DOCONTIli RESUME

ED 185 498 CS 005 333

AUTHOR Usova, George M.TITLE A Review of Research on Reading and the Gifted.PUB DATE .(78]NOTE 29p.

EDIRS PRICEDE;SCRIPTORS

MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage.*Academically Gifted: Creative Development:Creativity: *Exceptional Child Research: *Gifted:Literatir-e Reviews: *Beading Achievement: *ReadingBesearch

ABSTRICTThis literature review iS divided into sections

describing studies that answer specific questions about reading andgifted children. Among the issuer mentioned are the personalitytraits and attitudes of gifted children: their sex difference an1enyiromewtal influences: the effect of early school admission; typesof gifted programs: the relationship between IQ and reading ability;the attitudes of administrators, legislators, and teachers towardgifted children prpgrams: and a series of questiona on treativity.(AEA)

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U S DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH.EDUCATION &WELIARENATIONAL INSTITUTE OF

EDUCATION

tHi DO( ()MUNI HAS -RI EN NI P110DtH I D I )(A( VL r AS iI (1 h I NOMTHF PF 11SON ON ORGANIZA1IONAT INC, IT POINTS OF V OR OPINIONSSTATED DO NO1 NEC1 Y E-Pfif -St NT Of r ICIAl NATIONA INrIA,1I of

OM A T1ON P0,.f /ON 0 ni Wv

A REVIEW OF RESEARCH ONREADING AND THE GIFTED ,

BY

,George M. Usova, Ph.D..Education.SpecialistU.S.O.E. '

Washington, D.C. 20202

"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THISMATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY

George M. Usova

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)."

What are some of the personality traits.and,atti.tudesassociated with_giftga children? Steele, House, Kernis(1971) foun gifted classes bo be superior on all dimensionsof higher thought processes, classroom focus, and classroomclimate. Positive corrsdations were obtained by Elliot(1971), between the manipulation of ideas and the handlingof conflict-associated material perceived at a level belowconscious recognition. Hofset (1971) revealed no significant'differences in achievement in classes with many giftedpupils than ip classes with few. Research by Daurio and Webb(1975) indicated-that high ability in children over theage of eleven years does carry over into formai operations;but that bright children under eleven years of age demonstratea low rate of precocity in formal operational ability,with exception of the pendulum problem. Jacobs (1972) studiesrevealed that gifted children Showed greater self relianceand needed less adult approval and greater'sensitivity totheir individual environment. Torrance (1971) found ashift from parents and teachers to peers as sources ofencouragement and validation of original ideas in the fourthgrade. Research reviewed by Gaier and Dellas (1972)showed that creative children need psychological safety andthat their basic problem might be his.alienation from teachersand classmates. Schauer (1975) results showed that giftedchildren with IQ's at or above 125 were found to havesignificantly more positive Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventoryscores than gifted children below 125 IQ and children notidentified as gifted. Rader (1976) showed the simulation tobe more effective in creating a more positive attitudeconcerning the use of multiple criteria when identifying thegifted and talented. In a study by Week (1974) certainptrategies for language acquisition were different or moreextreme than other children's. All students in Rolland'sstudy (1972) revealed favorable attitudes toward reportcards and felt that gifted students should be present whentheir parents and teachey confer about their progress. Calvin(1976) showed a significant inverse relationships were foundfor anxiety with intellignece, achievement, some specificself concept items, and a few divergent production and otherpersonal characteristics; and that there were no significantdifferences between the number of boys and girls recommendedor not recommended for gifted testing and liftween thosesubsequently identified gifted/not gifted. A study by Kleinand Cantor (1976) indicated that intellectual giftedness didnot necessarily lead to high self esteem and that more giftedchildren in kindergarten than their nongifted kindergartenschoolmates manifested poor self esteem. Neurosis in precociouschildren may be caused by the child's ego being overwhelmedby information he is tno immature to understand was concludedby Keiser (1970). Research by Koukeyan (9176) showed significantgains were obtained in arithmetic achievement and attitudetowards arithmetic at the fourth grade level. Research byLandau (1976) showed children's questions were divided intothree subject areas; quality of life, faith in man's potential,and individual responsibility for mankind's fate. A study

by Painter (1975) showed greater variations in levels ofattainment and in width of intereSts for the gifted ascompared with the control group. Jensen (1973) studiesfound the superior group scored higher on fluency andgrammatical control. In a study by Bernal (1974) resultsindicate that nine items had high discriminate powers,including high grades in school, large Vocabulary forstudents age, and ability toillearn indicate. Resultsindicated by Pumire and Farre (1972) that children gettingmore individualized attention helped to maintain self-concepts and acheivement. Bachtold.(1976) found the onlybehaviors rated among the highest ten by teachers, parents,and talented students were sense of humor, colasiderationof others, health, and self conficence. Curiosity andcourageousness were found more highly desirable lv teachersand parents than by the children. Analysis by Bernal andReyna (1973) revealed that Mexican Americans gifted useimigination freely, 'being more active and aware, andassociating more with adults. Runyon's (1969-1970) findingsshow that attitudes of interage children toward school weremore favorable than children placed in traditional class.No significant difference was seen in self-concept norcreative thinking for the two groups of gifted subjects.

Are there sexLdifference in Ut_sggfulaanu_aLEifItastudents? Research by Hilliard (1975) indicated that therewas no significant interaction between the ability and thesex o; the fifth-grade subjects. Results indicated by Qsen(1973) that no significant differences were found betweenthe achievement of males and females within each IQ range ateach grade level stud4ted. Research by Solano (1976) showa negative stereotypeof gifted boys among educators thatdissipates on contact, while there is a positive stereotyieof gifted girls that disappears,aftet working with them,Research by Milgram (1977) showed the relationship with sexrole followed a consistent pattern for boys and girls combined,of which the following are examples; male activities suchas sports with scores on the masculine scale, femaleactivity sach as dance or art with scores on the femininescale, and sexually indeterminate activiiies such as dramaor social leadership with scores on both scales. Bachtold(1971) found that boYs scored higher in fluency and flexibilityon tasks requiring divergent thinking and girls scoredhigher in fluency and flexibility on the tasks requiringevaluative thinking. Lazar (1972) showed,that young giftedboys closely related their normative counterparts, whilethe young gifted girls scored higher than their counterparts,although not significantly so. No differences occured inany meaningful pattern between gifted boys and girls inperception. Sex differences were found by Groth and Holbert(1970). More gdfted girls were concerned with self-actualization than gifted boys. Gifted boys showed greaterconcern for security and for self-esteem. Both showed concernfor love and belonging. Godman(1970-1971) found that sexwas the most important single factor in choosing campanions,race was the next most important factor, intellignece was theleast. Walker (1971) found that gifted girls preformed betterthan boys on Vocabulary Posttests.

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What are_gome of the environmental facIojzs_tbatinfluence.afte&C,413.14=0 Fish and Others (1976) foundthat perinatal factors and medical complications did notaffect the intellectual status of children with superiorintelligence. Willerman and Fiedler (1977) findings werethat these children were not generally advanced as infants;that parental education ,correlated substantially with theIQ and achievement scores of boys; and that among girlsparental education tended to correlate with achievementscores. Watkins (1975) ,showed that the c ildren in thc,sample population were intellectually able; that the childrenwalked and talked earlier than the average child and werein good physical health and had good sleeping and eatinghabits. A study by Groth (1975) showed ,that gifted studentstended to come from smaller rather thanaarger families.Aldous results (1974) showed family!siz# was negativelyrelated to originality with the highe4 scores in one andtwo child families. Research by Moreh6 (1976) indicatedthat neither race nor social class level affected the child'sability to increase these skills,in creative thinking andproblem solving. Naumann and Piper (1974) results showed apositive significant correlation between IQ and intellectualityin the home. Barbe and Horn found.in their comparison ofmoderately and highly gifted elementary students, that thehighly gifted group came from more affluent backgrounds, hadmore highly educated parents, and rated higher on creativitymeasures. Both groups were well adjusted, and there were nooutstanding differences of physical development.

What are some of the common procedures used to identifygifted students? Kincaid in (1971) stressed the importanceof early identification. Research by Sbornone (1976) foundthat the use of nonverbal learning tasks may facilitateidentification of capable pupils outside the mainstreamculture. It was discovered by Horan (1972) that certaindemographic, personnel, and philosophical variables arerelated to the kind of provision made for gifted students.In a study by Ciha (1974) show parent and teacher nominationswere compared with students' standardized test scores, resultsindicated that parents were more able than teachers to assesstheir children's abilities at the kindergarten level.Stewart's.(1975) findings showed teachers and administratorsuse three techniques (intelligence tes.cs, achievement tests,and judgement) when identifying and selecting students forgifted and talented programs. Granzin and Granzin (1970-1971)states that both gifted and nongifted pupils were able todistinguish traits of giftedness that agreed significantlywith teacherrankings. Re search by Ryan (1975) indicatedthat identification is more difficult at kindergarten thanat third grade, that teacher nomination was found helpfulin screening, and that information provided by parents canbe useful in identification. A field study was developedby Resource Management Systems, Inc. (1974) which showed.theFKSN (an instrument used to identify gifted students) wasa good system to fill the gap between children alreadyreferred and children in need of special services, and tofree special education staff from psychometric dvties formore support to regular class teachers. Bruch (1972)demonstrated the need to consider the disadvantaged giftedutilizing Meeker's method of interpreting Stanfor-BinetIntelligence Scale. Chen and Goon (1976) in a study of

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disadvantaged Asian children found that incidence of giftednessin sixth grade Asian raEed from 11.8 to 26.9%; that teachers'and guidance counselors' descriptions of a gifted childpresented a wide variation of both personality and intellectualdimensions. Webber (1975) shows that using the SIT cut-offscore of 130 increased the effectiveness of the screeningproducedure to 97.2% effectiveness and theeffeciency to48.1%. Gear (1975) found that attitudes were not affectedbut training improved identification effectiveness. Theconclusions of Lynch's ano Edward's'study (1974) proyedthat creativity in adults when judging is unrelated toidentification of children.

Wilat_lo_Ltheefec-rly Asimiagion to zghosa_for thegifted? Results of Klindova's study (1973) show thepossibility of identifying, at an early age, several typesof intellectual ability. Birch (1970-1971) states thatearly admission to school for the mentally advanced childrendid not cause them andy sociometric problems and that they didas well in academic work or better than older classmates.No significant differences were found by Braga (1970-1971)between early admit group, normal'admit group, late admitgroup. Klein advocates early admission produced educational,social and emotional impairment in many children,

What is some evidence in support,of special programs forthe .g.:ifted? A study by Khatena (1975) showed significantimprovement in verbal orginality and figural tlexibility instudents who participated in Project Talented and Gifted.Also, studnets improved in the areas of self strength andindividuality; and compared to students' self perceptionssignificantly improved in environmental sensitivity,initiative, selfstrength, individuality, and intellectually.Khatena (197)I.) reported that studants improved significantlyin verbal orginality in the special program. Renzulli (1976)through an analysis of performance test results, foundclassroom atmosphere, parent questionnaires, interviews,creativity test scores, sociometric data, and art andcreative writing product showed the program, Project Gifted,to be highly successful. In a study by Callahan (1972)results showed that the experimental group did achieve highermean scores,on the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking.Teachers and students responded positively to the program,New Directions in Creativity. A study by Cross (1975)showed that the special program did not make a significantdifference in the educational attainment and financialsuccess of the 1958 group, but there was a significantdifference in favor of the experimental groups of 1964and 1965 in academic achievement. In comparing differentapproaches for educating young gifted children Karnes andZehrback (1974) found a mean gain in El scores of fourpoints with no significant interaction found among the classmodel or between high and low socioeconomic students.It was found by Steele (1971) that gifted classes weresuperior in emphasizing higher thought processes, classroomfocus, and clasbroom climate but not lower thought processes.No significant differences were found by Bachtold (1974) inFluency, flexibility', or originality in the differentlearning settings nor were their differences between giftedfifth and sixth graders significant. There were no significantdifferences between subjects who took part in non-structured experience and controls in problem solving in

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science or language arts as shown by Winston (1970-1971).Special classes for gifted is supported by Wilhoit (1971).He found a statistically significant upward diviation and .those students under guidance of sensitive teacher producedbetter than expected. Hampton (1970) stated that only inthe academic areas did results generally favor the giftedwho received special summer training. Bent (1970-1971)concluded that gifted children equalled surpassed the controlsin academic achievement when specially grouped. Giftedchildren enrolled in a special program for gifted sincethird grade did significantly better than did controls inparagraph meanings, arithmetic applications, science,critical thinking, leadership, and social relationshipswere results found by Alam (1969), After an eight weektraining program for highly intelligent children, Hampton(1969-1970) found no significant differences in academicachievement except in library research and critical thinking.Kyte and Forwalt (1969-1970) suggest that because superiorstudents.gained mastery of multiplication of factors inabout half ad many days as normal studnets, teachers divideclasses and allotments of time to each group be adjusted.In a study by Painter (1975) the majority view of 80% of theHead Teachers was that gifted children had special needsthat could be catered for in primary schools. Gotkin(1970-1971) confirmed that Significant gains were made byfourth and fifth graders on programed material developeifor eighth grade, but not as great as eighth graders.Sands (1969-1970) concludes that units developed for self-instruction show significant gains for the gifted. Goldnotes little difference between subjects and controls ongains made in academic achievement, study skills, anddivergent thinking ability when involved in self-directedleraning situations. Personal and social adjustmentappeared to be favorably affected when self direction wasused. In a study by Jackson (1977) results indicated thatparents of intellectually advanced children are legitimatelyconcerned about the lack of appropriate educational optionsfor their children. In Jackson's study (1977) a provisionof more readily available counseling services to parents ofintellectually advanced children is recommended. Passowand Others (1977) found more similarities than differencesbetween Astor children and non Astor children.

What_ are some of the administra_tor_s_..and_legislatixeattitqA=_IDIdard_giaQA-Ptaiania_and thQir_p=gazana? Gail(1976) concluded that one factor is essential for the planningand amnagement of a successful program. It is a high degreeof agreement between the authorities and the administrators.Curtis (1971) stated that gifted programs occur morefrequently in larger more wealthy districts. Itinerate teacherprograms and partial segregation were the most popularadministrative techniques. Bush (1972) showed significantdifferences between the underachieving and achievinggroups, there appears to be enough evidence to recommend thatadministrators should schedule_modules of time forremediation of underachieving children and youth. Asstated by Keaster (1969) the stimulus provided throughlegislation and special aid funding has had a major impacton programs for mentally gifted pupils. Press (1969)revealed that in 1969, fourteen states gave financialsupport for programs for the gifted. Superintendents

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generally regard .other educational programs as having ahigher priority for their limited funds where specialfunds are not available. Stewarl (1972) established that'Superintendents have positive attitudes toward theinitiation, and expansion of programs for gifted children, andthat the lack of financial funding was cited as one factorthat has hindered its growth. It was concluded by Feldman(1971) that communities,should be informed of the implicationsof various selection techniques so that each may bejudged on its merits when establishing special programsfor talented students. It was suggested by Hampton (1971)that schools are not doing, all that could be done tohelp children achieve their potential. Plantec studies(1972) showed failure of the schools to identify giftednessor program for it.

What specifio_ ar II

thg,_giftage. Karnes (19 9-1970 assessed the usage oftyping in creative writing and thinking. He found thatthe use of typing was not harmful to areas such as work-study, reading, and spelling. The experimental group showedsignificantly greater gains in creative writing and thinking.It was concluded by the Toronto Board of Education (1971)that discussion groups, whether they are oriented thowardgroup member feelings and interpersonal problems or towardacademic matters, promote psycho)ogical adjustment andacademic achievement. Major evaluation results of Neff(1973) are given to indicate that a supervision system ofoff-campus instruction by parent-teacher teams is effectiveand worthwhile. Results indicated in Touchton's Study(1972) that a program of enrichment with some type ofextra-curricular or segregated activity for gifted childrenshould have excellant results. Hennes (196901970) finalizedhis report on three series of televised enrichment programsfor the gifted by stating that significant tmprovement inlearned context occured in all three series and thatcreativity aptitude had little bearing on success. Independentstudy ability was related to success. Dallenback and DeYoung(1971) results inaicated on four posttests, certain,subgroups of students exposed to the T.V. programs showedgreater average gains than the control students, while infive instances, certain categories of the experimentalstudents made smaller average gains. Schrock's (1973)enrichment program that critical thinking skill activitieswere rated good as were social awareness skills. Needs ofprograms for the gifted found by Bixler and Cowan includedguidance and counseling services, school and home worktogether, enrichment, care taken with problems of emotionaland social adjustments, early identification of underachievers,and new procedures for school reports, and grading. Holtsuggested programs for gifted students sta/t at fourth gradelevel. Programs should include acceleration, enrichment, andremediotion in the standard core program. The ability ofgifted children to concerve can be aided by carefullyplanned education of observation and discussion as statedby Roeper and Sigel (1969-1970). Werblo and Torrance(1969-1970) stated that after historiography experience,resulted in greater accuracy of self-evaluation. It wasfound by Steele (1971) that gifted classes were superior inemphasizing higher thought procasses, classroom focus, andclassroom climate but not lower thought processes. Walker

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(1970) found that gifted students preformed better afterspecial training in reading fate increase.

What are some of the_interr.q1at5_onshins,funa_in_testImLyr_iIh_gifted ph,ildzelV_Namy's comparison of gifted and pseudo-gifted studnets showed that the gifted did significantlybetter on WISC information, comprehension, similarities,vocabulary, picture completion, picture arragement, andblock design subtests. The two groups did not differmarkedly on arithmetic and coding subtests. Gifted studentswere superior in defining words, making generalizations, andchoosing synonyms. Teacher grades were related only forEnglish grades to the WISC score and higher than pseudo-gifted. Machen (1973) results showed that moderate correlationswere faund between WISC verbal and SIT IQ and between WISCfull acale and SIT IQ at all levels. The SIT was shownbyMachen (1973) to be a reliable and valid instrument for useby school personnel in the identification of gifted ahildren.Doughty's 11972) results indicated that the three best devicesfor tests of mental maturity are: a standardized test ofacademic achievement, a test of personality, and a self-concept inventory, all of which are easily administered,scored, and interpreted. Effects of Web's study (1974)showed of pOssible relationship Piagetian and psychametricmeasures of intelligence. In a study by Miligram and Miligram(1976) results showed group administration exercised an,adverse effect on creativity in nongifted children, producingcreativity scores which were confounded with intelligneceand lower than scores obtained in individual administration.Form of administration had no effect on the creativity-intelligence relationship or on the level of creativityscores of gifted children. Results suggested a requirementof average intellectual ability for the production of creativitydistinct from intelligence in individual administration anda requirement of above average intellectual ability in groupadministration. Interrelationships among student and teacherratings of each others performance was studied by Roweton(1975). Results indicate that (a) girls were superior toboys on most indices, (b) teacher and students judgedartistic and academic creativity similarly, (c) the mostpervasive associate of classroom product fluency and elaborationwas student-teacher ratings, and (d) performance on theTorrance subtests was not highly indicative of either studentratings or classroom product fluency and elaboration. Whenanalyzing the pubtests performance by gifted students onthe Standford-Binet Intelligence Scale (1960 Form 1A-M)Sheverbush (1974) found that compared to the average group,a greater percentage of the gifted group passed a proportionallyhigher number of subtests classified into the language andvocabulary areas; that gifted studei ; rated unsuccessful bytheir teachers did better at the ver lighest levels of thetest, while those rated as successful did better on subtestsin the middle range; and that the gifted male group had ahigher rank difference on subtests classified into thereasoning category and the female group had a higher rankdifference on subtests clas3ified as verbal. In a study byRasbury and Others (1977) the Data, analyzed by a linearregression analysis, showed that the WISC-R Verbal,Performance, and Full Scale I4s could be predicted with areasonable degree of accuracy. An attempt to place theidentified factors into a psycholinguistic model by Wisland

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and kany (1971) was not successful for thd majorities of thefactors identified, Sheverbush (1975) study compared theaverage group and gifted group and found the gifted grouppassed a proportionally higher neber of subtests of theStandford-Binet IQ Test.

What does research show when_cemparitig_gifted,...narmal,and/or re-tardiaS-EidenI§? iiiiliams and Tillman (1969-1970)concluded that a regular sequence of development is followedin association of selected form classes regardless ofintelligence group. Incomparing slow-learners,average,and gifted students, Friedrich (1974) found experimentallyinduced rehearsal and cldstering strategies facilitated theperformance of all students. Self-pacing produced superiorresults than did experimenter pacing of successive objectpresentation. Students provided with the overt shadowdngrehearsal strategy training reached criterion in fewertrials than other students. Students performed better onconcrete than on abstract short-term memory concept tasks.Within concept latency, suggesting that all Students useda clustering strategy. The high significance found byHerrick (1970) supports the hypothesis that retarded childrenpreceive and act on symbols in essentially the samemanner as do gifted and normal children. Blake and Williams(1970) state that groups equated for MA did not differ inrote learning groups equated for CA did differ with thesuperior group exceeding the others. Subjects using thewhole method responded most adequately. Williams and Blake(1970) concluded that superior subjects did not responddifferentially to the two types of grouping criterion ofcatorgorizing object-leyel words on the basis of first orderconcepts, and grouping pbject level words on the basis ofinitial letters. In th equal CA comparisons, the superiorgroup exceeded the othe.s and the normal group.exceeded theretarded on both variants. No relationship was found byBrison and Bereiter (1q69-1970) between general intelligencelevel and intuitive concept formation. The presence anddifferentiation of normative and asperational perceptionswere demonstrated by Harris (1969-1970) to be present in thewriting behavior 'of all intellignece groups. In a study.by Pugliese (1976) results showed gifted children employedmore advanced superordinate grouping strategies. Duncan(1969) compared gifted a:id average students' rates oftapping, walking, reading, answering, and calculatiro. Shefound that the gifted as a group performed :. .:i.lieantlyfaster. House (1972) studies showed significa.nt differencesin the degree of emphasis in gifted and average classes-average classes emphasized two or less thought processes.Glenn (1978) reported that gifted students were found tohay9 lower task structure needs than the average student.Kosc (1970) found statistically significant correlationsin the represeliitative group. In the extreme groups,mathematically gifted and mathematically gifted and mathematiezdlydeficient, three is greater variability of score_thanthe normal population. Questionnaires reviewed by Warner(1973) showed that gifted children were more acceptable ofLIAR students than were students of average intelligence.Painter (1975) found was that for many of the comparisons,the levels of attainment of the control group and the lowIQ subgrow,), relative to their measured ability, weregreater than those recorded for the gifted groups.

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Sr:ock (1970) established that incentive motivation reducesthe range and variety of stimuli :o which an individualreeponds. Carrier (1971) found only weak support onisolated measures for intelligence-task motivation, emoeionaltension-performance (negative), and motivation-performance(positive).

Does geegraphicatien-aelleet teeeet spores of thesiifted child? Ingeneral Opper (19?2) found the same stagesof development and types of reasoning were found to occurin both rural and urban children for all tests, althoughthe frequencies of occurance sometimes differed between theurban and rural Thai children. In a study by Schena (1977)it was found that average students attained significantlyhigher scores, indicating better futuring ability, thangifted stu-dents when the total groups were compared.Heterogeneous average rural students scored significantlyhigher than heterogeneous gifted rural students. Nosignificant differences were found between other groupings ofgifted, average, rural.or urban students, Possiblereasons for the unexpected findings include the possibilitythat gifted or urban children are more conscious of a widerrange of future options and less likely to "strongly agxee"with specific goals or future projections.

Are Piagetian theories applicable to the gifted? Keating(1973) found that students who scored higher on psychomtricmeasures of intelligence were also developmentally advancedLn Piaget's sequencelof cognitive developmental stages. Thefinding did not contradiCt Piagetian theory since out-of-sequence succebses were not observed. In a study by Webb(1974) research showed all students passed the concre.te/operations problems including measures of conservation ofvolume, but only four of the oldest students passed theformal operations tests. In comparing Piagetian assessmentconservation skills between gifted and average frist graders,Rader (1975) found the gifted group performed significantlyhigher; most of them "ceilinged" on the test, thus maskingmore significant differences. When examining the empiricalrelationships among Piagetian tasks, psychometric assessmentsof intelligence, and school achievement DeVries (1974)indicates that the Stanford Binet is a poor predictor ofperformance on most of the Piagetian tasks, and that thetheoretical differences between Piagtian and psychometricintelligence do seem to correspond to real differences incognitive meaeurement. Additional analyses by Devries(1974) among all tests incicated that no overlap exitsbetween Knowledge on Piagetian tasks and school achievementknowledge as measured by the MAT Results were supported inDevries findings which state that Piagetian tasks do appearto measure different aspects Cif coirnitive functioning thando psychometric tests and that there exist specific differencebe+Neen the two in general perspi.ctive and method of assessment.On a visual-term memory task, YrdAdric,. (1974) found th.Ltstudents of all ability levels performed better on concretethan on abstract short-term memory concept tasks.

there_a_re)p,tionshi.p betrIQfli epdina ability?Sedarat (1969) concluded tha't intliectualfY superior rt:adirv,achievement is not a function or need fur achievement,. 'ego,stronath, or consentuality of word associations. Roalindisabilities of the highly intollip;ent is more oftenfunctional and 1(.ss organic than kl();e of the avt--;,4,u ;Ind

C)

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slow-learners was concluded by Krippner.(1969-1970).Research by Wolf (1976).showed the findings that.combinedpeor/adult modeliiv was somewhat 'lore effective in influencingreading selections'of gifted subects than was an adultmodeling procedure alone. In a seudy by Rubin (1975) comparingthe level of assigned reading with measured reading abilitydata showed that the grekest la:,; in the implementation of''individualized instruction lay in the educatian of pupilswhose development was accelerated rather than in the educationof pupils whose development was slow. Osen (1973) wovedthat average reading achievement increased in directrelationship to IQ. The Harris formula examined in Osen'sstudy (1973) predicted actual reading achievement most ,

accurately and it otiuld be useful- in.identifying remedial- readers among the gifted. population. Research by Price (1976)

indicated that most of the students received instruction in 4

phonics: and the majority could read when they entered school,except those-whose parents deliberately postponed teachingreading. Durkin (1971) discovered that early readers tendedto maintain their lead in achievement throughout school. Animportant finding of Durkin's study (1971) is that parentsofearly readers showed greater willingness to give earlyhelp: Durkin (1971) found no simple connection betweenealrly reading and socioeconomic status.

What are some of_thgeIgaehg t t de d ch r cteristics9f gragrariaF4n? Teacher .attitude as measured by aco s(1972) revealed to be negative toward the gifted child andtheY found their inquisitive behavior to be unacceptable.Cantrell and Cantrell (1976) found students differed,sitnificantly in achievement score.changes as a function of .

the availability of support teachers to the classroomteacher. Brown (1975) found that teachers who favorpproductive goals for gifted childeen are more characterizedby intelligence than by empathy. Research by Sutherlandand Coldschmind (1974) indicat-e no linear relationshipexisted between teacher expectation and IQ gain scores either,with or without the partialing out of initial IQ scores.A'significant relationship was,found between negative discrepantteacher expectation and IQ change in.children withsuperior intellectual potential. iiicNary (1972) conclusionsshowed that teacher eharacterisies do influence significantlythe growth of fourth, fifth, and sixth grade self-contained classes with a mean IQ of 120 or better. Otherteacher characteristics of McNarY's study (1972) demonstrate4that no single teacher characteristic was significantlyrelated to all areas of convergent and diverunt growth inthe children's scores than were the other va0ables 'etudy.In general MeNary'e research (1972) indicated that the teacherwho appeared to have most siolifleanlly influenced growthin the convergent area was bmiLlive, dew:huont, cheerftd,alert, not a etaunch reerdian of mor:Al, and manners wi!.hnatural warm th and I ik.in, rur th rcspr I, Lu L":.icho rLechniquee and charaeterietice lellend's (1972) expc:riment;r11sthdene Indicated a pr..f:,:cence Li;Whk who aek maeyqueetione. L;utherLand (197/0 re:lo:trch :111w;p,d

n 1 near rt.4 I a ti0111;11 (!X 1,!; Li '11 1,W, 't I 1,1:'; 'h 4' r pp( Lt.2)t)

este IQ gain eeores ei.ther with w viLheet the peeii,LI

ouL or initial 1(4 C()10U:1 (1e)7',) !,;howed MIL thi

:AyIQ 1}rodom11'l7ln; modo,(Thl 1:thart', !-Jtply (19710 ri,v,,11, it ;I hi h !y i tililliotai:11

It!

-A;tcher v;.xiable in th(: creativity :,raining program.

Art2 _J:Ltcd pJ&4x: ant:ral i c! ,act.o,s_u_'..s

;esearch ty -Krutetoki (2.9i6) shows that three stages of,7.,:ntal activity are SQell to be involved in solVing a.11,hemati'eal problem: gn,-:.herinA the: infOrmation, procenz:ing

infarmation, and,ireiriing the information. Capableudents are reported t,o-exhibit untual abilities in

eneralization, flexiblikty in seeking Methods, reversiPilit:,,:ald the ability to reach an "elegant" solutlon.iosenfied and Routz (1977) found.porblem-solving skill grew:;teadily from gradb two..through grade six. Also giftedstvdents were about two years ahead of nongifted students.Gardner and Bernard (1970-1971) stated that Intelliatece isa determinate*of person percePtion. Gordon's findings(1970-1971) support the.hypo%hesis that staients takingforeign languages (Russian),,improve in their L-egularclassroom work and behavior.

What does reiegalph how. boat fted students and41,...sagt_ersijkoat1on? In-à qudy of career education llisC1976) showed.interacticin between'educators primarilyconcerned With Career edpeation apd educators primarilyconcerned wieh educating the exceptionally pitted and,talented students is insufficient to achieve cooperativeprograms or integrate their.effortse Noisier (1972)showed evIdenc:e that there were no significant'differencesbetween occupati.onal:goal of gifted and average childmn.A signVfieant difference between the occupational goAls ofgifted children and those goalS set by the parents in1.:osier experiment (1972), Kincaid's (1970) finds of astudy of 561 gifted pupils showed girls career preferenceswr]re social service', art, and science; for boys, scienCe,social servicel'and mechanics.

Other interre ated reoearch on the gifted included thefollowing two studiel:...,In a study by Simonton (1976)Cox's states that there is, a correlation between intelligenceand rank(qeminenr. In a study deLermining the extentof 2.amplig bias in L.' TermAn's Genetic LVILOIes or Geniusby'S.ting (1975) rel.-J:11:4 showod deviations from theoreticalstatIticsi with IQ serjre::, clustered about a meansicdificantly higher than projected, indicated that thesamp1 4 sikt wis too mall.

What are tIlt_NersonaljIly_lraits of creative people?la ii1W7757Ing the degree of associatiort between themt-?niDulation or ideas and the handlinr.r, of confliA:t Elliot(1tR1) found positive corroiatioo:1 wherv the Creativo'vst scores were compared with the total number or non-dichotomizirw soluticns offered Lo r.o(*ii, conflict situnticalenod with (he proponderane of noIldii:hotom;7.iniv, overtihocjm,v,int:: solutions ot'V,rPd. C:11v,:rt's (1969) slod ofhuNor %nd treatLvity show that c:.IvLoon humor 1 t-4 mor(,

:(ppreciated by ttw vrow, as whole.CflpWit,Y rathyr thno motivallan by, ro::pow-;i1.)10

vor difyornr!,: in c:r,';'fi.,ity vo;'; :Alted by 1.1;trd4nod P;if:kovf! (197k)). Ifiaw and tW (19To) round th:0

h,rii-tort"Ly c4,1!$Lf:,lot,

tri I h ,rp 141'11 t"rf':1.:1 V iyrt f,!vi If I t. 1.1:s!'; tinHIld!'0 1,y

:,))11 th (1970 Ihfc. hy tht, t;1 to! e I' the l.r0;11:rvi.

1 4;tra

thrt,!r ,11,1y in poron:tlity ;In(1

motivational characte:isties,What are some emironmentaj_fasIgzajdat_affut /

crreaivity2._ Balagtas (19o9) found a negative relationchipbetween parental attitudes and children's creativity. ApOss'itive relationship was found between.the democraticattitude of mothers and their children's-creatrvity. Singh(1970) hypothesized that there would be significant differencesin measures,of the' components of creativity between advantagedand disadvantaged children, regardless of culture. Herhypothesis was partially substantiated. ,Karnes (1969-1970)states, that disadyantaged children of higher potential

, who were free from punishment scored higher on 'creativitythan did extrapunitive'or intrapth.itive children. 41.1

social situations Jacobs and.Cunningham (1970) possession ofboth high, intelligence and creativity lessened a child'sdisirability as a companion when compared to a child who ishigh in only one. Bachtold's (1973)-results indicated thatmost individuals 'are still rewarding begaviors notfacilitative of creative productivity. The results ofStern's Study (1974) were isqerpreted as a serious warningthat current television prograMing is detrimental to children'screativity. Conclustions in Stern's study (1974) showedthat children watChing dramatic shows increased in creativeperformame, while those watching cartoons and educationalprograms had depressed creative scores. towan (1971) founda trend for highly creative children to have a backgroundsuggesting more early enrichment and stimulation.

Wh t reAnajmultAllity? It_was concluded byvWillips 1971that wh4e a relationship was established'among seveFalmisures,of creativity and with a standardized measure ofar'Lthmetic achievement, no strong relationship exists betweenthe/latter and dogmatisth. Schulman (1969-19701 suggestedthat creativity presupposes openness in perception, but notthe reverse. Rosenfield and Houtz (1977) found creativethinking increased from grade two through four, with nosignificant increase thereafter. Jacobs and Cunningham(1970) concluded that both high intelligence and highcreativity interacted significantly with peer acceptance.Torrance's-study (1973) revealed that the most successfulapproaches to creativity involve cognitive and emotional'functioning, provide adequa e structure and motivation, andgive opportunities for i1vernent, practice, and interactionwith teachers and other udents. Guilford and Christensen(1974) i-esults did not support the threshold hypothesisthaL below an IQ of 120 there iS some correlation betweenIQ and creative potential, and above 120 there is notcorrelation. Martindale (1975) showed that creative peoplehave higher resting levels of brain wave activity whichmay explain their oversensitivity to stimuli.

What are......0m.e_e ..elta,:sms_ste.siauesi_teLr_sranti_xeehilAreia. Johnson 1969) stetes that sighificant gains weremade in creative writing and verbal intellirnece after

Lraininc, in tasks developed in the TornInce Testsor Creaive Thinkinr No :;-;,c dirrf,renee;; umerr,ed. Kvaev

Lankov (1970) found thdt aftrr traininp: in creativity,common variance of the Hidcb.n Fij,ure,5 tout decreaEJed whiietfle Alettirnate Uses and Possible Jolm Test tended to formrroup Caetore usually known as semantic spentaneous rlexibili ty .

12

Creativity training reduced overall conformity for the lowIQ subjects but not for everage or high IQ subjects butnot for average or high IQ subjec-cs asstated by Allan andLevine (1969-1970). A causal relationship between creativity,and conformity due to transfer of common skills acrosssituations was found by the researchers. Thomas andFeldhusen (1971) felt the program helped children developthinking apilities, and that having children write down .

their crelitive ideas was the MOST effective part of the Prograni.Some other reated material concerning creative children

as follows: Plass (1974) data of the Torrence Test ofCreative Thinking indicated that factors described a taskrather than t'be hypothesized psychologiCal process forwhich it was Scored. Torrance (1970-1971) stated thatcuriosity levels of gifted children obtained throughuntimed conditions appeared to have satisfactory validitywhile those of the timed conditions did not. The humanfactor of teachers'use or non-use of techniques was citedby Pugh (1969) as the primary reason for lack of significanceon Scores of groups of students who were tested for creativity.Roweton and Spenc,er's testing (1972) results showed nodifferences inherant of practice upon.nonverbal creativity.

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39 .

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19

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20

90

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21

9 '2

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2 2

2 I

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2 i

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Scnrock, John H.: "A Program for the Development of anElementary School Program for the Gifted Childc"Exueatianslis, (1973)9 1090753.

schulman, David: "Openness of Perception as a Condition forCreativity," ca i.n C 1d )1talsag(1969-1970).1341.

Sedarat, Nasser: "Relationship of Achievement Motive, EgoStrength, and Certain Aspects of Word Associationto the Reading Ability. of Intellectually SuperiorPupils," Disaerta0.mAtalmagIa (1969), 4202-A.

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Slaock, Charles D. and Others: "Effects of ,o-feivationalFactors on Perceptual-Gof;nitivo Efficiency ofChildren Who Vary in intellectual LoloI,"kiiga.2P-tional Child_AbtIttlaq1Z (1970), 2035.

2fmonton, Dean K.: "Bior,raphitlal Determinants or AchiovedEmineneo: A 4111tivariJe Approach to this Cox Data,"

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!;urervir'l P.: "1_,ri,ativ Atlility: A Culor.1111,110 " P,,12p.to r LlAT l; ctc t ( b1CY',1

, . Jo(' k; How.:;1? hrnest Kexn17:-., "AnInstrument in Assessin GAiTivtf-,o Ilr

low 'Inference cr4

(1971)1 illYP,

I Loa, lift t I ;

'or t

I.feet of Viewing Certain Categories orCommercia]Television Bt Adeasting on -he Divergent ThinkingAbilitios of Intellectually :lifted, ranmentary!..f.tuden,s," PIC (1c74). #0i-,2496,

N.A-t, Jack uarl: "A Survey of Attitudes of :;uperintoldentsToward Educaional Programs for Gifted Children,"Lautgr_tri (1972), #2794-A.

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Thomas, Susan; Feldhusen John F.: "To Spark an Interest:Thinking Creatively,," Exceptional ChiA Egat,giaAtztralu (1971), 11032753.

Toronto board of Education: "Gifted Underachievers: 'AFollow-up Study of Four Types of Treatment."Exco7JALUIQL.gbild.-411-1.racts (1971), #063698.

Tiwrance, 1. Paul: "Curiosity of Gifted Children andPelformance on Timed and Untimed Tests of Creativity;"k=21igllaligidiSLAb9traL111 (1970-1971), 1142.

Torranet Paul: "Developmental Chanrjes in Sources of,Consensual Validation in Preadolescence," 11#7,112.14milIalAkaInm...0 (1971), #11653.

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11.10,:t 10. Court ty I " 1)1 ot _Ltql.iptt( 1 ';'?/.` ,074 -A .

(Itic:pr- t "r. `:°:10 .0p1(iii) ..f IH'P'(11

Nachine and the Self-Improvement F,tethod:. TwoTechniques for Increasing the Rate of Readingof Sixth Grade Gifted Pupils," 21=s2rilatip_nAbstrasaa (1971), 26215-A.

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Web, Roger A.: "Concrete and Formal Operations in VeryBright (IQ greater than 160) Six to Eleven YearOlds," ERIC (.1974), #085119.

Weeks, Thelma E.: "The Slow Speech Development of a BrightChild," Eicsa)tior_W___Cjitrct (1974), #234.

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Williams, John D. and Others: "Creativity, Dogmatism, andArithmetic Achievement," Exceptional Child EducatiopAbstracts (1971), #032674.

Wins-Lon, Carl M.: "Meeting Needs of Gifted: A Non-Structured Summer Program. 1962-1963 SchoolYear," Exceptional Child AbstrActs (1970-1971), 2732.

Wisland, Milton; Many, Wesley A.: "A Factorial Study ofthe Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities withChildren Having Above Average Intelligence,"Exceptional CAild Abstractq (171), #500 356.

Wolf, Joan Silverman:""The Effect of Modeling on ReadingSelections of Gifted and Non-Gifted Students,"1.2iialtali2r...L.Allalr.a-a_t_a (1976), #2791-A1

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