management• Freshwater resources • Coastal and mar�ne ecosystems

Publications on Environmental Law include:- Guidebook for Policy

and Legislative Development on Conservation and Sustainable Use of Freshwater Resources.

- UNEP Global Judges Programme.

- Compendium of Environmental Laws of African Countries

- Judicial Handbook on Environmental Law

- International Environmental Law

19

• So�ls • Forests • B�olog�cal d�vers�ty • Pollut�on prevent�on and control • Product�on and consumpt�on patterns • Env�ronmental emergenc�es and natural d�sasters

(c) Relat�onsh�p w�th other fields• Trade • Secur�ty and the env�ronment • M�l�tary act�v�t�es and the env�ronment

Cartagena mandate for UNEP

In 2002, at the seventh spec�al sess�on meet�ng of UNEP �n Cartagena, Colomb�a recommended that the �mplementat�on of the ex�st�ng nat�onal and �nternat�onal laws should be a matter of pr�or�ty. The recommendat�on went further and stated: “�mplementat�on of mult�lateral env�ronmental agreements should be further enhanced, w�th appropr�ate ass�stance g�ven to develop�ng countr�es and countr�es w�th econom�es �n trans�t�on. The UNEP Programme for the Development and Per�od�c Rev�ew of Env�ronmental Law for the F�rst Decade of the Twenty-first Century (Montev�deo Programme III) should be fully �mplemented for address�ng legal and �nst�tut�onal means for ach�ev�ng the env�ronmental d�mens�on of susta�nable development. Inst�tut�onal arrangements to strengthen collaborat�on between UNEP and other relevant ent�t�es, �nclud�ng mult�lateral env�ronmental agreement ent�t�es competent �n fields other than the env�ronment should be pursued.”

References

http://www.unep.org/delc/Lawhttp://www.unep.org/gc/GCSS-VII/Documents/K0260448.doc

20

Partnership for the Development of Environmental Law and Institutions in Africa (PADELIA)

PADELIA �s a UNEP project wh�ch a�ms at bu�ld�ng capac�ty and strengthen�ng the �nst�tut�ons of Afr�can countr�es for the development, �mplementat�on, enforcement and harmon�zat�on of env�ronmental laws, tak�ng �nto account poverty allev�at�on and susta�nable development strateg�es.

Phase I of the project was �n�t�ated �n 1994. Th�s phase of the project �nvolved seven countr�es: Burk�na Faso, Kenya, Malaw�, Mozamb�que, Sao Tome and Pr�nc�pe, Uganda and the Un�ted Republ�c of Tanzan�a. The first four project countr�es concentrated on env�ronmental �ssues of a purely nat�onal character wh�le the other three focused on �ssues of subreg�onal and transboundary scope geared towards the harmon�zat�on of laws and regulat�ons �n agreed areas.

Phase I, wh�ch ended offic�ally �n 2000, generated many projects at global, nat�onal and subreg�onal levels, �nclud�ng the comp�lat�on of compend�ums of env�ronmental leg�slat�on of d�fferent Afr�can countr�es and jud�c�al dec�s�ons on matters related to the env�ronment from d�fferent jur�sd�ct�ons worldw�de; reports wh�ch formed the bas�s for the development of leg�slat�on and framework env�ronmental laws �n Burk�na Faso, Kenya, Malaw�, Mozamb�que, Sao Tome and Pr�nc�pe and Uganda. In add�t�on, the project countr�es developed draft texts of sectoral laws. Kenya, Uganda and the Un�ted Republ�c of Tanzan�a, wh�ch had been selected to fac�l�tate an exper�ment w�th a subreg�onal project, are adopt�ng a protocol on the env�ronment and natural resources.

Phase II of the project covers 13 countr�es wh�ch are grouped �nto three subreg�ons: the Sahel subreg�on compr�s�ng Burk�na Faso, Mal�, N�ger and Senegal; the SADC subreg�on compr�s�ng Botswana, Lesotho, Malaw� and Swaz�land (a phase I country) and the East Afr�can subreg�on compr�s�ng Kenya, Uganda and the Un�ted Republ�c of Tanzan�a. Other countr�es wh�ch do not fall under the subreg�ons are Mozamb�que and Sao Tome and Pr�nc�pe. PADELIA, therefore, works w�th the nat�onal Governments �n the project countr�es and other partners, �nclud�ng donors and the cooperat�ng agenc�es the World Conservat�on

21

Un�on (IUCN) and the Food and Agr�culture Organ�zat�on of the Un�ted Nat�ons (FAO) �n the �mplementat�on of the project act�v�t�es.

The project act�v�t�es are categor�zed �nto five broad areas: rev�ew and development of env�ronmental laws; �nst�tut�onal strengthen�ng; capac�ty-bu�ld�ng to develop and �mplement env�ronmental laws; promot�on of compl�ance w�th and enforcement of env�ronmental law, and the promot�on of env�ronmental law awareness and �nformat�on. Its ma�n features �nclude the l�nk�ng of all �ts act�v�t�es to poverty reduct�on strateg�es and susta�nable development; �t �s country-based and h�ghly part�c�patory �n nature �n that benefic�ary countr�es �dent�fy the�r own problems, determ�ne the�r pr�or�t�es, bu�ld a nat�onal consensus and employ nat�onal expert�se to �mplement act�v�t�es, thus ensur�ng nat�onal ownersh�p of the results.

It also encourages capac�ty-bu�ld�ng whereby nat�onals are tra�ned to �dent�fy problems requ�r�ng legal �ntervent�on and to prepare the�r own laws and other legal �nstruments. At the reg�onal level, the project has been work�ng w�th Afr�can un�vers�t�es to promote the �ntroduct�on of env�ronmental law �nto the curr�culum of the�r law facult�es.

PADELIA has been regarded as a dr�v�ng force for env�ronmental law �n Afr�ca. The establ�shment of the Assoc�at�on of Env�ronmental Law Lecturers �n Afr�can Un�vers�t�es �s a clear �nd�cat�on of the �ncrease �n popular�ty of the subject of env�ronmental law through the act�v�t�es of PADELIA.

C. Environmental partnerships

A K�swah�l� proverb r�ghtly states that un�ty means power wh�le d�sun�ty means weakness. UNEP has always enjoyed a spec�al relat�onsh�p w�th c�v�l soc�ety organ�zat�ons �n tackl�ng env�ronmental �ssues. Th�s un�ty was already ev�dent even when UNEP was conce�ved; the Stockholm Conference on the Human Env�ronment, wh�ch led to the creat�on of UNEP �n 1972, owed much to the enthus�asm, ded�cat�on and comm�tment of non-governmental organ�zat�ons (NGOs). S�nce then, th�s mutually benefic�al partnersh�p has borne many fru�ts. Most of the MEAs (Basel Convent�on, Montreal Protocol, Convent�on on B�olog�cal

“Reversing global environmental decline demands the full and effective participation of all sectors of society.”

Klaus Töpfer, UNEP Executive Director, 1998–2006

22

D�vers�ty, Framework Convent�on on Cl�mate Change, etc.) were developed thanks to the lobby�ng efforts of NGOs.

It �s cruc�al that c�v�l soc�ety take an effect�ve role w�th�n the var�ous programmes and �n governance �f the env�ronmental p�llar of susta�nable development �s to be strengthened and Agenda 21 firmly �mplemented. Agenda 21 makes �t mandatory to �ntegrate all c�v�l soc�ety stakeholders �n susta�nable development processes. These d�fferent major groups br�ng on board many valuable exper�ences and �deas that need to be taken �nto account �n order to foster long-term, broad-based support for the work of UNEP. Even more �mportant, such partnersh�ps prov�de opportun�t�es for mult�-stakeholder part�c�pat�on �n the des�gn, �mplementat�on and mon�tor�ng of act�v�t�es, and d�ssem�nat�on of v�tal env�ronmental projects.

“Business, labor and civil society organizations have skills and resources that are vital in helping to build a more robust global community.”


23

The current UNEP pattern for stakeholder �nvolvement at the pol�cy level �s based on accred�tat�on, as per rule 69 of the rules of procedure of the Govern�ng Counc�l. As of 1 July 2006, 173 organ�zat�ons are accred�ted to the UNEP Govern�ng Counc�l.

UNEP recogn�zes the �mportance of c�v�l soc�ety �n env�ronmental susta�nab�l�ty and �s act�vely work�ng to ensure that c�v�l soc�ety organ�zat�ons are able to play a construct�ve role �n the formulat�on and �mplementat�on of pol�cy and programmes for susta�nable development. The �nvolvement of UNEP w�th c�v�l soc�ety a�ms to establ�sh and strengthen partnersh�ps w�th prom�nent c�v�l soc�ety groups, w�th a v�ew to enhanc�ng the effect�veness of the development and del�very of �ts programme of work �n Afr�ca; to develop and promote understand�ng of the major env�ronmental challenges �n the reg�on, as a means of mak�ng people’s l�vel�hoods more product�ve and env�ronmentally susta�nable; to promote and support the work, act�v�t�es and �n�t�at�ves of reg�onal and subreg�onal env�ronmental forums, w�th the a�m of max�m�z�ng the�r �nvolvement �n the preparat�on and �mplementat�on of the dec�s�ons of the Govern�ng Counc�l/Global M�n�ster�al Env�ronment Forum.

The Malmö M�n�ster�al Declarat�on clearly acknowledged the role of c�v�l soc�ety when �t noted that “C�v�l soc�ety plays a cr�t�cally �mportant role �n address�ng env�ronmental �ssues” (2000 Malmö Declarat�on 2000 and Govern�ng Counc�l dec�s�on SSVII.5 adopted �n 2002). S�nce 2000, UNEP has been organ�z�ng a yearly Global C�v�l Soc�ety Forum, �n conjunct�on w�th the UNEP Govern�ng Counc�l/Global M�n�ster�al Env�ronment Forum. Th�s forum �s the ma�n entry po�nt for c�v�l soc�ety part�c�pat�on at governance level. The Forum not only prov�des a platform to enable c�v�l soc�ety organ�zat�ons to engage w�th UNEP but also contr�butes to bu�ld�ng the capac�t�es of c�v�l soc�ety organ�zat�ons �n �nternat�onal env�ronmental negot�at�ons and processes.

References

http://www.unep.org/delc/c�v�l_soc�etyUNEP (2004). Natural Allies: UNEP and Civil Society. UNON Pr�ntshop, Na�rob�

Rule 69 of the rules of procedure of the UNEP Governing Council, “Observers of international non-governmental organizations”, stipulates in its paragraph 2, with regard to civil society organizations:• “International non-

governmental organizations having an interest in the field of the environment, referred to in section IV, paragraph 5, of General Assembly resolution 2997 (XXVII), may designate representatives to sit as observers at public meetings of the Governing Council and its subsidiary organs, if any. The Governing Council shall from time to time adopt and revise when necessary a list of such organizations.

24

D. Health and the environment

Human health and env�ronmental health are �nextr�cably l�nked together. An eros�on of env�ronmental health often leads to an eros�on of human health. Poor env�ronmental management exacerbates the �nc�dence and negat�ve health �mpacts of many natural occurrences such as floods, droughts and cyclones. Degraded env�ronments also place a stra�n on the ab�l�ty to meet needs for med�c�nes, food and energy – all central to health.

Env�ronmental hazards account for a s�gn�ficant port�on of the health r�sks fac�ng the poor, and ch�ldren bear the brunt of th�s. Although ch�ldren const�tute only 10 per cent of the world’s populat�on, they suffer 40 per cent of the env�ronment-related burden of d�sease (WRI and others 2005). Th�s burden of d�sease �s closely l�nked to �nadequate env�ronmental management pract�ces and the lack of opportun�t�es ava�lable to poor people.

As a statement of the�r full acknowledgement of the l�nks between health and the env�ronment, Canada, the Un�ted States of Amer�ca, UNEP and WHO launched the Health and Env�ronment In�t�at�ve (HELI) at the 2002 World Summ�t on Susta�nable Development �n Johannesburg, South Afr�ca.

HELI encourages countr�es to see health and env�ronment l�nks as �ntegral to econom�c development. Understand�ng the l�nks between env�ronmental hazards and health �s fundamental to the development of a good publ�c health, env�ronment and econom�c pol�cy. A w�de range of sc�ent�fic knowledge ex�sts on the l�nks between env�ronmental threats and human health.

That knowledge base also prov�des us w�th methods for evaluat�ng and assess�ng the health �mpacts of hazards, from water contam�nat�on, pest�c�de m�suse and �mproper waste d�sposal, to a�r pollut�on em�tted by cook�ng fires, �ndustry, and veh�cles. That knowledge, unfortunately, does not have a d�rect bear�ng on dec�s�on-mak�ng. Consequently, the soc�al, econom�c and env�ronmental costs are enormous �n terms of death, �llness and d�sab�l�ty; loss of �ncome and product�v�ty; health care expend�tures; the qual�ty of our ecosystems and the�r �mpact on human well-be�ng.

Upon the invitation of the President or chairman, as the case may be, and subject to the approval of the Governing Council or the subsidiary organ concerned, international non-governmental organizations may take oral statements on matters within the scope of their activities."

With regard to “having an interest in the field of environment”, the rules provide as follows:• “Written statements

provided by international non-governmental organizations referred to in paragraph 1 above, related to items on the agenda of the Governing Council or of its subsidiary organs, shall be circulated by the secretariat to members of the Governing Council

25

The object�ves of HELI are as follows:

• To �dent�fy key pol�cy dec�s�ons affect�ng the env�ronment and health• To d�ssem�nate sc�ent�fic knowledge on the l�nks between the env�ronment and

health• To promote the use of dec�s�on-support methodolog�es• To share exper�ence on pol�cy �ntervent�ons • To strengthen the capac�ty of Governments and the �mportance of health �n dec�s�on-

mak�ng.

References

AMCEN/UNEP (2006). Afr�ca Env�ronment Outlook: Our Env�ronment, Our Wealth Earthprint Limited, London.http://www.unep.org/delc/Themes/health_env�ronment.asp

E. Gender and the environment

In Afr�ca, women �nteract w�th the env�ronment every day as they carry clean water, fetch firewood, and grow food. Such close prox�m�ty w�th nature leaves them w�th a wealth of �nd�genous knowledge that has endured for generat�ons. It �s no wonder that Kofi Annan, Secretary-General of the Un�ted Nat�ons, has sa�d “Invest�ng �n women �s the best strategy for susta�nable development.” The role of women �n the management and use of natural resources cannot be overvalued.

Gender d�fferences and �nequal�t�es �nfluence the extent and nature of almost every form of env�ronmental encounter �n use and �mpact. Accord�ngly, there �s a need for broad- based, susta�nable development �n�t�at�ves that w�ll g�ve men and women the opportun�ty to bu�ld the�r capac�ty, lessen the�r vulnerab�l�ty and d�vers�fy the�r �ncome sources. Among the env�ronmental problems affect�ng women are deforestat�on, water pollut�on and a�r pollut�on. Women are often exposed to these env�ronmental hazards dur�ng the�r labour- �ntens�ve �nteract�ons w�th the env�ronment. It �s very �mportant for soc�ety to recogn�ze

or of the subsidiary organ concerned in the quantities and in the languages in which the statements were made available to the secretariat for distribution.”

The first Global Women’s Assembly on Environment: Women as the Voice for the Environment (WAVE) was held at the headquarters of UNEP in Nairobi, Kenya, from 11 to 13 October 2004. The meeting was attended by some 150 participants from 65 countries.

“Gender equality is more than a goal in itself. It is a precondition for meeting the challenge of reducing poverty, promoting sustainable development and building good governance.”


26

the full �mpact of env�ronmental degradat�on on women. Th�s understand�ng w�ll help to prevent �mpover�shment, l�ghten the burden on women and �mprove the�r health status.

It �s of cruc�al �mportance that women be able to part�c�pate fully �n env�ronmental management Th�s part�c�pat�on should �nclude the �nvolvement of local women as resource persons and experts on the relevant env�ronmental panels and other forums deal�ng w�th the env�ronment �n part�cular and susta�nable development �n general.

References

UNEP Global Women’s Assembly on Env�ronment: Women as the vo�ce for the env�ronment (WAVE). Act�on plan recommendat�ons and project �deas. Ava�lable on:http://www.unep.org/delc/C�v�l%5FSoc�ety/WAVE/

27

F. Youth and the environment

Today’s global youth populat�on, rang�ng �n age from 15 to 24 years, �s an est�mated 1.03 b�ll�on, or 18 per cent of the people �nhab�t�ng the Earth. The major�ty of these young men and women l�ve �n develop�ng countr�es, and the�r numbers are expected to �ncrease well �nto the twenty-first century. The med�an age of Afr�ca �s 18, mak�ng Afr�ca the most youthful cont�nent �n the world. Afr�ca’s young people therefore have a cr�t�cal role to play �n env�ronmental affa�rs. The�r �mag�nat�on, �deals and energ�es are v�tal for susta�nable development on the cont�nent.

The problems of young men and women, as well as the�r v�s�on and asp�rat�ons, are an essent�al element of the challenges fac�ng today’s soc�et�es and future generat�ons. The

“No one is born a good citizen; no nation is born a democracy. Rather, both are processes that continue to evolve over a lifetime. Young people must be included from birth. A society that cuts off from its youth severs its lifeline.’


“The one common undertaking and universal instrument of the great majority of the human race is the United Nations. A patient, constructive long-term use of its potentialities can bring a real and secure peace to the world.”

Trygve Lie, first United Nations Secretary-General, 1946–1952

28

deter�orat�on of the natural env�ronment �s one of the pr�nc�pal concerns of young people worldw�de as �t has d�rect �mpl�cat�ons for the�r well-be�ng now and �n the future. Wh�le every segment of soc�ety �s respons�ble for ma�nta�n�ng the env�ronmental �ntegr�ty of the commun�ty, youth have a spec�al �nterest �n a healthy env�ronment because they w�ll be the ones to �nher�t �t. The �nvolvement of youth �n env�ronment and development dec�s�on-mak�ng �s cr�t�cal to the �mplementat�on of pol�c�es of susta�nable development.

It �s the v�s�on of UNEP to “foster a generat�on of env�ronmentally consc�ous c�t�zens who w�ll better �nfluence dec�s�on-mak�ng processes and act respons�bly to create a susta�nable world.” To th�s end �t has establ�shed Tunza, a long-term strategy for youth, named from the Swah�l� word for “care”. The �mplementat�on of the Tunza strategy �n the reg�on a�ms at �nclud�ng all schools, ch�ldren and youth-related organ�zat�ons work�ng w�th UNEP �n a revamped umbrella network for young people and the env�ronment.

In May 2006, UNEP organ�zed a youth conference for Afr�ca �n Brazzav�lle, Congo, as a parallel event dur�ng the eleventh sess�on of AMCEN. The conference gave b�rth to the Afr�ca Youth Env�ronment Network and also w�tnessed the launch of Afr�ca Env�ronment Outlook for Youth, publ�shed by UNEP. Th�s book was exclus�vely wr�tten by young people from 41 Afr�can countr�es.

The AEO-for-Youth publ�cat�on comb�ned the sc�ent�fic �nformat�on �n AEO w�th �llustrat�ons, br�ef case stud�es, poems, photos, quotat�ons and op�n�ons on env�ronmental �ssues subm�tted by Afr�can youngsters �n a youth-fr�endly format. The AEO-for-Youth network �s now an �ntegral part of the broader youth env�ronment network.

Susta�ned and �nformed youth part�c�pat�on �n env�ronmental matters can be ach�eved through a concerted strateg�c effort. As Afr�can youth struggle for a better tomorrow, the�r efforts are often hampered by a ser�es of challenges such as confl�ct, fam�ne, acute unemployment and AIDS. Faced w�th such challenges, young people find �t d�fficult to slot the env�ronment �nto the�r l�st of pr�or�t�es. Th�s trend, however, �s chang�ng as young people �n Afr�ca reach out to one another and to UNEP, and other organ�zat�ons.

General Assembly: The United Nations General Assembly is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations. It is made up of all United Nations Member States and meets in regular yearly sessions under a president elected from among the representatives.

“We have too much in common, too great a sharing of interests and too much that we might lose together, for ourselves and succeeding generations, never to weaken in our efforts to turn simple human values into the firm foundation on which we may live together in peace”

Dag Hammarskjold, second United Nations Secretary-General (1953–-1961)

29

As part of th�s strategy, UNEP organ�zes b�-annual Tunza global youth conferences that br�ng together youth from all over the world to del�berate together on env�ronmental �ssues. Dur�ng these conferences, Tunza youth adv�sors are elected whose ma�n role �s to adv�se UNEP on youth �ssues.

References

World Programme of Act�on for Youth to the Year 2000 and Beyond. Ava�lable on:http://www.un.org/events/youth98/back�nfo/ywpa2000.htmTunza Strategy. Ava�lable on:http://www.unep.org/tunza/youth UNEP (2005). Africa Environment Outlook for Youth: Our Region, Our Life. UNON

Pr�ntshop, Na�rob�.

G. Environmental education and training

The role of educat�on goes beyond informing, to prompting behav�oural change. Educat�on �s not just a transfer of �nformat�on, but also a transfer of values. Th�s proact�ve role of educat�on places �t at the heart of the UNEP mandate of inspiring, informing and enabling nat�ons and peoples to �mprove the�r qual�ty of l�fe w�thout comprom�s�ng that of future generat�ons.

In December 2002, resolut�on 57/254 on the Un�ted Nat�ons Decade of Educat�on for Susta�nable Development (2005–2014) was adopted by the Un�ted Nat�ons General Assembly. The overall goal of the Decade �s to �ntegrate the values �nherent �n susta�nable development �nto all aspects of learn�ng to encourage changes �n behav�our that allow for a more susta�nable and just soc�ety for all. The Decade affirms the p�votal role of educat�on �n susta�nable development.

“Education is the most powerful weapon, which you can use to change the world.”

Nelson Mandela African Statesman and South Africa’s President 1994 - 1999

“The sanctity of all life on earth should find expression in all our actions: In understanding that human wealth and economic development ultimately derive from and depend upon the resources of the Earth; in seeing economic development and care for the environment as compatible, interdependent and necessary; in knowing that economic development can help solve environmental problems only if it is accompanied by an attitude of responsibility

30

The Educat�on and Tra�n�ng Un�t of UNEP promotes att�tudes and value systems that �nfluence env�ronmentally eth�cal behav�our. Env�ronmental educat�on seeks to develop understand�ng and sk�lls that enable people to part�c�pate as act�ve and �nformed c�t�zens �n the development of an ecolog�cally susta�nable and soc�ally just soc�ety.

UNEP env�ronmental educat�on and tra�n�ng act�v�t�es seek to promote �nnovat�ve, act�on-or�ented, and value-based educat�on for susta�nable development by ensur�ng that env�ronmental cons�derat�ons are taken �nto account. These act�v�t�es are geared towards develop�ng and strengthen�ng env�ronmental educat�on and tra�n�ng �n�t�at�ves to address all �nst�tut�ons, Governments, segments, and ages �n soc�ety. In add�t�on to produc�ng a number of publ�cat�ons and products related to env�ronmental educat�on, the Env�ronmental

and stewardship for the Earth; and in knowing that the key to socially sustainable development is the participation, organization, education and empowerment of people.”

Elizabeth Dowdeswell, UNEP Executive Director, 1993–1998

“I dream of the realization of the unity of Africa, whereby its leaders combine in their efforts to solve the problems of this continent. I dream of our vast deserts, of our forests, of all our great wildernesses.”

Nelson Mandela, African statesman and South Africa’s President 1994–1999

31

Educat�on and Tra�n�ng Un�t has conducted tra�n�ng for 45 Afr�can journal�sts on the M�llenn�um Development Goals and env�ronmental report�ng. It has also formulated and �mplemented a programme for educators and students and other key stakeholders, known as Ma�nstream�ng Env�ronment and Susta�nab�l�ty �n Afr�ca (MESA).

References

http://www.unep.org/tra�n�ng

33

III. United Nations and the environment

When?

The Un�ted Nat�ons came �nto be�ng �n October 1945 w�th 51 States s�gn�ng the Un�ted Nat�ons Charter.

What?

Currently the Un�ted Nat�ons cons�sts of 192 Member States, wh�ch have comm�tted themselves to preserv�ng peace through �nternat�onal cooperat�on and collect�ve secur�ty. Member States accept obl�gat�ons under the Un�ted Nat�ons Charter, an �nternat�onal treaty that sets out bas�c pr�nc�ples of �nternat�onal relat�ons. Chapter I of the Un�ted Nat�ons Charter sets forth the purposes of the Un�ted Nat�ons, �nclud�ng the �mportant prov�s�ons of the ma�ntenance of �nternat�onal peace and secur�ty.

The purposes of the Un�ted Nat�ons are:

1. To ma�nta�n �nternat�onal peace and secur�ty and, to that end: to take effect�ve collect�ve measures for the prevent�on and removal of threats to the peace, and for the suppress�on of acts of aggress�on or other breaches of the peace, and to br�ng about by peaceful means, and �n conform�ty w�th the pr�nc�ples of just�ce and �nternat�onal law, adjustment or settlement of �nternat�onal d�sputes or s�tuat�ons wh�ch m�ght lead to a breach of the peace;

2. To develop fr�endly relat�ons among nat�ons based on respect for the pr�nc�ple of equal r�ghts and self-determ�nat�on of peoples, and to take other appropr�ate measures to strengthen un�versal peace;

3. To ach�eve �nternat�onal cooperat�on �n solv�ng �nternat�onal problems of an econom�c, soc�al, cultural, or human�tar�an character, and �n promot�ng and encourag�ng respect for human r�ghts and for fundamental freedoms for all w�thout d�st�nct�on as to race, sex, language, or rel�g�on; and

4. To be a centre for harmon�z�ng the act�ons of nat�ons �n the atta�nment of these common ends.

“If policies remain unchanged, political will found wanting and sufficient funding proves to be elusive, then Africa may take a far more unsustainable track that will see an erosion of its nature-based wealth and a slide into ever deeper poverty.”


“Industry and global institutions must appreciate that ensuring economic justice, equity and ecological integrity are of greater value than profits at any cost.”

Wangari Maathai, Nobel Peace Laureate 2004

34

http://www.un.org/aboutun/charter/chapter1.htm

The Un�ted Nat�ons has s�x ma�n organs. F�ve of them are based at Un�ted Nat�ons headquarters �n New York. They are: the General Assembly, the Secur�ty Counc�l, the Econom�c and Soc�al Counc�l, the Trusteesh�p Counc�l and the Secretar�at. The s�xth organ – the Internat�onal Court of Just�ce – �s based �n the Hague �n the Netherlands.

The Un�ted Nat�ons fac�l�tates awareness-ra�s�ng about the env�ronment and the development and �mplementat�on of MEAs. www.un.org

A. Environment Management Group (EMG)

The env�ronment �s a crosscutt�ng �ssue that �s of d�rect concern to all Un�ted Nat�ons organ�zat�ons, programmes and projects. EMG a�ms to �dent�fy and tackle, through collect�ve act�on, spec�fic problems and �ssues on the �nternat�onal env�ronment and human settlements agenda that requ�re enhanced �nter-agency cooperat�on w�th�n a g�ven t�me-frame. To th�s end, the Group endeavours to secure the effect�ve and collaborat�ve �nvolvement of the relevant Un�ted Nat�ons system agenc�es, programmes and organs, and other potent�al partners. It also seeks to prov�de a forum for an early d�scuss�on and shar�ng of �nformat�on on emerg�ng problems and �ssues �n the field of env�ronment and human settlements, geared at find�ng, through d�alogue and collect�ve efforts, an effect�ve and coord�nated approach to the�r resolut�on.http://www.unemg.org

B. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)

When?

The Un�ted Nat�ons Env�ronment Programme (UNEP) was establ�shed by the Un�ted Nat�ons General Assembly �n 1972 follow�ng the first Un�ted Nat�ons Conference on the Human Env�ronment �n Stockholm �n June 1972.

“All our efforts to defeat poverty and pursue sustainable development will be in vain if environmental degradation and natural resource depletion continue unabated”


“The world’s poorest people are the most dependent on fertile soil, clean water and healthy ecosystems for their livelihoods. Investing in sound environmental management to improve these resources provides direct economic benefits for the poor along with the tools they need to lift themselves out of poverty.”

Klaus Töpfer, UNEP Executive Director, 1998–2006

35

Why?

The m�ss�on of UNEP �s to “prov�de leadersh�p and encourage partnersh�ps �n car�ng for the env�ronment by �nsp�r�ng, �nform�ng and enabl�ng nat�ons to �mprove the�r qual�ty of l�fe w�thout comprom�s�ng that of the future generat�ons.”

The mandate of UNEP was re�nforced further by the 2005 Un�ted Nat�ons World Summ�t wh�ch, amongst other th�ngs, recogn�zed the need for more effic�ent env�ronmental act�v�t�es �n the Un�ted Nat�ons system, �nclud�ng enhanced coord�nat�on, better pol�cy adv�ce and gu�dance, �mproved sc�ent�fic knowledge, assessment and cooperat�on and more compl�ance w�th treat�es.

What does UNEP do?

• Assess�ng global, reg�onal and nat�onal env�ronmental cond�t�ons and trends• Develop�ng �nternat�onal agreements and nat�onal env�ronmental �nstruments• Support�ng �mplementat�on of those agreements and �nstruments• Strengthen�ng �nst�tut�ons for sound management of the env�ronment• Integrat�ng econom�c development and env�ronmental protect�on• Fac�l�tat�ng the transfer of knowledge and technology for susta�nable development• Encourag�ng new partnersh�ps and m�nd-sets w�th�n c�v�l soc�ety and the pr�vate

sectorwww.unep.org

UNEP has five pr�or�ty areas:

1. Env�ronmental assessment and early warn�ng 2. Development of pol�cy �nstruments3. Enhanced coord�nat�on w�th env�ronmental convent�ons 4. Technology transfer5. Support to Afr�ca

“To be effective, investments must be implemented and driven at the grassroots level by communities, local governments and the private sector. The poor must have secure rights and access to natural resources and a greater voice in decisions over the management of the land, water and biological resources that support their livelihoods’

Kemal Dervis, Administrator of UNDP

36

How does UNEP work?

UNEP has e�ght d�v�s�ons to promote and fac�l�tate sound env�ronmental management for susta�nable development:

Division of Early Warning and Assessment

The �nternat�onal commun�ty needs to be able to evaluate, pred�ct and respond to ex�st�ng and emerg�ng needs �f �t �s to be able effect�vely to tackle the env�ronmental �ssues of the twenty-first century. UNEP prov�des access to env�ronmental data and �nformat�on and helps Governments to use env�ronmental �nformat�on for plann�ng for susta�nable development.

The flagsh�p assessment process w�th�n UNEP �s the Global Env�ronment Outlook (GEO), produced �n cooperat�on w�th a network of nat�onal, subreg�onal, reg�onal and global partners. These partners feed �nto the GEO process and �nto other assessments �nclud�ng the Global Internat�onal Waters Assessment and the M�llenn�um Ecosystems Assessment.

UNEP helps Governments to ant�c�pate, respond to and manage d�sasters wh�ch have been caused by env�ronmental factors, or wh�ch have profound effects on the env�ronment. UNEP also assesses the env�ronmental consequences of armed confl�ct, and prov�des post-confl�ct clean-up and gu�dance on damage l�m�tat�on.www.unep.org/dewa/index.asp

Division of Environmental Policy Implementation

UNEP works to develop pol�cy gu�del�nes on major env�ronmental �ssues such as the �ncreas�ng scarc�ty of fresh water, the degradat�on of the mar�ne env�ronment and the pollut�on of the atmosphere. UNEP has also �n�t�ated a m�n�ster�al-level �ntergovernmental process to strengthen env�ronmental governance and re�nv�gorate global comm�tment to susta�nable development.

“For too long economics and environment have seemed like players on rival teams. There have been a lot of nasty challenges and far too many own goals. We need to make these two sides of the development coin team players, players on the same side.”

Achim Steiner, UNEP Executive Director.

37

UNEP works w�th Governments, the pr�vate sector and c�v�l soc�ety to protect natural resources worldw�de. As well as support�ng assessments and develop�ng �nst�tut�onal and legal capac�ty, UNEP promotes d�alogue and cooperat�on among stakeholders, the exchange of best pract�ces and success stor�es, the transfer of knowledge and technology, and the establ�shment of demonstrat�on projects.www.unep.org/depi

Division of Technology, Industry and Economics

UNEP encourages dec�s�on-makers �n Governments, local author�t�es and �ndustry to develop and �mplement pol�c�es, strateg�es and pract�ces that are cleaner and safer; make effic�ent use of natural resources; ensure env�ronmentally sound management of chem�cals; reduce pollut�on and r�sks to humans and the env�ronment; enable the �mplementat�on of convent�ons and �nternat�onal agreements, and take account of env�ronmental costs.

The strategy employed by UNEP �s to �nfluence �nformed dec�s�on- mak�ng through partnersh�ps w�th other �nternat�onal organ�zat�ons, governmental author�t�es, bus�ness and �ndustry bod�es and non-governmental organ�zat�ons. Th�s strategy also �nvolves offer�ng support for the �mplementat�on of convent�ons and bu�ld�ng capac�ty �n develop�ng countr�es.www.unep.fr

Division of Regional Cooperation

UNEP �s represented across the globe by s�x reg�onal offices:

• Afr�ca: Na�rob�, Kenya (www.unep.org/roa)• As�a and the Pac�fic: Bangkok, Tha�land (www.roap.unep.org)• Europe: Geneva, Sw�tzerland (www.unep.ch/roe)• Lat�n Amer�ca and the Car�bbean: Mex�co C�ty, Mex�co (www.pnuma.org)• North Amer�ca: Wash�ngton DC, Un�ted States of Amer�ca (www.rona.unep.org)• West As�a: Manama, Bahra�n (www.unep.org.bh).

“A renaissance in environmental policy does not come in a vacuum. It emerges as a result of collective efforts of Governments, civil society organizations and private business. It needs the long-term commitment and vision of men and women. It needs people who are and continue to be Champions of the Earth.”Klaus Töpfer, Executive Director UNEP, 1998–2006

38

Through the reg�onal offices, UNEP seeks:

• To gather �nformat�on and data that w�ll br�ng reg�onal perspect�ves to the development of UNEP pol�c�es and programmes;

• To present UNEP global pol�c�es to the reg�ons and enl�st support for those pol�c�es at all levels;

• To �mplement and further develop the relevant parts of �ts global programmes through �n�t�at�ng, coord�nat�ng, and catalys�ng reg�onal and subreg�onal cooperat�on and act�on �n response to env�ronmental problems and emergenc�es;

• To ass�st �n the development of pol�c�es and programmes on global and reg�onal env�ronmental �ssues between and w�th�n Governments �n the reg�ons;

• To prov�de adv�sory serv�ces to help Governments translate global comm�tments �nto nat�onal act�on for the protect�on and enhancement of the env�ronment;

• To ra�se publ�c awareness of env�ronmental problems and br�ng cons�stency to env�ronmental act�on;

• To promote cooperat�on between UNEP, non-governmental organ�zat�ons and the pr�vate sector; and

• To broaden the UNEP const�tuency. www.unep.org/drc

Division of Environmental Law and Conventions

One of the most s�gn�ficant ach�evements of UNEP has been �ts role �n fac�l�tat�ng the work of the mult�lateral env�ronment agreements (MEAs). UNEP hosts several env�ronmental convent�on secretar�ats �nclud�ng:

• Ozone Secretar�at• Mult�lateral Fund of the Montreal Protocol • Convent�on on Internat�onal Trade �n Endangered Spec�es of W�ld Fauna and Flora

(CITES)• Convent�on on B�olog�cal D�vers�ty• Convent�on on M�gratory Spec�es

“When spider webs unite, they can tie up a lion.”

Ethiopian proverb

“Attaining the Millennium Development Goals will depend increasingly on the ability of Governments and their local authorities and civil society partners to come up with concrete solutions to make our cities and towns more equitable and inclusive.”

Mrs Anna Tibaijuka, Executive Director, UN-Habitat

“Peace we want because there is another war to fight against poverty, disease and ignorance.”

Indira Gandhi, India’s Prime Minister 1966 – 1977, 1980 - 1984

39

• Basel Convent�on on the Transboundary Movement of Hazardous and Other Wastes• Stockholm Convent�on on Pers�stent Organ�c Pollutants • Rotterdam Convent�on on Pr�or Informed Consent.*

* Co-hosted w�th the Un�ted Nat�ons Food and Agr�culture Organ�zat�on (FAO)

MEAs are of enormous �mportance on the global env�ronmental scene. As a key player on th�s scene, UNEP seeks:

• To �dent�fy and encourage �mportant l�nks between MEAs and develop jo�nt act�v�t�es between them;

• To �ncrease collaborat�on between the var�ous UNEP d�v�s�ons and MEAs; • To encourage the harmon�zat�on of �nformat�on systems, �nformat�on exchanges and

access to �nformat�on between MEAs;• To encourage a coord�nated approach to capac�ty-bu�ld�ng among MEAs;• To support the �mplementat�on and enforcement of the MEAs by the�r part�es.

www.unep.org/dec

Division of Communications and Public Information

UNEP has a w�de-rang�ng programme d�rected at ch�ldren, youth, sport and the env�ronment. Conferences, campa�gns, pa�nt�ng compet�t�ons and other events, together w�th env�ronmental l�terature and a webs�te, are used to educate ch�ldren and young adults about susta�nable l�v�ng. UNEP also operates env�ronmental educat�on and tra�n�ng programmes for all sect�ons of soc�ety.

UNEP publ�cat�ons, commun�cat�on w�th the med�a, spec�al events such as World Env�ronment Day and Clean Up the World, and env�ronmental awards such as Champ�ons of the Earth, the UNEP Sasakawa Pr�ze and the photograph�c compet�t�on Focus on Your World, all help to keep the env�ronment �n the forefront of the news.

“Clean up the World mobilizes people around a powerful idea – taking the challenge of environment and sustainable development to our front doors, our backyards, and everywhere else around the globe. It comes with another idea that UNEP strongly believes in: that what we consider waste and rubbish today could become a resource for tomorrow”Achim Steiner, Executive Director, UNEP.

40

United Nations Millennium Development Goals: A set of eight international development goals for 2015, adopted by the international community in the United Nations Millennium Declaration in September 2000, and endorsed by IMF, World Bank and OECD. They are: eradicate extreme poverty and hunger; achieve universal primary education; promote gender equality and empower women; reduce child mortality improve maternal health; combat HIV and AIDS, malaria and other diseases; ensure environmental sustainability; develop a global partnership for development.

World Environment Day was establ�shed by the Un�ted Nat�ons General Assembly �n 1972, to mark the open�ng of the Stockholm Conference on the Human Env�ronment. World Env�ronment Day, wh�ch �s celebrated each year on 5 June, �s one of the pr�nc�pal channels through wh�ch the Un�ted Nat�ons encourages pol�t�cal attent�on and act�on and st�mulates worldw�de awareness of the env�ronmental challenges fac�ng us. The many and var�ed act�v�t�es �nclude street rall�es, parades, concerts, essay and poster compet�t�ons �n schools, tree-plant�ng, campa�gns to promote recycl�ng and clean-up efforts, sem�nars, round-tables and meet�ngs. World Env�ronment Day �s also a mult�-med�a event that �nsp�res thousands of journal�sts to wr�te and report on the env�ronment through telev�s�on documentar�es, photo exh�b�t�ons and webs�tes.

The UNEP Reg�onal Office for Afr�ca organ�zes art, essay and photo compet�t�ons �nvolv�ng school ch�ldren throughout Kenya, �n collaborat�on w�th the Kenya organ�zat�on for Env�ronmental Educat�on. The object�ve of th�s compet�t�on �s to offer a platform for school ch�ldren to commun�cate the�r feel�ngs about the �mpacts of human act�v�t�es on the�r env�ronment. The compet�t�on bu�lds on partnersh�ps w�th schools and commun�ty organ�zat�ons to spread env�ronmental awareness and good pract�ces �n car�ng for our planet.

Another major event �s the tree-plant�ng exerc�se at the Aberdares range �n Kenya. For the last five years, UNEP has contr�buted to the rehab�l�tat�on of Kenya’s degraded catchment areas �n the Aberdare range forest. Th�s �s part of the respons�ble consumer �n�t�at�ve, through wh�ch UNEP plants a quant�ty of �nd�genous trees that matches the number of reams of paper that are used at �ts headquarters �n Na�rob�.

Clean Up the World �s a commun�ty-based env�ronmental programme that �nsp�res and empowers �nd�v�duals and commun�t�es from every corner of the globe to clean up, repa�r and conserve the�r env�ronment. Clean up the World has demonstrated that people across the planet are w�ll�ng to act to help protect and care for the�r env�ronment. The campa�gn has touched a nerve �n people from every walk of l�fe, every soc�al and econom�c group, every age group and culture.

41

Every year s�nce 1993, the Clean up the World campa�gn, held �n conjunct�on w�th UNEP, mob�l�zes m�ll�ons of volunteers �n more than 120 countr�es around the globe, mak�ng �t one of the largest commun�ty-based env�ronment projects �n the world. Through encourag�ng people to adopt a d�rect approach to env�ronmental management by tak�ng respons�b�l�ty for the�r own env�ronment and ra�s�ng awareness about the cr�ppl�ng �mpact of waste on our l�ves, our health and our future, Clean up the World allows commun�t�es to develop a sense of ownersh�p of the�r env�ronment. Clean Up the World also acts as the veh�cle for a broad range of env�ronmental act�v�t�es �nclud�ng reforestat�on projects, env�ronmental educat�on, eros�on control, tree-plant�ng, concerts for the env�ronment, and the establ�shment of compost and recycl�ng centres.http://www.cleanuptheworld.org/en

Champions of the Earth

Champ�ons of the Earth �s an �nternat�onal env�ronment award establ�shed �n 2004. It �s presented each year by UNEP to seven outstand�ng env�ronmental leaders, or groups, who have made a s�gn�ficant and recogn�zed contr�but�on globally or reg�onally to the protect�on and susta�nable management of the earth’s env�ronment. The Champ�ons of the Earth should be �nstrumental �n br�ng�ng env�ronmental �ssues to the forefront of pol�t�cal act�on

UNEP Sasakawa Prize

The UNEP Sasakawa Pr�ze �s awarded every year to �nd�v�duals who have an establ�shed track record of env�ronmental ach�evement and the potent�al to make outstand�ng contr�but�ons to the protect�on and management of the env�ronment cons�stent w�th the pol�c�es and object�ves of UNEP. For more than 20 years, the UNEP Sasakawa Pr�ze has been a mark of excellence �n the env�ronmental field. Between 1984 and 1993 the UNEP Sasakawa Pr�ze was awarded to 30 �nd�v�duals. Th�s pr�ze, worth $200,000, encourages env�ronmental efforts that are susta�nable and capable of be�ng dupl�cated �n the long term. It rewards �nnovat�on, groundbreak�ng research and �deas, and extraord�nary grassroots �n�t�at�ves from around the world.www.unep.org/dcpi

42

“Happiness is not in the mere possession of money; it lies in the joy of achievement, in the thrill of creative effort.”

Franklin D Roosevelt, US President 1933 - 1945

Division of Global Environment Facility Coordination

The Global Env�ronment Fac�l�ty (GEF) was establ�shed as a jo�nt �nternat�onal effort to help solve global env�ronmental problems. The GEF trust fund was establ�shed by a World Bank resolut�on on 14 March 1991, wh�le the fac�l�ty was formally establ�shed �n October 1991. UNDP, UNEP and the World Bank are the �mplement�ng agenc�es.

GEF prov�des new and add�t�onal grants and concess�onal fund�ng to meet the �ncremental costs of measures to ach�eve global env�ronmental benefits �n s�x focal areas, namely:

• Protect�on of b�olog�cal d�vers�ty • Reduct�on of greenhouse gases • Protect�on of �nternat�onal waters • Prevent�on and reduct�on of releases of pers�stent organ�c pollutants (POPs) • Reduct�on of land degradat�on, pr�mar�ly desert�ficat�on and deforestat�on • Protect�on of the ozone layer.

There are currently 176 States �nvolved �n the Fac�l�ty. http://gefweb.orghttp://dgef.unep.org

UNEP milestones

• 1972: the establ�shment of UNEP follow�ng the Un�ted Nat�ons Conference on the Human Env�ronment

• 1973: Convent�on on Internat�onal Trade �n Endangered Spec�es of W�ld Fauna and Flora (CITES)

• 1975: Med�terranean Act�on Plan: the first of 13 reg�onal act�on plans under the UNEP Reg�onal Seas Programme

• 1979: Convent�on on M�gratory Spec�es• 1985: V�enna Convent�on for the Protect�on of the Ozone Layer• 1987: Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer

43

• 1988: Intergovernmental Panel on Cl�mate Change (IPCC) establ�shed to assess �nformat�on related to human-�nduced cl�mate change

• 1989: Basel Convent�on on the Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes• 1991: Establ�shment of the Global Env�ronment Fac�l�ty• 1992: R�o Declarat�on and Agenda 21 �ssued by the Un�ted Nat�ons Conference on

Env�ronment and Development (Earth Summ�t)• 1992: Framework Convent�on on Cl�mate Change• 1992: Convent�on on B�olog�cal D�vers�ty• 1994: Convent�on to Combat Desert�ficat�on• 1995: Global Programme of Act�on (GPA) launched to protect the mar�ne

env�ronment from land-based sources of pollut�on• 1998: Rotterdam Convent�on on Pr�or Informed Consent (PIC)• 1999: Launch of the Un�ted Nat�ons Global Compact• 2000: Adopt�on of the Cartagena Protocol on B�osafety on the �ssue of genet�cally

mod�fied organ�sms• 2000: Malmö Declarat�on: a call to act�on by the first Global M�n�ster�al Env�ronment

Forum• 2001: Stockholm Convent�on on Pers�stent Organ�c Pollutants (POPs)• 2001: Th�rd IPCC assessment report deta�l�ng the extent of human-�nduced global

warm�ng. • 2002: World Summ�t on Susta�nable Development reaffirm�ng the central role taken

by UNEP �n �nternat�onal efforts to ach�eve susta�nable development• 2005: Adopt�on of the Bal� Strateg�c Plan for Technology Support and Capac�ty-

bu�ld�ng by the UNEP Govern�ng Counc�l mandat�ng nat�onal level support to develop�ng countr�es

• 2005: Implementat�on of the Kyoto Protocol on cl�mate change • M�llenn�um Ecosystem Assessment h�ghl�ght�ng the �mportance of ecosystems to

human well-be�ng, and the extent of ecosystem decl�ne.• Agreement of the 2005 World Summ�t to explore a more coherent �nst�tut�onal

framework system for �nternat�onal env�ronmental governance

44

UNEP-INFOTERRA

INFOTERRA �s the global env�ronmental �nformat�on exchange network of the Un�ted Nat�ons Env�ronment Programme. The network operates through a system of government-des�gnated nat�onal focal po�nts, wh�ch at present number 177. An INFOTERRA nat�onal focal po�nt �s essent�ally a nat�onal env�ronmental �nformat�on centre, usually located �n the m�n�stry or agency respons�ble for env�ronmental protect�on. The pr�mary funct�on of each centre �s to prov�de a nat�onal env�ronmental �nformat�on serv�ce. INFOTERRA was g�ven �ts mandate at the 1972 Stockholm Conference on the Human Env�ronment wh�ch recommended the establ�shment of a mechan�sm for the exchange of env�ronmental �nformat�on and exper�ences between countr�es. In response to th�s recommendat�on, UNEP establ�shed the INFOTERRA network (�n�t�ally known as IRS – the Internat�onal Referral System) and Governments were requested to des�gnate a nat�onal focal po�nt to coord�nate INFOTERRA act�v�t�es at country level. The 1992 R�o Conference on Env�ronment and Development (Earth Summ�t) re�terated the �mportance of �nformat�on for dec�s�on-mak�ng and asked for the INFOTERRA network to be strengthened w�th a v�ew to �mprov�ng �nformat�on ava�lab�l�ty (Agenda 21, chapter 40). At nat�onal level, INFOTERRA focal po�nts prov�de a w�de range of env�ronmental �nformat�on products and serv�ces, �nclud�ng env�ronmental b�bl�ograph�es; d�rector�es of sources of �nformat�on; quest�on and answer serv�ces; env�ronmental awareness leaflets and access to �nternet serv�ces. The INFOTERRA secretar�at at UNEP headquarters, Na�rob�, supports the nat�onal focal po�nts by prov�d�ng techn�cal serv�ces and publ�sh�ng reference tools such as the EnVoc mult�l�ngual thesaurus of env�ronmental terms; the Internat�onal D�rectory of Sources; tra�n�ng manuals; sourcebooks and promot�onal mater�als. A capac�ty-bu�ld�ng programme prov�des ass�stance to focal po�nts �n develop�ng countr�es. www.unep.org/infoterra

45

C. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO)

FAO was founded �n 1943 by 44 Governments. It leads �nternat�onal efforts to defeat hunger wh�le focus�ng on the env�ronment. FAO acts as a neutral forum where all States meet as equals to negot�ate agreements and debate pol�cy. FAO �s also a source of knowledge and �nformat�on. It helps develop�ng countr�es and countr�es w�th econom�es �n trans�t�on to modern�ze and �mprove agr�culture, forestry and fisher�es and �t covers a w�de range of env�ronmental act�v�t�es such as env�ronmental assessment, env�ronmental �nformat�on technology and env�ronmental mon�tor�ng.

Plant genet�c resources for food and agr�culture are cruc�al �n feed�ng the world’s populat�on. They are the raw mater�al that farmers and plant breeders use to �mprove the qual�ty and product�v�ty of our crops. The future of agr�culture depends on �nternat�onal cooperat�on and on the open exchange of the crops and the�r genes that farmers all over the world have developed and exchanged over 10,000 years. No country �s suffic�ent unto �tself; all depend on crops and the genet�c d�vers�ty w�th�n these crops from other countr�es and reg�ons.

In November 2001 FAO spearheaded the adopt�on of the Internat�onal Treaty on Plant Genet�c Resources for Food and Agr�culture. Th�s legally b�nd�ng treaty, wh�ch �s �n harmony w�th the Convent�on on B�olog�cal D�vers�ty, covers all plant genet�c resources relevant to food and agr�culture. The treaty �s v�tal �n ensur�ng the cont�nued ava�lab�l�ty of the plant genet�c resources that countr�es w�ll need to feed the�r people.

The FAO Internat�onal Treaty on Plant Genet�c Resources for Food and Agr�culture prov�des an agreed �nternat�onal framework for the conservat�on and susta�nable use of plant genet�c resources for food and agr�culture, �n harmony w�th the Convent�on on B�olog�cal D�vers�ty. FAO �s also part of the Un�ted Nat�ons Forum on Forests (UNFF), a forum that seeks to fac�l�tate the �mplementat�on of the Intergovernmental Panel on Forests (IPF) and the Intergovernmental Forum on Forests (IFF).

46

Collaborative Partnership on Forests

FAO prov�des secretar�at serv�ces for the Collaborat�ve Partnersh�p on Forests, an �nnovat�ve partnersh�p of 14 major forest-related �nternat�onal organ�zat�ons, �nst�tut�ons and convent�on secretar�ats. It was establ�shed �n Apr�l 2001, follow�ng the recommendat�on of the Econom�c and Soc�al Counc�l of the Un�ted Nat�ons (ECOSOC). The other 13 members are the follow�ng:

• Centre for Internat�onal Forestry Research (CIFOR)• FAO• Internat�onal Trop�cal T�mber Organ�zat�on (ITTO)• Internat�onal Un�on of Forest Research Organ�zat�ons (IUFRO)• Secretar�at of the Convent�on on B�olog�cal D�vers�ty (CBD)• Secretar�at of the Global Env�ronmental Fac�l�ty (GEF)• Secretar�at of the Un�ted Nat�ons Convent�on to Combat Desert�ficat�on (UNCCD)• Secretar�at of the Un�ted Nat�ons Forum on Forests (UNFF)• Secretar�at of the Un�ted Nat�ons Framework Convent�on on Cl�mate Change

(UNFCCC)• Un�ted Nat�ons Development Programme (UNDP)• Un�ted Nat�ons Env�ronment Programme (UNEP)• World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF)• World Bank • World Conservat�on Un�on (IUCN).

The object�ves of the Collaborat�ve Partnersh�p on Forests are to support the work of the Un�ted Nat�ons Forum on Forests (UNFF) and �ts member countr�es and to enhance cooperat�on and coord�nat�on on forest �ssues.

An �mportant aspect of env�ronmental and natural resources management �s the ava�lab�l�ty of genu�ne (stat�c or dynam�c) geo-referenced data and �nformat�on on these resources. Remote sens�ng, geograph�c �nformat�on systems (GIS), agro- meteorolog�cal and other env�ronmental observat�ons can ass�st �n acqu�r�ng and process�ng such data, wh�ch can

47

then be used to deal w�th a var�ety of key �ssues related to env�ronmental and natural resources management, such as food product�on and food secur�ty, coastal zone mon�tor�ng, desert�ficat�on, b�olog�cal d�vers�ty and energy and cl�mate change �mpact. Geo-referenced data from other sources, for example, soc�al and econom�c data, can also be comb�ned w�th such env�ronmental data to prov�de more extens�ve analyses.

FAO geo-�nformat�on, mon�tor�ng and assessment act�v�t�es �nclude all aspects of geo-�nformat�on data acqu�s�t�on, analys�s and d�ssem�nat�on, �nclud�ng the act�v�t�es themselves and the tools and techn�ques used �n those act�v�t�es. Two examples of these act�v�t�es are the so-called “Afr�cover project” and the ARTEMIS env�ronmental mon�tor�ng �nformat�on system. There are also others such as the standard�zat�on of geograph�cal data, the use of var�ous software tools such as W�nD�sp, and the webs�te METART, where data from the ARTEMIS system can be v�ewed and analysed �n what �s v�rtually real t�me. Spec�fic data sets, such as global cl�mat�c maps and other agro-meteorolog�cal and GIS databases, are also ava�lable.www.fao.orgwww.fao.org/forestry/site/2082/en

D. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)

UNDP was founded �n 1965 and �s the Un�ted Nat�ons global development �mplementat�on agency. It works �n partnersh�ps w�th Governments and people. There are UNDP offices �n 166 countr�es, work�ng w�th these countr�es to help them find the�r own solut�ons to global and nat�onal development challenges.

The UNDP global knowledge network prov�des capac�ty development and pol�cy support throughout every country �n Afr�ca, �n areas rang�ng from democrat�c governance and peace-bu�ld�ng to pr�vate sector development and �ntegrat�on �nto world trade. The programmes reflect the Afr�can countr�es’ own pr�or�t�es and are carr�ed out through a w�de range of partnersh�ps w�th government leaders, c�v�l soc�ety and the pr�vate sector.

Through �ts �nteract�on w�th Governments, c�v�l soc�ety organ�zat�ons and development partners, UNDP plays a major role �n the formulat�on of poverty reduct�on strategy papers

“Natural hazards are a part of life. But hazards only become disasters when people’s lives and livelihoods are swept away…. let us remind ourselves that we can and must reduce the impact of disasters by building sustainable communities that have long-term capacity to live with risk.”

Kofi Annan Secretary-General of the United Nations

48

(PRSPs), and �n mon�tor�ng of �mplementat�on of these papers, as well as mon�tor�ng progress towards the ach�evement of the MDGs. UNDP supports the efforts of Afr�can countr�es to erad�cate poverty by bu�ld�ng coal�t�ons w�th the poor themselves, and also w�th Afr�can Governments, th�nk-tanks, those �nvolved �n Afr�can development, and Afr�can �ntegrat�on �nst�tut�ons.

Env�ronment protect�on and regenerat�on are a strateg�c component of the UNDP comm�tment to poverty reduct�on �n Afr�ca. One of the a�ms of UNDP �s to bu�ld capac�ty to deal w�th env�ronmental �ssues �n the context of development. The �ssues of energy, the env�ronment, cl�mate change, loss of b�od�vers�ty and ozone layer deplet�on cannot be tackled un�laterally. The focus must be on promot�ng susta�nable env�ronment management and energy development through capac�ty-bu�ld�ng �n the formulat�on of nat�onal pol�cy and regulatory frameworks and �n management and pol�cy �mplementat�on.www.undp.org

E. United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN‑Habitat)

UN-Hab�tat, the Un�ted Nat�ons agency for human settlements, was founded �n 1978 after the Hab�tat I meet�ng �n Vancouver, Canada. It �s mandated by the Un�ted Nat�ons General Assembly to promote soc�ally and env�ronmentally susta�nable towns and c�t�es w�th the goal of prov�d�ng adequate shelter for all. UN-Hab�tat runs two major worldw�de campa�gns – the Global Campa�gn on Urban Governance, and the Global Campa�gn for Secure Tenure. Through these campa�gns and �n other ways as well, the agency focuses on a range of �ssues and spec�al projects wh�ch �t helps �mplement.

The Shelter and Susta�nable Human Settlements Development D�v�s�on of UN-Hab�tat coord�nates the agency’s global advocacy funct�ons. The departments w�th�n �t that focus on urban env�ronmental �ssues �nclude the Urban Development Branch, wh�ch runs the UN-Hab�tat Global Campa�gn on Urban Governance, the Safer C�t�es programme, the Susta�nable C�t�es programme and a programme called Local�z�ng Agenda 21, wh�ch seeks to ensure that cruc�al env�ronmental �ssues are brought �nto urban development plann�ng.

“In order to be prepared and to take action to meet the risk posed by disasters, it is imperative to be informed of the risks involved, and of possible options to mitigate the risk.”

Michel Jarraud Secretary-General of WMO

49

The Susta�nable C�t�es Programme (SCP) and Local�z�ng Agenda 21 help c�t�es perform the�r v�tal role �n soc�al and econom�c development by promot�ng better env�ronmental pol�c�es and programmes a�med at reduc�ng pollut�on and �mprov�ng urban env�ronmental management.

SCP �s a jo�nt UN-Hab�tat-UNEP fac�l�ty establ�shed �n the early 1990s to bu�ld capac�t�es �n urban env�ronmental plann�ng and management. The programme �s d�rected at urban local author�t�es and the�r partners. It encourages part�c�pat�on from a w�de range of stake-holders. SCP and �ts s�ster programme, Local�z�ng Agenda 21, are now operat�ng �n over 30 countr�es worldw�de. SCP was founded �n the early 1990s to support the m�ss�ons of UN-Hab�tat and UNEP. Its first phase concluded �n 2001, and the second phase covers the per�od 2002–2007. It a�ms to prov�de mun�c�pal�t�es and local partners w�th a fac�l�ty to package urban env�ronmental plann�ng and management approaches, technolog�es and expert�se �n th�s area.

The env�ronmental plann�ng and management approach taken by SPC promotes a c�ty management process that �s based on the bel�ef that susta�nable c�t�es are eng�nes of growth and are fundamental to soc�al and econom�c development. Env�ronmental degradat�on adversely affects econom�c effic�ency and soc�al equ�ty, and hence obstructs the development potent�al of c�t�es. Env�ronmental degradat�on, however, �s not �nev�table; what �s requ�red �s a proact�ve management approach bu�lt on an understand�ng of the complex �nteract�ons between development and the env�ronment. www.unhabitat.org

50

The United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (2005-2014) was launched on March 1, 2005 at United Nations Headquarters in New York taking as its main objective the task of encouraging the Governments of member States to include the concept of sustainable development in their education policies and in every aspect of learning in order to foster changes in behaviour that can create more sustainable future in terms of environmental integrity, economic viability, and a just society for present and future generations.

51

F. UnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganization(UNESCO)

The Un�ted Nat�ons Educat�onal, Sc�ent�fic and Cultural Organ�zat�on (UNESCO) was founded �n November 1945. The work of UNESCO �s �n the fields of educat�on, natural sc�ences, soc�al and human sc�ences, culture, commun�cat�on and �nformat�on. It has long been �nvolved �n act�v�t�es related to susta�nable development, contr�but�ng to many of the act�v�t�es generated by Earth Summ�t �n R�o �n 1992. The contr�but�on of UNESCO to the Earth Summ�t was based on �ts mandate �n the fields of educat�on, sc�ence, culture and commun�cat�on. UNESCO places h�gh pr�or�ty on reor�ent�ng educat�onal systems and curr�cula towards deal�ng w�th �ssues of susta�nable development, central to wh�ch are the areas of env�ronmental degradat�on, acqu�r�ng and shar�ng knowledge, rural development and changes �n product�on and consumpt�on patterns. UNESCO covers such d�verse fields as b�od�vers�ty and ecology, fresh water, oceans, earth sc�ences, coastal reg�ons, small �slands and natural d�saster reduct�on. The ecology-related programmes w�th�n UNESCO have an �nterd�sc�pl�nary research agenda spann�ng the ecolog�cal, soc�al and econom�c d�mens�ons of b�od�vers�ty loss and reduct�on. Its geosc�ences programmes target problems w�th�n soc�ety that are related to hydro-geology, paleo-ecosystems, and cl�mate change. It also promotes the role of earth sc�ences and global earth observat�on technology �n susta�nable development.

The Man and B�osphere programme (MAB) was launched �n 1970 and �n�t�ated work �n 14 project areas cover�ng d�fferent types of ecosystems, rang�ng from mounta�ns to sea, from rural to urban, as well as deal�ng w�th more soc�al aspects such as env�ronmental percept�on. The work of MAB over the years has concentrated on the development of the World Network of B�osphere Reserves (WNBR). The b�osphere reserve concept was developed �n�t�ally �n 1974 and was substant�ally rev�sed �n 1995 when the UNESCO General Conference adopted the Statutory Framework and the Sev�lle Strategy for B�osphere Reserves. Today, w�th more than 480 s�tes �n over 100 countr�es, WNBR prov�des context-spec�fic opportun�t�es to comb�ne sc�ent�fic knowledge and governance modal�t�es to reduce b�od�vers�ty loss, �mprove l�vel�hoods, enhance soc�al, econom�c and cultural cond�t�ons for env�ronmental susta�nab�l�ty, thus contr�but�ng to the pursu�t of the M�llenn�um Development Goals, �n part�cular Goal 7 on env�ronmental susta�nab�l�ty. http://www.unesco.ru/eng/pages/bythemes/mab.php

52

UNESCO also seeks to encourage the �dent�ficat�on, protect�on and preservat�on of cultural and natural her�tage around the world cons�dered to be of outstand�ng value to human�ty. Th�s �s embod�ed �n an �nternat�onal treaty called the Convent�on concern�ng the Protect�on of the World Cultural and Natural Her�tage, adopted by UNESCO �n 1972.www.unesco.org

G. United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO)

UNIDO was set up �n 1966 and became a spec�al�zed agency of the Un�ted Nat�ons �n 1985. As part of the Un�ted Nat�ons common system, UNIDO has respons�b�l�ty for promot�ng �ndustr�al�zat�on throughout the develop�ng world. UNIDO helps develop�ng countr�es and countr�es w�th econom�es �n trans�t�on �n the�r fight aga�nst marg�nal�zat�on �n today’s global�zed world. It mob�l�zes knowledge, sk�lls, �nformat�on and technology to promote product�ve employment, a compet�t�ve economy and a sound env�ronment. UNIDO str�ves to �mprove l�v�ng cond�t�ons and promote global prosper�ty through offer�ng ta�lor-made solut�ons for the susta�nable �ndustr�al development of develop�ng countr�es and countr�es w�th econom�es �n trans�t�on. It a�ms to fight poverty and marg�nal�zat�on through susta�nable �ndustr�al development. UNIDO has a number of successful env�ronmentally focused projects �n Afr�ca, �nclud�ng a nat�onal programme on cleaner product�on, a programme on water pollut�on control and b�od�vers�ty protect�on �n the Gulf of Gu�nea, a project on env�ronmentally sound �ndustr�al development �n Madagascar and another on cleaner leather product�on �n Afr�ca. www.unido.org

H. World Meteorological Organization (WMO)

WMO grew out of the Internat�onal Meteorolog�cal Organ�zat�on (IMO), wh�ch was founded �n 1873. Establ�shed �n 1950, WMO became the spec�al�zed agency of the Un�ted Nat�ons for meteorology (weather and cl�mate), operat�onal hydrology and related geophys�cal sc�ences. WMO �s the vo�ce of author�ty w�th�n the Un�ted Nat�ons system on the state and behav�our of the earth’s atmosphere, �ts �nteract�on w�th the oceans, the cl�mate �t produces and the result�ng d�str�but�on of water resources.

53

To th�s end, the WMO Atmospher�c Research and Env�ronment Programme coord�nates and st�mulates research on the compos�t�on of the atmosphere, the phys�cs and chem�stry of clouds, weather mod�ficat�on techn�ques, trop�cal meteorology processes and weather forecast�ng, focus�ng on extreme weather events and the�r soc�al and econom�c �mpacts. In add�t�on �t co-ord�nates the global mon�tor�ng of greenhouse gases, the ozone layer, major atmospher�c pollutants, and urban env�ronment and meteorolog�cal stud�es. Natural d�saster r�sk reduct�on �s central to the m�ss�on of WMO, and the nat�onal meteorolog�cal and hydrolog�cal serv�ces of �ts 187 members.

WMO, through �ts sc�ent�fic and techn�cal programmes, �ts network of global meteorolog�cal centres, reg�onal spec�al�zed meteorolog�cal centres and nat�onal meteorolog�cal and hydrolog�cal serv�ces, prov�des sc�ent�fic and techn�cal serv�ces for observ�ng, detect�ng, mon�tor�ng, pred�ct�ng and prov�d�ng early warn�ngs of a w�de range of weather, cl�mate and water related hazards. Through �ts coord�nated approach and work�ng together w�th �ts partners, WMO �s able to prov�de effect�ve and t�mely responses to the �nformat�on needs and requ�rements of the d�saster r�sk management commun�ty.

Today, about three-quarters of all natural d�sasters are �n some way related to weather, cl�mate, water and the�r extremes. Research �n the meteorolog�cal and hydrolog�cal sc�ences, however, shows that the �mpacts of natural hazards can be reduced through prevent�on and preparedness.

WMO �s an �ntergovernmental organ�zat�on w�th a membersh�p of 187 countr�es and terr�tor�es. Together w�th UNEP, �t forms the secretar�at of the Intergovernmental Panel on Cl�mate Change (IPCC). www.wmo.chwww.ipcc.ch

I. World Health Organization (WHO)

WHO �s the Un�ted Nat�ons spec�al�zed agency for health. It was establ�shed on 7 Apr�l 1948. The object�ve of WHO �s to enable all the world’s people to atta�n the h�ghest poss�ble level of health. Health �s defined �n the WHO const�tut�on as a state of complete phys�cal, mental and soc�al well-be�ng and not merely the absence of d�sease or �nfirm�ty.

54

WHO �s governed by 192 member States through the World Health Assembly, wh�ch �tself �s composed of representat�ves from WHO member States. The ma�n tasks of the World Health Assembly are to approve the WHO programme and the budget for the follow�ng b�enn�um and to dec�de major pol�cy quest�ons.

The Health and Env�ronment L�nkages In�t�at�ve (HELI) �s a global effort by WHO and UNEP to support act�on by pol�cy makers w�th�n develop�ng countr�es on env�ronmental threats to health. Env�ronmental hazards are respons�ble for an est�mated 25 per cent of the total burden of d�sease worldw�de, and nearly 35 per cent �n reg�ons such as sub-Saharan Afr�ca.

HELI encourages countr�es to treat health and env�ronment l�nkages as �ntegral to econom�c development. HELI bel�eves that what may be termed ecosystem serv�ces are essent�al to

55

human health and well-be�ng; these serv�ces �nclude cl�mate regulat�on, the prov�s�on and replen�shment of a�r, water, food and energy sources, and the creat�on of healthy l�v�ng and work�ng env�ronments. HELI act�v�t�es �nclude the establ�shment of p�lot projects w�th�n �nd�v�dual countr�es and the refinement of assessment tools to support dec�s�on-mak�ng.www.who.int

J. World Food Programme (WFP)

Scheduled to go �nto operat�on �n 1963 as a three-year exper�mental programme, WFP was plunged �nto the deep end as an earthquake h�t Iran �n September 1962, followed by a hurr�cane �n Tha�land �n October. At the same t�me newly �ndependent Alger�a was resettl�ng 5 m�ll�on refugees. All th�s brought home the cruc�al �mportance of deal�ng w�th the problem of hunger. The number of food emergenc�es has been r�s�ng over the past two decades, from an average of 15 per year dur�ng the 1980s to more than 30 per year s�nce the turn of the m�llenn�um. Whether the cause �s natural or of human or�g�n, the fact rema�ns that hunger �s one of the major threats to surv�val.

Natural d�sasters such as floods, trop�cal storms and long per�ods of drought are on the �ncrease, w�th calam�tous consequences for food secur�ty �n poor, develop�ng countr�es. Drought �s now the s�ngle most common cause of food shortages �n the world; �n many countr�es natural cond�t�ons that are already harsh are made worse by cl�mate change. In add�t�on, poor farm�ng pract�ces, deforestat�on, overcropp�ng and overgraz�ng are exhaust�ng the earth’s fert�l�ty and spread�ng the causes of hunger. Increas�ngly, the world’s fert�le farmland �s under threat from eros�on, sal�nat�on and desert�ficat�on.

WFP reaches out to the hungry through emergency operat�ons that are based on comprehens�ve assessments of the�r food needs, work�ng w�th over 1,100 �nternat�onal and local NGOs to d�str�bute food a�d. WFP firmly bel�eves that, as there �s an abundance of food to feed the world’s populat�on, the cycle of poverty and hunger can be broken by the d�str�but�on of food a�d.www.wfp.org

56

K. United Nations campaigns and inter‑agency networking

Millennium Declaration

The h�stor�c M�llenn�um Declarat�on resulted from the largest ever gather�ng of world leaders, wh�ch began on 6 September 2000 �n New York. The Declarat�on conta�ns a statement of values, pr�nc�ples and object�ves for the �nternat�onal agenda for the twenty-first century. It also sets deadl�nes for many collect�ve act�ons, �nclud�ng the M�llenn�um Development Goals. www.un.org/millennium

Millennium Development Goals

The Un�ted Nat�ons M�llenn�um Development Goals are a set of goals that 192 members of the Un�ted Nat�onshave comm�tted themselves to ach�ev�ng by the year 2015. These goals deal w�th �ssues such as susta�nable development, human populat�on, educat�on, equ�ty and the el�m�nat�on of poverty, hunger and d�sease. Wh�le Goal 7 �s d�rectly related to env�ronmental management and conservat�on, env�ronmental susta�nab�l�ty �s also a prerequ�s�te for the full atta�nment of all the other goals. Ach�evement of these goals w�ll reverse the trends of env�ronmental degradat�on and ensure closer adherence to MEA statutes and a more �nformed apprec�at�on of the�r �deology. www.un.org/millenniumgoals

United Nations Development Group

The Un�ted Nat�ons Development Group �s an �nstrument for Un�ted Nat�ons reform, created by the Secretary-General �n 1997 to �mprove the effect�veness of Un�ted Nat�ons development at country level. The group br�ngs together the operat�onal agenc�es, �nclud�ng UNEP, that are concerned w�th development.

The Un�ted Nat�ons Development Group develops pol�c�es and procedures that allow member agenc�es to work together �n analys�ng country �ssues, plann�ng support strateg�es,

57

�mplement�ng support programmes, mon�tor�ng results and promot�ng change. These �n�t�at�ves �ncrease the �nput of the Un�ted Nat�ons�n help�ng countr�es ach�eve all the M�llenn�um Development Goals, �nclud�ng that of poverty reduct�on.www.undg.org

United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (2005–2014)The Un�ted Nat�ons Decade of Educat�on for Susta�nable Development str�ves to �ncorporate key concepts of development �nto the educat�onal pol�c�es and programmes of the Un�ted Nat�ons, other �nternat�onal agenc�es, m�n�str�es, NGOs, commun�ty-based organ�zat�ons, research �nst�tut�ons, the med�a and the pr�vate sector. The pr�nc�ples of env�ronmental educat�on form an essent�al element of educat�on for susta�nable development. http://portal.unesco.org/education

International Decade for Action, “Water For Life” (2005–2015)

Water �s essent�al for l�fe; �t �s cruc�al for susta�nable development, �nclud�ng the preservat�on of our natural env�ronment and the allev�at�on of poverty and hunger. Water �s �nd�spensable for human health and well-be�ng.

The Un�ted Nat�ons General Assembly �n December 2003 procla�med the years 2005–2015 as the Internat�onal Decade for Act�on “Water for L�fe”. The pr�mary goal of the Water for L�fe decade �s to promote efforts to ensure that �nternat�onal comm�tments on water and water-related �ssues are fulfilled by 2015. These comm�tments �nclude the M�llenn�um Development Goals of halv�ng, by 2015, the number of people w�thout access to safe dr�nk�ng water and to put an end to the unsusta�nable explo�tat�on of water resources. At the World Summ�t �n Johannesburg �n 2002 two further object�ves were set: to develop �ntegrated water resource management and water effic�ency plans by 2005 and to halve, by 2015, the number of people who do not have access to bas�c san�tat�on.

A major effort �s requ�red �n th�s decade to fulfil these comm�tments and extend access to these essent�al serv�ces to those people, most of them poor, who are currently depr�ved of them.

58

Women play a central role �n water prov�s�on and management, so spec�al emphas�s should be placed on ensur�ng the�r part�c�pat�on and �nvolvement �n these development efforts. Among the �ssues that are central for the Water for L�fe decade are: scarc�ty of water, access to san�tat�on and health, water �n the context of gender, capac�ty-bu�ld�ng, financ�ng, valuat�on, management of �ntegrated water resources, transboundary water �ssues, env�ronment and b�od�vers�ty, d�saster prevent�on, food and agr�culture, pollut�on and energy.www.un.org/waterforlifedecade

59

IV. Development banks and institutions financing environmental activities

A. World Bank

The World Bank �s a v�tal source of financ�al and techn�cal ass�stance to develop�ng countr�es around the world. It �s made up of two un�que development �nst�tut�ons owned by 184 member countr�es – the Internat�onal Bank for Reconstruct�on

and Development (IBRD) and the Internat�onal Development Assoc�at�on (IDA). Each �nst�tut�on plays a d�fferent but support�ve role �n the bank’s m�ss�on of global poverty reduct�on and the �mprovement of l�v�ng standards. IBRD focuses on m�ddle �ncome and cred�tworthy poor countr�es, wh�le IDA focuses on the poorest countr�es �n the world. The Bank prov�des low-�nterest loans, �nterest-free cred�t and grants to develop�ng countr�es for educat�on, health, �nfrastructure, commun�cat�ons and many other purposes.

In 2001, the World Bank board of d�rectors endorsed an env�ronment strategy to gu�de the Bank’s act�ons �n the env�ronment area, part�cularly over the next five years. The strategy ent�tled “Mak�ng susta�nable comm�tments: an env�ronment strategy for the World Bank,” outl�nes how the World Bank w�ll work w�th cl�ent countr�es to help them meet the�r env�ronmental challenges and ensure that Bank projects and programmes �ncorporate pr�nc�ples of env�ronmental susta�nab�l�ty. The strategy recogn�zes that susta�nable development, wh�ch balances econom�c development, soc�al cohes�on, and env�ronmental protect�on, �s fundamental to the World Bank’s core object�ve of last�ng poverty allev�at�on. (Th�s strategy can be downloaded from the World Bank webs�te)

As one of the three �mplement�ng agenc�es of GEF, the World Bank ass�sts �ts member countr�es conserve and susta�nably use the�r b�olog�cal d�vers�ty, reduce the�r em�ss�ons of greenhouse gases, manage shared water bod�es and reduce the�r em�ss�ons of ozone-deplet�ng substances by access�ng GEF resources to cover the �ncremental costs of add�t�onal act�ons on these global �ssues.www.worldbank.org

60

B. African Development Bank

The Afr�can Development Bank �s a major financ�al mechan�sm for the promot�on of development �n Afr�ca. It was establ�shed by the Organ�zat�on of Afr�can Un�ty (OAU) �n 1964 to promote econom�c and soc�al development �n the reg�on.

The ma�nstream�ng of env�ronmental susta�nab�l�ty �n the development of Afr�ca has been a pr�or�ty of the bank. Its board approved the new bank group pol�cy on the env�ronment, wh�ch �ncorporates and redefines the former pol�cy on env�ronmentally susta�nable development �n Afr�ca. The new pol�cy acknowledges that, to susta�n econom�c growth �n Afr�ca, there �s an urgent need to preserve and enhance the ecolog�cal cap�tal that enr�ches such growth. Two gu�del�nes relevant to the new pol�cy on the env�ronment were completed and d�ssem�nated �n 2004, namely the Strateg�c Impact Assessment Gu�del�nes and the Integrated Env�ronmental and Soc�al Assessment Gu�del�nes (these gu�del�nes can be downloaded from the bank’s webs�te). www.afdb.org

C. Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol

The Mult�lateral Fund for the Implementat�on of the Montreal Protocol prov�des funds to help develop�ng countr�es comply w�th the�r obl�gat�ons under the Protocol to phase out the use of ozone-deplet�ng substances (ODS) by 2010. ODS are used �n refr�gerat�on, foam extrus�on, �ndustr�al clean�ng, fire ext�ngu�sh�ng and fum�gat�on. Countr�es el�g�ble for th�s ass�stance are those w�th an annual per cap�ta consumpt�on of ODS of less than 0.3 kg a year, as defined �n Art�cle 5 of the Protocol. They are referred to as Art�cle 5 countr�es.

The Montreal Protocol was agreed �n 1987 after sc�ent�sts showed that certa�n human-made substances were contr�but�ng to the deplet�on of the Earth’s ozone layer, wh�ch protects l�fe below from damag�ng ultrav�olet rad�at�on. The Mult�lateral Fund was establ�shed by the London Amendment to the Protocol �n 1990.

The phase-out of ODS w�ll enable the ozone layer to repa�r �tself. The Fund was the first financ�al mechan�sm to be borne from an �nternat�onal treaty. It embod�es the pr�nc�ple

61

agreed at the Un�ted Nat�ons Conference on Env�ronment and Development �n 1992 that countr�es have a common but d�fferent�ated respons�b�l�ty to protect and manage the global commons.

In 1986, �ndustr�al�zed countr�es consumed 86 per cent of the most �mportant ODS, the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). They agreed to contr�bute to the Fund �n order to help Art�cle 5 countr�es ach�eve the Protocol’s goals. Art�cle 5 countr�es comm�tted themselves to jo�n�ng the global effort to restore the depleted ozone layer. Th�s global consensus forms the bas�s of the operat�on of the Mult�lateral Fund that confines the l�ab�l�ty of the Fund to costs essent�al to the el�m�nat�on of the use and product�on of ODS. An �mportant aspect of the Fund �s that �t funds only the add�t�onal (the so-called “�ncremental”) costs �ncurred �n convert�ng to non-ODS technolog�es.

The Fund �s managed by an Execut�ve Comm�ttee w�th an equal representat�on of seven �ndustr�al�zed and seven Art�cle 5 countr�es, wh�ch are elected annually by the Meet�ng of the Part�es. The Comm�ttee reports annually to the Meet�ng of the Part�es on �ts operat�ons. F�nanc�al and techn�cal ass�stance �s prov�ded �n the form of grants or concess�onal loans and �s del�vered pr�mar�ly through four �mplement�ng agenc�es, UNEP, UNDP, UNIDO and the World Bank.

Up to 20 per cent of the contr�but�ons of contr�but�ng Part�es can also be del�vered through the�r b�lateral agenc�es �n the form of el�g�ble projects and act�v�t�es.

The Fund �s replen�shed on a three-year bas�s by the donors. Pledges amounted to US$ 2.1 b�ll�on over the per�od 1991–2005. Funds are used, for example, to finance the convers�on of ex�st�ng manufactur�ng processes, tra�n personnel, pay royalt�es and patent r�ghts on new technolog�es, and establ�sh nat�onal ozone offices.www.multilateralfund.org

63

V. International environment-focused organizations

There are many other organ�zat�ons work�ng for the better management of the env�ronment. Some of these organ�zat�ons work exclus�vely on env�ronmental �ssues, wh�le others are more comm�tted to development �ssues, where env�ronment

management �s regarded as key to overall development. These are ma�nly �ntergovernmental organ�zat�ons. Some pr�vate mult�nat�onal compan�es also have env�ronment management programmes.

Two prom�nent examples of such non-governmental organ�zat�ons �nclude are the World Conservat�on Un�on (IUCN) and the World W�ldl�fe Fund (WWF). Notable among the �ntergovernmental development organ�zat�ons �n th�s catego�ry are: the Intergovernmental Author�ty on Development (IGAD), the South Afr�can Development Commun�ty (SADC), the Econom�c Commun�ty of West Afr�ca States (ECOWAS), Club du Sahel, the Permanent Interstate Comm�ttee for Drought Control �n the Sahel, the Afr�can Un�on, NEPAD, the East Afr�can Commun�ty, the Arab Mahgreb Un�on (AMU), the Econom�c Commun�ty of Central Afr�can States (ECCAS) and the Ind�an Ocean Comm�ss�on, among others.

64

Environmental Education, Ethics and Action:A Workbook to Get Started

This book objectively challenges the link between ethics and our everyday activities.

It takes ethics out of philosophy departments and puts it squarely onto the streets, into the villages, towns and cities, and connects ethics to all life on Earth. The book’s primary audience is teacher trainers, college instructors, university professors and others responsible for professional development in education. It is also aimed at environmental educators who want to take their teaching more deeply into the questions that lie at the heart of sustainable living.

Available in four (4) languages - English, French, Italian, and Spanish

Environmental Education, Ethics, and Action: A Workbook to Get Started. Jickling, B., Lotz-Sisitka, H., O’Donoghue, R., Ogbuigwe. A. (2006)Nairobi : UNEP.ISBN: 92-807-2656-0

Translations: English to French by Gilles Bédard; English to Spanish by María José Hernández Ramos; English to Italian by Filippo Laurenti.

Recommended Reading

65

VI. African Network of Environmental Journalists (ANEJ)

ANEJ, whose motto �s “the vo�ce of the Afr�can env�ronment”, was conce�ved at the first workshop for Afr�can env�ronmental journal�sts, held at UNEP headquarters �n Na�rob�, from 26 to 28 November 2002.

ANEJ was set up w�th the a�m of ma�nstream�ng env�ronmental report�ng �n Afr�ca; enhanc�ng the capac�ty of Afr�can journal�sts to deal w�th new and emerg�ng env�ronmental challenges; prov�d�ng extra leverage for the d�ssem�nat�on of �nformat�on on env�ronmental �ssues �n the reg�on, promot�ng web-based journal�sm on env�ronment and susta�nable development �n Afr�ca and �nfluenc�ng the dec�s�on-mak�ng process relat�ng to env�ronmental pol�c�es �n Afr�ca.

Its m�ss�on �s to “promote publ�c understand�ng of env�ronmental �ssues �n Afr�ca by �mprov�ng the qual�ty, accuracy, and �ntens�ty of env�ronmental report�ng”. Towards ach�ev�ng th�s status, ANEJ has promoted the culture of network�ng among Afr�can env�ronmental journal�sts from all over Afr�ca, to enable them both to share and to d�ssem�nate �nformat�on, g�v�ng �t more v�s�b�l�ty and ra�s�ng �ts profile. ANEJ also prov�des cr�t�cal support to journal�sts of all med�a �n the�r efforts to g�ve respons�ble coverage to complex env�ronment �ssues.www.africannej.com

“Like the gentle Savannah breeze, journalists wander and wonder as they dispense information across the hills and plains, refreshing and exposing.”

Bwak, Kenyan Poet

67

VII. Multilateral environmental agreements

Environmental conventions and protocols

Why?

Sc�ent�fic ev�dence has shown that cont�nued patterns of unsusta�nable product�on and consumpt�on, �rrespons�ble dump�ng and pollut�on, cont�nued deplet�on of b�od�vers�ty, a h�gh populat�on growth rate and general �ncreas�ng env�ronmental

degradat�on, are the d�rect result of ent�rely controllable human act�v�t�es. In order to control these act�v�t�es and to safeguard the very future of the planet, �t �s paramount that Governments of the world agree on pol�c�es to m�t�gate the�r harmful global effects.

MEAs have been developed, adopted and rat�fied under the ausp�ces of the Un�ted Nat�ons or other organ�zat�ons s�nce they prov�de a means of ensur�ng comm�tment by a country to the reversal of negat�ve env�ronmental trends. MEAs requ�re that countr�es develop spec�fic �mplementat�on mechan�sms and fulfil obl�gat�ons �nvolv�ng report�ng, tra�n�ng, publ�c educat�on, and other act�v�t�es.

What?

MEAs are b�nd�ng agreements between States for the development of �nternat�onal norms and standards for protect�ng the env�ronment. Once a convent�on �s adopted by Governments at an �nternat�onal conference, States can then s�gn and rat�fy the convent�on.

Global MEAs are complemented by subreg�onal and reg�onal agreements such as the Afr�ca Convent�on on the Conservat�on of Nature and Natural Resources, the Convent�on for Cooperat�on �n the Protect�on and Development of the Mar�ne and Coastal Env�ronment of the West and Central Afr�can Reg�on (Ab�djan Convent�on), and the Lusaka Agreement on Cooperat�ve Enforcement Operat�ons D�rected at Illegal Trade �n W�ld Fauna and Flora (http://www.lusakaagreement.org/).

“Multilateralism is the democracy of international society”

Boutros-Boutros Ghali, United Nations Secretary-General 1992 - 1996

Multilateral: Among a large number of countries. Contrasts with bilateral and plurilateral

Ratify: The process of adopting an international treaty, or a constitution or other nationally binding document

MEAs are generally described as conventions or protocols. Conventions are international policy statements agreed to by Governments, while protocols are MEAs that address actionable points from a convention. Conventions may have certain limitations that

68

Process of developing multilateral environment agreements

How?

The dec�s�on to open negot�at�ons for the adopt�on of an MEA �s usually prompted by compell�ng �nformat�on from a number of d�fferent sources of �nformat�on on an �ssue that requ�res a global response.

For �nstance, �n response to the problem of potent�al global cl�mate change WMO and UNEP establ�shed the Intergovernmental Panel on Cl�mate Change (IPCC) �n 1988. The first assessment report of IPCC served as the bas�s for the negot�at�on of the Framework Convent�on on Cl�mate Change and the Kyoto Protocol. For �ts part, the Cartagena Protocol on B�osafety or�g�nated w�th�n the Convent�on on B�olog�cal D�vers�ty.

Drafting a convention

What?

Negot�at�ons for an MEA or a protocol to an MEA are mult�-party �n nature. Every State and, �n the case of a protocol to an MEA, every party to the MEA can part�c�pate �n those negot�at�ons on an equal foot�ng. Th�s means that the negot�at�ons – wh�ch are based on a mandate of the Un�ted Nat�ons General Assembly, a m�n�ster�al conference or a dec�s�on of the relvant conference of part�es – are w�de-rang�ng �n terms of the �nterests that are ra�sed and protected.

Making a convention or protocol work

How?

Upon acceptance by States of the final text of a convent�on or of a protocol to an ex�st�ng �nstrument by �ts part�es, the document �s opened for s�gnature and rat�ficat�on. Th�s stage �n the l�fe of a convent�on or protocol �s qu�te del�cate For �nstance, States may agree to an MEA or a protocol thereto but then not rat�fy �t at a later stage and �n th�s case the MEA or �ts protocol has no effect or, at best, only enters �nto effect after a cons�derable t�me lag

need to be addressed by actions; Protocols are more binding and a country becomes subject to a protocol once it ratifies it.

“We are called to assist the earth to heal her wounds, and in the process heal our own – indeed, to embrace the whole creation in all its diversity, beauty and wonder.”

Wangari Maathai, Nobel Peace Laureate, 2004

The MEA themes lie at the heart of global environmental issues such as carbon dioxide reduction, eco-efficiency, biological diversity, land degradation, energy systems and technology innovation.

69

dur�ng wh�ch t�me the env�ronmental problem wh�ch the MEA or the protocol �s des�gned to remedy m�ght have worsened cons�derably.

S�m�larly, a number of States may have rat�fied an MEA or a protocol thereto but s�nce the terms for the entry �nto force of the MEA may requ�re the atta�nment of a threshold (e.g., a m�n�mum number of rat�ficat�ons by countr�es), the MEA may be rendered qu�te �neffect�ve.

MEAs at the country level

The fundamental pr�nc�ple of �nternat�onal treaty law �s pacta sunt servanda (“agreements must be observed”). States generally are only bound by those agreements to wh�ch they agree to be bound. A State may become party to an MEA for many reasons: because �t �s �n the State’s best �nterest, because the State wants to be a respons�ble �nternat�onal actor, because �t wants access to financ�al or techn�cal resources, because �t �s encouraged to do so by other States, etc.

Regardless of the reason, once the State �s a party to an MEA, �t �s bound by the terms of that agreement. Typ�cally, th�s �ncludes both substant�ve prov�s�ons (to take certa�n measures to protect the env�ronment) and procedural prov�s�ons.

To �mplement the requ�rements of an MEA, States often have to adopt �mplement�ng leg�slat�on. Some States requ�re that the�r laws and �nst�tut�ons conform to the terms of an MEA before the State can become a party to the agreement. Other States often become a party to the agreement first, and then proceed w�th the legal and �nst�tut�onal reforms. Why would States pursue the latter course? One reason �s that, wh�le most MEAs make prov�s�on for some form of techn�cal or financ�al ass�stance to �mplement the MEA, such ass�stance often �s g�ven only to those States that are part�es (see UNEP 2006, Manual on Compliance with and Enforcement of Multilateral Environmental Agreements, p. 52 ff.)

Environmental Degradation: Processes induced by human behaviour and activities (sometimes combined with natural hazards) that damage the natural-resource base or adversely alter natural processes or ecosystems. Potential effects are varied and may contribute to an increase in vulnerability and the frequency and intensity of natural hazards.

The COP is the policy organ of the MEA and its decisions guide the secretariat in carrying out activities for the convention.

70

Note

Please refer to the UNEP Manual on Compliance with and Enforcement of Multilateral Environmental Agreements for comprehens�ve �nformat�on on MEAs and the�r compl�ance. The onl�ne vers�on can be found at th�s l�nk:http://www.unep.org/dec/docs/UNEP_Manual.pdf

A. Biodiversity conventions

Overview

B�od�vers�ty can be cons�dered at three major levels:

• The genet�c var�at�on w�th�n populat�ons;• The number, relat�ve abundance and un�queness of spec�es; and• The var�ety, extent and cond�t�on of ecosystems.

B�od�vers�ty and the ecosystems they support are the l�v�ng bas�s for susta�nable development. They generate a w�de range of goods and serv�ces on wh�ch the world economy depends. Act�v�t�es that reduce b�od�vers�ty jeopard�ze econom�c development and often the surv�val of many who depend on b�od�vers�ty for the�r l�vel�hood, such as the poor �n the rural areas of develop�ng countr�es. The strong l�nkages that ex�st between b�od�vers�ty conservat�on and poverty allev�at�on are not always recogn�zed or understood.

Human-�mposed threats to b�od�vers�ty demand �mmed�ate attent�on. The ecosystem approach, as la�d out �n the dec�s�ons under the Convent�on on B�olog�cal D�vers�ty, should be �mplemented for progress to be ach�eved �n conservat�on and susta�nable use of b�od�vers�ty.

B�od�vers�ty convent�ons can be geared towards the conservat�on of �nd�v�dual spec�es, the�r m�grat�on routes and hab�tats, or may have a more overarch�ng approach to conservat�on

“The war we have to wage today has only one goal and that is to make the world safe for diversity.”

U Thant, United Nations Secretary-General, 1961 – 1971

71

and susta�nable use of b�od�vers�ty �n a broader sense. Th�s �s �ncreas�ngly v�tal, because b�od�vers�ty offers mult�ple opportun�t�es for development and �mprov�ng human well-be�ng. It �s the bas�s for essent�al env�ronmental serv�ces upon wh�ch l�fe on earth depends. Thus, �ts conservat�on and susta�nable use are of cr�t�cal �mportance.

Biodiversity MEAs

Global

• Convent�on on Internat�onal Trade �n Endangered Spec�es (CITES)• Convent�on on M�gratory Spec�es • Convent�on on B�olog�cal D�vers�ty • Cartagena Protocol on B�osafety• Ramsar Convent�on on Wetlands of Internat�onal Importance, Espec�ally as

Waterfowl Hab�tat• World Her�tage Convent�on • Internat�onal Treaty on Plant Genet�c Resources • Internat�onal Plant Protect�on Convent�on • Internat�onal Convent�on for the Regulat�on of Whal�ng

Regional

• Agreement on the Conservat�on of Afr�can-Euras�an M�gratory Waterb�rds (AEWA) • Agreement on the Conservat�on of Small Cetaceans of the Balt�c and North Seas

(ASCOBANS) • Agreement on the Conservat�on of the Black Seas, Med�terranean and Cont�guous

Atlant�c Area (ACCOBAMS)• Afr�can Convent�on on the Conservat�on of Nature and Natural Resources• Reg�onal seas convent�ons• Lusaka Agreement on Cooperat�ve Enforcement Operat�ons D�rected at Illegal Trade

�n W�ld Fauna and Flora• Convent�on for the Protect�on, Management, and Development of the Mar�ne and

Coastal Env�ronment of the East Afr�can Reg�on (Na�rob� Convent�on)

72

• Convent�on for Cooperat�on �n the Protect�on and Development of the Mar�ne and Coastal Env�ronment of the West and Central Afr�can Reg�on (Ab�djan Copnvent�on)

• Convent�on for the Establ�shment of the Lake V�ctor�a F�sher�es Organ�zat�on • Protocol Concern�ng Protected Areas and W�ld Fauna and Flora �n the Eastern

Afr�can Reg�on http://svs-unepibmdb.net/?q=node/2

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

One of the key agreements adopted at the R�o Summ�t was the Convent�on on B�olog�cal D�vers�ty. It has three object�ves:

• Conservat�on of b�od�vers�ty, • Susta�nable use of �ts components, and• Equ�table shar�ng of benefits ar�s�ng from the use of b�od�vers�ty.

Th�s covenant reached by the vast major�ty of the world’s Governments sets out comm�tments to safeguard the foundat�ons of the world’s ecology as �ts econom�es cont�nue on the path of development.

The Convent�on �s comprehens�ve �n �ts goals, and deals w�th an �ssue so v�tal to the very future of human�ty that �t stands as a landmark �n �nternat�onal law. It recogn�zes – for the first t�me – that conservat�on of b�olog�cal d�vers�ty �s “a common concern of humank�nd” and �s an �ntegral part of the development process. It also recogn�zed the nat�onal sovere�gnty of countr�es over the�r own b�olog�cal d�vers�ty.

The agreement covers all ecosystems, spec�es and genet�c resources. It l�nks trad�t�onal conservat�on efforts to the econom�c goal of us�ng b�olog�cal resources susta�nably. It sets pr�nc�ples for the fa�r and equ�table shar�ng of the benefits ar�s�ng from the use of genet�c resources. It also covers the rap�dly expand�ng field of b�otechnology, cover�ng technology development and transfer, benefit-shar�ng and b�osafety. Th�s has been further developed �n the Cartagena Protocol.

Biosafety: The assessment of the impact and safety of genetically improved or modified organisms and the development of protective policies and procedures for adoption to ensure this.

Endangered species: Animals, plants or other living organisms threatened with extinction by anthropogenic (human-caused) or other natural changes in their environment. Most of the biodiversity conventions have their own lists of endangered species. CBD describes endangered species while IUCN has compiled a so-called “Red List” of threatened species.

Precautionary principle: Principle adopted by the United Nations Conference on the

73

Environment and Development (1992) that, in order to protect the environment, a precautionary approach should be widely applied, meaning that where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage to the environment, lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation. Application of the precautionary principle means that a lower level of proof of harm can be used in policy-making whenever the consequences of waiting for a higher levels of proof might be very costly or irreversible.

Ecosystem approachThe ecosystem approach is a strategy for the integrated management

Importantly, the Convent�on �s legally b�nd�ng: countr�es that jo�n �t are obl�ged to �mplement �ts prov�s�ons.1 However, �t has no compl�ance mechan�sm nor sanct�ons poss�b�l�t�es, wh�ch make �t more of a “framework” convent�on that rel�es on the further development of �nstruments that can be enforced. The first such �nstrument �s the Cartagena Protocol.http://www.biodiv.org

Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety

On 29 January 2000, the Conference of the Part�es to the Convent�on on B�olog�cal D�vers�ty adopted a supplementary agreement to the Convent�on known as the Cartagena Protocol on B�osafety. The Protocol seeks to protect b�olog�cal d�vers�ty – and human health – from the potent�al r�sks posed by l�v�ng mod�fied organ�sms result�ng from modern b�otechnology. It establ�shes an advanced �nformat�on agreement (AIA) procedure for ensur�ng that countr�es are prov�ded w�th the �nformat�on necessary to make �nformed dec�s�ons before agree�ng to the �mport of such organ�sms �nto the�r terr�tory. The Protocol conta�ns reference to a precautionary approach and goes beyond the precaut�on language �n Pr�nc�ple 15 of the R�o Declarat�on on Env�ronment and Development. The Protocol also establ�shes a B�osafety Clear�ng House to fac�l�tate the exchange of �nformat�on on l�v�ng mod�fied organ�sms and to ass�st countr�es �n the �mplementat�on of the Protocol2. www.biodiv.org/biosafety

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)

Overview

Endangerment of w�ld fauna and flora �s a broad �ssue, wh�ch �nvolves the hab�tats and env�ronments where spec�es l�ve and �nteract w�th one another (ecosystems). Although some

1 Source: www.b�od�v.org2 Source: www.b�od�v.org/b�osafety/

74

measures are be�ng taken to m�t�gate spec�fic cases of endangerment, the un�versal problem cannot be solved unt�l humans protect the natural env�ronments where endangered spec�es dwell. There are many reasons why a part�cular spec�es may become endangered, the ma�n ones be�ng; hab�tat destruct�on, �ntroduct�on of harmful �nvas�ve al�en (“exot�c” does not cover �t) spec�es and overexplo�tat�on of a part�cular spec�es. Endangerment does not only affect the s�ngle spec�es but affects the ent�re ecosystem, wh�ch �s d�rectly or �nd�rectly dependent on the endangered spec�es.3

Accord�ng to conservat�on analysts, the �nternat�onal w�ldl�fe trade �s est�mated to be worth b�ll�ons of dollars annually and to �nclude hundreds of m�ll�ons of plant and an�mal spec�mens. The trade �s d�verse, rang�ng from l�ve an�mals and plants to a vast array of w�ldl�fe products der�ved from them, �nclud�ng food products, exot�c leather goods, wooden mus�cal �nstruments, t�mber, tour�st cur�os and med�c�nes. Levels of explo�tat�on of some an�mal and plant spec�es are h�gh and the trade �n them, together w�th other factors, such as hab�tat loss, �s capable of heav�ly deplet�ng the�r populat�ons and even br�ng�ng some spec�es close to ext�nct�on. Many w�ldl�fe spec�es �n trade are not endangered, but the ex�stence of an agreement to ensure the susta�nab�l�ty of the trade �s �mportant �n order to safeguard these resources for the future.

CITES Convention

The trade �n w�ld an�mals and plants crosses borders between countr�es. Accord�ngly, efforts to regulate �t requ�re �nternat�onal cooperat�on to safeguard certa�n spec�es from over-explo�tat�on. CITES was conce�ved �n the sp�r�t of such cooperat�on. The a�m of CITES �s to ensure that �nternat�onal trade �n spec�mens of w�ld an�mals and plants does not threaten the�r surv�val. The convent�on came �nto force �n July 1975.

CITES works by subject�ng �nternat�onal trade �n spec�mens of selected spec�es to certa�n controls. All �mports, exports, re-exports, and also �ntroduct�on from the sea, of spec�es covered by the Convent�on have to be author�zed through a l�cens�ng system. Each party

3 Copyr�ght 19972002 by Lauren Kurp�s www.endangeredspec�e.com

of land, water and living resources that promotes conservation and sustainable use in an equitable way.

Exotic: A term used to describe a plant or animal species that is not native to the habitat into which it is introduced.

Extinction: The irreversible condition whereby a species or other group of organisms has no living representatives in the wild, which follows the death of the last surviving individual of that species or group.

75

Migratory species: Birds or other animals which make annual movements from one place to another. Migrations may be of any distance, from very great to very short, depending upon the species.

to the Convent�on must des�gnate one or more management author�t�es �n charge of adm�n�ster�ng that l�cens�ng system and one or more sc�ent�fic author�t�es to adv�se them on the effects of trade on the status of the spec�es.

The spec�es covered by CITES are l�sted �n three append�ces, accord�ng to the degree of protect�on that they need.

Appendices I and II

Append�x I �ncludes spec�es threatened w�th ext�nct�on. Trade �n spec�mens of these spec�es �s perm�tted only �n except�onal c�rcumstances. Append�x II �ncludes spec�es not necessar�ly threatened w�th ext�nct�on, but �n wh�ch trade must be controlled �n order to avo�d use �ncompat�ble w�th the�r surv�val.

The Conference of the Part�es, wh�ch �s the supreme dec�s�on-mak�ng body of the Convent�on and compr�ses all �ts member States, has agreed �n resolut�on Conf. 9.24 on a set of b�olog�cal and trade cr�ter�a to help determ�ne whether a spec�es should be �ncluded �n append�x I or II. At each regular meet�ng of the Conference of the Part�es, part�es subm�t proposals based on those cr�ter�a to amend these two append�ces. Those amendment proposals are d�scussed and then subm�tted to a vote. The Convent�on also makes prov�s�on for amendments by a postal procedure between meet�ngs of the Conference of the Part�es, but th�s procedure �s rarely used.

Appendix III

Th�s append�x conta�ns spec�es that are protected �n at least one country, wh�ch has sought ass�stance from other CITES part�es �n controll�ng the trade. Changes to append�x III follow a d�st�nct procedure from changes to append�ces I and II, as each party �s ent�tled to make un�lateral amendments to �t.www.cites.org

76

Ramsar Convention

The Convent�on on Wetlands of Internat�onal Importance, Espec�ally as Waterfowl Hab�tat, s�gned �n Ramsar, Islam�c Republ�c of Iran, �n 1971, �s an �ntergovernmental treaty wh�ch prov�des the framework for nat�onal act�on and �nternat�onal cooperat�on for the conservat�on and w�se use of wetlands and the�r resources. There are presently 153 contract�ng part�es to the Convent�on, w�th 1,626 wetland s�tes, totall�ng 145.6 m�ll�on hectares, des�gnated for �nclus�on �n the Ramsar L�st of Wetlands of Internat�onal Importance.

What?

The Convent�on’s m�ss�on �s “the conservat�on and w�se use of all wetlands through local, reg�onal and nat�onal act�ons and �nternat�onal cooperat�on, as a contr�but�on towards ach�ev�ng susta�nable development throughout the world”. The Convent�on uses a broad defin�t�on of the types of wetlands covered �n �ts m�ss�on, �nclud�ng swamps and marshes, lakes and r�vers, wet grasslands and peatlands, oases, estuar�es, deltas and t�dal flats, near-shore mar�ne areas, mangroves and coral reefs, and human-made s�tes such as fish ponds, r�ce padd�es, reservo�rs, and salt pans.

Wetlands

Wetlands prov�de fundamental ecolog�cal serv�ces and are regulators of water reg�mes and sources of b�od�vers�ty at all levels – spec�es, genet�c and ecosystem. They also play an �mportant role �n the adaptat�on and m�t�gat�on of cl�mate change. They are w�ndows on �nteract�ons between cultural and b�olog�cal d�vers�ty. They also const�tute a resource of great econom�c, sc�ent�fic and recreat�onal value for the global commun�ty. Progress�ve encroachment on, and loss of, wetlands cause ser�ous and somet�mes �rreparable damage to the�r prov�s�on of ecosystem serv�ces. They should thus be restored and rehab�l�tated, whenever poss�ble.

77

How?

• The Conference of the Contract�ng Part�es meets every three years and promotes pol�c�es and techn�cal gu�del�nes to further the appl�cat�on of the Convent�on.

• The Stand�ng Comm�ttee, made up of part�es represent�ng the s�x Ramsar reg�ons of the world, meets annually to gu�de the Convent�on between meet�ngs of the Conference of the Part�es. The Sc�ent�fic and Techn�cal Rev�ew Panel prov�des gu�dance on key �ssues related to the appl�cat�on of the Convent�on.

• The Ramsar secretar�at, wh�ch shares prem�ses w�th IUCN �n Gland, Sw�tzerland, manages the day-to-day act�v�t�es of the Convent�on.

• The MedWet In�t�at�ve, w�th �ts outposted coord�nat�on un�t �n Athens, Greece, prov�des a model for reg�onal cooperat�on for �mplementat�on of the Convent�on. Nat�onally, each Contract�ng Party des�gnates an adm�n�strat�ve author�ty as �ts focal po�nt for �mplementat�on of the Convent�on.

• Countr�es are encouraged to establ�sh nat�onal wetland comm�ttees, �nvolv�ng all government �nst�tut�ons deal�ng w�th water resources, development plann�ng, protected areas, b�od�vers�ty, tour�sm, educat�on, development ass�stance, etc. Part�c�pat�on by NGOs and c�v�l soc�ety �s also encouraged.

• Ramsar s�tes fac�ng problems �n ma�nta�n�ng the�r ecolog�cal character can be placed by the country concerned on a spec�al l�st, known as the “Montreux Record”, and techn�cal ass�stance to help solve the problems can be prov�ded.

• El�g�ble countr�es can apply for financ�al ass�stance �n the form of a Ramsar small grants fund and other fund�ng from the Convent�on’s Future Fund to �mplement wetland conservat�on and sound-use projects.

The Convent�on works closely w�th other env�ronment-related global and reg�onal convent�ons. It has jo�nt work plans or other collaborat�ve arrangements w�th the Framework Convent�on on Cl�mate Change and the B�olog�cal D�vers�ty, Desert�ficat�on, M�gratory Spec�es and World Her�tage convent�ons, as well as the UNESCO Man and the B�osphere programme. The secretar�at also works w�th fund�ng �nst�tut�ons such as the World Bank and GEF and w�th r�ver bas�n management author�t�es such as those for Lake Chad and the N�ger Bas�n.

78

The Convent�on has four formally recogn�zed �nternat�onal organ�zat�on partners – B�rdL�fe Internat�onal, IUCN, Wetlands Internat�onal and the World W�de Fund for Nature (WWF) – wh�ch help contract�ng part�es �n �mplement�ng the Convent�on and offer ass�stance to those countr�es on the road to access�on.www.ramsar.org

UNESCO World Heritage Convention

UNESCO seeks to encourage the �dent�ficat�on, protect�on and preservat�on of cultural and natural her�tage around the world cons�dered to be of outstand�ng value to human�ty. Th�s �s embod�ed �n an �nternat�onal treaty called the Convent�on Concern�ng the Protect�on of the World Cultural and Natural Her�tage, adopted by UNESCO �n 1972. The most s�gn�ficant feature of the 1972 World Her�tage Convent�on �s that �t l�nks together �n a s�ngle document the concepts of nature conservat�on and the preservat�on of cultural propert�es. The Convent�on recogn�zes the way �n wh�ch people �nteract w�th nature, and the fundamental need to preserve the balance between the two. whc.unesco.org

Lusaka Agreement on Cooperative Enforcement Operations Directed at Illegal Trade in Wild Flora and Fauna

Recogn�z�ng the problems of �ntense poach�ng, wh�ch has resulted �n the severe deplet�on of certa�n w�ldl�fe populat�ons �n Afr�can States, and that th�s poach�ng �s caused by �llegal trade, and that poach�ng cannot be curta�led unt�l such �llegal trade �s el�m�nated, Afr�can heads of States from East and Southern Afr�ca met, developed and adopted the Lusaka Agreement �n 1994.

The agreement �s a reg�onal agreement under CITES, that later came �nto force �n December 1996. The task force set up under the agreement became operat�onal �n 1999. The agreement has, so far, s�x Governments wh�ch are party to �t. These are Congo, Kenya, Lesotho, Uganda, Un�ted Republ�c of Tanzan�a and Zamb�a.

World Heritage: A term applied to sites of outstanding universal natural or cultural significance which are included on the World Heritage List. A UNESCO World Heritage Site is a specific site (such as a forest, mountain range, lake, desert, building, complex, or city) that has been nominated for the international World Heritage programme administered by UNESCO

79

“They may hop and gallop and fly from hill to plain to valley but they still need a place to call home. That place is every hill and plain and valley that they tread upon.”

Bwak, Kenyan Poet

The Lusaka agreement �s d�rected at �llegal trade �n w�ld flora and fauna and was born of the des�re to combat cross-border w�ldl�fe cr�me. The task force set up under the agreement has the mandate of enhanc�ng cooperat�on between w�ldl�fe law enforcement agenc�es �n d�fferent countr�es.www.internationalwildlifelaw.org/lusaka.pdf

Convention on Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS)

Overview

The journey that �s traversed by b�rds dur�ng m�grat�on covers many d�fferent countr�es �n d�fferent cont�nents. Th�s m�grat�on �s a natural phenomenon that �nvolves movement of g�ven spec�es between areas that they �nhab�t at d�fferent t�mes of the year. CMS a�ms to conserve terrestr�al, mar�ne and av�an m�gratory spec�es throughout the�r range.

M�gratory movements tend to be regular and largely pred�ctable. They may take place over large fronts or along th�n, trad�t�onal routes; �n one s�ngle, cont�nuous journey or as a ser�es of legs �nterspersed w�th rests. M�gratory spec�es of an�mals are, on average, more at r�sk of becom�ng endangered than non-m�gratory spec�es. Th�s results from the�r greater requ�rements: they need su�table hab�tat along the�r m�gratory routes both for reproduct�on and also dur�ng the off-season.

In an ever-chang�ng world, human pressure �s h�gh on some of those hab�tats, and also often on the an�mals themselves (hunt�ng, �nc�dental catch, etc.). As a result, many m�gratory spec�es that were once common are becom�ng �ncreas�ngly rare. Even though m�gratory spec�es of w�ld an�mals represent only a fract�on of the total b�od�vers�ty, they are a very s�gn�ficant port�on of the world’s genet�c resources. They have evolved �n �ntr�cate �nterrelat�onsh�ps w�th res�dent plant and other an�mal spec�es. They also play a un�que role as �nd�cators for the �nterdependence of and l�nkages between ecosystems and for ecolog�cal change.

80

Convention on Migratory Species

CMS a�ms to conserve terrestr�al, mar�ne and av�an m�gratory spec�es throughout the�r range. It �s an �ntergovernmental treaty, concluded under the ausp�ces of UNEP, concerned w�th the conservat�on of m�gratory w�ldl�fe and the�r hab�tats on a global scale. S�nce the Convent�on’s entry �nto force, �ts membersh�p has grown stead�ly to �nclude 97 (as of 1 May 2006) part�es from Afr�ca, Central and South Amer�ca, As�a, Europe and Ocean�a.

M�gratory spec�es threatened w�th ext�nct�on are l�sted �n append�x I of the Convent�on. CMS part�es str�ve towards str�ct protect�on of these an�mals, conserv�ng or restor�ng the places where they l�ve, m�t�gat�ng obstacles to m�grat�on and controll�ng other factors that m�ght endanger them. Bes�des establ�sh�ng obl�gat�ons for each State jo�n�ng the Convent�on, CMS promotes concerted act�on among the range States of many of these spec�es.

M�gratory spec�es that need or would s�gn�ficantly benefit from �nternat�onal cooperat�on are l�sted �n append�x II of the Convent�on. For th�s reason, the Convent�on encourages the range States to conclude global or reg�onal agreements. In th�s respect, CMS acts as a framework convent�on. The agreements may range from legally b�nd�ng treat�es (called Agreements) to less formal �nstruments, such as memorandums of understand�ng, and can be adapted to the requ�rements of part�cular reg�ons. The development of models ta�lored accord�ng to the conservat�on needs throughout the m�gratory range �s a un�que capac�ty to CMS.

Several Agreements have been concluded to date under the ausp�ces of CMS. They a�m to conserve d�fferent spec�es �nclud�ng the follow�ng:

• Cetaceans of the Med�terranean Sea, Black Sea and cont�guous Atlant�c area • Afr�can-Euras�an m�gratory waterb�rds

In add�t�on, several memorandums of understand�ng have been concluded to date under the ausp�ces of CMS. They also a�m to conserve d�fferent spec�es �nclud�ng the follow�ng:

Eurasia: Relating to, or coming from, Europe and Asia

Flora & Fauna: Fauna is a collective term for animal life. The corresponding term for plants is flora. Technically, the proper term for fauna plus flora is biota (the term “fauna” never covers plant species!) Flora and Fauna can also refer to a descriptive catalogue of the plants and animals of any geographical area, geological period, etc.

.

81

• Slender-b�lled curlew • Mar�ne turtles of the Atlant�c coast of Afr�ca • Mar�ne turtles of the Ind�an Ocean and South-East As�a • Bukhara deer • Aquat�c warbler • West-Afr�can populat�ons of the Afr�can elephant • Sa�ga antelope

Countr�es that are not party to CMS can st�ll become party to one of �ts agreements, �n contrast, for example, to the Cartagena Protocol, wh�ch can only be jo�ned by part�es to CBD, the mother convent�on. A secretar�at under the ausp�ces of UNEP prov�des adm�n�strat�ve support to the convent�on. The convent�on’s dec�s�on-mak�ng organ �s the Conference of the Part�es. A stand�ng comm�ttee prov�des pol�cy and adm�n�strat�ve gu�dance between the regular meet�ngs of the Conference of the Part�es. A sc�ent�fic counc�l, cons�st�ng of experts appo�nted by �nd�v�dual member States and by the Conference of the Part�es, g�ves adv�ce on techn�cal and sc�ent�fic matters. www.cms.int

African Convention on the Protection of Nature and Natural Resources (Algiers Convention)

Overview

B�olog�cal d�vers�ty �s the var�ety of l�fe on Earth, from the s�mplest bacter�al gene to the vast, complex ra�nforests of Central Afr�ca. Indeed, Afr�ca’s vast expanses are clothed �n a r�ch b�od�vers�ty that �njects beauty and l�fe across the cont�nent. In terms of �ts b�od�vers�ty, the Karoo, shared between South Afr�ca and Nam�b�a, �s the r�chest desert �n the world, w�th almost five thousand endem�c spec�es. The Gu�nean forest has the h�ghest mammal�an d�vers�ty of all the world’s 25 hotspots. Equally remarkable are the Eastern Arc Mounta�n Forests of Eastern Afr�ca. They are 30 m�ll�on years old and are thought to have evolved �n �solat�on for at least 10 m�ll�on years.

82

Algiers Convention

F�ve years after the Organ�zat�on for Afr�can Un�ty (OAU) was establ�shed, Afr�can countr�es adopted the Afr�can Convent�on on the Conservat�on of Nature and Natural Resources, �n Alg�ers �n September 1968. The ma�n object�ve of the Alg�ers Convent�on was to encourage �nd�v�dual and jo�nt act�on for the conservat�on, use and development of so�l, water, flora and fauna, for the present and future welfare of humank�nd.

The ma�n pr�nc�ple of the Alg�ers Convent�on �s set out as follows: “The contract�ng States shall undertake to adopt the measures necessary to ensure conservat�on, ut�l�zat�on and development of so�l, water, floral and faunal resources �n accordance w�th sc�ent�fic pr�nc�ples and w�th due regard to the best �nterests of the people.”

Under the Alg�ers Convent�on part�es undertake:

• To adopt effect�ve measures to conserve and �mprove the so�l; and to control eros�on and land use;

• To establ�sh pol�c�es to conserve, use and develop water resources; to prevent pollut�on; and to control water use;

• To protect flora and ensure �ts best use; to ensure good management of forests; and to control burn�ng, land clearance and overgraz�ng;

• To conserve fauna resources and use them w�sely; to manage populat�ons and hab�tats; to control hunt�ng, capture and fish�ng; and to proh�b�t the use of po�sons, explos�ves and automat�c weapons �n hunt�ng;

• T�ghtly to control the traffic �n troph�es, �n order to prevent trade �n �llegally k�lled and �llegally obta�ned troph�es; and

• To reconc�le customary r�ghts w�th the convent�on.

Th�s convent�on was later rev�sed by the Maputo Convent�on �n 2003. The Maputo Convent�on bu�lds on the Alg�ers Convent�on and br�ngs �t �nto l�ne w�th the challenges of the twenty-first century, w�th the renewed comm�tment of Afr�can countr�es to conserve Afr�ca’s natural r�ches. The Maputo Convent�on has not yet entered �nto force, however, as

83

the threshold of 15 countr�es has not been reached. The full text of th�s Convent�on can be downloaded from the Afr�can Un�on webs�te. www.africa-union.org

Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA)

Overview

The Afr�can phase �n the m�grat�on routes of m�gratory b�rds �s essent�al for the�r well-be�ng and for the surv�val of the�r spec�es. A place l�ke the N�ger Delta �n Western Afr�ca �s well known as a w�nter�ng and stag�ng area for m�ll�ons of m�gratory b�rds. The transboundary nature of av�an m�gratory journeys call for a transboundary approach for the�r susta�nable conservat�on. Such an approach w�ll ensure a safe passage of b�rds from one country to another, one cont�nent to another.

AEWA Convention

Th�s convent�on �s the largest of �ts k�nd developed so far under CMS. It entered �nto force �n November 1999. The Agreement prov�des for coord�nated and concerted act�on to be taken by the range States throughout the m�grat�on system of the waterb�rds to wh�ch �t appl�es. Part�es to the agreement are called upon to engage �n a w�de range of conservat�on act�ons, wh�ch are descr�bed �n a comprehens�ve act�on plan (2003–2005). Th�s deta�led plan addresses such key �ssues as: spec�es and hab�tat conservat�on, management of human act�v�t�es, research and mon�tor�ng, educat�on and �nformat�on, and �mplementat�on.

84

AEWA covers 235 spec�es of b�rds ecolog�cally dependent on wetlands for at least part of the�r annual cycle, �nclud�ng many spec�es of d�vers, grebes, pel�cans, cormorants, herons, storks, ra�ls, �b�ses, spoonb�lls, flam�ngos, ducks, swans, geese, cranes, waders, gulls, terns and the South Afr�can pengu�n.

The geograph�cal area covered by AEWA �ncludes 117 countr�es from Europe, parts of As�a and Canada, the M�ddle East and Afr�ca and stretches from the northern reaches of Canada and the Russ�an Federat�on to the southernmost t�p of Afr�ca. Of those 117 range States currently 54 countr�es (as of 1 June 2006) have become contract�ng part�es to AEWA.http://www.unep-aewa.org

85

B. Atmosphere conventions

Overview

Unl�ke land and mar�ne resources, atmospher�c resources are found �n all Afr�can countr�es, although at vary�ng levels, d�str�but�on and frequency. Atmospher�c resources prov�de l�fe-support�ng goods and serv�ces. The a�r conta�ns oxygen, carbon d�ox�de and n�trogen that are essent�al for l�fe and l�vel�hoods. The clouds, w�th the�r accompany�ng l�ghtn�ng phenomenon and ra�nfall, play a cr�t�cal role �n support�ng l�fe on earth. Ra�nfall �s a source of water for people, an�mals and plants, and for ra�n-fed agr�culture. The ozone layer, found �n the stratosphere, protects human be�ngs from harmful ultrav�olet rad�at�on. The sun’s rays prov�de l�ght and energy. The sun, w�nd and r�vers are sources of energy for d�rect use or electr�c�ty generat�on.

The follow�ng agreements are closely �nterl�nked �n protect�ng the env�ronment by el�m�nat�ng or stab�l�z�ng anthropogen�c em�ss�ons that threaten to �nterfere w�th the atmosphere:

• V�enna Convent�on on the Protect�on of the Ozone Layer and �ts Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer

• Un�ted Nat�ons Framework Convent�on on Cl�mate Change and �ts Kyoto Protocol

Wh�le the former focuses on the �mpacts that ozone deplet�on can have on human health, the latter addresses concerns that cl�mate change may have on ecosystem stab�l�ty, food product�on and econom�c development.

Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer

The ozone layer �s the protect�ve layer �n the atmosphere, about 15 m�les above the ground, that absorbs some of the sun’s ultrav�olet rays, thereby reduc�ng the amount of potent�ally harmful rad�at�on that reaches the earth’s surface.

“The Vienna Convention is the first convention to tackle an issue that for the time being seems far in the future and is of unknown proportions. This convention is the essence of “anticipatory response” that so many environmental issues call for: to deal with the threat of the problem before we have to deal with the problem itself.”

Mostafa Tolba, UNEP Executive Director, 1975 -1992

86

In the stratosphere, small quant�t�es of ozone are constantly be�ng formed by the act�on of sunl�ght on oxygen. At the same t�me, ozone �s be�ng broken down by natural processes. The total amount of ozone usually stays constant because �ts format�on and destruct�on occur at about the same rate. Human act�v�ty has recently changed that natural balance. Certa�n manufactured substances, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HFCs), can destroy stratospher�c ozone much faster than �t �s formed. Ozone-deplet�ng substances usually conta�n chlor�ne or brom�ne. CFCs are not the only ozone-deplet�ng substances, but they are the most abundant. Some ozone-deplet�ng substances are naturally occurr�ng compounds.

It �s �mportant, however, to note that not all ozone �s good for health and the env�ronment. Tropospher�c ozone, wh�ch �s found at ground level and created ma�nly by em�ss�ons from automob�les and pollut�on from factor�es, �s respons�ble for a large part of the photochem�cal smog known as “c�ty-smog”. It causes resp�ratory d�seases and �s a major problem �n many c�t�es.

Th�s ozone has no connect�on w�th the stratospher�c ozone that �s found �n the atmosphere at h�gh alt�tude and protects us from ultrav�olet rad�at�on. The V�enna Convent�on and Montreal Protocol only deal w�th stratospher�c ozone.

Tropospher�c ozone plays an �mportant role �n cl�mate change d�scuss�ons as concentrat�ons of �t have r�sen by around 30 per cent s�nce the pre-�ndustr�al era, and �t �s now cons�dered by IPCC to be the th�rd most �mportant greenhouse gas after carbon d�ox�de and methane. An add�t�onal compl�cat�on of ozone �s that �t also �nteracts w�th and �s modulated by concentrat�ons of methane, wh�ch affects the length of t�me that these compounds rema�n �n the a�r.

When?

The �ssue of ozone deplet�on was first d�scussed by the UNEP Govern�ng Counc�l �n 1976. A meet�ng of experts on the ozone layer was convened �n 1977, after wh�ch UNEP and the World Meteorolog�cal Organ�zat�on (WMO) set up the Coord�nat�ng

Stratosphere: The layer of atmosphere that lies about 15–50 kilometres above the Earth’s surface.

87

Comm�ttee of the Ozone Layer (CCOL) to conduct per�od�c assessments of ozone deplet�on. Intergovernmental negot�at�ons for an �nternat�onal agreement to phase out ozone-deplet�ng substances started �n 1981 and concluded w�th the adopt�on of the V�enna Convent�on for the Protect�on of the Ozone Layer �n March 1985.

The V�enna Convent�on encourages �ntergovernmental cooperat�on on research, systemat�c observat�on of the ozone layer, mon�tor�ng of CFC product�on, and the exchange of �nformat�on.

The ma�n thrust of the convent�on was to encourage research and overall cooperat�on among countr�es and exchange of �nformat�on. Even so �t took four years to prepare and agree. Twenty countr�es s�gned �t �n V�enna, but most d�d not rush to rat�fy �t. The convent�on made prov�s�on for future protocols and spec�fied procedures for amendment and d�spute settlement.

The V�enna Convent�on set an �mportant precedent. For the first t�me countr�es agreed �n pr�nc�ple to tackle a global env�ronmental problem before �ts effects were felt, or even sc�ent�fically proved. www.unep.org/ozone

Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer

Follow�ng the d�scovery of the Antarct�c ozone hole �n late 1985, Governments recogn�zed the need for stronger measures to reduce the product�on and consumpt�on of a number of CFCs and several halons. The Montreal Protocol on Substances that deplete the Ozone Layer was adopted on 16 September 1987 at the headquarters of the Internat�onal C�v�l Av�at�on Organ�zat�on �n Montreal. The protocol came �nto force �n January 1989, when �t was rat�fied by 29 countr�es and the European Commun�ty. S�nce then �t has been rat�fied by several more countr�es.

The protocol was des�gned so that the phase-out schedules could be rev�sed on the bas�s of per�od�c sc�ent�fic and technolog�cal assessments. Follow�ng such assessments, the protocol

Nations agreed in Vienna to take “appropriate measures to protect human health and the environment against adverse effects resulting or likely to result from human activities which modify or are likely to modify the Ozone Layer”, thus the Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer was born.

Antarctica is a continent surrounding the Earth’s South Pole. It is the coldest place on earth and is almost entirely covered by ice. It is not to be confused with the Arctic, which is located near the Earth’s North Pole on the opposite side of the planet.

88

was adjusted to accelerate the phase-out schedules. It has also been amended to �ntroduce other k�nds of control measures and to add new controlled substances to the l�st. www.unep.org/ozone

Ozone-friendly agricultural products

In 2006, more than 5,000 farms and organ�zat�ons, from more than 30 countr�es �n the world, jo�ned forces w�th UNEP to accelerate the phase-out of an agr�cultural pest�c�de that damages the ozone layer. Methyl brom�de has been used by farmers to k�ll pests �n the so�l before plant�ng crops l�ke tomatoes, strawberr�es, melons and flowers. But �n 1992 �t was offic�ally controlled as an ozone-deplet�ng substance and �s scheduled to be phased out under the Montreal Protocol.

The new Internat�onal Partnersh�p for Phas�ng-out Methyl Brom�de br�ngs together many farms and compan�es that have shown leadersh�p �n protect�ng the ozone layer.

The partnersh�p a�ms to accelerate the worldw�de sw�tch from methyl brom�de to ozone-fr�endly alternat�ves. It plans to establ�sh a bus�ness-to-bus�ness (B2B) net-based serv�ce, l�nk�ng grocery stores seek�ng goods produced w�thout methyl brom�de w�th farmers and suppl�ers who do not use methyl brom�de. Th�s w�ll l�nk w�th agr�cultural cert�ficat�on organ�zat�ons so that compan�es can confidently purchase flowers, strawberr�es, tomatoes, melons, and other products that are cert�fied as grown w�thout methyl brom�de.

Farms and compan�es that jo�n the partnersh�p have already stopped us�ng methyl brom�de or w�ll pledge to halt the�r use of the pest�c�de by September 2007, �n celebrat�on of the twent�eth ann�versary of the Montreal Protocol.

Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol

The Mult�lateral Fund was establ�shed by a dec�s�on of the Second Meet�ng of the Part�es to the Montreal Protocol (London, June 1990) and began �ts operat�on �n 1991. The ma�n object�ve of the Mult�lateral Fund �s to ass�st develop�ng country part�es to the Montreal

Halons: CFCs which contain one or more bromine atoms. These are commercially used in fire extinguishers and also sold under different refrigerant trade names such as Freon. Similar to CFC s, these compounds can migrate to the stratosphere and destroy ozone.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): A family of inert, nontoxic, and easily liquefied chemicals used in refrigeration, air conditioning, packaging, insulation, or as solvents and aerosol propellants. Because CFCs are not destroyed in the lower atmosphere they drift into the upper atmosphere where their chlorine components destroy ozone.

89

The greenhouse effect phenomenon is a natural process which keeps the earth warm enough to sustain life. Gases within the atmosphere trap the sun’s heat, reflecting it back to the Earth. The Earth has just the right balance of these gases to flourish; any fluctuation in the levels of these gases

Protocol whose annual per cap�ta consumpt�on and product�on of ozone-deplet�ng substances (ODS) �s less than 0.3 kg to comply w�th the control measures under the protocol. The Mult�lateral Fund �s ded�cated to revers�ng the deter�orat�on of the Earth’s ozone layer. Its success was h�ghl�ghted �n June 2005 at the meet�ng of the fund’s Execut�ve Comm�ttee �n Montreal, where �t was reported that projects financed by the fund have so far el�m�nated the annual consumpt�on of 243,207 tonnes of ODS. www.multilateralfund.org

Atmosphere MEAs

Global

• Un�ted Nat�ons Framework Convent�on on Cl�mate Change • Kyoto Protocol• V�enna Convent�on for the Protect�on of the Ozone Layer• Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

Overview

The term “cl�mate change” �s somet�mes used to refer to all forms of cl�mat�c �ncons�stency. Because the Earth’s cl�mate �s never stat�c, however, the term �s more properly used to �mply a s�gn�ficant change from one cl�mat�c cond�t�on to another. In some cases, “cl�mate change” has been used synonymously w�th the term, “global warm�ng”. Global warm�ng refers to an average �ncrease �n the Earth’s temperature, wh�ch �n turn causes changes �n cl�mate. A warmer Earth may lead to changes �n ra�nfall patterns, a r�se �n sea level, and a w�de range of �mpacts on plants, w�ldl�fe, and humans In the usage of the Framework Convent�on on Cl�mate Change, cl�mate change refers to a change �n cl�mate that �s attr�butable d�rectly or �nd�rectly to human act�v�ty that alters the atmospher�c compos�t�on.

90

African context

Although not a b�g polluter, Afr�ca �s qu�te vulnerable to cl�mate change. Human vulnerab�l�ty revolves around two �ssues – exposure to env�ronmental hazards and the cop�ng capab�l�ty of people to these hazards. People who have more capab�l�ty to cope w�th extreme events or stresses are at lesser r�sk and are, therefore, more secure. Most Afr�can countr�es fall �n the category of h�gh r�sk and low cop�ng capac�ty. Over the past 30 years, many Afr�can countr�es have faced �ncreas�ng r�sk from floods, earthquakes, lava flows, fires, droughts, c�v�l str�fe, and armed confl�cts. These d�sasters have �ncreased poverty, �ntens�fied ser�ous health problems, and resulted �n hunger. In add�t�on, they have d�splaced populat�ons across nat�onal borders and �nternally, contr�but�ng to further env�ronmental degradat�on, and lead�ng to more vulnerab�l�ty and �nsecur�tyhttp://www.unep.org/themes/climatechange

Framework Convention on Climate Change

In the early 1990s most countr�es jo�ned an �nternat�onal treaty, the Un�ted Nat�ons Framework Convent�on on Cl�mate Change, to beg�n to cons�der what can be done to reduce global warm�ng and to cope w�th whatever temperature �ncreases are �nev�table. In 1997 Governments agreed to an add�t�on to the treaty, called the Kyoto Protocol, wh�ch has more powerful compl�ance and enforcement measures (the Framework Convent�on on Cl�mate Change has the same legally b�nd�ng force as the Convent�on on B�olog�cal D�vers�ty but, l�ke the latter, �t has no powers of enforcement, hence the need to adopt the Kyoto Protocol). The protocol entered �nto force on February 16, 2005.

The Framework Convent�on on Cl�mate Change sets an overall framework for �ntergovernmental efforts to tackle the challenge posed by cl�mate change. It recogn�zes that the cl�mate system �s a shared resource whose stab�l�ty can be affected by �ndustr�al and other em�ss�ons of carbon d�ox�de and other greenhouse gases.

causes an effect known as “global warming” or “global cooling”.

Ozone: Formed in the stratosphere from the conversion of oxygen molecules by solar radiation. Ozone absorbs much ultraviolet radiation and prevents it from reaching earth.

91

Annex I Parties include the industrialized countries that were members of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) in 1992, plus countries with economies in transition, including the Russian Federation, the Baltic States, and several Central and Eastern European States.

Annex II Parties consist of the OECD members listed in Annex I, but not the Parties with economies in transition. They are required to provide financial resources to enable developing countries to undertake emissions reduction activities under the convention and to help them adapt to adverse effects of climate change. In addition, they have to “take all practicable

Under the convent�on, Governments:

• Gather and share �nformat�on on greenhouse gas em�ss�ons, nat�onal pol�c�es and best pract�ces

• Launch nat�onal strateg�es for address�ng greenhouse em�ss�ons and adapt�ng to expected �mpacts, �nclud�ng the prov�s�on of financ�al and technolog�cal support to develop�ng countr�es

• Cooperate �n prepar�ng for adaptat�on to the �mpacts of cl�mate change

The Framework Convent�on on Cl�mate Change �s st�ll �n a relat�vely early phase of �mplementat�on, w�th much of �ts future success depend�ng on the effect�ve operat�on of �ts Kyoto Protocol.www.unfccc.int

Kyoto Protocol

When?

The Framework Convent�on on Cl�mate Change took effect �n 1994, and by 1995 Governments had begun negot�at�ons on the Kyoto Protocol, wh�ch entered �nto force on 16 February 2005.

What and how?

The Kyoto Protocol shares the Convent�on’s object�ve, pr�nc�ples and �nst�tut�ons, but s�gn�ficantly strengthens the Convent�on by comm�tt�ng annex I Part�es – the developed country part�es – to �nd�v�dual, legally b�nd�ng targets to l�m�t or reduce the�r greenhouse gas em�ss�ons. Only part�es to the Convent�on that have also become part�es to the protocol w�ll be bound by the protocol’s comm�tments. To date, 165 countr�es have rat�fied the protocol. Of these, 35 countr�es are requ�red to reduce greenhouse gas em�ss�ons below levels spec�fied for each of them �n the treaty. The �nd�v�dual targets for annex I part�es are l�sted �n the Kyoto Protocol’s annex B. These add up to a total cut �n greenhouse-gas em�ss�ons of at least 5 per cent from 1990 levels �n the comm�tment per�od 2008–2012.

92

The effect�veness of the Protocol may, however, be jeopard�zed by the fast grow�ng em�ss�ons of some develop�ng States, wh�ch have no obl�gat�ons to reduce or to l�m�t the�r greenhouse-gas em�ss�ons. Future mandatory targets are expected to be establ�shed for “comm�tment per�ods” after 2012. These are to be negot�ated well �n advance of the per�ods concerned. Comm�tments under the protocol vary from country to country. To compensate for the st�ng of “b�nd�ng targets,” as they are called, the agreement offers flex�b�l�ty �n how countr�es may meet the�r targets: By means of the clean-development mechan�sm they may �nvest �n fore�gn projects that result �n greenhouse-gas cuts. www.unfccc.int

Clean-development mechanisms and carbon

Global warm�ng has spawned a new form of commerce: the carbon trade. Th�s new econom�c act�v�ty �nvolves the buy�ng and sell�ng of so-called “env�ronmental serv�ces”. Such “serv�ces”, wh�ch �nclude the removal of greenhouse gases from the atmosphere, are �dent�fied and purchased by eco-consult�ng firms and then sold to �nd�v�dual or corporate cl�ents to offset the�r pollut�ng em�ss�ons.

Wh�le some NGOs and so-called “green” bus�nesses favour the carbon trade and v�ew �t as a w�n-w�n solut�on that reconc�les env�ronmental protect�on w�th econom�c prosper�ty, some env�ronmental�sts and grassroots organ�zat�ons cla�m that �t �s no answer to env�ronmental problems and that �t does not address the causes of global warm�ng.

The carbon trade works l�ke th�s: an eco-consultancy that brokers env�ronmental serv�ces conducts an eco-aud�t of a cl�ent and comes up w�th a presumably accurate est�mate of how much carbon the cl�ent’s act�v�t�es release to the atmosphere. Carbon �s the common denom�nator �n all pollut�ng gases that cause global warm�ng.

At the other end of the operat�on, the firm scouts the world �n search of env�ronmental serv�ces that could offset �ts cl�ent’s em�ss�ons. These serv�ces are usually forests and tree-plant�ng projects and are known �n the bus�ness as “carbon assets” or “carbon s�nks”, because

steps” to promote the development and transfer of environmentally friendly technologies to Parties with economies in transition and developing countries. Funding provided by Annex II Parties is channelled mostly through the Convention’s financial mechanism.

Non-Annex I Parties are mostly developing countries. Certain groups of developing countries are recognized by the convention as being especially vulnerable to the adverse impacts of climate change, including countries with low-lying coastal areas and those prone to desertification and drought. Others (such as countries that rely heavily on income from fossil fuel production and commerce) feel more vulnerable to the

93

potential economic impacts of climate change response measures.

The convention emphasizes activities that promise to answer the special needs and concerns of these vulnerable countries, such as investment, insurance and technology transfer. The 48 Parties, classified as least developed countries (LDCs) by the United Nations, are given special consideration under the Convention on account of their limited capacity to respond to climate change and adapt to its adverse effects. Parties are urged to take full account of the special situation of LDCs when considering funding and technology-transfer activities.

trees remove carbon from the atmosphere and sequester �t �n the�r wood. The act�v�ty of these s�nks �s often called carbon sequestrat�on.

Us�ng a var�ety of methodolog�es, the env�ronmental serv�ces broker arr�ves at an est�mate of how much carbon a part�cular s�nk sequesters and then ass�gns �t a monetary value and sells �t to a cl�ent. The cl�ent then subtracts from �ts carbon account the carbon sequestered by �ts newly purchased carbon s�nk. The cl�ent �s sa�d to be carbon-neutral or cl�mate-neutral when �ts carbon assets equal �ts carbon em�ss�ons.

The carbon trade �s supported by the Intergovernmental Panel on Cl�mate Change (IPCC), a prest�g�ous sc�ent�fic body that adv�ses the Framework Convent�on on Cl�mate Change. It �s also author�zed by the Kyoto Protocol’s Clean Development Mechan�sm (CDM).

Contrary to what many env�ronmental�sts bel�eve, the protocol does not seek substant�al reduct�ons �n greenhouse gas em�ss�ons. The �ndustr�al�zed countr�es that s�gn on to �t comm�t themselves to reduc�ng the�r em�ss�ons to 5.2 per cent below 1990 levels. IPCC stated, however, that, �n order to prevent a global d�saster, these reduct�ons must be 60 per cent below 1990 levels. http://unfccc.int/kyoto_mechanisms/items/1673.php

Trade

The Kyoto Protocol broke new ground by defin�ng three �nnovat�ve flex�b�l�ty mechan�sms to lower the overall costs of ach�ev�ng �ts em�ss�ons targets. These mechan�sms enable part�es to ga�n access to cost-effect�ve opportun�t�es to reduce em�ss�ons or to remove carbon from the atmosphere �n other countr�es. Wh�le the cost of l�m�t�ng em�ss�ons var�es cons�derably from reg�on to reg�on, the benefit for the atmosphere �s the same, wherever the act�on �s taken.

The Clean Development Mechan�sm has been des�gned to be �nnovat�ve and market-based, so that developed countr�es may �nvest �n bankable projects �n develop�ng countr�es. Em�ss�ons result�ng from the project should be lower than what would have occurred had the prevalent technology been used. Em�ss�on reduct�ons are expected to be real, measurable, and long endur�ng.

94

Carbon trade �s an �dea presented �n response to the Kyoto Protocol that �nvolves the trad�ng of greenhouse-gas em�ss�on r�ghts between countr�es. For example, �f country A exceeds �ts capac�ty of greenhouse gases and country B has a surplus of capac�ty, a monetary agreement could be made that would see country A pay country B for the r�ght to use �ts surplus capac�ty.

Th�s trade must be undertaken wh�le ma�nta�n�ng overall env�ronmental �ntegr�ty to avo�d subst�tut�ng one ev�l for another (as, for example, �on the case c�ted above, when replac�ng a wetland w�th forests m�ght cause both a release of carbon gases and the loss of b�od�vers�ty).www.teriin.org/climate/cdm.htm

C. Chemicals and hazardous wastes conventions

Overview

The use of chem�cals has brought �mmense benefits to humank�nd. At the same t�me �t has had negat�ve �mpacts on human health and safety, part�cularly for the poorest and youngest people, on the �ntegr�ty of terrestr�al and mar�ne ecosystems, and on a�r and water qual�ty. The unsound management and use of chem�cals poses threats to human well-be�ng at many levels: �t threatens the susta�nab�l�ty of the env�ronment, wh�ch prov�des the goods and serv�ces essent�al for people’s l�vel�hoods; �t underm�nes human health; �t threatens phys�cal secur�ty; and �t reduces the ab�l�ty of commun�t�es to care for themselves and, espec�ally, for ch�ldren.

Chem�cals present both known and unknown r�sks. Some chem�cals, �nclud�ng heavy metals, pers�stent organ�c pollutants (POPs) and polychlor�nated b�phenyls (PCBs) present known r�sks. Lead and mercury, for example, have ser�ous and �rrevers�ble �mpacts on the mental development of ch�ldren. Over the past half-century there has been an accelerated release of art�fic�al chem�cals �nto the env�ronment, many of wh�ch are long-l�ved and transformed �nto by-products whose behav�ours, synerg�es and �mpacts are not well known.

Certa�n chem�cal add�t�ves pers�st �n human organ�sms over t�me: th�s phenomenon �s known as “b�o-accumulat�on”. For example, DDT can be found �n human breast-m�lk, as �t accumulates through the foodcha�n.

95

New research �nd�cates that many chem�cals w�dely �n use, �nclud�ng �n household and personal care products, that are assumed to be safe by consumers and downstream users, pose s�gn�ficant threats to people and b�od�vers�ty. As chem�cal product�on �ncreases globally, w�ldl�fe contam�nat�on has become even more pervas�ve, and troubl�ng health threats are ever more apparent. Establ�sh�ng and �mplement�ng systems for the sound management of chem�cals must be a pr�or�ty for Afr�ca. A key challenge �s how to account for th�s aspect of uncerta�nty.

The overarch�ng object�ve of the chem�cals and hazardous wastes convent�ons �s the protect�on of human health and the env�ronment from pollut�on by spec�fic chem�cals and hazardous substances. In the case of the Rotterdam Convent�on, �t spec�fically addresses certa�n banned or severely restr�cted chem�cals, as well as severely hazardous pest�c�de formulat�ons, subject to �nternat�onal trade. The Rotterdam Convent�on establ�shes the pr�nc�ple that export of a chem�cal covered by the convent�on can only take place w�th the pr�or �nformed consent of the �mport�ng party. An �mport�ng Party �s thus able to make an �nformed dec�s�on as to whether �t can handle the r�sks connected w�th a chem�cal substance.

The Stockholm Convent�on has as �ts pr�or�t�es the phas�ng out of an �n�t�al l�st of 12 chem�cals – known as pers�stent organ�c pollutants, or POPs, and commonly referred to as the “d�rty dozen”, the�r �nter�m restr�ct�on to certa�n acceptable purposes, phas�ng out the product�on and use of DDT, and the reduct�on or el�m�nat�on of un�ntent�onally produced chem�cals (d�ox�n and furans). The convent�on also makes prov�s�on for the �nclus�on of further POPs, and w�ll requ�re part�es w�th new chem�cal programmes to prevent the �ntroduct�on of new POPs onto the marketplace.

The scope of the Basel Convent�on covers a broad range of hazardous wastes, �nclud�ng chem�cal wastes, subject to transboundary movements. It a�ms to reduce these movements to a m�n�mum by m�n�m�z�ng the quant�ty and hazardousness of the wastes generated and by promot�ng the treatment and d�sposal of hazardous wastes and other wastes as close as poss�ble to the�r source of generat�on.

96

These three global MEAs are complemented by reg�onal agreements such as the Bamako Convent�on on the Ban of the Import Into Afr�ca and the Control of Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes W�th�n Afr�ca, a hazardous waste management convent�on adopted �n 1991, and the Convent�on to Ban the Importat�on �nto Forum Island Countr�es of Hazardous and Rad�oact�ve Wastes and to Control the Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes W�th�n the South Pac�fic Reg�on (Wa�gan� Convent�on), adopted �n 1995, as well as the 2004 Protocol to the Barcelona Convent�on for the Protect�on of the Med�terranean Sea aga�nst Pollut�on.

MEAs on chemicals and hazardous wastes

Global and regional

• Basel Convent�on on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and The�r D�sposal (1989)

• Rotterdam Convent�on on the Pr�or Informed Consent Procedure for Certa�n Hazardous Chem�cals and Pest�c�des �n Internat�onal Trade (1998)

• Stockholm Convent�on on Pers�stent Organ�c Pollutants (2001)• Bamako Convent�on on the Ban on the Import �nto Afr�ca and the Control of

Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes w�th�n Afr�ca (1991)

Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal

In the late 1980s, a t�ghten�ng of env�ronmental regulat�ons �n �ndustr�al�zed countr�es led to a dramat�c r�se �n the cost of hazardous waste d�sposal. Search�ng for cheaper ways to get r�d of the wastes, so-called “tox�c traders” began sh�pp�ng hazardous waste to develop�ng countr�es and to Eastern Europe. When th�s act�v�ty was revealed, �nternat�onal outrage led to the draft�ng and adopt�on of the Basel Convent�on. The Convent�on was first devoted pr�nc�pally to sett�ng up a framework for controll�ng the transboundary movements of

97

Hazardous waste: Waste which, because of its quantity, concentration or characteristics, poses a present or potential hazard to human health or the environment when improperly treated, stored, transported, dispersed of or otherwise managed.

Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) are chemical substances that persist in the environment or bioaccumulate through the food web, and pose a risk of causing adverse effects to human health and the environment

hazardous wastes, that �s, the movement of hazardous wastes across �nternat�onal front�ers. It also developed the cr�ter�a for “env�ronmentally sound management”. A control system, based on pr�or wr�tten not�ficat�on, was also put �nto place.

Currently the convent�on emphas�zes full �mplementat�on and enforcement of treaty comm�tments. The other area of focus w�ll be the m�n�m�zat�on of hazardous waste generat�on, recogn�z�ng that the long-term solut�on to the stockp�l�ng of hazardous wastes �s a reduct�on �n the generat�on of those wastes –�n terms of both quant�ty and hazardousness. A central goal of the Basel Convent�on �s “env�ronmentally sound management”, the a�m of wh�ch �s to protect human health and the env�ronment by m�n�m�z�ng hazardous waste product�on whenever poss�ble. Env�ronmentally sound management means address�ng the �ssue through a so-called “�ntegrated l�fe-cycle approach”, wh�ch �nvolves strong controls from the generat�on of a hazardous waste to �ts storage, transport, treatment, reuse, recycl�ng, recovery and final d�sposal.

One of the gu�d�ng pr�nc�ples of the Basel Convent�on �s that, �n order to m�n�m�ze the threat, hazardous wastes should be dealt w�th as close to where they are produced as poss�ble. Accord�ngly, under the convent�on, transboundary movements of hazardous wastes or other wastes can take place only upon pr�or wr�tten not�ficat�on by the State of export to the competent author�t�es of the States of �mport and trans�t, �f appropr�ate. Each sh�pment of hazardous waste or other waste must be accompan�ed by a movement document from the po�nt at wh�ch a transboundary movement beg�ns to the po�nt of d�sposal. Hazardous waste sh�pments made w�thout such documents are �llegal. In add�t�on, there are outr�ght bans on the export of these wastes to certa�n countr�es.

Transboundary movements can take place, however, �f the State of export does not have the capab�l�ty of manag�ng or d�spos�ng of the hazardous waste �n an env�ronmentally sound manner.

Each country that �s a party to the Convent�on �s requ�red to report �nformat�on on the generat�on and movement of hazardous wastes. Every year, a quest�onna�re �s sent out

98

to member countr�es, request�ng �nformat�on on the generat�on, export and �mport of hazardous wastes covered by the convent�on. www.basel.int

Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade

Ow�ng to the dramat�c growth �n chem�cal product�on and trade, concerns have been ra�sed about the potent�al r�sks posed by hazardous chem�cals and pest�c�des. Concerns were ra�sed that countr�es lack�ng adequate �nfrastructure to mon�tor the �mport and use of these chem�cals are part�cularly vulnerable. In response to these concerns, UNEP and FAO started develop�ng and promot�ng voluntary �nformat�on exchange programmes �n the m�d-1980s. FAO launched �ts “Internat�onal Code of Conduct on the D�str�but�on and Use of Pest�c�des” �n 1985 and UNEP establ�shed the London Gu�del�nes for the Exchange of Informat�on on Chem�cals �n Internat�onal Trade �n 1987. In 1989, the two organ�zat�ons jo�ntly �ntroduced the voluntary pr�or �nformed consent (PIC) procedure �nto these two �nstruments. The Rotterdam Convent�on was adopted �n September 1998 and �t entered �nto force �n February 2004.

The Rotterdam Convent�on �s an agreement des�gned to promote shared respons�b�l�ty and cooperat�ve efforts among Part�es �n the �nternat�onal trade of certa�n hazardous chem�cals, �n order to protect human health and the env�ronment from potent�al harm and to contr�bute to the�r env�ronmentally sound use by fac�l�tat�ng �nformat�on exchange about the�r character�st�cs, prov�d�ng for a nat�onal dec�s�on-mak�ng process on the�r �mport and export and d�ssem�nat�ng these dec�s�ons to Part�es. The convent�on enables the world to mon�tor and control the trade �n certa�n hazardous chem�cals. www.pic.int

Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants

Energy does not move �n cycl�cal fash�on through ecosystems, but certa�n chem�cals do. For example, the cycle followed by �norgan�c nutr�ents takes them not just through organ�sms, but also �nto the atmosphere, the oceans, and even rocks. S�nce these compounds c�rculate

99

through both the b�olog�cal and the geolog�cal world, the cycles they follow are known as “b�ogeochem�cal cycles” or “natural cycles”. The major b�ogeochem�cal cycles pass through the med�a of water, carbon, oxygen, n�trogen and phosphorous. Wh�le each compound has �ts own spec�fic cycle, all the cycles have certa�n features �n common. Examples of such features are reservo�rs, those parts of the cycle where the compound �s held �n large quant�t�es for long per�ods of t�me, and exchange pools, �n wh�ch, on the other hand, the compound �s held for only a short t�me.

Faced by the ev�dence of long-range transport of these substances to reg�ons where they have never been used or produced and the consequent threats that they pose to the env�ronment of the ent�re planet, the �nternat�onal commun�ty has repeatedly called for urgent global act�on to reduce and el�m�nate releases of these chem�cals.

The Stockholm Convent�on �s a global treaty developed to protect human health and the env�ronment from pers�stent organ�c pollutants. POPs are chem�cals that rema�n �ntact �n the env�ronment for long per�ods, become w�dely d�str�buted geograph�cally, accumulate �n the fatty t�ssue of l�v�ng organ�sms and are tox�c to humans and w�ldl�fe. POPs c�rculate globally and can cause damage wherever they travel. In �mplement�ng the convent�on, Governments w�ll take measures to el�m�nate or reduce the release of POPs �nto the env�ronment. Art�cle 9 of the Stockholm Convent�on requ�res each party to establ�sh a nat�onal focal po�nt for �nformat�on exchange.

For the purpose of �ts work, the convent�on secretar�at requests Governments to des�gnate a nat�onal focal po�nt, regardless of the�r s�gnatory or party status. To ass�st �n coord�nat�ng efforts �n th�s area, UNEP has developed a master l�st of act�ons that address POPs and the�r releases. Th�s master l�st cons�sts of act�ons a�med at reduc�ng or el�m�nat�ng releases of POPs. The master l�st fac�l�tates coord�nat�on and cooperat�on between and among act�v�t�es at the nat�onal, reg�onal and �nternat�onal levels �n countr�es and organ�zat�ons, thereby help�ng to avo�d dupl�cat�on of efforts and ensur�ng the effic�ent use of resources. www.pops.int

100

Bamako Convention

The Bamako Convent�on on the Ban on the Import �nto Afr�ca and the Control of Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes w�th�n Afr�ca �s a treaty of Afr�can nat�ons proh�b�t�ng the �mport of any hazardous (�nclud�ng rad�oact�ve) waste. The convent�on was negot�ated by 12 countr�es of the Organ�zat�on of Afr�can Un�ty at Bamako, Mal�, �n January, 1991.

Impetus for the development of the Bamako Convent�on came from the fa�lure of the Basel Convent�on to proh�b�t trade of hazardous waste to less developed countr�es, and from the real�zat�on that many developed countr�es were export�ng tox�c wastes to Afr�ca. The Bamako Convent�on uses a format and language s�m�lar to that of the Basel Convent�on, but �s much stronger �n proh�b�t�ng all �mports of hazardous waste, and �n not allow�ng the except�ons, such as those for rad�oact�ve mater�als, adm�tted by the Basel Convent�on.

All part�es are obl�ged to proh�b�t the �mport of all hazardous wastes, for any reason, �nto Afr�ca from non-contract�ng part�es (art�cle 4, paragraph 1). The categor�es of wastes l�sted �n Annex I to the convent�on, a waste possess�ng any of the character�st�cs l�sted �n Annex II to the convent�on, and any waste cons�dered to be hazardous by the domest�c laws of the State of �mport, export or trans�t are cons�dered hazardous wastes for the purposes of the Bamako Convent�on.

Under the Bamako Convent�on the dump�ng of hazardous wastes �s proh�b�ted �n the follow�ng terms (art�cle 4, paragraph 2): “Part�es �n conform�ty w�th related �nternat�onal convent�ons and �nstruments shall, �n the exerc�se of the�r jur�sd�ct�on w�th�n the�r �nternal waters, terr�tor�al seas, exclus�ve econom�c zones and cont�nental shelf, adopt legal, adm�n�strat�ve and other appropr�ate measures to control all carr�ers from non-Part�es, and proh�b�t the dump�ng at sea of hazardous wastes, �nclud�ng the�r �nc�nerat�on at sea and the�r d�sposal �n the seabed and the sub-seabed; any dump�ng of hazardous wastes at sea, �nclud�ng �nc�nerat�on at sea as well as seabed and sub-seabed d�sposal, by Contract�ng Part�es, whether �n �nternal waters, terr�tor�al seas, exclus�ve econom�c zones or h�gh seas shall be deemed to be �llegal.”

101

It follows from th�s prov�s�on, read �n conjunct�on w�th Annex I to the convent�on, that the dump�ng of rad�oact�ve wastes, �ndustr�al wastes, sewage and sewage sludge �s proh�b�ted. The Bamako Convent�on places a duty on �ts part�es to mon�tor the�r respect�ve waterways to ensure that no dump�ng occurs. Each State party must report annually to the secretar�at all the hazardous wastes generated each year. The ent�re text of the Bamako Convent�on can be downloaded at th�s l�nk:http://www.ban.org/Library/bamako_treaty.html

D. Land conventions

Overview

Afr�ca �s the second largest reg�on �n the world, account�ng for 20 per cent of the world’s landmass (2,963,313,000 hectares). Most Afr�cans l�ve �n rural areas, where they pract�ce small-scale cult�vat�on or pastoral�sm. Consequently, the d�rect dependence on land creates product�on pressures and compet�t�on for resources. In many parts of Afr�ca, d�sproport�onately large areas fert�le land are used for the cult�vat�on of commerc�al crops. Th�s means that less land �s ava�lable for food product�on and the cont�nent �s more dependent on food �mports.

The Afr�can landscape �s a r�ch and dynam�c mosa�c of resources, �nclud�ng forests and woodlands, arable land, mounta�ns, deserts, coastal lands and freshwater systems, that has vast potent�al for development and �mprov�ng human well-be�ng �f managed susta�nably. In many parts of the world, and pr�mar�ly �n Afr�ca, one of the pr�nc�pal dangers fac�ng the land, under the pressure of overuse, �s desert�ficat�on: �n response to th�s challenge, the �nternat�onal commun�ty developed and adopted the Un�ted Nat�ons Convent�on to Combat Desert�ficat�on, the major global convent�on on the problem of desert�ficat�on.

“We abuse land because we regard it as a commodity belonging to us. When we see land as a community to which we belong, we may begin to use it with love and respect.”

Aldo Leopold, US Environmentalist (1887 – 1948)

102

Land MEAs

Global

United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, Particularly in Africa The ma�n object�ve of the Convent�on to Combat Desert�ficat�on �s to res�st the spread of desert�ficat�on and to m�t�gate the effects of drought, part�cularly �n Afr�ca. Th�s object�ve �s to be ach�eved through effect�ve act�on at all levels, supported by �nternat�onal cooperat�on and partnersh�p arrangements, �n the framework of an �ntegrated approach wh�ch �s cons�stent w�th Agenda 21, w�th a v�ew to contr�but�ng to the ach�evement of susta�nable development �n affected areas.

Over the last decade, the Sahel�an and sub-Sudanese zones have exper�enced �ncreas�ng d�fficult�es �n produc�ng suffic�ent food for the�r populat�ons. The major constra�nts are

By acceding to UNCCD, a State would become a party to the main international instrument dealing with the urgent global problem of land degradation. As a party, that country would have full powers, including voting, at sessions of the Conference of the Parties.

103

decl�n�ng overall prec�p�tat�on, the degradat�on and deplet�on of natural resources due to over-cult�vat�on, extens�ve fuel-wood gather�ng and �nappropr�ate land management systems, as Afr�ca’s populat�on, more than that of any other cont�nent, �s h�ghly dependent on land. The problem �s further exacerbated by unfavourable econom�c and agr�cultural pol�c�es. In many areas desert�ficat�on has led to s�gn�ficant losses of b�omass and so�l fert�l�ty, thereby jeopard�z�ng agr�cultural product�on and susta�nable y�elds.

End�ng endem�c hunger �s one of the most press�ng challenges faced by Afr�can commun�t�es, the�r Governments and the �nternat�onal commun�ty. Many countr�es �n Afr�ca suffer from except�onal food shortages, and m�ll�ons of people st�ll face the threat of fam�ne and starvat�on. Even w�thout fam�ne and starvat�on, malnutr�t�on �s w�despread. About half of the reg�on’s populat�on suffers from some level of food depr�vat�on, w�th ser�ous consequences for health and product�v�ty. End�ng th�s food and agr�culture cr�s�s depends cr�t�cally on peace, �ncreased agr�culture product�v�ty, espec�ally �n Afr�can low �ncome and food defic�t countr�es, self-rel�ance �n food, and red�str�bute pol�c�es a�med at �mprov�ng the l�v�ng cond�t�ons of the rural poor.

Land degradat�on �s a ser�ous problem throughout Afr�ca, threaten�ng econom�c and phys�cal surv�val. Key �ssues �nclude escalat�ng so�l eros�on, decl�n�ng fert�l�ty, sal�n�zat�on, so�l compact�on, agrochem�cal pollut�on and desert�ficat�on. An est�mated 500 m�ll�on hectares of land have been affected by so�l degradat�on s�nce about 1950, �nclud�ng as much as 65 per cent of agr�cultural land. So�l losses �n South Afr�ca alone are est�mated to be as h�gh as 400 m�ll�on tones annually; moreover, so�l eros�on affects other econom�c sectors such as energy and water supply. In a cont�nent where too many people are already malnour�shed, there could well be a dramat�c 50 per cent drop �n crop y�elds w�th�n the next forty years �f the degradat�on of cult�vated lands were to cont�nue at present rates.The wealth of Afr�ca depends on her ab�l�ty to conserve and manage her land resources. It �s generally accepted that, �n add�t�on to decreased food product�on, so�l degradat�on also causes droughts and ecolog�cal �mbalance, lead�ng to a decl�ne �n the qual�ty of l�fe. In Afr�ca, the negat�ve �mpact of land degradat�on on food product�on �s most clearly man�fested �n stagnat�ng and decl�n�ng y�elds and �ncreas�ng poverty.

104

In the future, desert�ficat�on �s go�ng to be a great challenge for countr�es not only �n Afr�ca but throughout the world. In all, 110 countr�es, w�th many m�ll�ons of people d�rectly affected, are now hav�ng to cope w�th the problem of spread�ng deserts. It �s to be hoped that Governments and the Un�ted Nat�ons w�ll be able to come up w�th new �deas and ways to br�ng an end to desert�ficat�on.

There are very few reg�onal agreements on the quest�on of ar�d lands and land degradat�on. Of these, the most notable are the Agreement for the Establ�shment of the Arab Centre for the Stud�es of Dry and Barren Land (1970) and the Convent�on Establ�sh�ng a Permanent Inter-State Comm�ttee for Drought Control �n the Sahel (CILSS) (1973). G�ven the focus on susta�nable development and the strong substant�ve l�nkages between cl�mate change, desert�ficat�on and drought and loss of b�od�vers�ty, the Convent�on to Combat Desert�ficat�on works closely w�th the Framework Convent�on on Cl�mate Change and the Convent�on on B�olog�cal D�vers�ty.

The �nternat�onal commun�ty has long recogn�zed that desert�ficat�on �s a major econom�c, soc�al and env�ronmental problem fac�ng many countr�es all over the world. The Convent�on to Combat Desert�ficat�on was adopted �n June 1994 and was open for s�gnature from October 1994 to October 1995. S�gnatory States must rat�fy the Convent�on before �t comes �nto force for them but non-s�gnatory States have the opt�on of acced�ng to the Convent�on at any t�me, and a number of countr�es have already done so.

The Convent�on entered �nto force �n December 1996, thus open�ng an �mportant new phase �n the battle aga�nst desert�ficat�on. Governments, for example, are regularly rev�ew�ng the act�on programmes and g�v�ng pr�or�ty to awareness ra�s�ng, educat�on, and tra�n�ng, both �n develop�ng and developed countr�es. The obl�gat�ons set out �n the convent�on relate pr�nc�pally to �nternat�onal cooperat�on �n �mplement�ng the Convent�on �n all areas, part�cularly those �nvolv�ng collect�on, analys�s and exchange of �nformat�on; research; technology transfer; capac�ty-bu�ld�ng; awareness bu�ld�ng; the promot�on of an �ntegrated approach �n develop�ng nat�onal strateg�es to combat desert�ficat�on and ass�stance �n ensur�ng that adequate financ�al resources are ava�lable for programmes to combat desert�ficat�on and m�t�gate the effects of drought.

105

In real terms, status as a s�gnatory party would also allow a State:

• To show sol�dar�ty w�th affected countr�es �n fac�ng such an urgent and grow�ng �ssue of global d�mens�ons;

• To benefit from cooperat�on w�th other affected countr�es, and w�th developed countr�es, �n des�gn�ng and �mplement�ng �ts own programmes to combat desert�ficat�on and m�t�gate the effects of drought;

• To �mprove access to relevant technolog�es and data; • To benefit by part�c�pat�on as a party �n the work of the Comm�ttee on Sc�ence and

Technology; • To take part �n the network to support the �mplementat�on of the Convent�on

mandated by art�cle 25; and

106

• To nom�nate sc�ent�sts for �nclus�on on the roster of experts from wh�ch ad hoc panels w�ll be establ�shed to deal w�th spec�fic sc�ent�fic and techn�cal �ssues.

S�gnatory part�es are ent�tled to part�c�pate �n the network�ng of relevant �nst�tut�ons, agenc�es and bod�es. These networks may be expanded to �nclude aspects of land degradat�on that are of part�cular concern to States rat�fy�ng or acced�ng. www.unccd.int

E. MEAs on seas and inland water

Overview

The Eastern Afr�can reg�on, also referred to as the Western Ind�an Ocean, �s home to some of the world’s most valuable coastal and mar�ne ecosystems. The reg�on’s mangrove forests, seagrass beds, seashores, lagoons and coral reefs prov�de essent�al hab�tats for a r�ch b�od�vers�ty of spec�es. It �s conservat�vely est�mated that the reg�on supports more than 11,000 spec�es of plants and an�mals, 15 per cent of wh�ch are found nowhere else on Earth.

More than 20 per cent of the world’s trop�cal �nshore fish spec�es are found exclus�vely �n the reg�on, as are nest�ng s�tes for 70 per cent of the world’s mar�ne turtles. The l�vel�hood and recreat�on needs of some 30 m�ll�on people depend on these resources. Compared to many reg�ons, the Eastern Afr�can reg�on �s st�ll largely unspo�led.

A var�ety of human act�v�t�es, however, are contr�but�ng to the rap�d degradat�on of the mar�ne and coastal env�ronment of th�s reg�on. These act�v�t�es �nclude unplanned urban�zat�on, the d�scharge of untreated mun�c�pal waste water and �ndustr�al effluent, destruct�ve fish�ng pract�ces, overexplo�tat�on of resources and alterat�on and destruct�on of the hab�tat.

By far the largest cluster of MEAs, the 17 reg�onal seas convent�ons and act�on plans are a global mosa�c of agreements w�th one over-arch�ng object�ve: the protect�on and susta�nable use of mar�ne and coastal resources. In the early years, shortly after the Stockholm

“While money may make the world go round, what makes money go round is ultimately the trillions of dollars generated by the planet’s goods and services from the air cleaning and climate change countering processes of forests to the fisheries and the coast line protection power of coral reefs.”


107

Conference, the reg�onal seas programmes focused on mar�ne pollut�on control. In the ensu�ng 25 years they have evolved �nto mult�-sectoral agreements deal�ng w�th �ntegrated coastal area management wh�ch �n several cases means l�nks to the management of cont�guous freshwater bas�ns; land-based sources of pollut�on; conservat�on and susta�nable use of l�v�ng mar�ne resources and the �mpact of offshore explorat�on and explo�tat�on of o�l and gas.

The Barcelona Convent�on (1976), the oldest of these agreements, fostered the establ�shment of the Med�terranean Comm�ss�on for Susta�nable Development wh�ch �s serv�ced by the Secretar�at of the Convent�on.

Th�s group also �ncludes the Global Programme of Act�on for the Protect�on of the Mar�ne Env�ronment from Land-Based Act�v�t�es (GPA) and the Internat�onal Coral Reef In�t�at�ve (ICRI), both of wh�ch were adopted �n 1995. The purpose of ICRI �s to galvan�ze Governments and a w�de range of stakeholders �nto �mprov�ng management pract�ces, �ncreas�ng capac�ty and pol�t�cal support and shar�ng �nformat�on on the health of coral reefs and related ecosystems, �nclud�ng mangroves and sea grass beds. In both agreements, the reg�onal seas convent�ons and act�on plans operate at reg�onal level as stepp�ng stones towards the �mplementat�on of the global agreements. In another sense the Global Programme of Act�on �s closely l�nked to the chem�cals-related convent�ons on �ssues such as agrochem�cals, pers�stent organ�c pollutants and heavy metals. S�m�larly the work of ICRI �s closely assoc�ated w�th the b�od�vers�ty-related convent�ons, spec�fically CBD, CITES and Ramsar.

MEAs on seas and inland water

Global

• Un�ted Nat�ons Convent�on on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)

Regional

• Ab�djan Convent�on for Cooperat�on �n the Protect�on and Development of the Mar�ne and Coastal Env�ronment of the West and Central Afr�can Reg�on

108

• Na�rob� Convent�on for the Protect�on, Management and Development of the Mar�ne and Coastal Env�ronment of the Eastern Afr�ca Reg�on

• Convent�on for the Establ�shment of the Lake V�ctor�a F�sher�es Organ�zat�on• SADC Protocol on Shared Watercourses• Barcelona Convent�on for Protect�on of the Med�terranean Sea Aga�nst Pollut�on

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Seas (UNCLOS)

The law of the sea developed from the struggle between coastal States seek�ng to expand the�r control over mar�ne areas adjacent to the�r coastl�nes. By the end of the e�ghteenth century, �t was understood that States had sovere�gnty over the�r terr�tor�al sea. The max�mum breadth of the terr�tor�al sea was generally cons�dered to be three m�les – the d�stance that a shore-based cannon could reach and that a coastal State could therefore control.

After the Second World War, the �nternat�onal commun�ty requested that the Un�ted Nat�ons Internat�onal Law Comm�ss�on cons�der cod�fy�ng the ex�st�ng laws relat�ng to the oceans. The comm�ss�on began work�ng towards th�s �n 1949 and prepared four draft convent�ons, wh�ch were adopted at the first Un�ted Nat�ons Conference on the Law of the Sea:

First United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS I), held from 24 February to 29 Apr�l 1958. UNCLOS I adopted the four convent�ons wh�ch are commonly known as the 1958 Geneva Convent�ons:

• Convent�on on the Terr�tor�al Sea and Cont�guous Zone;• Convent�on on the H�gh Seas;• Convent�on on F�sh�ng and Conservat�on of the L�v�ng Resources of the H�gh Seas; • Convent�on on the Cont�nental Shelf.

Wh�le cons�dered a pos�t�ve step, the convent�ons d�d not go so far as to establ�sh the max�mum breadth of the terr�tor�al sea.

Sustainable: A resource or system that meets present needs without compromising those of future generations.

109

European Union: A family of democratic European countries, committed to working together for peace and prosperity. The following 25 Member States (as of May 2004) belong to the Union: Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Germany, Greece, Finland, France, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom.

Second United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS II), held from 17 March to 26 Apr�l 1960. UNCLOS II d�d not result �n any �nternat�onal agreements. The conference fa�led to fix a un�form breadth for the terr�tor�al sea or establ�sh consensus on sovere�gn fish�ng r�ghts.

Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS III), held from 1973 to 1982. UNCLOS III worked on the �ssues brought up at the prev�ous conferences. Over 160 countr�es part�c�pated �n the n�ne-year convent�on, wh�ch finally came �nto force on 14 November 1994, 21 years after the first meet�ng of UNCLOS III and one year after rat�ficat�on by the s�xt�eth State. The first 60 rat�ficat�ons were almost all made by develop�ng States.

One major feature of the Convent�on was the defin�t�on of mar�t�me zones: the terr�tor�al sea, the cont�guous zone, the exclus�ve econom�c zone, the cont�nental shelf, the h�gh sea, the �nternat�onal sea-bed area and arch�pelag�c waters. The Convent�on also made prov�s�on for the passage of sh�ps, protect�on of the mar�ne env�ronment, freedom of sc�ent�fic research, and explo�tat�on of resources.

The Convent�on �s an unprecedented attempt by the �nternat�onal commun�ty to regulate the resources of the sea and uses of the ocean �n all the�r aspects, thus br�ng�ng stab�l�ty to the very source of l�fe of mank�nd. Across the globe, Governments have taken steps to exerc�se the�r jur�sd�ct�on over these extended areas of adjacent ocean. They are tak�ng steps to exerc�se the�r r�ghts over ne�ghbour�ng seas and to assess the resources of the�r waters and the resources of the floor of the cont�nental shelf. The States �nvolved have nearly always acted �n accordance w�th the Convent�on, part�cularly after �t came �nto force, and �ts rap�d acceptance by the �nternat�onal commun�ty has formed the bas�s for all act�ons undertaken w�th regard to the oceans and the law of the sea.http://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/convention_overview_convention.htmhttp://www.continentalshelf.org/index.cfm?pageID=10

110

NoteBecause UNCLOS regulates all �ssues related to the sea and �ts use, �t �s not generally regarded as an MEA.

Convention for Cooperation in the Protection and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the West and Central African Region (Abidjan Convention)The Ab�djan Convent�on �s an agreement concluded by countr�es of the west and central Afr�can reg�on for the protect�on, management and development of �ts mar�ne and coastal env�ronment. The Convent�on covers the mar�ne env�ronment, coastal zones and related �nland waters fall�ng w�th�n the jur�sd�ct�on of the States of the west and central Afr�can reg�on, from Maur�tan�a to Nam�b�a, wh�ch have become contract�ng part�es to the Convent�on. The a�m of the Convent�on �s to protect and manage the mar�ne env�ronment and coastal areas of the western Afr�can reg�on. www.unep.org/delc/law

Convention for the Protection, Management and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the Eastern African Region (Nairobi Convention)The Na�rob� Convent�on �s a comprehens�ve umbrella agreement appl�cable to the eastern Afr�can reg�on for the protect�on, management and development of �ts mar�ne and coastal env�ronment. It l�sts the sources of pollut�on that requ�re control, �dent�fies the env�ronment management �ssues that need cooperat�ve efforts and also deals w�th spec�ally protected areas, cooperat�on �n cases of emergenc�es, env�ronmental �mpact assessment and techn�cal cooperat�on. The a�m of the convent�on �s to protect and manage the mar�ne env�ronment and coastal areas of the eastern Afr�can reg�on.

Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP) and the Convention for Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution (Barcelona Convention)The Med�terranean Act�on Plan (MAP) was adopted �n Barcelona, Spa�n, �n 1975 by 16 Med�terranean States and the then European Commun�ty, under the ausp�ces of UNEP. Its legal framework �s based on the Barcelona Convent�on adopted �n 1976 and rev�sed �n 1995, and s�x protocols cover�ng spec�fic aspects of env�ronmental protect�on.

Participating Countries in the Nairobi Convention: Comoros, France (La Reunion), Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritius, Mozambique, Seychelles, Somalia, the United Republic of Tanzania and South Africa (joined in 2003)

Environmental Impact Assessment: The analysis of biological, physical, social and economic factors to determine the environmental and social consequences of a proposed development action.

111

Contracting Parties in the Abidjan Convention: Angola, Benin, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Congo, Côte d’Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mauritania, Namibia, Nigeria, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo and Congo, South Africa.

Sustainability: is an economic, social, and environmental concept. It is intended to be a means of configuring civilization and human activity so that society and its members are able to meet their needs and express their greatest potential in the present, while preserving biodiversity and natural ecosystems, and planning and acting for the ability to maintain these ideals indefinitely.

S�nce �ts adopt�on by all the Med�terranean States and the European Commun�ty, the Act�on Plan has served as the bas�s for the development of a comprehens�ve env�ronment and development programme �n the reg�on �nvolv�ng the Med�terranean coastal States, spec�al�st organ�zat�ons w�th�n the Un�ted Nat�ons system and �ntergovernmental and non-governmental programmes and organ�zat�ons. MAP covers coastal zone management, pollut�on assessment and control, protect�on of ecosystems and preservat�on of b�od�vers�ty. In 1995, �t was rev�sed to become a more act�on-or�ented programme and an �nstrument for susta�nable development �n the reg�on.

Afr�can countr�es that are part�es to th�s agreement �nclude Alger�a, Egypt, L�byan Arab Jamah�r�ya, Morocco and Tun�s�a. www.unep.org/regionalseas

Convention for the Establishment of the Lake Victoria Fisheries OrganizationThe Lake V�ctor�a F�sher�es Organ�zat�on was establ�shed to foster cooperat�on amongst the contract�ng part�es �n �ssues to do w�th lake V�ctor�a. It a�ms to harmon�ze nat�onal measures for the susta�nable ut�l�zat�on of the resources of the lake and to adopt and develop conservat�on and management mechan�sms to assure the health of the ecosystems and the susta�nab�l�ty of �ts resources. (1994). www.unep.org/delc/law

Protocol on Shared Watercourses in the Southern African Development CommunityThe Southern Afr�can Development Commun�ty (SADC) adopted the SADC protocol to prov�de for the establ�shment of a r�ver bas�n organ�zat�on to enable the shar�ng of transboundary water resources and harmon�ze leg�slat�on and pol�c�es throughout the reg�on. It also fac�l�tates the shar�ng of nat�onal and local exper�ences and best pract�ces �n �ntegrated water resource management. The protocol ass�sts the SADC secretar�at �n the process of establ�sh�ng and �mplement�ng �nfrastructure and serv�ces for water d�v�s�on (adopted �n 1995 and rev�sed �n 2000). www.unep.org/delc/law

112

Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities (GPA)As the name suggests, GPA �s a comprehens�ve plan drawn up for the protect�on of the mar�ne env�ronment. The major threats to the health, product�v�ty and b�od�vers�ty of the mar�ne env�ronment ar�se from human act�v�t�es on land – both �n coastal areas and further �nland. Around 80 per cent of ocean pollut�on or�g�nates from land-based act�v�t�es �nclud�ng mun�c�pal, �ndustr�al and agr�cultural wastes and run-off, as well as atmospher�c depos�t�on. These contam�nants affect the most product�ve areas of the mar�ne env�ronment, �nclud�ng estuar�es and coastal waters. The mar�ne env�ronment �s also threatened by phys�cal changes to the coastal zone, �nclud�ng the destruct�on of hab�tats that are cruc�al to the ma�ntenance of a healthy ecosystem.

In response to these major problems, Governments declared the�r comm�tment to protect and preserve the mar�ne env�ronment from the adverse env�ronmental �mpacts of land-based act�v�t�es. The Global Programme of Act�on for the Protect�on of the Mar�ne Env�ronment from Land-based Act�v�t�es and the Wash�ngton Declarat�on were adopted �n 1995 and UNEP was g�ven the task of lead�ng the coord�nat�on effort and establ�sh�ng a GPA Coord�nat�on Office. The comprehens�ve, mult�-sectoral approach of GPA reflects the des�re of Governments to strengthen the collaborat�on and coord�nat�on of all agenc�es w�th mandates relevant to the �mpact of land-based act�v�t�es on the mar�ne env�ronment, through the�r part�c�pat�on �n a global programme.

GPA �s des�gned to be a source of theoret�cal and pract�cal gu�dance for nat�onal and reg�onal author�t�es to help them �n dev�s�ng and �mplement�ng susta�ned act�on to prevent, reduce, control or el�m�nate mar�ne degradat�on caused by land-based act�v�t�es. The a�m of GPA �s to prevent th�s type of degradat�on of the mar�ne env�ronment by mak�ng �t eas�er for States to carry out the�r duty of preserv�ng and protect�ng that env�ronment. The Governments �n quest�on recommended, as a pr�or�ty, the establ�shment of an �nformat�on and data clear�ng-house as a means of mob�l�z�ng exper�ence and expert�se, �nclud�ng the fac�l�tat�on of effect�ve sc�ent�fic, techn�cal and financ�al cooperat�on and capac�ty-bu�ld�ng.

113

The �mplementat�on of GPA �s pr�mar�ly the task of Governments, �n close partnersh�p w�th all stakeholders �nclud�ng local commun�t�es, publ�c organ�zat�ons, non-governmental organ�zat�ons and the pr�vate sector. The creat�on of nat�onal and reg�onal programmes of act�on �s cruc�al to the success of th�s �mplementat�on. UNEP, as the secretar�at of GPA, together w�th �ts partners, w�ll fac�l�tate and ass�st Governments �n the�r efforts. UNEP, the other reg�onal seas programmes and the GPA �nformat�on and data clear�ng-house are all part of th�s �mplementat�on process. www.gpa.unep.org

114

Education for Sustainable Development Innovations - Programmes for Universities in Africa

Education for Sustainable Development introduces a focus on values and ethics, and on new challenges for multi-disciplinary and inter-disciplinary dialogue, teaching and

research. It also encourages universities to enhance their role in shaping society’s future, and in seeking solutions to Africa’s environmental and developmental challenges. The UNEP ESD Innovations Course and Toolkit provide a platform for discussing and examining sustainable development innovations in different African universities. The course gives a broad orientation to the concept of sustainable development, and introduces university teachers and managers to the range of possibilities for action that exist in teaching, research, community engagement and management. The toolkit also aims to strengthen and complement the broader dimensions of the Mainstreaming Environment and Sustainability in Africa (MESA) Universities Partnership, which engages a wide range of university teachers, researchers, students and managers

United Nations Environment Programme. 2006. Education for Sustainable Development Innovations - Programmes for Universities in Africa. Share-Net, Howick ISBN: 92-807-2718-4

Recommended Reading

115

VIII. International environmental governance

Implementation of international environmental law at the national level

Agenda 21 underl�nes the �mportance of �mplement�ng �nternat�onal treat�es through the enactment and enforcement of laws and regulat�ons at reg�onal, nat�onal, state, prov�nc�al, local or mun�c�pal level. The enforcement of these laws and regulat�ons

�s essent�al for the �mplementat�on of most �nternat�onal agreements �n the fields of the env�ronment and development; such treat�es often �ncorporate obl�gat�ons to report back on leg�slat�ve measures.

Challenges to the implementation of MEAs

There �s a del�cate balance �n �nternat�onal treat�es. The treat�es that are appeal�ng enough to ga�n w�despread support are usually not hard-h�tt�ng enough to be effect�ve. The Framework Convent�on on Cl�mate Change, for example, was felt to be lack�ng, desp�te �ts many valuable prov�s�ons, so the Kyoto Protocol was created to supplement �t. On the other hand, treat�es wh�ch are tough may have d�fficulty attract�ng enough support to be effect�ve.

The major�ty of Afr�can States have rat�fied those MEAs that are of relevance to the reg�on at global and reg�onal levels. MEAs are recogn�zed as the pr�mary �nstruments for State comm�tment to the pursu�t of susta�nable development. The ma�n MEAs of the past two decades have dealt w�th �ssues that are cruc�al to the management of env�ronmental resources, such as find�ng new and add�t�onal resources for env�ronmental programmes; the transfer of technology; mechan�sms for address�ng key quest�ons such as the loss of b�olog�cal d�vers�ty and poverty allev�at�on and �nst�tut�onal frameworks for deal�ng w�th env�ronment and development concerns.

It has to be sa�d that, wh�le these global agreements clearly offer hope where management of the env�ronment �s concerned, the�r actual ach�evements have been very l�m�ted. The

116

agreements s�gn�fy a collect�ve w�ll to address env�ronmental problems, but many Afr�can countr�es have rece�ved no benefit from the full potent�al offered by the global MEAs, and have even found themselves �n a pos�t�on where they cannot properly �mplement the prov�s�ons of the MEAs that they themselves have rat�fied.

There have also been operat�onal d�fficult�es w�th reg�onal and subreg�onal env�ronmental agreements, largely due to a lack of adequate and susta�nable financ�al and human resources. Th�s �s true of the Ab�djan and Na�rob� convent�ons, both of wh�ch were developed �n the 1980s under the ausp�ces of the UNEP Reg�onal Seas Programme; the Na�rob� Convent�on took 11 years to come �nto force and ne�ther convent�on succeeded �n establ�sh�ng a fully operat�onal Reg�onal Coord�nat�ng Un�t.

Under pressure from some Afr�can Governments, UNEP �s now tak�ng steps to compensate for these delays and shortcom�ngs and a jo�nt secretar�at for the convent�ons has been set up to coord�nate and bu�ld synerg�es between ongo�ng projects and programmes �n Central, Western and Eastern Afr�ca. When adequate financ�al ass�stance �s ava�lable programmes can have a successful outcome, as we can see w�th the N�le Bas�n In�t�at�ve. Th�s was launched �n 1999 as an �n�t�at�ve on the part of the r�par�an countr�es to establ�sh a framework to fight poverty and promote econom�c development �n the N�le Bas�n area.

The N�le Bas�n �s home to around 160 m�ll�on people and, although �t �s endowed w�th a wealth and var�ety of natural resources such as h�gh mounta�ns, trop�cal forests, woodlands, lakes, savannas, wetlands, ar�d lands and deserts, �t �s also character�zed by poverty, �nstab�l�ty and env�ronmental degradat�on. Furthermore, �ts populat�on �s expected to double �n the next 25 years, thereby plac�ng �ncreased stress on water and other natural resources. The N�le Bas�n In�t�at�ve �s based on a shared v�s�on, “to ach�eve susta�nable soc�o-econom�c development through the equ�table ut�l�zat�on of, and benefit from, the common N�le Bas�n water resources.”

There are more than 500 mult�lateral agreements �n ex�stence and even though Afr�can countr�es are not s�gnator�es to all of them, they are comm�tted to a much greater number than they can cope w�th econom�cally.

117

Desp�te the d�fficult�es and problems posed by the demands and comm�tments of MEAs, they have resulted �n some real success stor�es such as the Lusaka Agreement on Illegal Trade �n W�ld Flora and Fauna and some of the other convent�ons focus�ng on trade �n w�ldl�fe (such as CITES). It was largely as a result of these agreements that the elephant and rh�no populat�ons �n Afr�ca surv�ved after years of be�ng exposed to �llegal hunt�ng for �vory. A ban on the trade of w�ldl�fe products reduced the demand for these products and gave a great boost to conservat�on work.

Global Ministerial Environment Forum

The efforts of UNEP to support a coherent structure of �nternat�onal env�ronmental governance has been greatly enhanced by the establ�shment of the Global M�n�ster�al Env�ronment Forum, an annual gather�ng of env�ronment m�n�sters from round the world wh�ch has been hold�ng meet�ngs s�nce the year 2000 as part of the UNEP Govern�ng Counc�l’s regular and spec�al sess�ons.

In 2001 the Forum convened an �ntergovernmental group of m�n�sters or the�r representat�ves �n the field of �nternat�onal env�ronmental governance to report on �mprov�ng coherence �n �nternat�onal pol�cy-mak�ng, strengthen�ng the effect�veness of mult�lateral env�ronmental agreements and enhanc�ng the role of UNEP.

The d�scuss�ons on �nternat�onal env�ronmental governance – or IEG – confirmed that, �n the three decades s�nce the establ�shment of UNEP �n 1972, the number of organ�zat�ons deal�ng w�th env�ronmental �ssues has grown enormously. Th�s ra�ses fundamental concerns about overlap and confl�ct �n these bod�es both �n how they are structured and �n the spec�fic �ssues they focus on. The del�berat�ons and recommendat�ons of the IEG process prov�ded not only a bas�s for d�scuss�on but resulted �n some spec�fic proposals for the World Summ�t on Susta�nable Development (WSSD, Johannesburg 2002) such as the request to the Secretary-General that the �nternat�onal framework for susta�nable development should be supported and promoted. Th�s led Governments and other concerned organ�zat�ons to g�ve �ncreased attent�on to the �ssues relat�ng to IEG. The 2005

118

World Summ�t Outcome, adopted by the General Assembly �n �ts resolut�on 60/1 of 16 September 2005, stressed the need for �ncreased effic�ency �n the env�ronmental act�v�t�es undertaken w�th�n the Un�ted Nat�ons system.http://www.unep.org/delc/IEG

Env�ronmental governance �n Afr�ca has grown more coord�nated �n recent years, result�ng �n the establ�shment of bod�es such as the Afr�ca M�n�ster�al Conference on the Env�ronment (AMCEN). Other coord�nated reg�onal �n�t�at�ves �nclude the Afr�ca M�n�sters’ Conference on Water (AMCOW) and the NEPAD env�ronment �n�t�at�ve. Increased reg�onal cooperat�on and more �nclus�ve pol�c�es w�ll further re�nforce the ga�ns that have been made by m�n�ster�al forums, expert forums and other relevant forums. These prov�de the necessary mechan�sm to exert pos�t�ve peer pressure on the var�ous countr�es and organ�zat�ons �nvolved.

119

IX. Key milestones

African Convention (Algiers Convention) – 1968

Afr�can countr�es adopted the Afr�can Convent�on on the Conservat�on of Nature and Natural Resources �n Alg�ers �n September 1968. The ma�n object�ve of the Alg�ers Convent�on was to encourage �nd�v�dual and jo�nt act�on for the conservat�on,

ut�l�zat�on and development of so�l, water, flora and fauna, for the present and future welfare of humank�nd.

The Alg�ers Convent�on states, as �ts ma�n pr�nc�ple: “The contract�ng States shall undertake to adopt the measures necessary to ensure conservat�on, ut�l�zat�on and development of so�l, water, floral and faunal resources �n accordance w�th sc�ent�fic pr�nc�ples and w�th due regard to the best �nterests of the people.”

Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment - 1972

The Stockholm Conference was attended by representat�ves of 113 countr�es, together w�th scores of �ntergovernmental and non-governmental organ�zat�ons. The Conference drew attent�on to the need to preserve natural hab�tats to atta�n a susta�ned �mprovement �n l�v�ng cond�t�ons for all, and the v�tal �mportance of �nternat�onal cooperat�on �n the ach�evement of th�s goal. The emphas�s was on solv�ng env�ronmental problems, but soc�al, econom�c and developmental factors were not �gnored.

The Stockholm Declarat�on adopted at the conference lays down the pr�nc�ples of env�ronmental protect�on and development, as well as pract�cal recommendat�ons for the�r �mplementat�on. It may be regarded as one of the foundat�on stones of the �nternat�onal pol�cy that would come to be known as “susta�nable development.” The conference led �n the same year to the establ�shment of the Un�ted Nat�ons Env�ronmental Programme (UNEP), based �n Na�rob�, Kenya.

“Our purpose here is to reconcile man’s legitimate, immediate ambitions with the rights of others, with respect for all life-supporting systems, and with the rights of generations yet unborn.”

Maurice Strong, first UNEP Executive Director, speaking during the 1972 Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment

120

Our Common Future (Brundtland Commission) – 1987

In 1983, the Un�ted Nat�ons Secretary-General requested Gro Harlem Brundtland to head a comm�ss�on to rev�ew env�ronmental and developmental �ssues. In 1987, the Brundtland Comm�ss�on’s report, “Our Common Future” declared that “a new development path was requ�red, one that susta�ned human progress not just �n a few places for a few years, but for the ent�re planet for the d�stant future.” The report also used the term “susta�nable development”, wh�ch �t defined as “development that meets the needs of the present w�thout comprom�s�ng the ab�l�ty of future generat�ons to meet the�r own needs.” It called for renewed and re�nforced efforts to el�m�nate w�despread poverty. The report emphas�sed the �mportance of �nternat�onal cooperat�on, urg�ng “new d�mens�ons of mult�lateral�sm” to ach�eve susta�nable human progress.

United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Earth Summit) - 1992

Th�s conference, held �n R�o de Jane�ro, Braz�l, was attended by over 10,000 delegates, �nclud�ng 116 heads of State and 1,400 NGOs, and was covered by over 9,000 journal�sts. It resulted �n the R�o Declarat�on, Agenda 21, the Un�ted Nat�ons Framework Convent�on on Cl�mate Change, the Convent�on on B�olog�cal D�vers�ty and the Statement on Forest Pr�nc�ples.

The Earth Summ�t – also referred to as UNCED – re�nforced the Brundtland Comm�ss�on’s declarat�on of the �nterdependence of env�ronment and development, stat�ng �n Agenda 21: “Integrat�on of env�ronment and development concerns and greater attent�on to them w�ll lead to the fulfilment of bas�c needs, �mproved l�v�ng standards for all, better protected and managed ecosystems and a safer, more prosperous future.” Th�s statement �s just as true today and the challenges �t ra�ses are be�ng faced d�rectly by Afr�can countr�es.

Agenda 21 �s a comprehens�ve plan of act�on to be taken globally, nat�onally and locally by organ�zat�ons w�th�n the Un�ted Nat�ons, Governments, and relevant bod�es �n every area where there �s human �mpact on the env�ronment. Agenda 21, the R�o Declarat�on on Env�ronment and Development, and the Statement of Pr�nc�ples for the Susta�nable Management of Forests were adopted by more than 178 Governments at the Summ�t.

121

The Comm�ss�on on Susta�nable Development (CSD) was set up �n December 1992 to ensure effect�ve follow-up of the Earth Summ�t, �nvolv�ng mon�tor�ng and report�ng on the �mplementat�on of agreements at local, nat�onal, reg�onal and �nternat�onal levels. It was agreed that a five year rev�ew of progress made by the Earth Summ�t would be carr�ed out �n 1997 by the Un�ted Nat�ons General Assembly, meet�ng �n spec�al sess�on. The full �mplementat�on of Agenda 21, the programme for further �mplementat�on of Agenda 21 and the comm�tments to the R�o pr�nc�ples, were strongly reaffirmed at the World Summ�t on Susta�nable Development (WSSD) held �n Johannesburg, South Afr�ca from 26 August to 4 September 2002.

Agenda 21 deals w�th the press�ng �ssues of the day, and also a�ms at prepar�ng the world for the challenges of the century. It reflects a global consensus and pol�t�cal comm�tment at the h�ghest level w�th regard to development and env�ronment cooperat�on. The ma�n respons�b�l�ty for �ts successful �mplementat�on l�es w�th the Governments themselves, whose nat�onal strateg�es, plans, pol�c�es and processes are of paramount �mportance. These nat�onal efforts must also be supported and re�nforced by �nternat�onal cooperat�on, �n wh�ch context the Un�ted Nat�ons system has a key role to play. The contr�but�ons of the var�ous �nternat�onal, reg�onal and subreg�onal organ�zat�ons should be act�vely encouraged, together w�th extens�ve part�c�pat�on by the publ�c, the non-governmental organ�zat�ons and other relevant groups.http://www.un.org/esa/earthsumm�t, www.un.org/esa/sustdev/agenda21.htm

Rio+5 – 1997

The spec�al sess�on of the general Assembly to rev�ew and appra�se the �mplementat�on of Agenda 21 – known as R�o+5 or Earth Summ�t+5 – was organ�zed �n 1997, five years after the Earth Summ�t, by the Un�ted Nat�ons General Assembly to rev�ew progress �n the �mplementat�on of the R�o goals, and to agree on measures to deal w�th the obstacles that were �mped�ng full �mplementat�on. The sess�on noted that, “s�nce 1992, susta�nable development has been more w�dely accepted as an �ntegrat�ng concept that seeks to un�fy and br�ng together econom�c, soc�al and env�ronmental �ssues �n a part�c�patory process of dec�s�on mak�ng.” It was felt that real progress had been made towards establ�sh�ng a

122

conceptual framework for susta�nable development plann�ng. The �mportance of R�o+5 was that �t prov�ded a hol�st�c evaluat�on of the problems, wh�ch served as a sound bas�s for future plann�ng.http://www.un.org/esa/earthsummit

Millennium Summit – 2000

In September 2000, the Un�ted Nat�ons General Assembly held the M�llenn�um Summ�t to confront the grave �ssues fac�ng humank�nd �n the new m�llenn�um. Th�s summ�t resulted �n the M�llenn�um Declarat�on, wh�ch called for the prudent management of all l�v�ng spec�es and natural resources �n a susta�nable manner, and for a move away from unsusta�nable patterns of consumpt�on and product�on. The M�llenn�um Declarat�on set several goals and targets that have s�nce become known as the M�llenn�um Development Goals (MDGs). http://www.un.org/millennium

Malmö Ministerial Declaration, 2000

A spec�al sess�on of the UNEP Govern�ng Counc�l was held �n Malmö, Sweden, �n May 2000. The result�ng Malmö M�n�ster�al Declarat�on stated the urgent need for re�nv�gorated �nternat�onal cooperat�on and called for the �ncreased mob�l�zat�on of domest�c and �nternat�onal resources towards susta�nable development goals. The key recommendat�on of the declarat�on was to “rev�ew the requ�rements for a greatly strengthened �nst�tut�onal structure for �nternat�onal env�ronmental governance based on an assessment of future needs for an �nst�tut�onal arch�tecture that has the capac�ty to effect�vely address w�de-rang�ng env�ronmental threats �n a global�z�ng world. ” The Declarat�on further affirmed that, to that end, the role of UNEP should be strengthened and �ts financ�al base broadened and made more pred�ctable.http://www.unep.org/malmo/malmo_ministerial.htm

123

World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) – 2002

WSSD, also known as R�o+10, rev�ewed the �mplementat�on of the goals of the Earth Summ�t w�th a v�ew to renew�ng, at the h�ghest pol�t�cal level, the global comm�tment to susta�nable development. Pr�or to the summ�t, Kofi Annan had put forward the so-called WEHAB �n�t�at�ve, propos�ng that the summ�t g�ve pr�or�ty to problems connected w�th water, energy, health, agr�culture and b�od�vers�ty. Over 30,000 representat�ves of State and non-State sectors attended, mak�ng WSSD the largest Un�ted Nat�ons meet�ng �n h�story. The summ�t resulted �n the Johannesburg Plan of Implementat�on, wh�ch sets out several spec�fic targets connected w�th poverty, hunger, dr�nk�ng water, mar�ne protected areas and b�od�vers�ty.www.johannesburgsummit.org

124

Trip with Drip the Water Drop: A Learning-by-doing Workbook on Water for Children

Environmental issues are best taught and learnt by experience and through activities. Action towards improving and protecting the environment, however small, make a

difference. And children are the best ambassadors for our planet.

Produced as a workbook, CD, and webversion, this colourful package contains basic facts, interesting information, and several “learning by doing” activities on various aspects of water. The package communicates both the quantity and quality aspects of water that are of immediate concern to all. More importantly, it carries the message that every one can play a role in conserving this resource. The web version is available on the UNEP website www.unep.org/training. A multimedia system is required to run the CD. A Trip with the Drip - The Water Drop, is available in English, Japanese and French. It was designed, developed and produced by UNEP in collaboration with (CEE) Centre for Environment Education, India.

Year of publication: 2005. ISBN: 92-807-2581-5

Recommended Reading

125

X. Major environmental institutions in Africa

A. African Ministerial Conference on the Environment

The Afr�can M�n�ster�al Conference on the Env�ronment (AMCEN) �s a permanent forum where Afr�can m�n�sters of the env�ronment can d�scuss matters of relevance to the env�ronment of the cont�nent. AMCEN was establ�shed �n 1985 when Afr�can m�n�sters

met �n Egypt and adopted the Ca�ro Programme for Afr�can Cooperat�on. Th�s conference �s convened every second year. Its mandate �s to prov�de advocacy for env�ronmental protect�on �n Afr�ca; to ensure that bas�c human needs are met adequately and �n a susta�nable manner; to ensure that soc�al and econom�c development �s real�zed at all levels and to ensure that agr�cultural act�v�t�es and pract�ces meet the food secur�ty needs of the reg�on.

AMCEN has cont�nued to support �mportant pol�t�cal developments related to the env�ronment, �nclud�ng mult�lateral env�ronmental agreements. AMCEN led the process beh�nd the development of the NEPAD env�ronment �n�t�at�ve and �s now gu�d�ng �ts �mplementat�on.

The M�n�ster�al Conference prompted and encouraged the preparat�on of the two comprehens�ve reg�onal reports on the state of Afr�ca’s env�ronment, Africa Environment Outlook (AEO I and II) drawn up by UNEP. The AEO process has been adopted by AMCEN as �ts �nstrument for mon�tor�ng and report�ng on the env�ronment. In add�t�on, AMCEN successfully fac�l�tated the rev�s�on of the 1968 Afr�ca Convent�on on the Conservat�on of Nature and Natural Resources (Alg�ers Convent�on).

Measures are be�ng taken to strengthen the l�nkages between AMCEN and the reg�on’s two mar�ne and coastal convent�ons: the Na�rob� Convent�on and Ab�djan Convent�on.

AMCEN has cont�nued to mon�tor closely the �mplementat�on of those env�ronmental convent�ons establ�shed �n furtherance of the Earth Summ�t �n 1992. These �nclude the Convent�on on B�olog�cal D�vers�ty and �ts Cartagena Protocol on B�osafety; the Convent�on

126

to Combat Desert�ficat�on; and the Framework Convent�on on Cl�mate Change and �ts Kyoto Protocol.

Institutional arrangements

The supreme body of AMCEN �s the Conference, compr�s�ng Afr�can m�n�sters respons�ble for the env�ronment. The m�n�sters dec�ded at the first sess�on of AMCEN that the Conference would meet every two years, and that a Bureau would be establ�shed to act on �ts behalf between meet�ngs. The UNEP Reg�onal Office for Afr�ca serves as the secretar�at to AMCEN.

S�nce the first sess�on of AMCEN, a number of programmes and �n�t�at�ves have been developed to fac�l�tate the effect�ve �mplementat�on of �ts mandate to ach�eve env�ronmental protect�on �n Afr�ca. The most s�gn�ficant of these are the reg�onal sc�ent�fic and techn�cal comm�ttees and the network of nat�onal focal po�nts, wh�ch have been work�ng w�th l�m�ted success on var�ous themat�c �ssues to advance the object�ves of AMCEN �n the reg�on.

Achievements and challenges

AMCEN has been �nstrumental �n advanc�ng the env�ronmental agenda �n Afr�ca �n several areas. These �nclude:

• H�ghl�ght�ng env�ronmental �ssues at all levels of soc�ety �nclud�ng the l�nkages w�th poverty reduct�on, human and an�mal health, trade, water conservat�on, forestry management, r�ver bas�n management, etc;

• Prov�d�ng a forum for the exchange of v�ews and bu�ld�ng consensus on �ssues of common concern among pol�cy makers at nat�onal, subreg�onal, reg�onal and global levels;

• Prov�d�ng a channel for the express�on of Afr�ca’s env�ronmental concerns to other reg�ons and to the global commun�ty;

• Act�ng as the leg�t�mate vo�ce of Afr�ca �n env�ronmental matters; • Bu�ld�ng a network of m�n�sters for the env�ronment �n Afr�ca and

127

• Produc�ng a number of publ�cat�ons to ass�st w�th the d�ssem�nat�on of env�ronmental �nformat�on �n Afr�ca.

AMCEN has also cont�nued to g�ve firm pol�t�cal gu�dance on the mult�lateral env�ronmental agreements, pay�ng part�cular attent�on to the �mplementat�on of the post-1992 Earth Summ�t env�ronmental convent�ons as well as the World Summ�t on Susta�nable Development.

AMCEN, however, faces many challenges. These �nclude:

• D�fficult�es �n secur�ng susta�nable financ�ng for the �mplementat�on of �ts act�v�t�es; • Harmon�s�ng reg�onal and global env�ronmental �ssues �n such a way as to ensure

that they rece�ve adequate attent�on at nat�onal and subreg�onal levels; • Translat�ng global env�ronmental concerns �nto pract�cal, feas�ble and ach�evable

programmes of act�on at nat�onal, subreg�onal and reg�onal levels. www.unep.org/roa/Amcen

B. African Ministers’ Council on Water

Water situation

An adequate supply of clean water �s the most �mportant precond�t�on for susta�n�ng human l�fe, for ma�nta�n�ng ecolog�cal systems that support all l�fe and for ach�ev�ng susta�nable development. Water �s the key natural resource throughout Afr�ca. It �s abundant �n Afr�ca on a reg�onal scale but unevenly d�str�buted. Although a few Afr�can countr�es do enjoy h�gh annual averages of water per person, many already are or soon w�ll be �n cond�t�ons of water-stress (2,000 m3 or less per person annually) or of scarc�ty (1,000 m3 or less per person annually) where the populat�on cannot be susta�ned us�ng ava�lable water resources. G�ven current populat�on project�ons, over 400 m�ll�on people are expected to be l�v�ng �n not less than 17 water- scarce Afr�can countr�es by the year 2010. The�r lack of water w�ll severely constra�n food product�on, ecosystem protect�on and econom�c development.

128

Throughout Afr�ca the allocat�on of water �s often unfa�rly man�pulated by man. W�th recurr�ng drought and chron�c water shortages �n many areas, the major�ty of Afr�can countr�es and people pay an �ncreas�ngly h�gh pr�ce for water or the lack of �t. The h�ghest pr�ce �s often pa�d by the poor major�ty and th�s can be measured �n terms of money spent to buy small quant�t�es of water, calor�es expended to fetch water from d�stant sources, �mpa�red health, d�m�n�shed l�vel�hoods and even lost l�ves. Today, over 300 m�ll�on people �n Afr�ca st�ll do not have reasonable access to safe water. Even more lack adequate san�tat�on.

Aquat�c spec�es, hab�tats and ecosystems are also at r�sk. The �ncreas�ng demand for water throughout Afr�ca to support greater agr�cultural product�v�ty, �ndustr�al expans�on and urban growth, and to meet human needs means that there �s less water ava�lable for ma�nta�n�ng aquat�c ecosystems and the many other spec�es and env�ronmental serv�ces they support.

Although water �n Afr�ca �s cruc�al for susta�nable nat�onal development �t �s rarely confined neatly w�th�n the boundar�es of a s�ngle country. W�th over 50 major �nternat�onal water bas�ns �n Afr�ca, most water suppl�es are shared by two or more countr�es. Most �nternat�onal bas�ns are not governed by agreements on equ�table use or env�ronmental protect�on and few have effect�ve �nst�tut�onal arrangements for consultat�on or cooperat�on. There �s a lack of procedures for avo�d�ng or resolv�ng �nternat�onal d�sputes over water.

The M�n�sters respons�ble for water resources from 41 Afr�can countr�es met �n Abuja, N�ger�a, on 29 and 30 Apr�l 2002 and dec�ded to form the Afr�can M�n�sters’ Counc�l on Water (AMCOW) pr�mar�ly to promote cooperat�on, secur�ty, soc�al and econom�c development and poverty erad�cat�on among member States through manag�ng water resources and prov�d�ng water supply serv�ces.

Mission and objectives of AMCOW

The m�ss�on of AMCOW �s to prov�de pol�t�cal leadersh�p, pol�cy d�rect�on and adv�ce on the prov�s�on, use and management of water resources for susta�nable soc�al and econom�c development and the ma�ntenance of Afr�can ecosystems.

129

The funct�ons of AMCOW are:

• To cont�nue to mon�tor the state of Afr�ca’s water resources and to promote act�v�t�es of common �nterest to Afr�ca.

• To fac�l�tate reg�onal and �nternat�onal co-operat�on through the co-ord�nat�on of pol�c�es and act�ons amongst Afr�can countr�es regard�ng water resources �ssues.

• To support trans-nat�onal co-operat�on on water- related �ssues through the development of common pos�t�ons on matters of global concern, and to encourage co-operat�on �n the �mplementat�on of relevant convent�ons and �nternat�onal agreements.

• To encourage mechan�sms that w�ll promote best pract�ces �n water pol�cy reforms, �ntegrated water resources management, food secur�ty, water supply and san�tat�on and ass�st �n the �mplementat�on of nat�onal, reg�onal and subreg�onal programmes.

• To prov�de a forum for d�alogue w�th Un�ted Nat�ons agenc�es and other partners on water programmes.

• To promote part�c�pat�on �n reg�onal stud�es on cl�mate change, develop observat�on networks, encourage �nformat�on exchange and set up strateg�es for the management of water resources �n t�me of drought and floods and develop pol�c�es and strateg�es to el�m�nate the water cr�s�s �n Afr�ca.

• To ensure transparency �n the financ�ng of the water sector �n Afr�can countr�es and seek add�t�onal fund�ng.

www.amcow.org

African Water Facility (AWF): th�s �s an �n�t�at�ve led by AMCOW to mob�l�ze financ�al resources for water resources development �n Afr�ca. The Afr�can Development Bank �s host�ng the fac�l�ty at the request of AMCOW. The pr�mary goal of AWF �s to help reduce poverty and promote development �n Afr�ca by �mprov�ng access to water supply and san�tat�on w�th�n the context of the Afr�ca Water V�s�on and based on the pr�nc�ples of �ntegrated water resources management (IWRM). The fac�l�ty has been developed as a spec�fic contr�but�on to the ach�evement of the MDGs and targets and, �n part�cular, the target “to reduce by one half, by the year 2015, the proport�on of people who do not have access to safe dr�nk�ng water and bas�c san�tat�on”.

130

AWF was legally establ�shed by the Board of Governors of the Afr�can Development Bank, at the annual meet�ng �n Kampala on 25 May, 2004. The object�ve of AWF �s to attract �ncreased �nvestment �n the relevant field and to use those funds to ach�eve the nat�onal and reg�onal water sector targets. Th�s can be ach�eved by: mak�ng the env�ronment more attract�ve to potent�al �nvestors; prov�d�ng d�rect cap�tal �nvestment to �nv�te greater �nvestment �n susta�nable development; focus�ng on �ntegrated water resources management at the nat�onal level and transboundary water resources management at the reg�onal level (AMCOW/NEPAD pr�or�t�es).

C. New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD)

The New Partnersh�p for Afr�ca’s Development (NEPAD) �s a v�s�on and strateg�c framework for Afr�ca’s renewal. It �s a mult�sectoral �n�t�at�ve that seeks to bu�ld partnersh�ps and promote cooperat�on between Afr�can countr�es as well as between Afr�ca and other �nternat�onal groups, such as the G-8. W�th�n Afr�ca, an �mportant aspect of th�s cooperat�on �s the Afr�can Peer Rev�ew Mechan�sm (APRM).

APRM has developed and adopted a coherent env�ronment act�on plan and strateg�es to address the reg�on’s env�ronmental challenge �n an �ntegrated manner. The NEPAD env�ronment act�on plan regards better governance, poverty erad�cat�on, econom�c growth and �ncome d�str�but�on as an �ntegral part of Afr�ca’s susta�nable development.

Environment initiative of NEPAD

The NEPAD env�ronment �n�t�at�ve recogn�zes that the env�ronment quest�on �s central to �ts work. It accepts that the �ssues surround�ng the env�ronmental quest�on are many and complex, and that a systemat�c comb�nat�on of �n�t�at�ves �s necessary to develop a coherent env�ronmental programme. A core object�ve of the env�ronment �n�t�at�ve �s to combat poverty and contr�bute to soc�al and econom�c development �n Afr�ca.

It has been recognised that a healthy and productive environment is a prerequisite for the New Partnership for Africa’s Development. It is further recognised that the range of issues necessary to nurture this environmental base is vast and complex, and that a systematic combination of initiatives is necessary to develop a coherent environmental programme.

NEPAD Framework Document

131

The env�ronment �n�t�at�ve has targeted e�ght programme areas for pr�or�ty �ntervent�ons:

Combating land degradation, drought and desertification: Land �s the cr�t�cal resource and the bas�s of surv�val for most people �n Afr�ca. Agr�culture contr�butes about 40 per cent of the reg�onal GDP and employs more than 60 per cent of the labour force. Land degradat�on �s a ser�ous problem throughout Afr�ca and �s a threat to econom�c and phys�cal surv�val. Key factors �nclude escalat�ng so�l eros�on, decl�n�ng fert�l�ty, sal�n�zat�on, so�l compact�on and pollut�on by agrochem�cals and desert�ficat�on. As the work of NEPAD covers the whole reg�on, �t follows that the act�on plan to address land degradat�on, desert�ficat�on and drought under NEPAD should be based on reg�onal and subreg�onal act�on programmes under the Convent�on to Combat Desert�ficat�on for Afr�ca.

Wetland conservation: Th�s �nvolves the �mplementat�on of Afr�can best pract�ces on wetland conservat�on, where soc�al and ecolog�cal benefits are der�ved from pr�vate sector

132

�nvestment �n th�s area. Wetlands �n Afr�ca susta�n rural l�vel�hoods across large parts of the cont�nent. The�r funct�ons �nclude ma�ntenance of the water table by fac�l�tat�ng the movement of large volumes of water �nto underground aqu�fers, thus recharg�ng the water table. They also prevent floods and eros�on by slow�ng surface runoff and reduc�ng overflow �nto r�verbanks downstream, wh�ch avo�ds a bu�ld-up of eros�ve flood cond�t�ons.

Wetlands play an �mportant role �n storm protect�on, water pur�ficat�on and m�cro-cl�mate stab�l�zat�on. They prov�de a hab�tat for var�ous spec�es and for mangroves and other wood products, wh�ch are harvested for fuel, t�mber and med�c�nal purposes They are extremely �mportant to local econom�es and to many commun�t�es where fish �s almost the sole source of an�mal prote�n. Mats, baskets and thatch�ng mater�al are der�ved from grasses and reeds �n wetlands all over Afr�ca. The prov�s�on of other l�fe-support�ng mater�als such as pasture for l�vestock, part�cularly dur�ng the dry season, and clean and rel�able sources of water for human consumpt�on, agr�culture and �ndustry are also among the serv�ces prov�ded by wetlands.

Invasive alien species: Ass�stance �s be�ng sought �n the struggle to prevent and control �nvas�ve al�en spec�es wh�ch, as a contr�but�ng factor to poverty and a pr�mary cause of spec�es loss and ecosystem decl�ne, pose a real threat to susta�nable development. Such ass�stance, wh�ch could take the form of labour-�ntens�ve �n�t�at�ves, �s cr�t�cal both for the preservat�on of the ecosystems and for econom�c well-be�ng. The prevent�on, control and management of �nvas�ve al�en spec�es w�ll contr�bute s�gn�ficantly to Afr�ca’s econom�c recovery and development, and the goal of the programme deal�ng w�th th�s �ssue �s to m�n�m�ze the �mpact of �nvas�ve al�en spec�es on Afr�ca’s people, econom�es and ecolog�cal systems.

Coastal management: Recommendat�ons on best pract�ces should be made, from wh�ch a w�de-rang�ng programme can be drawn up for the max�mum protect�on and sens�ble ut�l�zat�on of coastal resources. Afr�ca’s coastal ecosystems and mar�ne b�od�vers�ty contr�bute s�gn�ficantly to the econom�es of �ts countr�es, ma�nly through fish�ng and tour�sm, wh�ch const�tute a major source of l�vel�hood for many households. Coastal and

133

mar�ne resources contr�bute cons�derably to the revenue of the countr�es of the reg�on, and the fisher�es sector �s also a s�gn�ficant employer.

In all, 70 per cent of the world’s fisher�es are cons�dered over-explo�ted. There has been a sharp decl�ne �n the catch rate along Afr�ca’s coast. Moreover, mar�ne and coastal resources are under �ncreas�ng threat from development-related act�v�t�es. As much as 38 per cent of the Afr�can coastl�ne of 40,000 km, �nclud�ng 68 per cent of mar�ne protected areas, �s cons�dered to be under ser�ous threat. The uncontrolled urban�zat�on of the coastal zone �s a major cause of such degradat�on. In some cases, mar�ne pollut�on from major coastal c�t�es has actually reached tox�c levels.

Global warming: The �n�t�al focus w�ll be on mon�tor�ng and regulat�ng the �mpact of cl�mate change. Afr�ca accounts for 14 per cent of the world’s populat�on. N�ne out of ten persons �n Afr�ca, however, have no access to electr�c�ty and three quarters of the�r energy comes from trad�t�onal fuels. Consequently, Afr�ca’s em�ss�ons of cl�mate-change �nduc�ng carbon d�ox�de are st�ll low, est�mated to be only 3.5 per cent of the world’s total. In add�t�on, Afr�ca’s vast forest reserves serve as a s�gn�ficant s�nk for carbon d�ox�de and thus play an �mportant role �n allev�at�ng and balanc�ng the em�ss�ons of �ndustr�al�zed countr�es.

Although Afr�ca has not h�stor�cally contr�buted to cl�mate change and �ts forests have played the role of a s�gn�ficant s�nk for the carbon em�tted by �ndustr�al�zed countr�es, �t �s pred�cted that the cont�nent w�ll be the most affected by the adverse effects of cl�mate change, as many aspects of Afr�can econom�es are st�ll sens�t�ve to cl�mat�c hazards.

Cross-border conservation areas: Th�s l�nked �n�t�at�ve seeks to bu�ld on the act�ons now be�ng taken, seek�ng partnersh�ps w�th�n countr�es to create employment by boost�ng conservat�on and tour�sm. Afr�ca’s natural resources, l�ke those of other cont�nents, are not confined to nat�onal borders. Accord�ngly, susta�nable natural resource management requ�res a coord�nated transboundary pol�cy and �t �s �mportant that any act�on taken should be �n conform�ty w�th ex�st�ng agreements upheld by the countr�es concerned.

134

Transboundary collaborat�on on the susta�nable use, conservat�on and management of natural resources can prov�de great econom�c and conservat�on benefits; much greater than could be ach�eved by countr�es work�ng �n �solat�on. A transboundary approach to the susta�nable use and conservat�on of natural resources w�th�n the Env�ronment In�t�at�ve of NEPAD should be seen as a way of further�ng ex�st�ng nat�onal �n�t�at�ves and should, where poss�ble, bu�ld on these nat�onal level �n�t�at�ves.

Environmental governance: Th�s relates to secur�ng the �nst�tut�onal, legal, plann�ng, tra�n�ng and capac�ty-bu�ld�ng requ�rements that underp�n all of the above.

Financing. A carefully structured and fa�r financ�ng system �s a necess�ty.NEPAD Environment Initiative Action Plan: available athttp://dgef.unep.org/publications/nepad_publications/radBC8B1.doc

D. African Round Table on Sustainable Consumption And Production (ARSCP)

ARSCP �s a reg�onal coord�nat�ng �nst�tut�on establ�shed by a charter adopted by the th�rd Afr�can Round Table on Susta�nable Consumpt�on and Product�on (ARSCP-3) �n Casablanca, Morocco, on 18 May 2004 and reg�stered as a non-profit-mak�ng NGO under the laws of the Un�ted Republ�c of Tanzan�a on 6 September 2004.

the Un�ted Republ�c of Tanzan�a hosts the secretar�at for ARSCP w�th the country’s Cleaner Product�on Centre currently serv�ng as the �nter�m secretar�at. The v�s�on of ARSCP �s to ach�eve susta�nable development for Afr�can countr�es wh�le mak�ng an effect�ve contr�but�on to poverty reduct�on, the �mprovement of well be�ng and the protect�on and conservat�on of the env�ronment.

The m�ss�on of ARSCP �s to promote the development of nat�onal and reg�onal capac�t�es for the effect�ve promot�on and �mplementat�on of susta�nable consumpt�on and product�on pr�nc�ples and to serve as the reg�onal clear�nghouse for susta�nable consumpt�on and product�on act�v�t�es �n the Afr�ca reg�on.

135

The overall object�ve of the ARSCP �s to fac�l�tate the development of nat�onal and reg�onal capac�t�es for susta�nable consumpt�on and product�on and to promote the effect�ve �mplementat�on of the concepts and tools of susta�nable consumpt�on and product�on �n Afr�can countr�es. The spec�fic targets of ARSCP w�th�n th�s overall object�ve are:

• To promote the establ�shment of nat�onal cleaner product�on centres (NCPCs) or susta�nable consumpt�on and product�on promot�ng �nst�tut�ons (SCPs) �n countr�es where they do not ex�st and to fac�l�tate support to strengthen ex�st�ng such centres and �nst�tut�ons �n Afr�can countr�es;

• To fac�l�tate the further �ntegrat�on of the concepts and pr�nc�ples of susta�nable consumpt�on and product�on �n nat�onal pol�cy frameworks �n the reg�on;

• To prov�de the necessary support for the development, effect�ve transfer and ass�m�lat�on of env�ronmentally sound technolog�es that are of part�cular relevance to Afr�can econom�es;

• To encourage spec�al�zat�on and fac�l�tate �nformat�on exchange and exper�ence shar�ng between SCPs and �nd�v�dual experts work�ng w�th�n the reg�on and at �nternat�onal level;

• To strengthen cooperat�on between NCPCs and SCPs �n Afr�can countr�es and UNEP/UNIDO and other �nternat�onal organ�zat�ons and NCPCs �n other reg�ons; and

• To promote the development and �ntegrat�on of the susta�nable cleaner product�on curr�culum �n educat�onal �nst�tut�ons �n the reg�on.

ARSCP �s the pr�nc�pal techn�cal �nst�tut�on entrusted w�th the further development and �mplementat�on of the Afr�can 10 Year Framework Programme on Susta�nable Consumpt�on and Product�on and �s currently serv�ng as the V�ce-Cha�r of the Marrakech Task Force on Cooperat�on w�th Afr�ca for the 10-Year Framework Programme, wh�ch �s led by Germany.www.arscp.org

136

This guide showcases some of UNEP’s many programmes and resources that

support the important work of environmental education and training. It contains details of courses in the UNEP Environmental Leadership Programme, UNEP networks for environmental training, UNEP’s commitment to supporting environmental action learning activities that link schools with their communities, training programmes for women as managers of natural resources, and examples of UNEP’s public education programmes in newspapers and television. These examples come from countries and regions around the world; from Finland to southern Africa, from Latin America and the Caribbean to Australia, and from the Himalayas to the USA. This guide also provides details of some of the many books, multimedia materials and web sites that UNEP has prepared to support environmental education and training.

Year of publication: 2004. ISBN: 92-807-2434-7

UNEP Programmes and Resources for Environmental Education and Training: An Introductory Guide

Recommended Reading

137

XI. Reporting on the environment

To be an env�ronmental reporter, �t �s necessary to have an understand�ng of sc�ent�fic language and pract�ce, knowledge of h�stor�cal env�ronmental events, the ab�l�ty to keep abreast of env�ronmental pol�cy dec�s�ons and the work of env�ronmental

organ�zat�ons, a general understand�ng of current env�ronmental concerns, and the ab�l�ty to commun�cate all of that �nformat�on to the publ�c �n such a way that �t can be eas�ly understood, desp�te �ts complex�ty.

Tracking multilateral environment agreements

The tools ava�lable to mon�tor �nternat�onal env�ronmental agreements have changed dramat�cally. Internat�onal env�ronmental pol�cy has cont�nued to evolve, and use of the �nternet has r�sen dramat�cally.

Webs�tes on MEAs generally prov�de an abundance of �nformat�on on negot�ated texts, offic�al documents, s�gnature and rat�ficat�on status, support�ng analys�s, newsletters, and educat�onal mater�als related to any g�ven treaty. In add�t�on, common search eng�nes such as Google and Yahoo generally do a good job of find�ng these s�tes when g�ven the formal name of the treaty.

Many people are �nterested �n brows�ng the full range of ex�st�ng agreements. Th�s style of research �s best served by search�ng collect�ons of treat�es and agreements. Several organ�zat�ons have constructed somewhat �d�osyncrat�c collect�ons ta�lored to the�r own spec�fic purposes.

ECOLEX, or the Env�ronmental Law Informat�on System, �s a jo�nt effort by IUCN, FAO and UNEP. In ECOLEX, users can search by subject, key word, State, place and date of adopt�on, geograph�c or �nst�tut�onal scope, depos�tory, and free text. Each treaty record conta�ns l�nks to a summary and full text of the treaty (where poss�ble), a matr�x descr�b�ng the s�gnature and rat�ficat�on status, subject head�ngs, the geograph�c or �nst�tut�onal scope

“A well informed public is necessary if we in the United Nations are to succeed...”

Boutros-Boutros Ghali, United Nations Secretary-General 1992 - 1996

138

of the treaty, the or�g�nal language of the treaty and those �nto wh�ch �t has been translated, place and date of adopt�on, c�tat�on to an author�tat�ve source, references from or to other treat�es, references from l�terature, references from �nternat�onal soft law and key words. Maps w�th the s�gnature and rat�ficat�on status for each of the treat�es l�sted �n ECOLEX are ava�lable from UNEP-Arendal http://maps.grida.no/scripts/esrimapwww.ecolex.org

Environmental Treaties and Resource Indicators Service starts w�th the same core set of �nformat�on as ECOLEX. It then supplements the collect�on of treaty texts w�th add�t�onal texts and status �nformat�on from the Tufts Un�vers�ty Mult�laterals Project, the Antarct�c Cooperat�ve Research Centre and the Ramsar Convent�on Bureau. The database also �ntegrates t�me ser�es �nd�cators from the World Resources Inst�tute and Freedom House Internat�onal. As a result, users can answer quest�ons such as, “What are the values of selected nat�onal resource �nd�cators for all States that are (or are not) part�es to a part�cular treaty at a g�ven t�me?” and “Based on the value of selected nat�onal resource �nd�cators, wh�ch States are part�es to a part�cular treaty or treat�es?”http://sedac.ciesin.org/entrihttp://fletcher.tufts. edu/multilateralswww.antcrc.utas.edu.au/antcrcwww.ramsar.org

ENTRI, another very valuable s�te for env�ronmental treat�es, may be found at the follow�ng Web address:

http://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/entri/

FAOLEX, wh�ch �s ma�nta�ned by FAO, conta�ns treat�es, laws, and regulat�ons on food, agr�culture, and renewable natural resources worldw�de. Users can search by subject (agr�culture, an�mals, env�ronment, food, fisher�es, forestry, land, plants, water, or w�ldl�fe and b�od�vers�ty), country, reg�on, year, key words, words from the t�tle, type of text

139

(�nternat�onal agreement, leg�slat�on, regulat�on, or m�scellaneous), and language of record. Each record conta�ns the formal t�tle, a l�st of s�gnator�es, the date of the text, notes related to the entry �nto force, l�nks to the full text of the document, comments, an abstract, and keyword descr�ptors. Th�s database conta�ns more than 670 �nternat�onal agreements.

Add�t�onal treaty collect�ons �nclude the Yearbook of Internat�onal Cooperat�on on Env�ronment and Development, the Internet Gu�de to Internat�onal F�sher�es Law and the European Centre for Nature Conservat�on’s Gu�de to Internat�onal Nature Conservat�on Pol�cy and Leg�slat�on. In add�t�on, the Internat�onal Inst�tute for Susta�nable Development prov�des conc�se da�ly report�ng on most major �nternat�onal env�ronmental negot�at�ons and the Amer�can Soc�ety of Internat�onal Law prov�des an excellent chapter on �nternat�onal env�ronmental law �n �ts Gu�de to Electron�c Resources for Internat�onal Law. www.asil.org/resource/envl.htm.http://faolex.fao.org/faolexwww.ngo.grida.no/ggynetwww.oceanlaw.net/guidewww.ecnc.nl/doc/europe/legislat/conventiwww.iisd.ca/linkages

Navigating the environment sites of the United Nations

Beg�nn�ng w�th the 1972 Conference on the Human Env�ronment, the Un�ted Nat�ons has served as a catalyst for �nternat�onal env�ronmental pol�cy. Informat�on about �ts act�v�ty �n th�s area �s now ava�lable v�a the Internet.

The obv�ous place to start �s the Un�ted Nat�ons Home Page. Th�s entrance prov�des bas�c �nformat�on about the structure and work of the UN. It also prov�des l�nks to each of �ts pr�nc�pal programme areas (peace and secur�ty, econom�c and soc�al development, human r�ghts, human�tar�an affa�rs, and �nternat�onal law) and to related serv�ces �nclud�ng press releases, publ�cat�on catalogues, and conference �nformat�on. The bulk of Un�ted Nat�ons

140

env�ronment act�v�t�es fall under the head�ng of “Econom�c and Soc�al Development.” Th�s �s where l�nks can be found to the Un�ted Nat�ons Env�ronment Programme and the Comm�ss�on on Susta�nable Development.

The UNEP s�te prov�des bas�c organ�zat�onal �nformat�on, m�lestone documents such as Agenda 21 and the 1997 Na�rob� Declarat�on on the future of UNEP, and l�nks to the secretar�ats of UNEP-sponsored convent�ons, such as the Convent�on on B�od�vers�ty, CITES, the Framework Convent�on on Cl�mate Change and reg�onal seas convent�ons.

Several UNEP offices ma�nta�n the�r own webs�tes that supplement the bas�c �nformat�on prov�ded by the central s�te. The Geneva office prov�des access to the Internat�onal Reg�stry of Potent�ally Tox�c Chem�cals, the Informat�on Un�t for Convent�ons and the Global Resources Informat�on Database (GRID), wh�ch spec�al�zes �n env�ronment-related geospat�al databases. Norway’s GRID office spec�al�zes �n state-of-the-env�ronment reports. The North Amer�can GRID office concentrates on env�ronmental d�saster response and satell�te remote sens�ng. GRID-Warsaw focuses on env�ronmental cond�t�ons �n Central and Eastern Europe.

The World Conservat�on Mon�tor�ng Centre �s concerned w�th b�olog�cal d�vers�ty and conservat�on b�ology. The Comm�ss�on on Susta�nable Development focuses on the �mplementat�on of Agenda 21 and related mater�als. It also �ncludes the documents �ssued by Earth Summ�t+5 conference. V�rtually all Un�ted Nat�ons agenc�es and programmes deal w�th one or another aspect of the env�ronment. A comprehens�ve l�st�ng of Un�ted Nat�ons webs�tes can be found at http://www.unsystem.org/ and http://www.undcp.org/unl�nks.html.www.un.org/esa/sustdevwww.biodiv.orgwww.cites.orgwww.cms.intwww.ramsar.orgwww.unfccc.intwww.unccd.int

141

www.unep.ch/seaswww.unep.chhttp://irptc.unep.ch/irptcwww.unep.ch/iucwww.grid.unep.ch/gridhomewww.grida.nohttp://grid2.cr. usgs.govwww.unep-wcmc.orgwww.un.org/esa/earthsummitwww.unep.org/decwww.svs-unepibmdb.net

142

EET Websitehttp://www.unep.org/training

UNEP’s Environmental Education and Training has since the

beginning of 2006 embarked on a mission to avail information-rich content of UNEP-wide resources and opportunities in environmental education and training to the end-users via the Internet. The all-new, completely revamped and beautifully designed website for Environmental Education and Training is now available online. The website offers new enhancements and features covering topical issues in education for sustainable development and the environmental education and training events at the national, regional and global levels.

Please take a few moments to visit the website at http://www.unep.org/training, and let us know what you think. Each comment and suggestion shall be carefully considered, so be assured your efforts won’t be in vain. We want the site to work well for you. It’s our way of saying thanks for taking valuable time to share your opinions and insight. After all, you’re the reason it exists!

Recommended Reference

143

X. Conclusion

Env�ronmental report�ng �s a sk�ll that requ�res a hol�st�c approach to env�ronmental �ssues. As the env�ronmental consc�ence of the Un�ted Nat�ons, UNEP has a w�de array of programmes that address key env�ronmental �ssues. Th�s handbook has

h�ghl�ghted these �ssues and prov�ded an overv�ew from Africa Environment Outlook 2 – Our Environment, Our Wealth (AEO-2).

AEO-2 sees Afr�ca’s env�ronmental resources as an asset for the reg�on’s development. The report h�ghl�ghts the opportun�t�es presented by the natural resource base to support development and the object�ves of the Afr�can Un�on and NEPAD. The report underl�nes the need to ensure susta�nable l�vel�hoods, and the �mportance of env�ronmental �n�t�at�ves �n support�ng them. Emphas�s �s put on what should and can be done (even w�th ex�st�ng constra�nts) w�th those env�ronmental assets that rema�n rather than focus�ng on those that have already been lost.

Susta�nable development has thrust the env�ronment �nto the heart of developmental �ssues, mak�ng the susta�nable usage of natural resources a global pr�or�ty and concern. Aga�nst th�s background, env�ronmental report�ng has stead�ly ga�ned prom�nence and �mportance.

Afr�ca requ�res spec�al med�a attent�on. Th�s �s necess�tated �n part by the reg�on’s wealth of natural resources and the d�vers�ty of soc�al and econom�c challenges that threaten to underm�ne these resources. A clear understand�ng of such env�ronmental dynam�cs w�ll greatly enr�ch med�a report�ng of th�s cont�nent. Th�s handbook has sought to prov�de Afr�can journal�sts w�th the �nformat�on resources that they need for factual and readable report�ng.

Env�ronmental convent�ons are born out of �ntense negot�at�ons between sovere�gn countr�es. These convent�ons can make the d�fference between env�ronmental health and env�ronmental decl�ne. Th�s �s espec�ally true for Afr�ca where human vulnerab�l�ty to env�ronmental change rema�ns precar�ously h�gh. Th�s handbook has prov�ded journal�sts

144

w�th a conc�se and �nformat�ve gu�de on convent�ons and filled �n the background to those convent�ons.

Afr�cans �n general and Afr�can journal�sts �n part�cular, have a duty to ensure that Afr�ca’s env�ronment �s reported on accurately and profess�onally. It �s to be hoped that th�s handbook w�ll leave them better equ�pped to fulfil th�s v�tal duty.

145

Appendices

I. Information resources on Africa

This section highlights some of the resources available on the Internet relating to sustainable development in Africa.

UNEP Regional Office for Africa http://www.unep.org/roa

Africa Environment Outlook process http://www.unep.org/dewa/africa

Global Environment Outlook Process http://www.unep.org/geo

UNEP Africa portal http://africa.unep.net/ provides access to a wide variety of complementary materials, including country profiles, graphics and statistics, maps, case studies, and regional treaties and conventions.

United Nations Economic Commission for Africa http://www.uneca.org/ hosts programmes on sustainable development and population information. (http://www.uneca.org/popia).

United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs

http://www.un.org/esa/africamaintains the Office of the Special Adviser on Africa.

United Nations Department of Political Affairs http://www.un.org/Depts/dpa/africasupports a number of activities throughout Africa

African Union http://www.africa-union.org

Intergovernmental Authority for Development http://www.igad.org

Southern African Development Community http://www.sadc.int

New Partnership for Africa’s Development http://www.nepad.org

Afrobarometer public opinion surveys http://afrobarometer.org

Africover land cover initiative http://www.africover.org

Africa Data Dissemination Service http://igskmncnwb015.cr.usgs.gov/adds

News about sustainable development http://allafrica.com/sustainable

and environmental affairs in Africa http://allafrica.com/environment

Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa http://www.jsd-africa.com

List of academic journals focused on Africa http://www.ajol.info

146

II. United Nations system

United Nations System Chief Executives Board for Coordination (CEB) – New York, United States of America

http://ceb.unsystem.org

Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO) (Preparatory Commission) – Vienna, Austria

www.ctbto.org

United Nations CyberSchoolBus – New York http://cyberschoolbus.un.org

Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) – Addis Ababa, Ethiopia www.uneca.org

Economic Commission for Europe (ECE) – Geneva, Switzerland www.unece.org

Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) – Santiago, Chile www.eclac.org

Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) – Bangkok, Thailand www.unescap.org

Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA) – Beirut, Lebanon www.escwa.org.lb

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) – Rome, Italy www.fao.orgGlobal Programme on Globalization, Liberalization and Sustainable Human Development [UNCTAD-UNDP] – Geneva

www.unctad-undp.org

High Level Committee on Management (HLCM) – Geneva http://ceb.unsystem.org/hlcm

High Level Committee on Programmes (HLCP) – Geneva http://ceb.unsystem.org/hlcp

Former Inter-Agency Committee on Sustainable Development (IACSD) – New York http://ceb.unsystem.org/former.ACC/iacsd.htm

Inter-Agency Network on Women and Gender Equality (IANWGE) (formerly IACWGE) – New York

http://ceb.unsystem.org/former.ACC/iacwge.htm

Inter-Agency Procurement Services Office (IAPSO) – Copenhagen, Denmark www.iapso.org

Inter-Agency Working Group on Evaluation (IAWG) – New York www.uneval.org

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) – Vienna www.iaea.org

International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) [World Bank Group] – Washington DC, United States of America

www.worldbank.org/html/extdr/backgrd/ibrd

International Bureau of Education (IBE) [UNESCO] – Geneva www.ibe.unesco.orgInternational Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (ICGEB) [UNIDO] – Trieste, Italy

www.icgeb.org

147

International Centre for Science and High Technology (ICS) [UNIDO] – Trieste www.ics.trieste.itInternational Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) [World Bank Group] – Washington

www.worldbank.org/icsid

Abdus Salam International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP) [UNESCO/IAEA – Trieste www.ictp.trieste.it

International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) – Montreal, Canada www.icao.int

International Civil Service Commission (ICSC) – New York http://icsc.un.org

International Computing Centre (ICC) – Geneva www.unicc.org

International Court of Justice (ICJ) – The Hague, Netherlands www.icj-cij.org

International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) – The Hague www.un.org/icty

International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) – Arusha, United Republic of Tanzania www.ictr.org

International Development Association (IDA) [World Bank Group] – Washington www.worldbank.org/ida

International Finance Corporation (IFC) [World Bank Group] – Washington www.ifc.org

International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) – Rome www.ifad.org

International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP) [UNESCO] – Paris, France www.unesco.org/iiep

International Institute on Ageing (INIA) – Valetta, Malta www.inia.org.mt

International Labour Organization (ILO) – Geneva www.ilo.org

International Maritime Organization (IMO) – London, United Kingdom www.imo.org

International Monetary Fund (IMF) – Washington www.imf.orgInternational Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women (INSTRAW) – Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic

www.un-instraw.org

International Seabed Authority (ISA) – Kingston, Jamaica www.isa.org.jm

International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) – Geneva www.unisdr.org

International Telecommunication Union (ITU) – Geneva www.itu.int/home/index.html

International Trade Centre (ITC) [UNCTAD/WTO] – Geneva www.intracen.org

International Training Centre of the ILO (ITC/ILO) – Turin, Italy www.itcilo.it

Joint Inspection Unit (JIU) – Geneva www.unsystem.org/jiu

148

Joint Inter-Agency Meeting on Computer-Assisted Translation and Terminology (JIAMCATT) – Geneva

http://jiamcatt.unsystem.org

Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) – Geneva www.unaids.org

Media and Peace Institute (University for Peace) – Paris www.mediapeace.org

Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) [World Bank Group] – Washington www.miga.org

United Nations Non-Governmental Liaison Service (NGLS) – Geneva and New York www.un-ngls.org

Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) – Geneva and New York http://ochaonline.un.org

Office for Outer Space Affairs (OOSA) – Vienna www.oosa.unvienna.orgOffice of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) – Geneva, Switzerland

www.unhchr.ch

Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (OHCR) – Geneva, Switzerland

www.unhcr.ch

Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) – The Hague www.opcw.org

Panel of External Auditors of the United Nations, the Specialized Agencies and the International Atomic Energy Agency – New York

www.unsystem.org/auditors/external.htm

ReliefWeb [OCHA] – Geneva http://www.reliefweb.int/

World Conservation Union (IUCN) – Gland, Switzerland www.iucn.orgUnited Nations System Standing Committee on Nutrition (SCN) (formely ACC Subcommittee on Nutrition) – Geneva

www.unsystem.org/scn

United Nations – New York www.un.org

United Nations Atlas of the Oceans – Washington www.oceansatlas.org

United Nations Board of Auditors – New York www.unsystem.org/auditors

United Nations Capital Development Fund – New York www.uncdf.org

United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) – New York www.unicef.org

United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) – Vienna www.un.or.at/uncitral

United Nations Common Supplier Database (UNCSD) – Oslo, Norway www.uncsd.org

United Nations Communications Group (former JUNIC) – New York http://ceb.unsystem.org/former.ACC/junic.htm

United Nations Compensation Commission (UNCC) – Geneva www.unog.ch/uncc

149

United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) – Geneva www.unctad.org

United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) – Bonn, Germany www.unccd.int

United Nations International Drug Control Programme (UNDCP) (now UNODC) – Vienna, Austria www.undcp.org

United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) – New York www.unifem.undp.org

United Nations Development Group (UNDG) – New York www.undg.org

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) – New York www.undp.org

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) – Paris www.unesco.org

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) – Nairobi, Kenya www.unep.org

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) – Bonn www.unfccc.int

United Nations Fund for International Partnerships (UNFIP) – New York www.un.org/unfip

United Nations Geographic Information Working Group (UNGIWG) – New York www.ungiwg.org

United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat) – Nairobi www.unhabitat.org

United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) – Vienna www.unido.orgUnited Nations Information and Communication Technologies Task Force (UNICT TF) – New York

www.unicttaskforce.org

United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR) – Geneva www.unog.ch/unidir

United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR) – Geneva www.unitar.org

United Nations International School (UNIS) – New York www.unis.org

United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute (UNICRI) – Rome www.unicri.it

United Nations Joint Staff Pension Fund (UNJSPF) – New York www.unjspf.org

United Nations Mine Action Service – New York www.mineaction.org

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) (formerly UNDCP) – Vienna www.unodc.org/unodc

United Nations Office at Geneva (UNOG) – Geneva www.unog.ch

United Nations Office at Nairobi (UNON) – Nairobi www.unon.org

United Nations Office at Vienna (UNOV) – Vienna www.unvienna.org

United Nations Office for Project Services (UNOPS) – New York www.unops.org

150

United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) – New York www.unfpa.org

United Nations Postal Administration (UNPA) – Vienna www.unpa.unvienna.orgUnited Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA) – Gaza, Palestine, and Amman, Jordan

www.un.org/unrwa

United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD) – Geneva www.unrisd.org

United Nations Resident Coordinators Network (RCNet) – New York www.dgo.org

United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR) – Vienna www.unscear.org

United Nations System Chief Executives Board for Coordination (CEB) – New York http://ceb.unsystem.orgUnited Nations System Network on Rural Development and Food Security [FAO/IFAD] – Rome

www.rdfs.net

United Nations System Staff College (UNSSC) – Turin www.unssc.org

United Nations University (UNU) – Tokyo, Japan www.unu.edu

United Nations Volunteers (UNV) – Bonn www.unv.org

Universal Postal Union (UPU) – Bern, Switzerland www.upu.int

University for Peace (UPEACE) – San Jose, Costa Rica www.upeace.org

Women Watch – New York www.un.org/womenwatch

World Bank Group – Washington www.worldbank.org

World Food Programme (WFP) – Rome www.wfp.org

World Health Organization (WHO) – Geneva www.who.int

World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) – Geneva www.wipo.int

World Meteorological Organization (WMO) – Geneva www.wmo.ch

World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) – Madrid, Spain www.world-tourism.org

World Trade Organization (WTO) – Geneva www.wto.org

World Volunteer Web [UNV] – Bonn www.worldvolunteerweb.org

151

III. Environmental contacts and networks

A. UNEP

Regional Office for Africa

United Nations Environment Programme, UNEPRegional Office for Africa, Room A-120P.O. Box 30552, Nairobi-KenyaTel: +254 20 7 624292Email: [email protected]/roa

Division of Early Warning Assessment, DEWA

United Nations Environment Programme, UNEPP.O. Box 30552, Nairobi, 00100, KenyaTel.: +254 20 62 4299Fax: +254 20 62 4269E-mail: [email protected]/Web: www.unep.org/dewa

Division of Communications and Public Information, DCPI

United Nations Environment Programme, UNEP P.O. Box 30552, Nairobi, KenyaTel.: + 254 20 623293Fax: +254 20 623927E-mail: [email protected]/Web: www.unap.org/dcpi

Division of Technology, Industry and Economics, DTIEUnited Nations Environment Programme, UNEP 39-43, Quai Andre Citroen75739 Paris Cedex 15, FranceTel.: +33 1 44 37 1441Fax: +33 1 44 37 1474E-mail: [email protected]

Division of Environmental Policy Implementation, DEPIUnited Nations Environment Programme, UNEP P.O. Box 30552, Nairobi 00100, KenyaTel.: +254 20 7 623508Fax: +254 20 7 623927 / 624249E-mail: [email protected]/Web: www.unep.org/depi

Division of the Global Environment Facility, DGEFUnited Nations Environment Programme, UNEP P.O. Box 30552, Nairobi, KenyaTel.: +254 20 624165Fax: +254 20 624041E-mail: [email protected]/Web: www.unep.org/get/content index.htm

152

Division of Environmental Law and Conventions, DELCUnited Nations Environment Programme, UNEP P.O. Box 30552, Nairobi, 00100, KenyaTel.: +254 20 623508Fax: +254 20 623917 / 624249E-mail: [email protected]/Web: www.unep.org/dec

Division of Regional Cooperation, DRC

United Nations Environment Programme, UNEP P.O. Box 30552, Nairobi, 00100, KenyaTel.: +254 20 623519Fax: +254 20 624270E-mail: [email protected]/Web: www.unep.org/drc

B. Ministries of environment in Africa

AlgeriaMinistre de l’Aménagement du Territoire et de l’EnvironnementPalais Mustapha BACHA, 6, Avenue de l’Indépendence16035 Algiers, AlgeriaTel: (213-21) 432 813Fax: (213-21) 432 849 / 431 245

Angola

Ministry of Urban Development and EnvironmentAvenida 4 de Fevereiro No. 30C.P. 3502Luanda, AngolaTel: (244-2) 91508402Fax: (244-2) 310622 / 310479

Director Général de l’EnvironnementMinistère de l’Aménagement du Territoire et de l’EnvironnementPalais Mustapha BACHA,6, Avenue de l’Indépendence16035 Algiers, AlgeriaTel: (+213-21) 432 802 / 90Fax: (+213-21) 432 849

Benin

Ministre de l’Environnement, de l’Habitat et de l’Urbanisme01 B.P. 3621Cotonou, BeninTel: (+229) 315 596 /312 065 / 315 058 / 314 129Fax: (+229) 315 081

Botswana

Minister for Environment, Wildlife and TourismPrivate Bag BO 199Gaborone, BotswanaTel: (+267) 391 4870Fax: (+267) 391 4861

Burkina Faso

Ministre de l’Environnement et du Cadre de Vie03 B.P. 7044Ouagadougou 03, Burkina FasoTel: (226) 311 681 / 30 77 51 / 30 63 97 / 32 40 74 / 31 16 81Fax: (226) 316 491

153

Burundi

Ministre de l’Aménagement du Térritoire, de l’Environnement et du TourismeB.P. 631Bujumbura, BurundiTel: (257) 224 979 / 22 67 18 / 221 649Fax: (257) 228 902

Cameroon

Ministre de l’Environnement et des Forêts B.P. 1106Yaounde, CameroonTel: (237) 222 9483Fax: (237) 222 9489

Cape Verde

Ministry of Environment, Agriculture and FisheriesCaixa Postal N. 115Praia, Cape VerdeTel: (238) 615 713Fax: (238) 61 40 54Email: [email protected]@mail.cvtelecom.cv

Central African Republic

Ministre du Développement Durable, du Tourisme et de l’Artisanat chargé de l’Environnement B.P. 686Bangui, Central African RepublicTel: (236) 61 59 01 / 61 56 12 / 501174 61 23 42Fax: (236) 61 47 90 / 61 56 12 / 61 57 41

Institutions Responsible for the EnvironmentSEPA– Executive Secretariat for the EnvironmentP.O. Box 115A/c Ministry of Agriculture Praia, Ilha de Santiago, Cape VerdeTel: (238) 615 716 (Secretariat)Fax: (238) 617 611 (also as fax)Email: [email protected]@mail.cvvtelecom.cv

Chad

Ministre de l’Environnement et de l’EauN’Djamena, ChadTel: (235) 52 60 12 / 52 44 60 / 52 32 55 / 52 20 99Fax: ( 235) 52 38 39 / 525232Email: [email protected]

Comores

Ministre de la Production, de l’Envrionnement et de l’ArtisanatB.P. 41Moroni, ComoresTel: (269) 74 46 30Fax: (269) 74 46 32

Congo

Ministre de l’Economie Forestière et de l’EnvironnementB.P. 98Brazzaville, Congo Tel: (42) 814 141 / 810291 / 810295 / 812 611 / 360 121Fax: (242) 814 136 / 814 134 / 837 150 / 812 611 / 810 330 / 815 190Email: [email protected]

154

Côte d’Ivoire

Ministre de l’Environnement et du Cadre de Vie10ème étage, Cité Administative20 BP 650Abidjan, Côte d’IvoireTel: (225) 202 26301 / 20 22 61 35Fax: (225) 202 22050 / 202 10495C/o [email protected] Tel. (225) 20 31 50 05 / 51 or (225) 20 21 11 06Chet de Cabinet Tel: (225) 2022 2050

Democratic Republic of the Congo

Ministère de l’Habitat, de l’Environnement et du TourismeAve ILEO No. 15B.P. 12345Kinshasa-Gombe, Democratic Republic of the CongoTel: 243 12 34390Fax: 243 12 33721

Djibouti

Ministre de l’Habitat, de l’Urbanisme, de l’Environnement, de l’Aménagement du Territoireet de l’ArtisanatB.P.11DjiboutiTel: (253) 35 00 06 / 358522Fax: (253) 351 618 / 3416 18Email: [email protected]

Egypt

Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency30, Misr Helwan El-Zyraie RoadCairo, EgyptTel: (202) 525 6463 / 525 6472 / 520 6463Fax: (202) 525 6461 / 526 6016Email: [email protected]

Equatorial Guinea

Ministerio de Bosques y Medio AmbienteMalabo, Equatorial GuineaTel: (240-9) 3408 / 21-19Fax: (240-9) 3408 / 2905

Eritrea

MinisterMinistry of Land, Water & EnvironmentP.O. Box 976Asmara, EritreaTel: (291-1) 118742 / 116265Fax: (291-1) 123285

Ethiopia

General ManagerEnvironmental Protection AgencyP.O. Box 12760Addis Ababa, EthiopiaTel: (251-1) 46 46 06 / 186202 / 625558-62 / 627728624757 / 624760 / 186 181Fax: (251-1) 610 077 / 46 48 82 / 46 48 76

155

Gabon

Ministre de l’Economie Forestière, des Eaux et de la Pêche chargé de l’Environnement et de la Protection de la NatureB.P. 403Libreville, GabonTel: (241) 766 181 / 76 39 05Fax: (241) 761 381 / 772 994 / 765 548 / 76 61 83

Gambia

Secretary of StateDepartment of State for Natural ResourcesFisheries and EnvironmentState HouseBanjul, GambiaTel: (220) 227 548 / 226 747Fax: (220) 4223 987 / 223 987Email: [email protected]

Ghana

Minister of Environment and ScienceP.O. Box M 232Accra, GhanaTel: (+233 21) 666 049 / 662 013 / 662 533Fax: (+ 233 21) 666 828 / 666049 / 662013

Guinea

Ministre de l’EnvironnementB.P. 3118Conakry, GuineaTel: (224) 41 25 13 / 46 48 50Fax: (224) 45 15 89 / 41 61 68

Guinea-Bissau

Secretaria de Estado da Energia e dos RecursosNaturaisQG – C.P. 399BissauGuinee BissauTel: (254) 221 925Fax / phone: (245) 201 753Fax: c/o FAO (245) 221 019Fax: c/o IUCN: (245) 201 168

KenyaMinister for Environment and Natural ResourcesMaji HouseP.O. Box 30521Nairobi, KenyaTel: General (254-20) 2716 103 Ext. 42303Tel: Direct (254-20) 2733 202 / 2711 238 (Minister)Fax: Director – 272 02 57Fax: General – (254-20) 2727 622Coordinator: Tel. 27 10 172 Permanent Secretary – Tel. 2710 120Director, National Environment Secretariat (NES)Tel: 248851 – DirectTel: 243839 Ext. 232Permanent Secretary – Water Resources,Tel: 316186Personal Assistant to the Minister, Tel: 2728539

Lesotho

Minister of Tourism Culture & EnvironmentPrime Minister’s OfficeP.O. Box 527Maseru 100LesothoTel: (266-22) 31 65 74/ 31 30 34 / 31 17 67Fax: (266-22) 31 05 06 / 310 190

156

Liberia

MinisterMinistry of Planning and Economic AffairsP.O 10/90161000 Monrovia 10, LiberiaTel: (231) 2260785 / 226962Fax: (231) 226075

Environmental Protection Agency of Liberia4th Street, SinkorP.O. Box 4024Monrovia, LiberiaFax: 312054407127 (UNDP)Libyan Arab Jamahiriya

SecretaryPeople’s Committee of Environment General Authority (EGA)P.O. Box 83618Tripoli, Libyan Arab JamahiryaTel: (218-21) 427 2160 / 483 9992 / 444 84 52 / 484 0043Mobile: Khalifa 218 91 311 1862Fax: + 218-21 4839 991 / 490 0604Tel: + 218 21 4870266Email: [email protected]/Head of Environment General AuthorityP.O. Box 3639Tripoli, Libyan Arab JamahiryaTel: (218-21) 483 1316 Fax: (218-21) 483 9991

Madagascar

Ministre du Transport, du Tourisme et de l’Environnement Anosy, Antananarivo 101, MadagascarTel: (261-20) 224 0908Fax: (261-20) 224 1919

Malawi

MinisterMinistry of Natural Resources and Environmental AffairsPrivate Bag 350Lilongwe, MalawiTel: (+265-1) 771 111 / 787 600Fax: (+265-1) 773 379 / 780 260Email: [email protected]

Mali

Ministre de l’Equipment, de l’Aménagement du Territoire, de l’Environnement et de l’UrbanismeB.P. 1634 Bamako, MaliTel: (223 22) 2295168 / 222901Fax: (223 22) 95170 / 95169 / 26298Email: [email protected]

Mauritania

Ministre du Développement Rural et de l’EnvironnementB.P. 180Noukachott, MauritaniaTel: (222) 257 463 / 51 500 / 56 158Fax: (222) 257 475

Mauritius

Minister of Environment10th Floor, Ken Lee Towercr Barracks and St. Georges StreetPort Louis, MauritiusTel: (230) 211 1652 / 208 1944 / 208 9916Fax: (230) 211 9455 / 212 8324E-mail: [email protected]

157

Morocco

MinistreMinistère de l’Aménagement du Territoire, de l’Urbanisme. de l’Habitat et de l’Environnement BP 36, Avenue Elebtel-EgdalRabat, MoroccoTel: (212-37) 76 35 39Fax: (212-37) 76 35 10

Mozambique

Minister Ministry for Coordination of Environmental AffairsAve. Acordos de Lusaka 2115P.O. Box 2020Maputo, MozambiqueTel: (+258 1) 498 114 / 49 5409 / 496 108 / 465843 / 48/51Fax: (+2581 1) 496 108 / 49 5409 / 466243 465849Email: [email protected]

Namibia

Minister of Environment and TourismPrivate Bag 13346Windhoek, NamibiaTel: (+264 61) 284 2335 / 284 2333 / 284 232 / 284 2111Fax: (+264 61) 232 057 / 240 339E-mail: [email protected]

Niger

Ministre de l’Environnement et de la Lutte contre la DesertificationB.P. 578Niamey, NigerTel: (227) 734 722 / 734 782 / 73 33 29 / 736 970Fax: (227) 73 55 91 / 724015 / 73 27 84E-mail: [email protected]@intnet.ne or [email protected]

Nigeria

Minister of Environment Federal Ministry of EnvironmentP.M.B. 265, GarkiAbuja, NigeriaTel: (234-09) 5234014 / 217 119 / 234 6596/7Fax: (234-09) 5234014 / 52341109Tel: (234-09) 413 6317

Rwanda

Minister for Lands, Environment, Forestry, Water and Natural ResourcesP.O. Box 3502Kigali, RwandaTel: (250) 82628 / 82623Fax: (250) 76958 / 82627/82627E-mail: [email protected]

Sao Tome and Principle

Ministry of Infrastructure, Natural Resources and EnvironmentSao Tome, Sao Tome and PrincipleTel: (239 12) 25 272 / 21 437Fax: (239 12) 26 018E-mail: [email protected]

158

SeychellesMinister for EnvironmentBotanical GardensP.O. Box 1145VictoriaMahe, SeychellesTel: (248) 321 333 / 225 701 / 22 46 44Fax: (248) 322 113 / 322 945 22 4500E-mail: [email protected]: [email protected]

SenegalMinistre Ministre de la Jeunesse, de l’Environnement et de l’HygièneBP 4055Dakar, SenegalTel: (221) 849 7392 / 849 5901 /822 0927Mobile: 221 6370 193Fax: (221) 822 2180 / 822 6212 / 822 6211

Sierra LeoneMinister Ministry of Lands, Country Planning, Forestry and the Environment3rd Floor, Youyi BuildingFreetown, Sierra LeoneTel: (232-22) 240 973 / 240 146 / 240 959Fax: (232-22) 242 013 / 240 146

South AfricaMinister Ministry of Environmental Affairs and TourismPrivate Bag X447Pretoria 0001, South AfricaTel: (+27 12) 310 3611 / 310 3630Tel: Cape Town (27-21) 465 7240Fax: (+ 27 12) 322 0082 / 320 4746E-mail: [email protected]: [email protected]: [email protected]

SomaliaMinister Ministry of Environment and Natural Disasters Mogadishu, SomaliaTel: (252-1) 270 0373 / 504 119 / 544 702Fax: (252-59) 930 763 / 229 036 / 59 35611/ 225 991 E-mail: [email protected]

SudanMinister Ministry of Environment and Physical DevelopmentP.O. Box 10488Khartoum, SudanTel: (249-183) 784 279 / 781 479 / 773 832Fax: (249-183) 787 617E-mail: [email protected]

SwazilandMinister Ministry of Tourism, Environment and CommunicationP.O. Box 2652Mbabane, SwazilandTel: (+268) 4046420-3/ 404 6128Fax: (+268) 404 6438 404 1719Email: [email protected]

United Republic of TanzaniaMinister of State (Environment)Vice President’s OfficeP.O. Box 5380Dar es Salaam, United Republic of TanzaniaTel: (255 22) 2128 771 / 211 8416 / 211 3983Fax: (255 22) 211 3856 / 211 3082 / 211 3858Email: [email protected]

159

Togo

Ministre de l’Environnement et des Ressources ForestièresB.P. 4825Lome, TogoTel: (228) 221 0600 / 2210 600 / 2213 078Fax: (228) 221 0333 / 2210 333 / 2210 600Email: [email protected]

Tunisia

Ministre de Agriculture, de l’Environnement et des Ressources HydrauliquesCentre Urban Nord1080 Tunis, TunisiaTel: (216-71) 704 000Fax: (216-71) 780 391E-mail: [email protected]

Uganda

Minister for Water, Lands and EnvironmentP.O.Box 7122Kampala, UgandaTel: (256-41) 253 871 / 342 931 / 3Direct: (256-41) 259 410Fax: (256-41) 230 891E-mail: [email protected]: 006 41 259 410

National Environment Management Authority (NEMA)Tel: (256 41) 251064 / 5 / 6 Fax: (256 41) 257521E-mail: [email protected]/http: //www.nemaug.org/Kampala, Uganda

Zambia

Minister of Tourism, Environment and Natural ResourcesP.O. Box 34011Lusaka, ZambiaTel: (260-1) 22 54 63 / 22 94 17 / 229 421Fax: (260-1) 22 21 89 / 229 414E-mail: [email protected]: (260-1) 2528711 / 253040 / 253042 / 4 / 2Fax: (260-1) 252952 / 22 94 20E-mail: [email protected]

Zimbabwe

Minister Ministry of Environment and Tourism14th Floor, Karigamombe CentreProvate Bag 7753, CausewayHarare, ZimbabweTel: (263-4) 757881-5 / 751 720-2 / 753 649Fax: (263-4) 77 94 13 / 757877 / 77 32 76E-mail: [email protected]

160

Tell Them

It is a deep wonder when you look at it

And lack words to describe it

Yet you must search for those words

So that you can tell others what you see

Glimpses into nature enliven all who behold

Tell them what you see,

Just as you see it

Nature’s voice reaches out to the discerning ear

Tell them what you hear

Just as you hear it

Nature arouses environmental feelings

Tell them what you feel

Search for the words

That come from the experience

And tell them

As it is

Bwak

161

IV. Millennium Development Goals, targets and indicators

The M�llenn�um Development Goals represent the agenda for efforts to reduce poverty and �mprov�ng l�vel�hoods. They resulted out of the M�llenn�um Summ�t of September 2000. A framework of e�ght goals, 18 targets and 48 �nd�cators to measure progress towards the M�llenn�um Development Goals were developed based on the M�llenn�um Summ�t Otucome by the Un�ted Nat�ons Secretar�at and IMF, OECD and the World Bank. They are now the un�versally accepted benchmark for the campa�gn to ach�eve poverty erad�cat�on and susta�nable development. www.un.org/millenniumgoals

162

Millennium Development Goals

Goals Targets Indicators & Monitors

1. Eradicated extreme poverty and hunger

1. Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people whose income is less than one dollar a day

1. Proportion of population below $1 (1993 PPP) per day (World Bank)

2. Poverty gap ratio (incidence x depth of poverty) (World Bank)

3. Share of poorest quintile in national consumption (World Bank)

2. Halve, between 199 and 2015, the proportion of people who suffer from huger

4. Prevalence of underweight children under five years of age (UNICEF-WHO)

5. Proportion of population below minimum level of dietary energy consumption (FAO)

2. Achieve universal primary education

3. Ensure that by 2015, children everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling

6. Net enrolment ratio in primary education (UNESCO)

7. Proportion of pupils starting grade 1 who reach grade 5 (UNESCO)

8. Literacy rate of 15–24 year olds (UNESCO)

3. Promote gender equality and empower women

4. Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education, preferably by 2005, and in all levels of education, no later than 2015

9. Ratio of girls to boys in primary, secondary and tertiary education (UNESCO)

10. Ratio of literate women to men, 15–24 years old (UNESCO)

11. Share of women in wage employment in the non-agricultural sector (ILO)

12. Proportion of seats held by women in national parliaments (IPU)

4. Reduce child mortality

5 Reduce by two thirds, between 1990 and 2015 the under-five mortality rate

13. Under-five mortality rate (UNICEF-WHO)

14. Infant mortality rate (UNICEF-WHO)15. Proportion of 1 year-old children

immunized against measles (UNICEF-WHO)

163


5. Improve maternal health

6. Reduce by three quarters, between 1990 and 2015, the maternal mortality ratio

16. Maternal mortality ratio (UNICEF-WHO)

17. Proportion of births attended by skilled heath personnel (UNICEF-WHO)

6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases

7. Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS

18. HIV prevalence among pregnant women aged 15–24 years (UNAIDS-WHO-UNICEF)

19. Condom-use rate, the contraceptive prevalence rate (United Nations Population Division)

19a. Condom use at last high-risk sex (UNICEF-WHO)

19b. Percentage of population aged 15–24 years with comprehensive correct knowledge of HIV/AIDS (UNICEF-WHO)

19c. Contraceptive prevalence rate (United Nations Population Division)

20. Ratio of school attendance of orphans to school attendance of non-orphans aged 10–14 years (UNICEF-UNAIDS-WHO)

8. Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the incidence of malaria and other major diseases

21. Prevalence and death rates associated with malaria (WHO)

22. Proportion of population in malaria-risk areas using effective malaria prevention and treatment measures (UNICEF-WHO)

23. Prevalence and death rates associated with tuberculosis (WHO)

164


7. Ensure environmental sustainability

9. Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies and programmes and reverse the loss of environmental resources

24. Proportion of land area covered by forest (FAO)

25. Ratio of area protected to maintain biological diversity to surface area (UNEP-WCMC)

26. Energy use (kg oil equivalent) per $1 GDP (PPP) (IEA, World Bank)

27. Carbon dioxide emissions per capita (UNFCCC, UNSD) and consumption of ozone-depleting CFCs (ODP tons) (UNEP-Ozone Secretariat)

28. Proportion of population using solid fuels (WHO)

10. Halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and sanitation

29. Proportion of population with sustainable access to an improved water source, urban and rural (UNICEF-WHO)

30. Proportion of population with access to improved sanitation, urban and rural (UNICEF-WHO)

11. By 2020, to have achieved a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers

31. Proportion of households with access to secure tenure (UN-Habitat)

165

Water World: Children’s Voices -An Educational Booklet on Water for Children

The world is running out of fresh water. Humans are depleting, polluting, and diverting

the world’s supply of fresh water so fast, that by 2025, unless we dramatically change our ways, two-thirds of the world’s people will be living (or dying) under severe water shortages. As it is now, every eight seconds, a child dies of water-borne disease.

This educational booklet captures the world of water through the eyes of children worldwide. The narrator, 14 year-old Nthabi, from Kenya, uses her own experiences and those of her friends from all around the world to express how they feel about this valuable resource. They use pictures, poems and essays to express their description of water, the role it plays in their daily lives, its different forms of existence, and how it can be best preserved.

Water World is recommended for use in schools and environment clubs. It illustrates the importance of water in our everyday lives and introduces the various uses of water, including agriculture, industry, home and recreational use. Water World also includes examples of how to conserve water and avoid polluting water sources, and explains why freshwater resources are declining across the globe. Water World also encourages young people to participate in caring for water resources at home, through their school clubs and in their communities.

Year of publication: 2003. ISBN: 92-807-2388-X

Recommended Reading

United Nations Environment ProgrammeP.O. Box 30552 Nairobi, Kenya

Tel.: +254 20 762 1234Fax: +254 20 762 3927

E-mail: [email protected]: www.unep.org

www.unep.org

UNEPUNEP

UNEP

ISBN: 978-92-807-2767-8JOB NO.: DPD/0883/NA

ENV

IRO

NM

ENTA

L REPO

RTIN

G FO

R A

FRIC

AN

JOU

RN

ALISTS

A H

an

db

oo

k of Ke

y Enviro

nm

en

tal Issu

es a

nd

Co

nc

ep

ts

ENVIRONMENTAL REPORTING FOR AFRICAN JOURNALISTSA Handbook of Key Environmental Issues and Concepts