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Review o f Educational Research

Spring 1997, V ol. 67, No. 1, pp. 8 8-1 40

T h e D e v e l o p m e n t o f E p i s t e m o l o g i e a l T h e o r i e s

B e l i e f s A b o u t K n o w l e d g e a n d K n o w i n g a n d

T h e i r R e l a ti o n t o L e a r n i n g

B a r b a r a K H o f e r a nd P a u l R P i n t r i c h

U n i v e r s i ty o f M i c h i g a n

There have been a number o f research programs tha t have i nves t i ga t ed

students thinking and bel ie fs about the nature of

knowledge and knowing

including def ini t ions o f knowledge, how know ledge i s constructed, a nd how

know ledge i s evaluated. Ho wever , these di fferent research prog ram s have

pursu ed vary ing de f in it ions an d concep tua l f ram ewo rks a nd used qu i te

di f ferent method ologies to exam ine s tuden ts epis temological bel ie f s and

thinking. In the f ir st sec t ion o f this article, we pro vid e a cri t ical an d com pre-

hens i ve rev i ew o f t hese d i f f e ren t research programs . In t he second par t o f t h is

ar ticle, we ident i fy nine crucial theoret ical and m ethodological i ssues that

need to be resolved in futu re research on epis temological theories . As these

issues are add ressed in futu re research, there wi l l be more consen sus regard-

ing the nature o f epistem olog ical theories, and their relat ion to cognition,

motivation, an d learning wil l be ma de m ore explici t.

E p i s t e m o l o g y is a n a r e a o f p h i l o s o p h y c o n c e m e d w i th t h e n a t u r e a n d j u s t i fi c a -

t io n o f h u m a n k n o w l e d g e . A g ro w i n g a r e a o f in t e r es t f o r p s y c h o l o g i s t s a n d

e d u c a t o r s i s t h at o f p e r s o n a l e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t a n d e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l

b e l ie f s : h o w i n d i v id u a l s c o m e t o k n o w , t h e t h e o r i e s a n d b e l i e f s th e y h o l d a b o u t

k n o w i n g , a n d t h e m a n n e r in w h i c h s u c h e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l p r e m i s e s a r e a p a rt o f a n d

a n i n f l u e n c e o n t h e c o g n i t i v e p ro c e s s e s o f t h i n k in g a n d r e a s o n i n g .

P i a g e t ( 1 9 5 0 ) u s e d t h e t e rm g e n e t i c e p i s t e m o l o g y t o d e s c r i b e h i s t h e o ry o f

i n t e ll e c tu a l d e v e l o p m e n t , i n i t ia t in g t h e i n t e r e s t o f d e v e l o p m e n t a l p s y c h o l o g i s t s i n

t h is i n t e r s e c ti o n o f p h i l o s o p h y a n d p s y c h o l o g y . T h e s e i n te r e st s w e re a n i m p o r t a n t

s te p i n th e g ro w i n g r e a c t i o n t o th e d o m i n a n c e o f b e h a v i o r i s m , w h i c h h a d r e m o v e d

k n o w i n g a l t o g e t h e r f ro m l e a rn i n g (K o h l b e rg , 1 9 7 1 ) . B r i n g i n g k n o w i n g b a c k i n t o

t h e p i c t u r e w a s c e n tr a l to e m e rg i n g t h e o r i e s o f m o ra l j u d g m e n t a n d d e v e l o p m e n t

(Gi i l igan , 1982; Kegan , 1982; Ko hlbe rg , 1969 , 1971) . Alon g pa ra l le l l ines , Pe r ry s

(1970) a t t em pts to unde rs tand how s tudents in te rpre ted p lura l i s ti c educ a t iona l

e x p e r i e n c e s h a d l e d t o a t h e o ry o f e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t i n c o l l e g e s t u -

dents .

We would l ike to thank our co l leagues a t the Unive rs i ty o f Mich igan- -He len

Harrington, Bi ll M cKe achie , Al l ison Ryan, He nry W ellman, and All ison Yo ung for

s t imulat ing conversat ions and helpful comments regarding the development of the

ideas p resented here , a l though w e take ful l responsibil i ty , of course , fo r their current

representa t ion. In addi t ion, two anony mo us reviewers provided useful feedback on an

earlier version of the manuscript.

88



pistemological Theories

S ince t ha t t ime , r e sea rch on ep i s t emolog i ca l be l i e f s and reason ing has ad -

s ix (a) andr e s s e d ~ n e r a l is su es : r e fi n in g e x te n d in g P e r r y 's d e v e lo p m e n t a l

s equen~e (King & Ki t chener , 1994 ; King , K i tchener , Dav i son , P a rke r , & W ood ,

1983; Ki tchen er , 1986) ; (b) develop ing more s im pl i f i ed .me asux em ent tools for

as ses sing such deve lopm en t (Bax t e r M ago ld a & P or t e r fi e ld , 1985 ; Kn efe lkam p ,

1974; Moore, 1989; Widick, 1975); (c) exploring gender-relat~d_. l~at terns in

know ing (Bax t e r Mago lda , 1992 ; Be l enky , C l i nchy , Go ldberger , & Taru l e , 1986);

(d ) exam in ing how ep i s temo log i ca l awarenes s i s a pa r t o f t h ink ing and reason ing

proces ses (King & K i t chener, 1994 ; D . K uhn , 1991) ; ( e) i de n t i fy in gd im en s ion s

of ep i s tem ological bel iefs (Scho m me r , 1990, 1994b); and , mos t recent ly , (f )

a s ses s ing how these be l i e f s l i nk t o o the r cogn i t i ve and mot iva t i ona l p roces ses

(But ler & wi nn e, 1995; Ho fer , 1994; Ry an, 1984a, 1984b; Sch om m er , 1990,

1993a; Schommer , Crouse , & Rhodes , 1992; Schutz , P in t r ich , & Young, 1993) .

However , in a l l th i s research there i s very l i t t l e agreement on the ac tual

cons t ruc t under s t udy , the d imen s ions i t encom passes , w he the r ep i s t emolog i ca l

be l i e f s a re domain spec i f i c o r how such be l i e f s migh t connec t t o d i s c ip l i na ry

be l i e f s , and wha t t he l i nkages migh t be t o o the r cons t ruc t s i n cogn i t i on and

mo t ivat ion . In addi t ion , there have been no a t tem pts to con cep tual ly in tegra te the

ea r l y P i age ti an - f ramed deve lopm en ta l work on ep i s t emoiog i ca i be l i e fs t o new er

cogn i t i ve app roaches such as t heo ry o f m ind o r concep tua l change . The pu rpose

of th i s ar t ic le i s to rev iew these in tersect ing s t rands o f research , iden t i fy i s sues that

need t o be r eso lved , and sugges t som e pos s ib i li ti e s fo r consensus t ha t can gu ide

fu ture research ef for t s . To a ccom pl i sh th i s purpose , the ar t i c le is d iv ided in to two

sec ti ons: a c r i ti ca l r ev iew o f d i f f e ren t ep i s t emolog i ca l mode l s and a d i s cus s ion o f

n ine i s sues for fu ture research .

R e v i e w o f p i s t e m o l o g i e a l M o d e l s

P sycho log i ca l r e sea rch on ep i s t emolog i ca l deve lopmen t began i n t he mid -

1950s , and in the deca des s ince there have been three s im ul taneo us and in tersect -

ing- t ines o f research w hich cut across the s ix.~general i s sues . Led by the in i ti a l

work o f P e r ry (1970), mo s t r e sea rcher s i n t he f i e ld have po s i ted m ode l s t ha t a re

to som e degree s t ructura l , develop m ental sequences . On_~.group has bee n largely

in t e res t ed i n how ind iv idua l s i n t e rp re t t he i r educa t i ona l exper i ences (Bax t e r

M a g o ld a , 19 87, 1992 ; B e le n k y e ~ 6 ; P er ry , 197 0, 1 981 ). P e rr y p io n ee re d

these endeavors wi th a s am ple t ha t was a lmos t en t ir e l y mal e ; i n r e sponse , Be l enky

e t a l. i n v e st ig a t e d w o m e n ' s w a y s o f k n o w i n g w i t h a n e x c l u si v e ly f e m a l e

sample . Bax t e r M ago lda , i n t ri gued by gen der imp l i ca t ions o f t hese two l ines o f

resea rch , chose t o i nves t i ga te s imi l a r concerns wi th bo th m en and w om en .

A second g roup o f r e sea rcher s have been i n t e res t ed i n how ep i s t emolog i ca l

as sump tmns i n f l uence t h ink ing and reason ing p roces ses , focus ing on r e f l ec t i ve

jud gm en t (Kih 'g -& Ki tchener , 1994; K i tchen er & K ing, 1981; K i tchener , King ,

W ood , & D av i son , 1989 ; Ki t chener , Ly nch , F is cher , & W ood , 1993) and sk il ls o f

a rgum en ta t i on (D . Kuhn , 1991 , 1993) . The t heo r i es and mode l s d i f f e r som ew hat

depen d ing on t he focus o f t he i nqu i ry and t he popu l a t i ons s t ud i ed , bu t t he re have

been some po in t s o f convergence abou t wha t i nd iv idua l s be l i eve kno w ledge i s and

how i t is t hey know.

The t h ird and m os t recen t l i ne o f work has t aken t he app roach t ha t ep i s temo -

log ica l i deas a re a sys t em o f be l i e f s tha t m ay be mo re o r J es s indepen den t r a t he r

89



Hofer and Pintrich

t han r e fl ec t ing a coheren t dev e lopm enta l s truc tu re (Ryan , 1984a , 1984b; Scho m me r ,

1 9 9 0 , 1 9 9 4 b ) . T h e s e b e l i e f s m a y i n f l u e n c e c o m p r e h e n s i o n a n d c o g n i t i o n f o r

a c a d e m i c t a s k s , a n d t h i s w o r k h a s b e e n t h e m o s t c o n c e r n e d w i t h c l a s s r o o m

lea rn ing .

T h e c e n tr a l t h e o ri e s a n d m o d e l s o f e p i st e m o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t a n d e p i s t e m o -

l o g i c a l b e l ie f s a r e o u tl i n e d b e l o w . F o r e a c h p r o g r a m o f r e s e a r c h w e d i s c u s s ( a ) th e

m etho do log y , (b ) t he overa l l m ode l , ( c ) linka~ ges t o o the r mo t iva t iona l o r cogni t i ve

c o n s t r u c t s , a n d ( d ) th e t h e o r e t ic a l a n d m e t h o d o l o g i c a l i s s u e s th a t e m e r g e f r o m t h i s

r e v i e w o f t h e r e s e a r c h .

Perry s Scheme of lnteUectual and Ethical Development

N e a r l y a l l t h e e x i s t i n g p s y c h o l o g i c a l w o r k o n e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l b e l i e f s c a n b e

t r a ce d t o t w o l o n g i tu d i n a l s t u d ie s b y W i l l ia m P e r r y ( 1 9 7 0 ) t h a t b e g a n i n th e e a r l y

1 9 5 0 s a t H a r v a r d ' s B u r e a u o f S t u d y C o u n s e l . T h i s w o r k c u l m i n a t e d i n a d e v e l o p -

m e n t a l s c h e m e o f t h e a b s t r a c t s t ru c t u ra l a s p e c t s o f k n o w i n g a n d v a l u i n g ( p . 14 )

i n c o l l e g e s t u d e n ts . T h i s s c h e m e h a s s e r v e d a s a h e u r i st i c f o r u n d e r s ta n d i n g h o w

c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s m a k e m e a n i n g o f t h e i r e d u c a t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s a n d a s a p l a t f o r m

f o r m u l t ip l e l i n e s o f r e s e a r c h o n e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l b e l i ef s .

Method

I n t e r e s t e d i n h o w s t u d e n t s a p p e a r e d t o b e r e s p o n d i n g d i f f e r e n t i a l l y t o t h e

p lura l i s t i c i n t e l l ec tua l and soc i a l env i ronment o f t he un ive r s i t y , Pe r ry se t ou t t o

c o l l e c t d e s c r i p t iv e a c c o u n t s o f s t u d e n t s ' e x p e r i e n c e s . I n o r d e r t o s e le c t a r a n g e o f

s t u d e n t s f o r i n it ia l i n t e r v i e w s , h e d e v e l o p e d a n i n s t r u m e n t t h a t h e c a l le d a C h e c k -

l is t o f E d u c a t i o n a l V a l u e s ( C L E V ) . P e r r y b a s e d t h e C L E V o n a u t h o r it a r ia n

p e r s o n a l i t y r e s e a r c h ( A d o r n o , F r e n k e i - B r u n s w i k , L e v i n s o n , & S a n f o r d , 1 9 5 0 ) an d

S t e m ' s I n s t r u m e n t o f B e l i e f s ( S te r n , 1 9 5 3 ), o p e r a t i n g o n a p r e v a i l i n g a s s u m p t i o n

o f t h e p e r i o d t h a t d i f f e r e n c e s i n s t u d e n t r e s p o n s e s t o t h e r e l a t i v i s t i c w o r l d t h e y

e n c o u n t e r e d i n c o l l e g e w e r e l a r g e l y a tt r ib u t a b l e to p e r s o n a l i ty . Q u e s t i o n s f r o m t h e

C L E V - - s u c h a s T h e b e s t t h in g a b o u t sc i e n c e c o u r s e s i s t h a t m o s t p r o b l e m s h a v e

o n l y o n e r i g h t a n s w e r - - s u r v i v e i n t a c t i n s o m e c u r r e n t e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l b e l i e f s

r e s e a r c h ( S c h o m m e r , 1 9 9 0 , 1 9 9 3 a ; S c h o m m e r e t a l ., 1 9 9 2 ) .

P e r r y a d m i n i s t e r e d th e C L E V t o a r a n d o m s a m p l e o f 3 1 3 f i rs t - y e a r s t u d e n ts i n

1 9 5 4 - 1 9 5 5 a n d t h e n i n v it e d 31 s t u d e n ts ( 2 7 m e n , 4 w o m e n ) f o r a n n u a l i n t e r v i e w s

t h a t b e g a n w i t h th e q u e s t io n , W o u l d y o u l i k e t o sa y w h a t h a s s to o d o u t f o r y o u

d u r i n g t h e y e a r ? T h e g o a l o f t h e in t e r v i e w w a s t o e n c o u r a g e s t u d e n t s t o e x p r e s s

w h a t w a s s a l ie n t i n th e i r e x p e r i e n c e i n th e i r o w n t e r m s a n d t o a v o i d d i c t a ti n g t h e

s t ru c t u r e o f th e r e s p o n s e . R e a d i n g s o f t h e t r a n s c ri p t s o f th e s e e a r l y i n t e r v i e w s l e d

P e r r y a n d h i s s t a f f t o c o n c l u d e t h a t c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s ' w a y s o f c o n s t r u i n g t h e i r

w o r l d w e r e n o t s o m u c h a m a t t e r o f p e r s o n a l i t y a s e v i d e n c e o f a l o g i c a l l y

c o h e r e n t , c o g n i t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t a l p r o c e s s .

B a s e d o n t h e s e i n t e r v i e w s , P e r r y a n d h i s c o l l e a g u e s o u t l i n e d a s c h e m e o f

i n te l le c t u a l a n d e t h i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t t h a t i n c lu d e d a s e q u e n c e o f n i n e p o s i t io n s ,

a l o n g w i t h t h e t r a n s it io n a l s t e p s t h a t a p p e a r e d t o p r o v i d e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n f r o m o n e

l eve l t o ano the r , and then l aunched a second long i tud ina l s t udy to va l i da t e t he

s c h e m e , w i t h a r a n d o m l y s e l e c t e d g r o u p o f 1 0 9 f i r s t - y e a r s t u d e n t s ( 8 5 m e n , 2 4

w o m e n ) f r o m th e e n t e ri n g cl a ss e s o f 1 9 5 8 - 1 9 5 9 a n d 1 9 5 9 - 1 9 6 0 w h o w e r e

f o l l o w e d f o r th e i r fo u r y e a r s o f c o l l e g e . O n l y t w o w o m e n w e r e i n c l u d e d i n th e

90



Epistemological Theories

r e su lt s o f th i s s tudy , a l t hough P e r r y ( 1970) r e po r t e d tha t the w om e n ' s e x pe r i e nc e s

e s se n t i a ll y f i t t he de ve lop me n ta l s c he m e ; t he r a t i ona l e f o r e l imina t ing the o the r 22

wome n i s unc l e a r .

M o d e l

P e r r y ' s s c he m e o f in t e l le c tua l a nd e th i c a l de v e lopm e n t pos tu l a t e s a n ongo ing ,

qua l i t a t i ve r e o r ga n iz a t ion o f t he ma k ing o f me a n ing . A l though l e ve l s i n t he

sc he m e a r e de s igna t e d a s pos i t i ons r a the r t ha n s t age s , a nd P e r ry ma k e s no

c l a ims f o r th i s a s a f o r ma l de ve lop m e n ta l p r oc e s s , the s c he m e i t s e l f a nd the

inhe r e n t de ve lop m e n ta l me c ha n i sm s sha r e m uc h w i th o the r P i a ge t i a n - type de ve l -

opme n ta l s c he me s . The pos i t i ons a ppe a r t o r e p r e se n t a n inva r i a n t s e que nc e o f

h i e r a r c h i c a l ly i n t e g r a t e d s t r uc tu r e s . C ha nge i s b r ough t a bou t t h r ough c ogn i t i ve

d i se qu i l i b r ium; ind iv idua l s i n t e r a c t w i th t he e nv i r onme n t a nd r e spond to ne w

e xpe r i e nc e s by e i t he r a s s imi l a t ing to e x i s t i ng c ogn i t i ve f r a m e wo r ks o r a c c om m o-

da t ing the f ramework i t se l f .

The n ine pos i t ions o f the s c he m e ha ve typ i c a l ly be e n c lu s t e r e d in to fou r

sequent ia l ca tego r ies (K nefe lkam p & S lep i tza , 1978; Ku r f i ss , 1988; M oore , 1994):

dual ism mul t ip l ic i ty re la t iv i sm a nd c ommi tme n t w i th in re la t i v i sm . The ba s i c

scheme i s a s fo l lows ( see Table 1) .

Dual i sm . Posi t ions 1 and 2 a re cha rac te r ized by a dua l i s t ic , abso lu t is t , r igh t -

a nd - w r ong v i e w o f t he wor ld . Au tho r i t i e s a re e xpe c t e d to know the tr u th a nd to

c on ve y i t t o t he l e a r ne r .

Mult ip l ic i ty . P os i t i on 3 r e p r e se n t s a mod i f i c a t ion o f dua li sm, w i th t he be g in -

n ing o f t he r e c ogn i t i on o f d ive r s i t y a nd unc e r t a in ty . Au tho r i t i e s who d i sa g r e e

ha ve n ' t ye t f ound the r i gh t a nswe r , bu t t r u th i s s t i l l knowa b le . B y P os i t i on 4 ,

dua l i sm i s mod i f i e d a ga in ; a r e a s i n wh ic h the r e a r e no a bso lu t e a nswe r s a r e

ou t s ide t he r e a lm o f a u tho r i t y . An ind iv idua l a t t h i s pos i t i on i s i nc l ine d to be l i e ve

tha t a l l v ie ws a r e e qua l ly va l id a nd tha t e a c h pe r son ha s a ri gh t t o h i s o r he r ow n

op in ion .

Rela t iv ism. P os i t i on 5 i s t he wa te r she d o f the s c he m e , a s i nd iv idua l s ma k e the

sh i ft f r om a dua l i st i c v i e w o f the w or ld t o a v i e w o f c on te x tua l r e l a t iv i sm tha t w i ll

c on t inue , w i th mod i f i c a t ions , t h r ough the uppe r s t a ge s . A ma jo r sh i f t i s i n t he

pe r c e p t ion o f s e l f as a n a c t ive ma ke r o f me a n ing . A t P o s i t ion 6 i nd iv idua l s

pe r c e ive kn ow le dge a s r e l a t ive , c on t inge n t , a nd c on te x tua l a nd be g in to r e a l i z e the

n e e d to c h o o s e a n d a f fi r m o n e ' s o w n c o m m i t m e n t s .

C om mi tm e n t w i th in re la ti v ism . T he f ina l pos i t ions , 7 th rou gh 9 , r e f lec t a focus

on r e spons ib i li t y , e nga ge m e n t , a nd the f o r g ing o f c om m i tm e n t w i th in r e l a t iv i sm.

I nd iv idua l s ma ke a nd a f f i r m c ommi tme n t s t o va lue s , c a r e e r s , r e l a t i onsh ips , a nd

pe r sona l i de n t i ty . De v e lopm e n t s i n the upp e r pos i ti ons a r e de sc r ibe d by P e r r y a s

mor e qua l i t a t i ve t ha n s t r uc tu r a l , a nd a r e no t ma r ke d by f o r ma t ive c ha nge . A l -

t h o u g h p r o p o s e d a s p a r t o f th e s c h e m e , t h e s e p o s i ti o n s w e r e n o t c o m m o n l y f o u n d

a m ong c o l l e ge s tude n ts .

P e r r y d id no t c onduc t f u r the r r e se a r c h to e xp lo r e l i nka ge s be tw e e n h i s c onc e p -

t i on o f e p i s te m olog ic a l de ve lop m e n t a nd s tude n t l e ar n ing , bu t he d id spe c u la t e i n

l a t e r wor k on poss ib l e c onne c t ions a mong c ogn i t i ve s ty l e s , l e a r n ing s t r a t e g i e s ,

a nd de ve lop m e n t ( P e r r y , 1981). W he n s tude n t s r a d i c a l ly r e v i se t he i r no t ions o f

know le dge , w ou ld the y no t be l i ke ly to c ha nge the i r wa ys o f go ing a bou t ge t t i ng

i t? (p. 102) . Pe r ry hypo thes ized tha t chang es in s tuden ts ' v iews of the na ture of

91



T A B L E 1

Models o f epistemological development in late adolescence an d adulthood

I n t e l le c tu a l a n d W o m e n s wa y s o f E p i s t e m o lo g i c a l

e th i c a l d e v e lo p m e n t k n o win g r e f l e c ti o n

( Pe r r y ) ( B e l e n k y e t a l . ) ( B a x t e r M a g o ld a )

Positions Epistemological perspectives Ways of knowing

Du a l i sm S i l e n c e Ab so lu t e k n o win g

R e c e i v e d k n o w l e d g e

M u l t i p l i c i t y Su b j e c t i v e k n o w le d g e T r a ns i ti o na l k n o win g

R e la t i v i sm

R e f l e c t i v e j u d g m e n t

( Kin g a n d K i t c h e n e r )

Reflective judgment stages

A r g u m e n t a t i v e

r e a so n in g

( Ku h n )

C o m m i t m e n t w i t h in

r e l a t i v i sm

Pr o c e d u r a l k n o wle d g e

( a ) C o n n e c t e d k n o win g

( b ) Se p a r a t e k n o win g

C o n s t r u c t e d k n o wle d g e

I n d e p e n d e n t k n o win g

Epistemological views

Contex tual knowing

Pr e - r e f l e c t iv e t h in k in g

Qu a s i - r e f l e c t i v e t h in k in g

Ab so lu t i s t s

M u l t i p l i s t s

E v a lu a t i s t s

Note Sta g e s a n d p o s i t i o n s a r e a l i g n e d t o i n d i c a t e s im i l a r i t y a c r o ss t h e f i v e m o d e l s .

R e f l e c t i v e t h in k in g




k n o w l e d g e a n d t h e r o l e o f a u t h o ri t y w i l l le a d t o o b s e r v a b l e c h a n g e s i n m a n n e r o f

s tudy ing , a s e xp r e s s ions o f c ha nge s i n a l te r e d mo de s o f l e ar n ing a nd c og n i t i on .

i s c us s i on

P e r r y wa s the f i rs t t o sugge s t t ha t how c o l l e ge s tude n ts m a de m e a n ing o f t he i r

e duc a t iona l e xpe r i e nc e s wa s no t a r e f l e c t ion o f pe r sona l i t y bu t a n e vo lv ing

de ve lopm e n ta l p r oc e s s . He p r ov ide d a n in t e r a c t ion i s t mod e l f o r i n t e rp r e t ing s tu -

de n t s ' e p i s t e molog ic a l r e sponse s t o t he c o l l e ge e nv i r onme n t . A c e n t ra l c on t r ibu -

t ion of the scheme has been the a r t icu la t ion of the dua l i s t ic , mui t ip l i s t ic , and

r e la t iv i s ti c po in t s o f v i e w tha t c ha r a c t e r i z e t he e p i s t e m oiog ic a l ou t loo k o f m a ny

c o l l e ge s tude n t s . The popu la r i z a t ion o f P e r r y ' s wor k ha s ma de the t e a c h ing o f

s tude n ts a t the se l e ve l s mor e e xp l i c a b le t o a ge ne r a t ion o f c o l l e ge f a c u l ty . P e r r y

c ha r t e d a c ou r se f o r o the rs t o f o l low a nd ha s c on t inue d to a s s is t t hose wh o ha v e

a t t e mp te d to f u r the r h is l i ne o f s tudy .

Th e r e we r e num e r ous l imi t at i ons to t he o r ig ina l s tudy , how e ve r . P e r r y ( 1970)

no te d se ve r a l : P a r t i c ipa n t s we r e s tude n t vo lun te e r s f r om a s ing le c o l l e ge , t he

inve s t iga to r s who a bs t r a ct e d the s c he m e ha d a l so s e r ve d a s t he i n t e r v i e we r s , a nd

va l idat ion wa s c on duc te d in r e l a t ion to t he da t a f r om w h ic h the s c he m e i t s e l f wa s

de r ive d . In a dd i t ion , t he s a mple wa s l a r ge ly c om pos e d o f W hi t e , e li te , ma le

c o l l e ge s tude n t s e duc a t e d a t H a r va r d du r ing the 1950s .

As P e r r y ( 1970) a nd o the r s ha ve n o te d ( K ing & Ki t c he ne r , 1994 ; Kur f i s s , 1988;

P a sc a r e l l a & Te r e nz in i , 1991) , t he s c he me ' s l owe r pos i t i ons a r e mor e e xp l i c i t l y

e p i s t e m olog ic a l tha n the uppe r pos i t i ons , wh ic h sh i ft a w a y f r om spa t i a l- c ogn i -

t ive re s t ruc tur ing to em ot ion a l and aes the t ic a ssessm ents (Pe r ry , 1970, p . 205) .

T h u s , w h i l e t h e e p i s te m o l o g i c a l m o v e m e n t f r o m d u a l is m t o r e l at i v is m i s fa i r ly

c l e a r ly no te d , how knowle dge i s c ons t r ue d be yond the se pos i t i ons i s l e s s we l l

de f ine d . I n a l a t e r wor k , P e r r y ( 1981) c i t e d the r e l e va nc e o f d i a l e c ti c a l t hough t

(Bassech es , 1980) to h is sc hem e and no ted a l so tha t i t i s at the la te r pos i t ions , in

t h e a f f ir m a t i o n o f c o m m i t m e n t , t h at t h e m e s o f e p i s t e m o l o g y , i n te l le c tu a l d e v e l -

opm e n t , eth i cs , a nd ide n t i t y m e r ge ( p. 97 ). Th e r e a re a l so c onc e r ns a bou t whe th e r

the r e sponse s f o r m a t r ue s t r uc tu r a l , de ve lopme n ta l t r a j e c to r y o r a r e mor e a n

a r t if a c t o f t he soc i a l iz a t ion p r oc e s s i n t he va lue s o f a W e s te r n l i be ra l a r t s e duc a -

t ion (Moore , 1994) .

One o f t he pe r s i s t e n t d i f f i c u l t i e s f a c e d by those who w i she d to u t i l i z e t he

sc he m e a s m or e tha n a t he o r e t i c a l le ns ha s be e n the d i f f i c u l ty i n ope r a t iona l i z ing

the s c he m e a nd in me a su r ing c ha nge ( P a sc a r e l l a & T e r e nz in i , 1991) . Th i s c ha l -

l e n g e h as b e e n t a k e n o n b y a n u m b e r o f re s e a rc h e r s w h o h a v e a t t em p t e d t o m o d i f y

t h e s c h e m e a n d t o d e v e l o p m o r e p r e c is e , le s s t im e - c o n s u m i n g m e a n s o f ev a l u a ti n g

e p i s t e molog ic a l de ve lopme n t , e i t he r t h r ough in t e r v i e ws o r wr i t t e n a s se s sme n t s

( B a x te r M a go lda , 1992; B a x te r M a go lda & P or t e r fi e ld , 1985 ; B e na c k & B a sse c he s ,

1989 ; K ing & Ki t c he ne r , 1994 ; Kne f e lka mp & S le p i t z a , 1978 ; Moor e , 1989 ;

Ryan, 1984a , 1984b) .

T h e f i r st w r i tt e n m e a s u r e , d e s ig n e d b y K n e f e l k a m p a n d W i d i c k ( a n d o r i g i n a ll y

k n o w n a s t h e K n e W i ) , i s t h e M e a s u r e o f I n t e l l e c t u a l D e v e l o p m e n t ( M I D ) , a

p r oduc t ion t a sk me a su r e ba se d on e s sa y p r ompt s a bou t s tude n t s ' c onc e p t ions o f

kno wle d ge a nd l e a rn ing , s c o r e d on ly by t r a ined r a te r s. The Le a r n ing Env i r onm e n t

P r e f e r e nc e s ( LEP ) ( Mo or e , 1989) wa s de s igne d a s a c om pu te r - sc o r e d , r e c ogn i t i on

t a sk v e r s io n o f t he M I D , b a s e d o n a r e v ie w o f M I D e s s ay s . T h e L E P c o n s is ts o f

93



Hofer and Pintrich

6 5 i t e m s a c r o s s f i v e d o m a i n s : v i e w o f k n o w l e d g e / l e a r n i n g , r o l e o f i n s tr u c t o r ,

r o l e o f s tu d e n t / p e e r s, c l a s s r o o m a t m o s p h e r e a n d a c t i v i ti e s , a n d r o l e o f e v a l u a t io n /

g r a d in g . T h e M e a s u r e o f E p i s te m o l o g i c a l R e f l e ct io n ( M E R ) , d e v e l o p e d b y B a x t e r

M a g o l d a ( 1 9 8 7 ) , h a s p r o v i d e d a p a p e r - a n d - p e n c i l p r o d u c t i o n t a s k a s s e s s m e n t o f

s i m i l a r i ss u e s , p a r t ic u l a r l y f o c u s e d o n c l a s s r o o m l e a r n in g . T h e s e w i l l b e d is c u s s e d

in more de t a i l i n a l a t e r s ec t i on on genera l me thodolog i ca l i s sues .

R e g a r d l e s s o f th e s e t h e o r e ti c a l a n d m e t h o d o l o g i c a l d i f fi c u l ti e s , P e r r y ' s w o r k

l a id t h e g r o u n d f o r t h e s e v e r a l d e c a d e s o f re s e a r c h t h a t f o l l o w e d , a n d e a c h o f th e

m o d e l s t h a t f o l l o w s c a n b e t r a c e d b a c k t o t h e se o r i g in s .

~-~ W om en s Ways o f Kn ow ing

P e r r y ' s w o r k c a m e u n d e r a t t a c k in t h e la t e 1 9 7 0s f o r th e l i m i t a ti o n s o f g e n e r -

a l i z in g f r o m a n e l i t e m a l e s a m p l e t o t h e g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n o f c o l le g e s t u d en t s.

G i l l ig a n ( 1 9 8 2 ) , i n c h a l l e n g i n g K o h l b e r g ' s ( 1 9 6 9 ) th e o r y o f m o r a l d e v e l o p m e n t

o n t h e b a s i s t h a t a m a l e s a m p l e h a d l e d t o a n o r m a t i v e v i e w o f a m o r a l i t y o f r ig h t s

v o i d o f n o t i o n s o f re s p o n s i b i l i ty a n d c a r e , p r o v i d e d a b r o a d e r c r it iq u e o f p s y c h o -

l o g i c a l t h e o r i e s d e r i v e d f r o m m a l e e x p e r i e n c e . S u c h t h e o r i e s o f t e n p r o v i d e a

m o d e l f o r h u m a n d e v e l o p m e n t a g a in s t w h ic h w o m e n a r e j u d g e d d e f ic ie n t. W i th

w o m e n o m i t t e d f r o m t h e t h e o r y b u i l d i n g s t a g e , t h e m o d e l s t h a t a r e d e v e l o p e d

of t en l ead t o r e sea rch on t r ad i t i ona l l y mascu l ine a t t r i bu t es and va lues .

I n th i s c o n t e x t , B e l e n k y e t al . (1 9 8 6 ) w e r e i n t e re s t e d i n i s su e s o f w o m e n a s

k n o w e r s a n d l e a r n e rs ; th e y w e r e c o n c e r n e d t h a t n o w h e r e i s t h e p a t t e r n o f u s i n g

m a l e e x p e r i e n c e t o d e f i n e th e h u m a n e x p e r i e n c e s e e n m o r e c l e a rl y th a n i n m o d e l s

o f i n te l le c t u a l d e v e l o p m e n t ( p . 7 ) . B e g i n n i n g w i th t h e f r a m e w o r k s u p p l ie d b y

P e r r y , th e y s e t o u t to u n d e r s t a n d t h e m e s o f k n o w i n g p a r t i c u l a r t o w o m e n . T h e i r

i n te r v ie w s t u d y l ed to t he d e v e l o p m e n t o f w o m e n ' s w a y s o f k n o w i n g , a m o d e l

c o n s i s t in g o f fi v e d i f f e re n t p e r s p e c t i v e s f r o m w h i c h w o m e n v i e w re a l i ty a n d

d r a w c o n c l u s i o n s a b o u t tr u th , k n o w l e d g e , a n d a u t h o r i ty ( p . 3 ) . W h i l e t h e y w e r e

e x p l i c it l y i n t e re s t e d i n t h e i n t el le c t u al a n d e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f w o m e n ,

t h e y c o n c l u d e d t h a t w o m e n ' s w a y s o f k n o w i n g a r e i n t e rt w i n e d w i t h s e lf - c o n c e p t .

M e thod

B e l e n k y e t al . ( 1 9 8 6 ) , s i m i l a r l y t o G i l li g a n ( 1 9 8 2 ) in h e r s t u d y o f w o m e n ' s

m o r a l d e v e l o p m e n t , m a d e t h e c o n t r o v e r s i a l d e c i s i o n t o i n c l u d e o n l y w o m e n i n

t h e i r s t u d y . P e r r y ( 1 9 7 0 ) h a d c l a i m e d t h a t t h e w o m e n ' s t r a n s c r i p t s c o u l d b e

m a p p e d o n t o t h e p a t te r n o f d e v e l o p m e n t h e h a d i d e n t if i e d i n m e n , b u t B e l e n k y e t

a l . w e r e i n t e r e s t e d i n l i s t e n i n g f o r t h e m e s t h a t m i g h t e m e r g e w h e n w o m e n w e r e

t h e s o u r c e o f t h e s t u d y . I n a n i n t e r v ie w - - c a s e s tu d y a p p r o a c h , t h e y i n t e r v i e w e d 1 35

w o m e n , o f w h o m 9 0 w e r e e n r o l l e d in o n e o f s ix d i v e r s e a c a d e m i c i n s ti tu t io n s ( o r

w e r e r e c e n t a l u m n a e ) a n d 4 5 w e r e i n v o l v e d i n h u m a n s e r v i c e a g e n c i e s w h e r e t h e y

w e r e s e e k i n g i n f o r m a t i o n o r a s s i s ta n c e w i t h p a r e n t in g . R e s e a r c h e r s w e r e c o m m i t -

t e d t o a p h e n o m e n o i o g i c a l a p p r o a c h , a l l o w i n g i n t e r v i e w e e s t o p r o v i d e t h e i r o w n

f r a m e s o f m e a n i n g t h r o u g h o u t s e m i - s t r u c t u r e d i n t e r v i e w s t h at ra n g e d f r o m 2 t o 5

hour s i n l eng th .

T h e i n t e r v i e w p r o t o c o l s b e g a n s im i l a r l y t o P e r r y ' s , w i t h th e q u e s t i o n W h a t

s t a n d s o u t f o r y o u i n y o u r l if e o v e r t h e la s t f e w y e a r s ? b u t th e n a c c o m p a n i e d b y

t h e q u e s t i o n W h a t s t a y s w i t h y o u ? O t h e r s e c ti o n s i n c lu d e d q u e s t io n s e ts d e r i v e d

9 4




f r o m t h e f r a m e w o r k o f G i l li g a n ( 1 9 8 2 ) a n d K o h l b e r g ( 1 9 69 ) , a n d t h e r e w e r e

se c t ions on ge nd e r , re l a ti onsh ips , e duc a t ion , a nd wa ys o f knowing . T he p r o toc o l

s e c ti o n o n w a y s o f k n o w i n g u s e d f o r th o s e i n s c h o o l ( o r r e c e n t a l u m n a e ) d i f f e r e d

f r om the one u se d f o r t hose ou t o f s c hoo l . I nd iv idua l s f r om the mor e e duc a t e d

g r o u p w e r e a s k ed t o r e s p o n d t o o n e o r m o r e c o m m e n t c a rd s t h a t g a v e s t a te m e n t s

a b o u t c o n c e p t i o n s o f k n o w l e d g e ; r e s p o n s e s w e r e p r o b e d f o r f u r th e r c l a ri f ic a t io n

a bou t r e l i a nc e on e xpe r t i s e a nd c onc e p t ions o f t r u th . Th i s wa s f o l lowe d by

pa r t i c u l ar e xa m ple s t ha t r e qu i r e d in t e l l e c tua l j udg m e n t a nd ju s t i f i c a tion . T he l e ss

e duc a t e d w om e n r e c e ive d f ive sho r t e r que s t ions on the r o l e o f e xpe r t i s e in t he i r

ow n l e a rn ing .

S e c t ions o f the i n t e r v i e w tha t we r e b a se d on the wor k o f G i ll i ga n , Ko h lbe r g ,

a nd P e r r y we r e s e pa r a t e d ou t a nd sc o r e d inde pe nde n t ly . I n i t i a l a t t e mp t s we r e

m a de to c l a s s i f y the da t a u s ing P e r r y ' s s c h e me ; t he l a c k o f f it l e d t o t he de ve lop -

me n t o f a ne w c l a s s if i c a tion sc he m e o f f i ve e p i s t e molog ic a l pe r spe c t ive s .

Model

Th e mode l t ha t B e le nky e t a l. ( 1986) p r op ose p r ov ide s a s e t o f e p i s t e mo log ic a l

pe r spe c t ive s f r om wh ic h wo m e n know a nd v i e w the wo r ld ( p . 15). Th e se a re no t

p r e se n te d a s st a ge s, bu t the a u tho r s p r ov ide som e spe c u la t ion a bou t de ve lop m e n-

t a l pa th s . Th e da t a we r e p r ima r i ly c r os s - se c t iona l , and the c ha n ge p r oc e s s c a n o n ly

be in f e r r e d f r om r e t r o spe c t ive a c c oun t s . W i th in t he r e su l ti ng m ode l , by c on t r a s t t o

the imp l i c i t v i sua l m e ta phor i n P e r r y ' s v i e w s , t he pos i t i ons a r e o r ga n iz e d

a r ound the m e ta pho r o f vo i c e . I n Ta b le 1 , t he e p i s te m olog ic a l pe r spe c t ive s o f

B e le n ky e t a l. a r e l i ne d up to c o inc ide w i th t he r e l e va n t pos i ti ons o f P e r r y ' s mo de l .

I n t he pos i t i on o f silence wo m e n e xp e r i e nc e a pa s s ive , vo i c e l e s s e x i s t e nc e ,

l i s te n ing so l e ly t o e x t e r na l a u tho r i ty . Th e ne x t pos i ti on , pa r a l le l t o P e r r y ' s pos i t i on

o f dua l i sm, i s

received knowledge

a pe r spe c t ive o f e i t he r - o r t h ink ing in wh ic h

the r e is on ly one r i gh t a nswe r a nd a l l i de a s a r e pe r c e iv e d a s good o r ba d , t r ue o r

f a ls e . W om e n in t h is pos i t i on s e e know ing a s o r ig ina ting ou t s ide t he s e l f ; un l ike

w o m e n w h o a r e s i l e n c e d , t h e y c a n r e p r o d u c e a n d s p e a k a b o u t t h i s k n o w l e d g e ,

a l th o u g h t h e o r i g in i s e x t e rn a l . T h e s e w o m e n a ls o d i f f e r f r o m P e r r y ' s m a l e

dua l is t s, who in c hoos ing the r i gh t a nsw e r s a w the m se lve s a s a l i gne d w i th

a u tho r i t y ; wo m e n in t h i s pos i t i on we r e no t i nc l ine d to i de n t i f y w i th a u tho r i t y .

Subjective know ledge

i s s ti l l dua l i s t ic , bu t the sou rce of t ru th i s now wi th in the

se lf . B e le nky e t a l. ( 1986) de sc r ibe sub je c t iv i sm a s i n t e r c ha nge a b le w i th P e r r y ' s

mu l t i p li c i t y pos i t ion , bu t no t e ge nde r d i f f e re nc e s in m e a n ing . M e n w e r e de sc r ibe d

a s a s se rt i ng a r i gh t t o t he i r ow n op in ion , wr e s t ing a u tho r i ty f r om o the rs ; wo m e n

in th is s tudy a re more l ike ly to see t ru th as an in tu i t ive reac t ion , pe r sona l ly

e xpe r i e nc e d .

I n t he pos i t i on of procedural knowledge w o m e n d e m o n s t r a t e r e a s o n e d r e fl e c -

t ion , a pp ly ing ob je c t ive , sy s t e ma t i c p r oc e du r e s o f a na lys i s . P r oc e dur a l kno wing ,

how e ve r , c a n ta ke two f o r m s , wh ic h B e le n ky e t al . (1986) de sc r ibe a s e p i s t e mo-

log ic a l o r i e n t at i ons . Us ing c onc e p tua l d i st i nc tions a s G i l l i ga n ( 1982) a nd Ly on s

( 1990) , t he y de sc r ibe t he se a s

separate knowing

a nd

connected knowing.

S e pa r a t e

know ing i s impe r sona l a nd de t a c he d , be s t e v ide n c e d in c ri t ic a l t h ink ing , a nd the

ha l lma r k o f t r a d it i ona l, r i go r ous unde r g r a dua te e duc a t ion . W hi l e sub je c t iv i s t s

a s s u m e e v e r y o n e i s r i g h t , s e p a r a t e k n o w e r s a s s u m e t h a t e v e r y o n e - - i n c l u d i n g

t h e m s e l v e s - - m a y b e w r o n g ( B e l e n k y e t a l. , 19 86 , p . 1 04 ). C o n n e c t e d k n o w i n g

9 5



Hofer and Pintrich

i s s ti ll p r o c e d u r a l , b u t t r u t h e m e r g e s t h r o u g h c a r e ( p . 10 2) a n d t h e c a p a c i t y f o r

e m p a t h y . T h e m o d e o f k n o w i n g i s p e r s o n a l a n d e m p h a s i z e s u n d e r st a n d in g o v e r

j u d g m e n t . T h e s e e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l o r ie n t a t io n s a r e n o t d e s c r i b e d a s g e n d e r s p e c i fi c

b u t a s p o s s i b l y g e n d e r r e la t e d .

onstructed knowledge

r e p r e s e n t s a n i n t e g r a t i o n o f s u b j e c t i v e a n d o b j e c t i v e

s t r a te g i e s f o r k n o w i n g . A l l k n o w l e d g e is c o n s t r u c t e d a n d t h e k n o w e r is a n

in t ima te pa r t o f t he kn ow n (Be l enk y e t a l ., 1986, p . 137) . Kno wle dg e and t ru th

a re con t ex tu a l . Th e i nd iv idua l s ees he r se l f a s a pa r t i c ipan t in the cons t ruc t i on o f

k n o w l e d g e , o n e w h o s e o w n f r a m e o f r e f e re n c e m a t te r s ; f u rt h e rm o r e , t h e s e f r a m e s

o f r e f e r e n c e c a n b e c o n s t r u c t e d a n d r e c o n s t r u c t e d b y t h e k n o w e r . T h i s p r o c e s s

l e a d s t o m o d e s o f i n q u i ry t h a t B e l e n k y e t a l. s e e a s in d i c a t i v e o f p o s t f o r m a l

opera t i ona l t hought .

Discussion

B e l e n k y e t a l. (1 9 8 6 ) p u s h e d t h e fi e l d b y e x t e n d i n g P e r r y ' s w o r k t o e n c o m p a s s

w o m e n ' s p e r s p e c t i v e s . T h e y r e t a i n e d t h e p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l m e t h o d b u t a d d e d

m o r e s t r u c t u r e d q u e s t i o n s i n o r d e r t o g r o u n d t h e i r f i n d i n g s i n e x i s t i n g f r a m e -

w o r k s . I n t e rv i e w i n g o n l y w o m e n m a y h a v e e n a b l e d t h e m t o c r e a te e p i s t e m o l o g i -

c a l c at e g o r ie s d r a w n f r o m w o m e n ' s v o i c e s o n l y , bu t t hi s c h o i c e o f a p p r o a c h a l so

o p e n e d t h e i r w o r k t o c r i t i c i s m o f i t s c l a i m s . A l t h o u g h t h e y a c k n o w l e d g e d t h a t

s i m i l a r c a t e g o r i e s c o u l d b e f o u n d i n m e n ' s t h i n k i n g , t h e i r s t u d y p r o v i d e d n o

m e a n s t o a s s e s s t h e g e n d e r - r e l a t e d n a t u r e o f t h e f in d i n g s .

T h e w o r k a l s o w a s n o t a b l e i n t h e in c l u s i o n o f w o m e n n o t i n s c h o o l ; h o w e v e r ,

t h e d e c i s i o n t o v a r y t h e i n t e r v i e w p r o t o c o l f o r t h e t w o p o p u l a t i o n s m a k e s i t

d i f fi c u l t to d r a w m e a n i n g f u l c o n c l u s i o n s a b o u t t h e r e s u l ti n g d i f f e r e n c e i n e p i s t e -

m o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s . A s e r io u s c o n c e r n i s th e o r d e r i n g o f th e i n t e r v ie w . A

s e c t io n o n R e l a t i o n s h i p s p r e c e d e s t h e s e c t io n s o n E d u c a t i o n a n d W a y s o f

K n o w i n g . G i v e n t h e i r f i n d in g th a t m a n y w o m e n h a v e a r e la t io n a l , c o n n e c t e d

a p p r o a c h t o k n o w i n g , i t i s h a r d t o k n o w t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h t h is m a y h a v e b e e n

p r i m e d b y t h e i n t e r v i e w e r s i n t h e s e e a r l i e r q u e s t i o n s ; s u c h c o n t e x t e f f e c t s h a v e

b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d t o i n f l u e n c e q u e s t i o n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s ( S t r a c k , S c h w a r z , &

W ank e , 1991 ) .

O n e o f th e m a j o r c o n c e p tu a l d i f f e r en c e s w i t h P e r r y ' s w o r k i s t ha t P e r r y ' s

p o s i t i o n s a r e d e s c r i p t i v e o f t h e nature o f k n o w l e d g e a n d t r u th , w h i l e B e l e n k y e t

a l . f ocus more on t he source of kno wle dg e and t ru th . In a l a t e r a r t ic l e , C l inchy

( 1 9 9 0 ), a c o a u t h o r o f t h e s tu d y o n w o m e n ' s w a y s o f k n o w i n g , r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e

r e s e a r c h t e a m r e v i s e d t h e ir d e f in i t io n o f e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e t o e m p h a s i z e

s o u r c e r a t h e r t h a n n a tu r e o f k n o w l e d g e , f o c u s i n g o n q u e s t i o n s s u c h a s t h e f o l lo w -

in g : H o w d o e s t h e w o m a n c o n c e i v e o f h e r s e l f a s a k n o w e r ? I s k n o w l e d g e s e e n

as o r ig ina t i ng ou t s ide o r i ns ide t he se l f ? . Can i t be passed down in t ac t f rom one

p e r s o n t o a n o t h e r , o r d o e s i t w e l l u p f r o m w i t h i n ? D o e s k n o w l e d g e a p p e a r

e f fo r t l e s s ly i n t he fo rm of i n tu i t i on o r i s i t a t t a ined on ly t h rough an a rduous

proc ess o f con s t ruc t i o n? (C l inchy , 1990 , p . 58) .

T h r o u g h o u t t h e i r m o d e l , t h e r o l e o f s e l f i n r e l a t io n t o o t h e r s a n d t o k n o w l e d g e

p l a y s a c ri ti c a l p a rt . B e l e n k y e t a l. (1 9 8 6 ) n o t e th a t a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f u n d e r -

s t a n d i n g o f s e l f b e g i n s t o g e n e r a l i z e a n d a f f e c t h o w w o m e n t h i n k a b o u t tr u th ,

k n o w l e d g e a n d e x p e r t i s e ( p . 1 3 8) , a p r o c e s s t h e y d e s c r ib e a s o p e r a t i n g i n t h e

P i a g e t i a n m a n n e r o f h o r i z o n t a l d e c a la g e . C h a n g e s in s e l f - k n o w l e d g e t h u s p r e c e d e

9 6




a n unde r s t a nd ing o f a v i e w o f s e l f i n r el a t ion to know le dg e a nd t r u th . Th e se

d e v e l o p m e n t s u l t im a t e l y le a d t o w a r d a v i e w o f o n e ' s s e l f a s a c o n s t r u c t o r o f

kno wle d ge a nd the v i e w tha t a nsw e r s to a l l que s t ions va r y de pe n d ing on the

c on te x t in w h ic h the y a r e a ske d a nd on the f r a m e o f r e f e r e nc e o f t he pe r son do ing

the ask ing (p. 138).

C o n s i d e r ab l e u s e h a s b e e n m a d e o f t h e w o m e n ' s w a y s o f k n o w i n g m o d e l b y

e duc a to r s , pa r t i c u l a r ly a t t he c o l l e ge l e ve l . The mos t u se f u l he u r i s t i c s e e ms to

ha ve be e n the d i s t i nc t ion be twe e n se pa r a t e knowing a nd c onne c te d knowing ,

wh ic h ha s s e r ve d a s a me a ns f o r unde r s t a nd ing ge nde r - r e l a t e d a pp r oa c he s to

l e a r n ing . The a u tho r s o f t he s tudy ha ve p r ov ide d sugge s t ions on bo th c onne c te d

e d u c a t i o n f o r w o m e n a n d c o n n e c t e d t e a c h i n g , w h i c h h a v e b e e n a d a p t e d a t t h e

c lassroo m and ins t i tu t iona l leve l (Be lenk y e t a l ., 1986; C l inch y , 1990; C l in chy ,

B e le nky , Go ldbe r ge r , & Ta r u le , 1985). T he y a dvoc a te a mod e l o f t e a c he r s a s

pa r t i c ipa n t - obse r ve r s wh o mode l a nd d i sp l ay the i r t h ink ing p r oc e s se s in pub l i c

d ia logue , a c l a s s r oom c u l tu r e tha t a c c e p t s t he vo ic ing o f unc e r t a in ty , s ta nda r ds o f

e va lua t ion tha t a re c oc on s t r uc t e d by t e a c he r s a nd s tude n ts , a nd c l a s se s in wh ic h

kno wle d ge i s c re a t e d no t t h r ough c on f l i c t bu t c onse nsus .

~ p i s t e m o l og i c a l R e f l e c t ion M ode l

B a x t e r M a g o l d a ' s w o r k b e g a n a s a n a t t e m p t t o q u a n t i f y s t u d e n t s ' w a y s o f

th ink ing a s e v ide nc e d in P e r r y ' s ( 1970) s c he me . I n i t i a l wor k c e n te r e d on the

d e v e l o p m e n t a n d v a l i d at io n o f th e M e a s u r e o f E p i s t e m o l o g i c a l R e f l ec t i o n ( M E R )

( B a x te r M a go lda , 1987; B a x te r M a go lda & P or t e r f i e ld , 1985) , a wr i t t en in s t r u -

m e n t de ve lo pe d in s tud ie s o f bo th unde r g r a du a te a nd g r a dua te s tude n ts . C o n-

f r on te d w i th pa t te r ns o f r e sponse s tha t d id no t ne a t ly f i t the s c he m e , a nd in t r igue d

b y t h e d i s cr e p a n ci e s in f i n d in g s b e t w e e n t h e m e n i n P e r r y ' s s t u d y a n d t h e w o m e n

in the s tudy o f B e le nky e t a l . ( 1986) , B a x te r Ma go lda be c a me in t e r e s t e d in

poss ib l e ge nde r - r e l a t e d imp l i c a t ions . Ac c o r d ing ly , she de s igne d a long i tud ina l

s t u d y o f e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t a n d h o w e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l a s s u m p t i o n s

a f f e c t i n t e rp r e t a tion o f e duc a t iona l e xpe r i e nc e s .

M e t h o d

I n 1986 B a x te r Ma go lda be ga n a 5 - ye a r l ong i tud ina l s tudy o f 101 r a ndomly

se l e c t ed s tude n t s ( o f wh om 51 w e r e f e ma le a nd 3 f r om m inor i ty popu la t ions ) f r om

M ia mi U n ive r s i ty in Oh io . S he c ond uc te d a nnua l ope n - e nde d in te r v i e ws a nd ga ve

p a r ti c ip a n ts t h e M e a s u r e o f E p i s te m o l o g i c a l R e f l e c ti o n s ( M E R ) , t o b e c o m p l e t e d

a nd r e tu r ne d l a t e r . S e ve n ty c omple t e l ong i tud ina l s e t s we r e in t e r p r e t e d in the

d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l re f l e c ti o n m o d e l ( B a x t e r M a g o l d a , 1 9 9 2) .

The f i r s t - ye a r i n t e r v i e w wa s de s igne d to a dd r e s s s ix a r e a s o f e p i s t e molog ic a l

deve lopm ent : the ro les of the lea rne r , ins t ruc tor , pee rs , and eva lu a t ion in lea rn ing;

the na tu r e o f know le dge ; a nd de c i s ion ma k ing . I n subse q ue n t ye a r s the in t e r v i e w

wa s mod i f i e d to inc lude que s t ions a bou t t he na tu r e o f knowle dge , ou t - o f - c l a s s

l e a r n ing , a nd s tude n t c ha nge s in r e sponse to l e a r n ing e xpe r i e nc e . The c od ing

s t r uc tu r e wa s de r iv e d f r om P e r r y ' s f i rs t f i ve pos i ti ons a nd the f ive pe r spe c t ive s o f

B e l e n k y e t al . (1 9 8 6 ). F o l l o w i n g L o e v i n g e r ' s ( 1 9 7 6 ) w o r k o n e g o d e v e l o p m e n t ,

B a x te r Ma go ida in i t i a l l y a na lyz e d the in t e r v i e w da ta by o r ga n iz ing s tude n t r e -

sponse s in to c a te go r i e s a nd the me s . La te r r e f l e c t ion on th is p r oc e s s a nd a t r a ns f o r -

9 7



Hofer and Pintrich

mat ion i n he r own th ink ing about r e sea rch l ed t o a more na tu ra l i s t i c , qua l i t a t i ve

r e i n te r p r e t a ti o n o f th e d a t a a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e m o d e l .

Model

T h e e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l r e f l e c ti o n m o d e l c o n t a in s f o u r q u a l i ta t i v e ly d i f f e r e n t w a y s

o f k n o w i n g , e a c h w i t h p a r ti c u l a r e p i s t e m i c a s s u m p t i o n s : a b s o l u t e , t r a n si ti o n a l ,

i n d e p e n d e n t , a n d c o n t e x t u a l . B a x t e r M a g o l d a ( 1 9 9 2 ) r e p o r t s t h a t e a c h o f t h e s e

l eads to pa r t i c u l a r exp ec t a t i on s o f t he lea rne r , pee r s , and ins t ruc to r i n l ea rn ing

s e t ti n g s , a s w e l l a s t o a n u n d e r s ta n d i n g o f h o w l e a r n in g s h o u l d b e e v a l u a t e d a n d

h o w e d u c a t i o n a l d e c i s i o n s a re m a d e ( p . 2 9 ). T h e d e f in i t io n o f e p i s t e m o l o g y t h a t

e m e r g e s f r o m t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s i s f o c u s e d m o r e o n t h e n a t u r e o f l e a r n i n g a s

s i t u a t e d i n t h e c o l l e g e c l a s s r o o m c o n t e x t a n d l e s s o n a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t k n o w l -

edge i t s e l f .

W i t h i n B a x t e r M a g o l d a ' s m o d e l ( s e e T a b l e l ; h e r w a y s o f k n o w i n g a r e a li g n e d

w i t h P e r r y ' s p o s i t i o n s a n d w i t h B e l e n k y e t a l . ' s p e r s p e c t i v e s ) , absolute k n o w e r s

v i e w k n o w l e d g e a s c e r t a i n a n d b e l i e v e t h a t a u t h o r i t i e s h a v e a l l t h e a n s w e r s .

Transitional k n o w e r s d i s c o v e r th a t a u t h o ri t ie s a r e n o t a l l - k n o w i n g a n d b e g i n to

a c c e p t th e u n c e r t a i n t y o f k n o w l e d g e . T h o s e w h o a r e

independent

k n o w e r s q u e s -

t i o n a u t h o r i t y a s t h e o n l y s o u r c e o f k n o w l e d g e a n d b e g i n t o h o l d t h e i r o w n

o p i n i o n s a s e q u a l l y v a l i d .

Contextual knowers

a r e c a p a b l e o f c o n s t r u c t i n g a n

i n d i v id u a l p e r s p e c t i v e b y j u d g i n g e v i d e n c e i n c o n t e x t . E x p e r t i s e i t s e l f i s s u b j e c te d

t o e v a l u a t i o n . K n o w l e d g e e v o l v e s , c o n t i n u a l l y r e c o n s t r u c t e d o n t h e b a s i s o f n e w

e v i d e n c e a n d n e w c o n t e x t s ( p . 18 9). C o n t e x t u a l k n o w i n g w a s n o t c o m m o n i n t h e

s t u d y s a m p l e , f o u n d o n l y i n 2 % o f s e n i o r i n t e r v i e w s a n d 1 2 % o f f i f t h - y e a r

in t e rv i ews .

B y s t u d y i n g b o t h m e n a n d w o m e n l o n g it u d in a l ly , B a x t e r M a g o l d a w a s a b l e t o

b u i l d o n p r e v i o u s s i n g l e - s e x s tu d i e s s u c h a s t h o s e o f P e r r y a n d B e l e n k y e t al .

B a x t e r M a g o l d a ( 1 9 9 2 ) d i d n o t f i n d t h a t w a y s o f k n o w i n g w e r e s e g r e g a t e d b y

g e n d e r , b u t r a t h e r r e p o r t e d g e n d e r - r e l a t e d r e a s o n i n g p a t t e r n s t h a t c u t a c r o s s t h e

f i r s t t h r e e w a y s o f k n o w i n g . T h e s e a r e d e s c r i b e d a s r e p r e s e n t i n g a c o n t i n u u m o f

d i f f e r e n c e s i n h o w s t u d e n ts j u s t i f y e p i s t e m i c a s s u m p t i o n s w i t h i n e a c h o f t he w a y s

o f k n o w i n g . W i t h in absolute knowing t he two pa t t e rns a r e receiving u s e d m o r e

o f t e n b y w o m e n t h a n b y m e n i n t h e s t u d y , a n d maste~ a p a t te r n m o r e c o m m o n

t o t h e m e n . T h e p a t t e r n s f o r transitional knowers a re interpersonal ( m o r e l i k e l y

a m o n g w o m e n ) a n d impersonal ( m o r e l i k e l y a m o n g m e n ) . P a t t e r n s f o r indepen-

dent knowers

a r e i n t er i n d iv i d u a l ( m o r e l ik e l y a m o n g w o m e n ) a n d i n d i v id u a l

( m o r e l i k e l y a m o n g m e n ) . B a x t e r M a g o i d a h y p o t h e s i z e s t h a t t h e p a t t e r n s m a y

c o n v e r g e i n c o n t e x t u a l k n o w i n g . B a x t e r M a g o l d a a c k n o w l e d g e s a c o n n e c t e d ,

n a r r a t i v e a p p r o a c h a s e q u a l , a n d e q u a l l y c o m p l e x , t o t h e o b j e c t i v i s t a p p r o a c h

m o r e c o m m o n t o m e n , b u t o f t en p o s it e d a s t he m a i n l in e o f d e v e l o p m e n t in

t h e o r i e s s u c h a s P e r r y ' s .

Discussion

B a x t e r M a g o l d a i d e n t i f i e d a g a p i n t h e p r e c e d i n g w o r k , a t t e m p t e d t o e x p l o r e

g e n d e r - r e la t e d p a t te r n s o f e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t b y s t u d y in g b o t h m e n a n d

w o m e n , a n d c o n d u c t e d a lo n g i tu d i n al s t u d y in o r d e r to e x a m i n e d e v e l o p m e n t a l

p a t t e r n s . H e r o v e r a l l f i n d i n g s a p p e a r c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h o s e o f B e l e n k y e t a l . i n

s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e r e m a y b e g e n d e r - r e l a t e d p a t t e r n s i n k n o w i n g , b u t t h a t b o t h

98




pa t te rns appear am ong bo th gender s . How these pa t te rns deve lop , t he deg ree t o

which t hese m odes o f knowing a re soc i a li zed , and t he i n f l uence tha t s choo l i ng

play s are a l l avenues fo r fur ther research .

As i n P e r ry ' s s t udy , Bax t e r M ago lda ' s s am ple cons i s ted o f co l lege s t uden t s a t

one ins t i tu t ion , in th i s case a mid-s ize Mid w es tern un ivers i ty wh ere s tude nts were

o f t r ad it iona l age , m os t l y W hi t e (97%) , and l a rge ly f rom midd l e -c l as s, two-paren t

fami l ie s . Bax t e r M ago lda d id p rov ide t h i ck desc r ip t i on o f t he i n s t it u t iona l con t ex t

and t he s t uden t cu l t u re t o enab l e j udgmen t s abou t t he t r ans fe rab i l i t y o f t he

f i nd ings , cons i s ten t wi th t he qua l i ta t ive app roach o f t he s t udy (L inco ln & Guba ,

1985) . The exper i ences o f t hese s t uden t s may no t have been rep resen t a t i ve o f

m inor i ty s tudents , nor i s i t l ike ly that s tudents a t th i s ins t i tu t ion encou ntered som e

of t he s t imu la t i ng , unse tt li ng exper i ences o f s t uden t s exposed t o a more d ive r se ,

mu l t i cu lt u ra l env i ronme n t . Com para t i ve work wi th o the r popu l a t i ons i s needed .

Bax t e r Mag o lda exp lo red po ten t ia l imp l ica t i ons fo r r e la t i ng t he pa t t e rns o f

kno wing t o d ive r se s tuden t popu la t i ons by exa m in ing is sues o f vo i ce , au tho r i t y ,

peer re la t ionships , socia l iza t ion processes , and pat terns of subordinat ion and

dom ina t i on in t he co l l ege s e t ti ng . The i n it ia l s cope o f t he s t udy w as t o exam ine

how ep i s t emolog i ca l a s sumpt ions a f fec t ed i n t e rp re t a ti ons o f educa t i ona l exper i -

ences , bu t th i s wa s l imi ted by the fac t that ep i s tem olog y, as i t appears to hav e been

def in ed in th is s tudy, l argely cons i s ted of s tudent percep t ions of l earn ing exper i -

ences .

~ Reflect ive Judgment M ode l

Bui ld ing on t he work o f P e r ry (1970) , a s we l l a s De w ey ' s (1933 , 1938) wo rk

on re f l ec ti ve th ink ing , King and Ki t chene r have s t ud ied t he ep i s temic as sum pt ions

that under l i e reasoning (K ing & Ki tchener , 1994; King e t a l ., 1983; King , K i tchener ,

W ood , & Davison, 1989; K itchener, 1983, 1986; K itche ner & Kin g, 1981; K itche ne r

et al ., 1989; K i tchen er e t a l ., 1993) . F i f teen years o f in terv iew s tudies w i th

ind iv idua l s f rom h igh s choo l s t uden t s t h rough m idd l e -age adu l t s have l ed t o t he

re f i nemen t o f the i r r e f l ec ti ve udg m en t mod e l , a s even -s t age deve lopm en ta l mo de l

t ha t focuses on ep is t emic cogn i ti on , o r t he ways t ha t peop l e unde r s t and the

p roces s o f kn ow ing and t he co r respond ing w ays t he y j u s t i fy t he i r be l i e f s abou t i ll -

s t ruc tu red p rob l em s (King & Ki t chener , 1994 , p . 13 ) . K ing and K i t chener a rgue

tha t r e fl ec t ive j udg m en t i s an u l t ima t e ou t com e and de ve lopm en ta l endpo in t o f

reason ing and t he ab i l i t y t o eva lua t e kn ow ledge c l a ims .

M e t h o d

The me thod used t o a s ses s r e f l ec ti ve j udg m en t i s an i n t e rv i ew bu i l t a round fou r

i l l - s t ructured problems. Par t i c ipants are asked to s ta te and jus t i fy thei r po in t of

v i ew and respond t o si x fo l low -up ques ti ons des igned t o t ap as sumpt ions abou t

know ledge and how i t is ga ined . The p rob l ems t yp i ca l l y concern ho w the py ra -

mids were bu i l t, t he s a fe ty o f chem ica l add i ti ves i n food , t he ob j ec t i v i ty o f news

repor t ing , and the i s sue of creat ion and evolu t ion .

Transc r i p ts f ro m the r e f lec t i ve j udg m en t i n t e rv i ews a re s co red by t r a ined ,

cer t i f i ed ra ters in a three-rou nd process . In ter ra ter re l i ab i l ity coeff ic ien t s , typ ica l ly

ca l cu l a ted on t he more co nse rva t ive Roun d I r a t ings , have averaged i n the h igh

.70s (Kin g & Ki tchen er , 1994). Tes t - re tes t re l iab i l i ty has been repor ted as acce pt -

ab le ( .71) to s t rong ( .87). In ternal cons i s tency o f indiv idu al scores across the fou r

99



Ho fer and Pintrich

p ro b l e m s a s m e a s u re d b y c o e f f i c i e n t a l p h a i n d i c a t e d a m e d i a n a l p h a l e v e l a c ro s s

s tud ies o f .77 . Wi th in eac h s tage , the scor ing ru les a re d iv id ed in to two sec t ions :

the

nature of knowledge

and the

nature o f justification;

e a c h o f t h e s e h a s t h r e e

s u b s e c ti o n s . T h e n a t u r e o f k n o w l e d g e c o n s i s ts o f o n e ' s

view o f knowledge, right

versus wro ng knowledge,

a n d

legitimacy o f differences in viewpoints. Th e

n a t u re

o f j u s t i f ic a t i o n c o n s i s ts o f t h e concept o f ustif ication, use o f evidence, a n d t h e role

o f authori~., in m aking judgm ents.

Model

T h e r e f l e c t iv e j u d g m e n t m o d e l c o n s i s ts o f s e v e n q u a l i ta t i v e ly d i f f e r e n t st a g es

t h a t d e s c ri b e h o w i n d i v i d u a ls p e r c e i v e a n d r e a s o n a b o u t i l l - st r u c tu r e d p ro b l e m s .

T h ro u g h o u t e a c h o f t h e r e f l e c t i v e j u d g m e n t s ta g e s , th e fo c u s i s o n b o t h t h e

i n d i v i d u a l ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e n a t u r e o f k n o w l e d g e a n d t h e n a t u r e o r p ro c e s s o f

j u s t i f i c a ti o n fo r k n o w l e d g e . T h e m o d e l w a s p i l o t t e s t e d a n d r e f i n e d , b e g i n n i n g i n

the l a te 1970s, th roug h bo th c ros s -sec t iona l and longi tud ina l s tud ies . A cen t ra l

c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e s c h e m e i s t h e t h e o re t i c a l e l a b o ra t i o n o f t h e s t r u c t u r a l a n d

e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l a s p e c ts o f t h e u p p e r l e v e l s o f P e r ry ' s o r i g i n a l s c h e m e . C o n s t ru c -

t io n o f t h e s e u p p e r s t a g e s w a s i n i ti a ll y g u i d e d b y r e v i e w s o f a b ro a d r a n g e o f w o rk

o n r e f e c t i v e t h i n k in g a n d e g o , s o c ia l, a n d e p i s t e m o l o g ic a l d e v e l o p m e n t (B ro u g h t o n ,

1975; Dew ey, 1933 , 1938; Harve y , Hu nt , & Schr oder , 1961; Laka tos , 1970;

Loevinger , 1976; Popper , 1969) .

W i t h i n t h e s e v e n - s t a g e m o d e l p ro p o s e d b y K i n g a n d K i t c h e n e r (1 9 9 4 ) t h e r e ar e

three l eve l s ( s ee Table 1 ) : pre-reflective (S tages 1, 2 , and 3) , quasi-reflective

(S tages 4 and 5) and

reflective

(S tages 6 and 7) . In the p re - re f lec t ive s tages,

i n d i v id u a l s a r e u n l i k e l y t o p e r c e i v e t h at p ro b l e m s e x i s t f o r w h i c h t h e r e m a y b e n o

c o r r e c t a n s w e r . A t S t a g e 1 , h y p o t h e s i z e d a s t y p i c a l i n y o u n g c h i l d r e n b u t n o t

iden t i f i ed in pure fo rm in any o f the sub jec t s in Kin g and K i tche ner ' s s tud ies ,

k n o w l e d g e i s s i m p l e , c o n c re t e , a n d a b s o l u t e a n d n e e d s n o j u s t if i c a ti o n . T h e re i s

a o n e - t o -o n e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n w h a t o n e o b s e rv e s a n d t ru t h . S t ag e 2 ,

s i m i la r t o P e r r y ' s d u a l i s m , p o s i t s a t r u e r e a l it y k n o w n b y a u t h o r i ti e s , b u t n o t b y

e v e ry o n e . B y S t a g e 3 t h e r e i s a re c o g n i t i o n o f t e m p o ra ry u n c e r t a i n t y , t ha t a u t h o r i-

t i e s m a y n o t c u r r e n t l y h a v e t h e t r u t h . T h i s t e m p o ra ry u n c e r t a i n t y a l l o w s fo r

j u d g m e n t s b a s e d o n p e r s o n a l o p i n i o n . A s s h o w n i n T a b l e 1 , t h e s e p r e - r e f l e c ti v e

s tages a re s imi la r to the in i t i a l pos i t ions in the o the r mode ls d i sp layed .

Q u a s i - r e f le c t i v e th i n k i n g c h a ra c t e r i z e s th e r e a s o n i n g o f S t a g e s 4 a n d 5 , w h i c h

a re m a rk e d b y a g ro w i n g r e a l i z a ti o n t h at o n e c a n n o t k n o w w i t h c e r ta i n t y . B e g i n -

n i n g a t S t a g e 4 , k n o w l e d g e a n d t h e j u s t i f ic a t i o n o f k n o w l e d g e a r e p e r c e i v e d a s

abs t rac t ions , bu t a re poor ly d i f fe ren t ia ted . Pa ra l l e l ing Per ry ' s mul t ip l i c i ty pe r iod

(see Table 1 ), th i s s t age i s m arke d by the v iew tha t each pe rs on i s en t i t l ed to he r

o r h i s o w n o p i n i o n . S t a g e 5 , s i m i l a r t o P e r ry ' s p e r i o d o f r e l a ti v i s m , i s c h a ra c te r -

i z e d b y t h e b e l i e f t h a t k n o w l e d g e i s c o n t e x t u a l a n d re l a ti v e . W h a t i s k n o w n i s

a l w a y s l i m i t e d b y th e p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e k n o w e r (K i n g & K i t c h e n e r, 1 99 4, p . 6 2) .

At th i s s t age ind iv idua l s a re capab le o f re la ting two abs t rac t ions and can thus

r e l a te e v i d e n c e a n d a rg u m e n t s t o k n o w i n g , a l t h o u g h t h e a b i l it y t o c o o rd i n a t e t h e se

in to a we l l reasoned a rgument i s no t ye t p resen t . As shown in Table 1 , quas i -

r e f l e c t i v e t h i n k i n g c u t s a c ro s s s e v e ra l d i f f e r e n t p o s i ti o n s o r p e r s p e c t i v e s o f o t h e r

m o d e l s .

R e f l e c t i v e t h in k i n g e m e rg e s i n S t a g e s 6 a n d 7 . K n o w l e d g e i s a c t i v e ly c o n -

100




s t r uc te d a nd m us t be unde r s tood c on te x tua l ly ; j udgm e n t s a r e ope n to r e e va lua tion .

A t S t a ge 6 , t he a ct ion o f know ing sh i f ts , mo v ing the kno we r f rom spe c t a to r to

a c t ive c ons t r uc to r o f m e a n ing . K now le dge i s unc e r t a in a nd c on te x tua l , bu t i t is

now poss ib l e to c oo r d ina t e know ing a nd ju s t if i c a t ion to d r a w c onc lus ion s a c ros s

perspec t ives . Exper t au thor i ty i s aga in c i ted , bu t now i t i s c r i t ica l ly eva lua ted .

Conc lus ions remain l imi ted and s i tua t iona l a t th i s s tage . S tage 7 th inking i s

ma r ke d by the u se o f c r i t i c a l i nqu i r y a nd p r oba b i l i s t i c j u s t i f i c a t ion to gu ide

knowle dge c ons t r uc t ion . Th r ough th i s p r oc e s s i nd iv idua l s a r e a b l e t o de t e r mine

tha t som e judgm e n t s a r e mor e r e a sona b le o r va l id t ha n o the r s , bu t w i th a n

a wa r e ne s s t ha t a l l c onc lus ion s m a y be r e e va lua t e d .

App ly ing F la ve l l ' s ( 197 I ) c r i te r i a f o r s t a ge s t o t he r e f l e c t ive j udg m e n t m ode l ,

K ing a nd K i t c he n e r c l a im tha t i t is a de ve lopm e n ta l s t a ge mod e l , a s the s t a ge s

ha ve a n unde r ly in g o r ga n iz a t ion , a r e qua l i ta t i ve ly d i ff e r e n t , a nd a p pe a r t o f o r m a n

inva r ia n t s e que nc e . M e c ha n i sm s o f de ve lopm e n ta l c ha nge a r e P i a ge t i a n ; a ssum p-

t io n s a b o u t k n o w l e d g e d e v e l o p t h r o ug h a s s im i l a ti o n a n d a c c o m m o d a t i o n o f e x is t-

i ng c ogn i t i ve s t r uc tu r e s a s i nd iv idua ls i n t e r a c t w i th t he e nv i r onme n t . Th e a u tho r s

a r e l e s s s a ngu ine a bou t F l a ve l l ' s a nd o the r s ' no t ions t ha t de ve lopme n t i s a b r up t

a nd d i sc on t inuous , o r t ha t a pe r son op e r a t e s f r om on ly one s t r uc tu r e a t a ny g ive n

t ime . As in P e r r y ' s s c he m e , K ing a nd K i t c he ne r m a ke no a s sump t ions t ha t a n

ind iv idu a l ' s r e a son ing f i ts on ly one s t a ge a t a ny po in t i n time . The y c onc u r w i th

F i sc he r ( B ide l l F i s c he r , 1992 ; F i sc he r P ipp , 1984 ; K i t c h e ne r F i sc he r ,

1990) t ha t i nd iv idua l s ha ve bo th a n op t ima l a nd a f unc t iona l l e ve l , a nd the

d i f f e r e nc e be twe e n the m i s a n ind iv idu a l ' s de ve lopm e n ta l r a nge , a c onc e p t t ha t is

s imi l a r t o Vy go t sk y ' s ( 1962) z on e o f p r ox im a l de ve lopm e n t . In th i s v i e w , s t age

c ha nge m a y be m a r ke d by r a p id spu r ts o f g r owth , f o l low e d by a p la t e a u tha t

pe r mi t s ge ne r a l i z a t ion a c r os s dom a ins . The R e f l e c t ive Judg m e n t I n t e r v i e w , wh ic h

r e qu i r e s i nd iv idua l s t o r e a son a loud spon ta ne ou s ly , el i c it s r e sponse s t ha t m igh t be

mor e a t t he f unc t iona l l e ve l t ha n a t t he op t ima l l e ve l , a s K ing a nd K i t c be ne r

( 1994) no te . The i r P r o to typ ic R e f l e c t ive Judgme n t I n t e r v i e w , wh ic h inc lude s

c on te x tua l suppor t a nd p r om pt s f o r the i n t e r v i e we e , wa s de v e lope d as a me a ns o f

t a pp ing the op t ima l l e ve l ( K i t c he ne r e t a l., 1993 ). C ur r e n t ly und e r de ve lo pm e n t i s

the R e f l e c t ive Th ink ing A ppr a i sa l , a w r i tt e n in s t r ume n t f o r a sse s s ing r e f l e c t ive

j u d g m e n t .

R e su l t s f r om the i r l ong i tud ina l s tudy show tha t (a ) h ighe r - s ta ge r e a son ing wa s

mor e e v ide n t , a nd lowe r - s t a ge r e a son ing l e s s e v ide n t , ove r t ime ; ( b ) h ighe r

e duc a t iona l a t t a inme n t w a s c o r r e l a t e d w i th h ighe r s t a ge s o f r e f le c t ive j udgm e n t ;

de ve lop m e n ta l spu r ts c o inc id e d w i th c o l l e ge a tt e nda nc e ; a nd a s t r ong l i ne a r

r e l a ti onsh ip e x i s t e d be tw e e n a ge a nd s t a ge ( K ing K i t c he n e r , 1994 ; K i t c h e ne r

King , 1981). F o r e xa m ple , K ing a nd K i t c h e ne r (1994) r e po r t e d r e su l ts f r om bo th

c r os s - se c t iona l a nd long i tud ina l s tud i e s o f ove r 1 ,700 ind iv idua l s f r om t e e na ge r s

th r ough a du l thood . A c r os s t he se s tud ie s, me a n sc o r e s o f bo th f i r s t - ye a r c o l l e ge

s tude n t s a nd c o l l e ge sophom or e s w e r e 3 ,6 , w i th a me a n f o r j un io r s o f 3 .7 , a nd

se n io r s a t 4 . 0 , no t qu i t e ha l f a s t a ge h ighe r t ha n f i r s t - ye a r s tude n ts . S tud ie s o f a du l t

c o l l e ge s tude n ts r e po r t me a ns ide n t ic a l to t he t r a d i ti ona l - a ge g r oup du r ing bo th the

f i rs t ye a r o f c o l l e ge ( 3 .6 ) a nd the s e n io r ye a r ( 4 .0 ). Th us the t yp i c a l g r a dua t ing

se n io r , a c c o r d ing to t he se f i nd ings , ha s a t t a ine d o n ly the l owe s t r ung o f qua si -

r e f l e c t ive t h ink ing . T he g r e a t e s t ga in i n r e f le c t ive j udg m e n t a ppe a r s i n g r a du a te

s tude n t s , w i th t hose i n t he e a r ly pha se s o f g r a dua te t r a in ing a ve r a g ing 4 .6 a nd

101



Hofer and Pintrich

u p p e r - l e v e l s t u d e n t s a v e ra g i n g 5 . 3 . A m o n g t h e e x i s t in g s t u d i es , c o n s i s te n t u s e o f

S t a g e 6 r e a s o n i n g a p p e a r s o n l y a t t h e a d v a n c e d d o c t o r a l le v e l . G ra d u a t e s t u d e n ts

i n s o c i a l s c i e n c e p ro g ra m s s c o re d h i g h e r t h a n t h o s e i n m a t h e m a t i c a l s c i e n c e ,

p o s s i b l y a n e f f e c t o f th e r e l a t i v e em p h a s i s o n i l l- s tr u c t u re d p ro b l e m s . S t u d i e s o f

n o n s t u d e n t a d u l ts i n d i c a t e a s t r o n g r e l a t i o n s h ip b e t w e e n r e f l e c t i v e j u d g m e n t a n d

p r i o r c o l l e g e a t te n d a n c e .

G i v e n t h e i n t e re s t in g e n d e r d i f f e r e n c e s i n w a y s o f k n o w i n g , K i t c h e n e r a n d

K i n g (1 9 9 4 ) e x a m i n e d r e s u l ts o f t h e i r 1 0 -y e a r s tu d y a n d fo u n d n o g e n d e r d i ff e r -

e n c e s i n t h e f i r s t t w o t e s t i n g s , b u t f o u n d t h a t m e n s c o re d a t h i g h e r s t a g e s t h a n

w o m e n i n t h e l a tt e r tw o o f t h e fo u r t e st i n g p e r io d s . T h e y s p e c u l a t e t h a t th i s m a y

be a t t r ibu tab le to d i f fe rences in educa t iona l a t t a inment , g iven tha t men in the

s t u d y w e re s u b s t a n ti a l ly m o re l i k e l y to h a v e p u r s u e d p o s t b a c c a l a u re a te e d u c a t i o n

d u r i n g t h a t t i m e . O f 1 4 o t h e r s tu d i e s u t i li z in g t h e R e f l e c t i v e J u d g m e n t In t e rv ie w ,

7 fo u n d n o g e n d e r d i f fe r e n c e s , a n d 6 o f th e o t h e r 7 r e p o r t e d h i g h e r s c o res a m o n g

males (K ing Ki tche ner , 1994).

Linkages to Other onstructs

R e f l e c t i v e j u d g m e n t h a s b e e n c h a ra c t e r i z e d b y K i n g a n d K i t c h e n e r a s f a ll i n g

w i t h i n t h e b ro a d d o m a i n o f i n t el l ec t u a l d e v e l o p m e n t , a n d o n e o f t h e i s su e s i n t h e i r

w o rk h a s b e e n d i s ti n g u i s h i n g t h e c o n s t ru c t f r o m c o n c e p t u a l l y s i m i la r o n e s , s u c h

as c r i t i ca l th ink ing . They make the d i s t inc t ion tha t c r i t i ca l th ink ing i s more

c o n c e rn e d w i th t h e s o l v i n g o f c l o se d , w e l l - st r u c t u r e d p ro b l e m s a n d t h a t e p i s t e m i c

assum pt ions h ave been ign ored in the work on c r i t i cal th ink ing . Emp i r ica l s tud ies

o n t h e r e l a t io n s h i p b e t w e e n c r i ti c a l t h i n k i n g a n d r e f l e c t i v e j u d g m e n t s u g g e s t t h a t

they a re re la ted bu t d i f fe re n t cons t ruc t s (King Ki tchen er , 1994) . S imi la r ly , low

t o m o d e ra t e c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n c r i ti c a l th i n k i n g a n d v e rb a l r e a s o n i n g h a v e l e d

K i n g a n d K i t c h e n e r t o c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e s e m a y a l s o b e r e l a t e d , b u t c a n b e

d i s t in g u i s h e d f ro m o n e a n o t h e r . O t h e r s t u d i e s h a v e i n v e s t ig a t e d t h e r e l a t io n s h i p

b e t w e e n r e f l e c t iv e j u d g m e n t a n d v a r i o u s a sp e c t s o f c h a ra c t e r d e v e l o p m e n t , w i t h

r e s u lt s s u g g e s t i n g a m o d e ra t e r e l a t io n s h i p b e t w e e n r e f l e c t i v e j u d g m e n t a n d p s y -

c h o s o c i a l d e v e l o p m e n t , a n d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f r e f l e c t i v e

j u d g m e n t m a y b e a n e c e s s a ry b u t n o t s u f f i c i e n t c o n d i t i o n fo r m o ra l j u d g m e n t

(King Ki tchen er , 1994).

Discussion

K i n g a n d K i t c h e n e r (1 9 9 4 ) h a v e p ro v i d e d t h e m o s t e x t e n s i v e d e v e l o p m e n t a l

s c h e m e w i t h e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l e l e m e n t s . A l t h o u g h b a s e d p r i m a r i l y o n s t u d i e s o f

c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s , t h i s r e s e a r c h p ro g ra m h a s b e e n m o re e x p l i c i t l y d e r i v e d f ro m

d e v e l o p m e n t a l p s y c h o l o g i c a l m o d e l s t h a n r e s e a r c h o n c o l l e g e s t u d e n t d e v e l o p -

m e n t a n d h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n . T h e m o d e l i s p a r t i c u la r l y n o t e w o r t h y fo r it s e la b o ra -

t io n o f th e u p p e r l e v e l s o f P e r ry ' s s c h e m e a n d fo r th e s p e c i f i c a t io n o f d i m e n s i o n s

o f e p i s t e m i c c o g n i t i o n . I t h a s b e e n w i d e l y u s e d b y o t h e r s i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e

c o n s t ru c t a n d m a y b e m o s t u s e fu l f o r e d u c a t o r s w h o s e e r e f l e c t iv e j u d g m e n t a s a

d e s i r a b le e d u c a t i o n a l o u t c o m e .

I t m a y b e p ro b l e m a t i c , h o w e v e r , t h a t a c tu a l r e f l e c t i v e j u d g m e n t , n o t e d i n S t a g e s

6 a n d 7 , a p p e a r s t o h a v e b e e n a t t a i n e d b y o n l y a m i n u t e f r a c t i o n o f t h o s e

i n t e rv i e w e d a n d h a s a p p e a re d c o n s i s t e n t l y o n l y a m o n g a d v a n c e d g r a d u a t e s t u -

d e n t s . T h e r a r e f i e d n a t u r e o f i t s e x i s t e n c e a n d i t s a p p e a ra n c e o n l y a m o n g t h e

102



Epistem ological Theories

a c a de m ic e l i t e c ou ld be c a use f o r que s t ion ing e i t he r c u r r e n t e duc a t iona l p r a c t i c e s

( i f one be l i e ve s t ha t t h i s is a n impo r t a n t de ve lopm e n ta l ou t c o m e o f e duc a t ion ) o r

b i a se s r e f l e c t ive on ly o f a dva nc e d sc hoo l ing p r a c t ic e s .

Th e f oc us o f t he r e f le c t ive j udg m e n t m ode l i s on the pe r c e p t ion a nd r e so lu t ion

o f i l l- s t ruc tu r e d p r ob le ms , a nd i t is f r om ind iv idua l r e sponse s t o t he se p r ob le m s

tha t e p i s t e mic a s sumpt ions a r e e x t r a po la t e d . Th i s a pp r oa c h to e p i s t e molog ic a l

de ve lopm e n t e na b le d the a u tho r s t o de f ine a n a r e a o f i n t e ll e c tua l de ve lo pm e n t tha t

the y c l a im ha d no t be e n t a ppe d by s tud ie s on c r i t i c a l t h ink ing . I n t e r ms o f

e p i s t e molog ic a l be l i e f s , howe ve r , i t i s no t l i ke ly t ha t t he y a r e t a ppe d

only

b y

r e a son ing a bou t i l l- s t ruc tu r e d p r ob le m s . S tude n t s a r e l ike ly t o ha ve ide a s a bou t

kno wle d ge a nd kno wing tha t a r e a c tiva t e d in e ve r yda y e duc a t iona l s e t ti ngs a nd

whic h a f f e c t t he i r le a r n ing on a r ou t ine ba s i s. R e spon se s t o t he hy po the t i c a l

p r ob le m s pose d in t he in t e r v i e ws ma y t e ll u s l i tt l e a bou t how s tude n t be l i e f s ar e

a r ouse d in a c tua l e xpe r i e nc e s . It ma y b e m or e d i f f i c u l t t o f i gu r e ou t how to c a p tu r e

th is , however .

In addi t ion , the re a re some o the r l imi ta t ions . F i rs t , on ly t r a ined ra te rs have b een

pe r m i t t e d to u t i l iz e t he R e f l e c t ive Judg m e n t I n t e r v ie w , w h ic h ha s l imi t e d i t s u se

a nd r e s t r ic t e d s c r u t iny o f t he me tho do lo gy o f r at i ng . W ide r u se m a y be a va i l a b le

wh e n the R e f l e c t ive Th ink ing A ppr a i sa l i s ava i l ab l e . Ex i s t ing s tud ie s ha ve p r im a -

r i l y u t i l iz e d in t e r v i e ws w i th W hi t e c o l l e ge s tude n t s , so l e s s is know n a b ou t o th e r

popu la t ions ; i n f o r m a t ion a bou t g e nd e r d i f fe r e nc e s i s s t il l i nc onc lus ive .

W e k n o w l it tl e a b o u t h o w r e f le c t i v e j u d g m e n t d e v e l o p s i n c o n t e x t a n d j u s t h o w

e duc a t ion m a ke s a d i f f e r e nc e . And a l though i t a ppe a rs t ha t e duc a t ion i s c o r r e l a t e d

wi th s t a ge, a nd tha t r e f l e c t ive j udg m e n t is t i e d t o t he go a l s o f a l i be r a l a r ts

e duc a t ion , i t i s su r p r i s ing how l i t t l e de ve lopme n t a c tua l ly t a ke s p l a c e du r ing

c o l l e ge , r e po r t e d a s l e ss t ha n h a l f a st a ge on the a ve r a ge . C la s s r oom - le ve l s tud i e s

a r e ne e de d to i nve s t iga te how the se c ha ng e s c o m e a bou t a nd the c ha r a c t e ri s t i c s o f

e duc a t iona l e nv i r onme n t s t ha t migh t f o s t e r t he m.

~ j t~rgumentat ive Reasoning

I n t e r e s te d in the t h ink ing tha t oc c u r s i n e v e r yd a y l ive s , D . Ku hn ( 1991 ) pu r sue d

t h e n o t i o n o f t h in k i n g a s a r g u m e n t a t iv e r e a so n i n g . K u h n s w o r k o n i n f o r m a l

r e a son ing wa s a n a t t e mp t t o s tudy how ind iv idua l s r e sponde d to e ve r yda y , i l l -

s t r uc tu r e d p r ob le m s tha t l a c k de f in i ti ve so lu t ions . A l thou gh the p r ima r y p u r pose

o f t he s tudy wa s to i nve s t iga t e a rgum e n ta t ive t h ink ing , t he a t t e mp t t o unde r s t a nd

how a nd why ind iv idua l s r e a sone d a l so e l i c i t e d be l i e f s a bou t knowle dge , a nd a

po r t i on o f the s tudy f oc use d spe c i f i c a l ly on e p i s t e m olog ic a l pe r spe c t ive s .

Method

A c r it ic a l e l e m e n t o f K u h n s d e s i g n w a s t h e i n c lu s i o n o f a b r o a d e r s a m p l e o f

sub je c t s . The pa r t i c ipa n t s we r e f r om f ou r a ge g r oups : t e e ns , 20s , 40s , a nd 60s .

The r e we r e 40 sub je c t s i n e a c h a ge c ohor t , a nd w i th in e a c h c ohor t ge nde r a nd

e duc a t iona l l e ve l ( c o l l e ge a nd non c o l l e ge ) w e r e e qua l ly r e p r e se n te d . P a r t i c ipa n t s

we r e i nd iv idua l ly i n t e r v i e we d tw ic e f o r 45 to 90 minu te s e a c h t ime , i n s e t t i ngs

f a mi l i a r t o t he pa r ti c ipa n t s , suc h a s ho m e o r wo r k e nv i r onm e n t s . I n t he i n t e re s t o f

e l i c i t i ng r e a son ing a bou t c omple x , r e a l - wor ld phe nome na , Kuhn se l e c t e d th r e e

c u r r e n t u r ba n soc i a l p r ob le ms a s t he ba s is f o r the i n t e r v i e ws . S ub je c t s w e r e a ske d

to ge ne r a t e c ausa l e xp la na t ions f o r e a c h o f t he se t op i c s: ( a ) W h a t c a use s p r i sone r s

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Hofer and Pintrich

to re tu rn to c r ime a f te r they ' re re leased? , (b ) What causes ch i ld ren to fa i l in

s c h o o l ? , a n d ( c ) W h a t c a u s e s u n e m p l o y m e n t ? In d i v i d u a ls w e re e x p e c t e d t o e x -

p l a in h o w t h e y c a m e t o h o l d a v i e w a n d t o j u s t i f y t h e p o s it i o n w i t h s u p p o r t i n g

e v i d e n c e . P a r t i c ip a n t s w e re a l so a s k e d t o g e n e ra t e a n o p p o s i n g v i e w , p ro v i d e a

r e b u t t a l t o t h a t p o s i t i o n , a n d t h e n o f f e r a r e m e d y fo r t h e p ro b l e m . T h e f i n a l

s e g m e n t o f t h e i n t e rv i e w e x p l i c i t l y a s k e d fo r e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l r e f l e c t i o n o n t h e

reasoning presen ted .

K u h n n o t e d t h a t th e r e w e re s e v e ra l s e c ti o n s o f t h e in t e rv i e w w h i c h p ro v i d e d

i n d i c a to r s o f t h e e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l s t a n d a rd s t h a t u n d e r l a y a rg u m e n t a t i v e r e a s o n -

ing . These sec t ions inc luded ques t ions rega rd ing p r o o f (e .g ., I s the re any th ing

s o m e o n e c o u l d d o o r s a y t o p ro v e th a t t h is is t h e c a s e ? , C o u l d s o m e o n e p ro v e

t h at y o u w e r e w r o n g ? ) , expertise ( e .g . , D o e x p e r t s k n o w fo r s u r e w h a t c a u s e s

? ) ,

multiple viewpoints

( e .g . , I s m o re t h a n o n e p o i n t o f v i e w p o s s i b l e

r e g a rd i n g t h e q u e s ti o n o f w h a t c a u s es _ _ % C o u l d m o r e t h a n o n e p o i n t o f v i e w

be r igh t? ) ,

origins o f theories

( e .g . , C a n y o u r e m e m b e r w h a t it w a s t h a t l e d y o u

to be l i eve tha t th i s i s the case ? ) , and

certainty

( e .g . , H o w s u re a r e y o u o f y o u r

v i e w c o m p a re d t o a n e x p e r t ? ) . H o w e v e r , a lt h o u g h t h e s e m u l ti p l e d i m e n s i o n s o f

e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l b e l i e f s w e re i d e n t if i e d , t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l c a t -

e g o r i e s w a s b a s e d o n l y o n q u e s t i o n s r e g a rd i n g e x p e r t i se , a n d n o s p e c i f ic i n fo rm a -

t io n w a s p ro v i d e d a b o u t t h e p ro c e d u re u s e d .

M ode l

K u h n r e p o r t s t h a t t h e e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l t h o u g h t e v i d e n c e d i n t h e i n t e rv i e w

b ro a d l y r e s e m b l e s t h e fo rm s r e p o r t e d b y P e r ry (1 9 7 0 ) , K i t c h e n e r , K i n g , a n d

othe rs (King e t a l ., 1983; Ki tche ner & F ischer , 1990; Kra me r & W oo dru f f , 1986) .

She de f ines th ree ca tegor ies o f ep i s temologica l v iews : abso lu t i s t , mul t ip l i s t , and

e v a l u a t i v e (w h i c h a r e a li g n e d w i t h P e r ry ' s , B e l e n k y e t a l . 's , a n d B a x t e r M a g o i d a ' s

pos i t ions , a s shown in Table 1 ) .

Absolutis ts view knowledge as ce r ta in and abso lu te , s t re s s fac t s and exper t i s e

as the bas i s fo r knowing , and expres s h igh ce r ta in ty about the i r own be l ie fs .

Muhipl i s t s d e n y t h e p o s s i b il i ty o f e x p e r t c e r ta i n t y a n d a r e s k e p t i c a l a b o u t e x p e r -

t i s e genera l ly . They see tha t exper t s no t on ly d i sagree bu t a re incons i s ten t over

t im e . T h e m u l t ip l i st p o s i ti o n i s m a rk e d b y r a d i c a l s u b j e c t i v i t y . I n th e d e v a l u i n g

o f e x p e r t s , m u l ti p l is t s a r e l i k e l y t o g i v e w e i g h t t o e m o t i o n s a n d i d e a s o v e r f a c t s.

I n t h is f r a m e w o rk , b e l i e f s ta k e o n t h e s ta t u s o f p e r s o n a l p o s s e ss i o n s , t o w h i c h e a c h

ind iv idua l i s en t i tl ed . The resu l t is tha t al l v iew s m ay h ave eq ua l l eg i t ima cy , and

o n e ' s o w n v i e w m a y b e a s v a l id a s th a t o f a n e x p e r t. W h i l e t h e

evaluative

e p i s t e m o l o g i s t s a l s o d e n y t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f c e r t a i n k n o w l e d g e , t h e y r e c o g n i z e

exp er t i s e and v iew them se lves a s l e s s ce r ta in than exper t s . M os t impor tan t ly , they

u n d e r s t a n d t h a t v i e w p o i n t s c a n b e c o m p a re d a n d e v a l u a t e d t o a s s e s s r e l a t i v e

m e r i ts . T h e p o s s i b i l i ty o f g e n u i n e i n t e r c h a n g e w i t h t h o s e w i t h c o n f l i c t i n g o p i n -

ions i s acknowledged , a s i s the poss ib i l i ty tha t theor ie s may be modi f ied as a

resu l t . Kuhn c la ims tha t a rgument i s a t the hea r t o f th i s p rocess , a s i t o f fe rs a

m e a n s o f i n f l u e n c i n g o t h e r s ' t h i n k in g .

C l a s s i f ic a t i o n o f s u b j e c ts i n t o t h e s e t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s, w h i c h a p p e a r t o b e c o n -

d e n s e d v e r s i o n s o f t h e P e r ry (1 9 7 0 ) a n d K i t c h e n e r a n d K i n g (1 9 9 4 ) s c h e m e s , w a s

d o n e b y e x a m i n i n g r e s p o n s e s t h a t r e g a rd e d t h e c e r t a i n t y o f e x p e r ti s e . A b s o l u ti s ts

c la imed tha t exper t s can know for ce r ta in . Mul t ip l i s t s c la imed tha t exper t s wi l l

1 4




n e v e r r e a c h c e r ta i n t y a n d t h a t t h e ir o w n c e r ta i n t y e q u a l e d o r e x c e e d e d t h a t o f

e xpe r t s . Those in t he e va lua t ive c a t e go r y c l a ime d tha t wh i l e e xpe r t s c ou ld no t

r e a c h c o m ple t e c e r t a in ty , t he y w e r e r e l a t i ve ly m or e c e r t a in .

An a na lys is o f r esponse s o f t he 169 sub je c t s in K uh n ' s s tudy ind ic a t e d tha t on ly

2 sub je c t s w e r e c ons i s t e n t ly c l a s s if i e d a c r os s t he t h r e e t op i c s a s i n t he e va lua t ive

c a t e go r y , wh ic h ma y be su r p r i s ing g ive n the r a nge s o f a ge s a nd ba c kgr ounds in

the s tudy . E le v e n o the r s we r e c l a s s i f ie d a t t he e va lua t ive l e ve l f o r two o f t he t h r e e

topics , for a to ta l o f 13 , s t il l a r e la t ive ly smal l pe rcentag e . This hor iz onta l

de c a l a ge in le ve l s o f e p i s t e moiog ic a l be l i e fs by top i c a r ea h igh l igh t s t he impor -

t a nc e o f c ons ide r ing t a sk a nd dom a in e f f e c t s . Ku hn f o und no s ign i f ic a n t ge n de r o r

a ge d i f f e re nc e s . Th e r e wa s a r e l a ti on be twe e n e duc a t iona l ba c kg r ound a nd e p i s -

t e mo log ic a l le ve l ; those i n t he h ighe r e duc a t ion g r ou p w e r e m or e l i ke ly t o be i n

the eva lua t ive ca tegory and le ss l ike to be absolu t i s t .

L i nk ag e s t o O t he r ons t r uc t s

K u h n e x a m i n e d t h e r e l at i o n sh i p b e t w e e n e p i s t e m o l o g i e s a n d a r g u m e n t s k i ll s b y

top ic a nd f ou nd r e su l ts t o be we a k bu t i n t he e xpe c t e d d i r e c t ion , w i th sub je c t s i n

the e va lua t ive c a t e go r y mos t l i ke ly t o show sk i l l s o f a r gume n t . Th r e e a r gume n t

sk i ll s w e r e i de n t i fi e d : ge ne r a t ion o f ge nu in e e v ide n c e , ge ne r a t ion o f a l t e r na t ive

the o r i e s , a nd ge ne r a t ion o f a ny f o r m o f c oun te r a r gume n t . An a na lys i s o f t he

r e l a t ionsh ip be tw e e n the se i nd iv idua l sk i ll s a nd the ove r a l l e p i s t e molog ic a l c a t-

e go r y ind i c a te d tha t t hose i n t he e va lua t ive c a t e go r y we r e m or e l i ke ly t ha n o the r s

to u se c oun te r a r gum e n t a nd a lt e r na t ive t he o r y ge ne r a t ion . Kuh n c on c lude d tha t i t

i s p r ima r i ly t he e me r ge nc e o f t he e va lua t ive e p i s t e mology tha t i s r e l a t e d to

a rgu m enta t iv e sk i l l de ve lop m en t (D. Ku hn, 1991, p . 195). At th is leve l , ind iv idu -

a ls a r e mos t l i ke ly t o s e e t he va lue o f a r gum e n t a nd the ne e d f o r c om pa r ing a nd

eva lua t ing a l te rna t ive c la ims .

D i s c us s i on

K uh n ' s c o n t r ibu t ion to t he li t e ra tu r e on e p i s t e mo log ic a l unde r s t a nd ing ha s be e n

no t i n t he de ve lop m e n t o f a mode l , a s she a ppe a r s t o u se a s im p l i f ie d th r e e - s t a ge

r e p r e se n ta t ion o f P e r r y ' s s c he m e a nd o f f e r s l it t le i n f o r ma t ion a s t o t he e mpi r i c a l

va l ida t ion o f t h i s s c he me , bu t i n t he c onne c t ion o f e p i s t e molog ic a l t he o r i e s t o

r e a son ing . T he sk il ls o f a r gum e n t a ppe a r p r e d i c a t e d on a l e ve l o f e p i s t e m olog ic a l

unde r s t a nd ing tha t r e qu i r e s c on te mpla t ion , e va lua t ion , a nd judgme n t o f a l t e r na -

t i ve t he o r i e s a nd e v ide nc e . The se c o gn i t i ve p r oc e s se s , a c c o r d ing to Kuhn , r e qu i r e

the me ta c o gn i t i ve a b i li ty t o be r e f l e c t ive a bou t on e ' s ow n th ink ing . I n a n e a r l i e r

wor k , Kuhn , Amse l , & O 'La ugh l in ( 1988) c l a ime d tha t suc h sk i l l s a r e un l ike ly

p r io r to e a r ly a do le sc e nc e , a f i nd ing c ongr u e n t w i th t he f o r m a l ope r a t iona l t hough t

o f P i a ge t ' s de v e lopm e n ta l t he o r y ( I nhe lde r & P ia ge t , 1958) .

K u h n ' s w o r k s e e m s l e a s t c l e a r i n t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f e l e m e n t s t h a t c o m p r i s e

e p i s t e mo log ic a l the o r i e s . Th e in t e r v i e w p r o toc o l i s de sc r ibe d a s a dd r e s s ing e p i s -

t e mo log ic a l is sue s o f p r oo f , e xpe r ti s e , a nd c e r t a in ty . Th e a s s ignm e n t o f r e sponse s

to l e ve ls , how e ve r , wa s ba se d so l e ly on que s t ions r e l a t ing to e xpe r t i s e , a l though

r e sponse s r e ga r d ing bo th c e r t a in ty a nd p r oo f a r e p r ov id e d a s i l lu s t r a ti ons o f t he

th r e e l e ve l s . O the r e l e me n t s i de n t i f i e d bu t no t we l l e l a bo r a t e d a r e c l a s s i f i e d a s

s t re ng th o f a rgum e n t , o r ig in s o f t he o r i e s , and a t t it ude s t ow a r d the t op i c . C le a r ly

the r o l e o f e v ide n c e is t he mos t de l ine a t e d o f the e l e me n t s i n Ku hn ' s l e ve l s o f

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Hofer and P intrich

e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l t h e o r i e s , w h i c h m a y b e a r e s u l t o f t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s t u d y , w i t h i ts

f o c u s o n a r g u m e n t a t i o n a n d t h e r o l e e v i d e n c e i s g i v e n i n th i s p r o c e s s. T h i s f o c u s

s e e m s t o e x e m p l i f y t h e e m p h a s i s o f W e s t e r n s c h o o l i n g , a n d i t i s n o t s u r p r is i n g t h a t

t h e g r a d u a t e - t r a i n e d p h i l o s o p h e r s i n h e r s t u d y d o b e s t .

T h e s t u d y i s n o t a b l e i n i ts f o c u s o n i l l- s t ru c t u r e d p r o b l e m s f r o m e v e r y d a y l i fe

a n d i n th e u s e o f a b r o a d s a m p l e o f p a r ti c i p a n t s a c r o s s th e l i f e sp a n . T h i s s a m p l i n g

o f a b r o a d e r p o p u l a t io n o n n o n a c a d e m i c i s s u e s r e m o v e s e p i s te m o l o g i c a l b e l ie f s

f r o m t h e r e a l m o f th e c l a s s r o o m a n d s e p a r a te s i s su e s o f k n o w i n g f r o m t h o s e o f

t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s e s .

, Ep is tem ologica l Be l ie f s

I n t e r e s t e d i n h o w e p i s ~ m o l o g i c a l b e l i e f s i n f l u e n c e c o m p r e h e n s i o n a n d a c a -

d e m i c p e r f o r m a n c e , S c h o m m e r ( 1 9 9 0 , 1 9 9 3 b ; S c h o m m e r e t a l., 1 9 9 2 ) h a s d e v e l -

o p e d a re s e a r c h p r o g r a m t h a t i s m o r e q u a n t i ta t i v e t h a n t h a t o f h e r p r e d e c e s s o r s a n d

t a k e s a m o r e a n a l y t ic v i e w o f th e c o m p o n e n t s o f b e li e fs . H e r e x a m i n a t io n o f

c o n f l i c t i n g r e s u l ts in o t h e r w o r k t h a t a t t e m p t e d t o t ie P e r r y s s c h e m e t o

m e t a c o m p r e h e n s i o n ( R y a n , 1 9 8 4 b ) le d h e r t o c h a l l e n g e t h e n o ti o n t h a t e p i s t e m o -

l o g i ca l b e l ie f s w e r e u n i d i m e n s i o n a l a n d d e v e l o p e d i n f i x e d s ta g e s . S h e p r o p o s e d

a b e l i e f s y s t e m m a d e u p o f f i v e m o r e o r le s s i n d e p e n d e n t d i m e n s i o n s , w h i c h s h e

h y p o t h e s i z e d a s s t r u ct u r e, c e r t a in t y , s o u r c e o f k n o w l e d g e , a n d c o n t r o l a n d s p e e d

o f k n o w l e d g e a c q u i s it io n , ( T h e s e d o n o t f o l l o w a g e n e r a l s t a g e s e q u e n c e , s o t h e y

a r e n o t s h o w n i n T a b l e 1 ) T h e c o n c e p t u a l o r i g in s f o r th e f ir s t t h r e e w e r e i n P e r r y s

w o r k , a n d t h e l a t te r t w o i n D w e c k a n d L e g g e t t s ( 1 9 8 8 ) r e s e a r c h o n b e l i e f s a b o u t

t h e n a t u re o f i n te l li g e n c e a n d S c h o e n f e l d s ( 1 9 8 3 , 1 9 8 5 , 1 9 8 8 ) w o r k o n b e l i e f s

a b o u t m a t h e m a t i c s .

M e t h o d

S c h o m m e r h a s d e v e l o p e d a q u e s ti o n n a i r e c o n s i s t i n g o f 63 s h o r t s t a te m e n t s t h at

c h a r a c t e r i z e e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l b e l ie f s . T h e s e a r e s t a te d i n e i t h e r th e n e g a t i v e o r t h e

p o s i t i v e e x t r e m e o n t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e , a n d r e s p o n d e n t s r a t e t h e s t a t e m e n t s o n a

L i k e r t s c a le f r o m 1 ( s t ro n g l y d i s a g r e e ) t o 5 ( s t ro n g l y a g r e e ) . T w o o r m o r e s u b s e t s

o f i t e m s w e r e w r i tt e n f o r e a c h o f t he f i v e p r o p o s e d d i m e n s i o n s ; s o m e o f t h e s e

c a m e d i r ec t ly f r o m P e r r y s C h e c k l i s t o f E d u c a ti o n a l V a l u e s ( C L E V ) , a n d o t h e r s

w e r e a d a p t e d f r o m S c h o e n f e l d ( 1 9 8 3 , 1 9 8 5 ) , D w e c k a n d L e g g e t t ( 1 9 8 8 ) , a n d

o t h e rs . T h e s e w e r e r e v i e w e d a n d c a t e g o r i z e d i n t o 1 2 s u b s e t s b y t h r e e e d u c a t io n a l

p s y c h o l o g i s t s p r i o r t o t h e p i l o t i n g o f t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e w i t h u n d e r g r a d u a t e s

( S c h o m m e r , 1 9 9 0 ). F a c t o r a n a l y s i s w a s p e r f o r m e d in th i s a n d s u b s e q u e n t s t u d i e s

a n d h a s t y p i c a l l y y i e l d e d f o u r f a c t o r s , w h i c h , s t a te d f r o m a n a i v e p e r s p e c t i v e , a r e

F i x e d A b i l i t y , Q u i c k L e a r n i n g , S i m p l e K n o w l e d g e , a n d C e r t a i n K n o w l e d g e .

However , i t i s impor t an t t o po in t ou t t ha t t he f ac to r ana lys i s r epor t ed i n t hese

s tud i es was conduc ted by us ing the 12 subse t s o f i t ems as va r i ab l es , no t t he 63

i t e m s t h e m s e l v e s .

M o d e l

E a c h o f th e f o u r f a c t o r s is v i e w e d a s a c o n t i n u u m , a l t h o u g h t h e y a r e s t a t e d f r o m

t h e n a i v e p e r s p e c t i v e .

Fixed Abi l i~

i s a c o n c e p t b o r r o w e d f r o m D w e c k a n d

L e g g e t t ( 1 9 8 8 ) , w h o f o u n d t h a t s o m e i n d i v i d u a l s b e l i e v e i n t e l l i g e n c e i s a f i x e d

e n t i ty a n d o t h e r s v i e w i t a s i n c r e m e n t a l , b e l i e v i n g t h a t it c a n b e i m p r o v e d . T h r e e

106




subse ts o f i t e ms a ppe a r t o l oa d on th i s f a c to r a c ros s s e ve r a l s tud ie s: C a n ' t L e a r n

H o w t o L e a r n ( sa m p l e i te m : S e l f - h e l p b o o k s a r e n o t m u c h h e l p ) , S u c c e s s I s

U n r e l a t e d t o H a r d W o r k ( s a m p l e it em : T h e r e a l ly s m a r t s t ud e n ts d o n ' t h a v e t o

wor k ha r d to do we l l in s c hoo l ) ; a nd Le a r n the F ir s t T im e ( sa mple it e m: A lm os t

a ll t he in f o r ma t ion you ge t f r om a t e x tboo k you w i ll ge t du r ing the f i rs t r e a d ing ) .

On e subset , Ab i l i t y t o Le a r n Is Inna te ( s a mp le i t em: A n e xpe r t i s som e one who

ha s a spe c ia l g i f t i n som e a r e a ) , wa s hy po the s i z e d a s a pa rt o f t he F ixe d Ab i l i ty

f a c to r , bu t ha s no t c ons i s t e n t ly loa de d the r e . I n tw o o f t h r e e r e c e n t s tud ie s t h is

subse t ha s loa de d on the Qu ic k L e a r n ing f a c to r .

Quick Learning

c ha r a c t e r i z e s t he v i e w tha t l e a rn ing o c c u r s qu ic k ly o r no t a t a ll ;

a t t he o the r e x t r e me o f the c on t inu um i s t he be l i e f t ha t l e a rn ing i s g r a dual . On ly

one subse t o f i t e ms ha s c ons i s t e n t ly loa de d on th i s f a c to r , a subse t e n t i t l e d

Le a r n ing Is Qu ic k ( sa mple it e m: S uc c e s s f u l s tude n t s le a r n th ings qu ic k ly ) . Th e

f a c to r

Simple Knowledge

sugge s t s a r a nge o f be l i e fs f r om tha t o f kno wle d ge a s

i so la t ed , una m biguou s b i t s t o a v i e w o f kno wle dge a s h igh ly in t e r re l a t e d c onc e p t s .

T h i s f a c t o r c o n t a in s t h e s u b se ts A v o i d A m b i g u i t y ( I d o n ' t l ik e m o v i e s t ha t d o n ' t

h a v e a n e n d i n g ) , S e e k S in g l e A n s w e r s ( M o s t w o r d s h a v e o n e c l e a r m e a n i n g ) ,

a nd A vo id I n t e g r a t ion ( W he n I s tudy I l ook f o r spe c i fi c f a c t s ) . A l though two o r

mor e subse t s we r e wr i t t e n f o r e a c h f a c to r , on ly one ha s c ons i s t e n t ly loa de d on

Certain Knowledge

t he subse t Knowle dge I s C e r t a in ( The on ly th ing tha t i s

c e r t a in i s unc e r t a in ty i t s el f ) . Th i s f a c to r wa s c on c e p tua l i z e d a s a c on t inuum f r om

the be l i e f tha t know le dge i s a bso lu te t o t he be l i e f t ha t know le dge i s t e n t a tive a nd

e v o l v i n g . T h e fi ft h h y p o t h e s i z e d d i m e n s i o n , s o u r c e o f k n o w l e d g e , ( S c h o m m e r ,

1990 , 1994b) doe s n o t a ppe a r t o e me r g e a s a f a c to r f r om the c u r r e n t que s t ionn a i r e

s u b se ts . S c h o m m e r s u g g es t s t h at t h e c o n t in u u m w o u l d r a n g e f r o m a u t h o r i t y t o

r e a son , bu t t hose subse t s r e l a t e d to i s sue s o f a u tho r i ty ha ve typ ic a l ly loa de d on

two o r mor e o f t he o the r f ou r e p i s t e molog ic a l d ime ns ions .

Linkages to Other Constructs

The imp l i c a t ions o f e p i s t e molog ic a l be l i e f s f o r i n s t r uc t iona l p syc ho logy we r e

f ir s t e x p l o r e d b y R y a n ( 1 9 84 a , 1 9 8 4 b) , w h o e x t e n d e d P e r r y ' s w o r k t o e x a m i n e

how ind iv idua l d i f f e r e nc e s in e p i s t e molog ic a l be l i e fs migh t a f f e c t c om pr e he ns ion

a nd thus a c a de mic pe r f o r ma nc e in c o l l e ge s tude n t s . R ya n hypo the s i z e d tha t t he

t r ans i ti on P e r r y de sc r ibe d f r om d ua l i sm to r e l a tiv i sm, w i th the m ov e m e n t f r om a

c o n c e p t i o n o f k n o w l e d g e a s d i s c r e t e f a c t s t o a c o n c e p t i o n o f k n o w l e d g e a s

in t e r r e l a t e d p r opos i t i ons , wou ld be a s soc ia t e d w i th c ha nge s in in f o r ma t ion p r o -

c e s s ing s t ra t e g ie s . I n a s tudy o f t he mo n i to r ing o f c om pr e he n s ion , R ya n ide n t i f i e d

s tude n t s a s e i the r dua l i s t s o r r e l a t iv i s t s a nd the n a s se s se d the i r c ompr e he ns ion

c r i t e r i a u s ing B loom' s t a xonomy ( B loom, Enge lha r t , F u r s t , H i l l , & Kr a thwoh l ,

1956). Dua l i s ts r e po r t e d c r i te r i a t hat i nvo lve the k now le dge c a t e go r y , a nd r e l a tiv -

i s t s r e po r t e d c r i t e r i a t ha t i nvo lve d h ighe r l e ve l s i n B loom' s t a xonomy, the c om-

pr e he ns ion o r a pp l i c a t ion c a t e go r i e s .

S c h o m m e r h a s f u r t h e r ed t h is i n v e st ig a t io n o f h o w e p i s te m o l o g i c a l b e l i e f s

a f f e c t a c a de m ic wor k . I n a s e r ie s o f s tud ie s u s ing he r que s t ionna i r e on e p i s t e mo -

log ic al be l ie f s , she ha s doc u m e n te d the r e l a t ion be tw e e n b e l i e f s a bou t kno wle dg e ,

s t r a te gy use , and pe r f o r m a nc e . In a s tudy o f c o l l e ge unde r g r a dua te s ( S c ho m m e r ,

1990) , s tude n t s c omple t e d the que s t ionna i r e a nd the n se ve r a l we e ks l a t e r we r e

a ske d to r e a d a pa s sa ge o f t e x t a s i f p re pa r ing f o r a t e s t, supp ly a c onc lu d ing

107



Hofer and Pintrich

p a ra g ra p h , r a t e t h e i r d e g re e o f c o n f i d e n c e i n c o m p re h e n d i n g t h e m a t e r i al , a n d

c o m p l e t e a m a s t e ry t e st . B e l i e f i n q u i c k l e a rn i n g p r e d i c t e d o v e r s i m p l i f i e d c o n c l u -

s i on s , l o w t e s t s c o res , a n d o v e rc o n f i d e n c e . T h o s e w h o b e l i e v e d i n c e r t a in k n o w l -

e d g e w e re l i k e ly t o g e n e ra t e i n a p p ro p r i a t e l y a b s o l u t e c o n c l u s i o n s .

In a s e c o n d s t u d y o f c o l l e g e u n d e rg ra d u a t e s (S c h o m m e r e t al ., 1 9 9 2 ), s tu d e n t s

comple ted the ep i s temologica l ques t ionna i re and then read a s t a t i s t i ca l pas sage .

T h e y r a t e d t h e i r c o m p re h e n s i o n c o n f i d e n c e , t h e n c o m p l e t e d a m a s t e ry t e s t a n d a

s t u d y s t r a t e g y i n v e n t o ry . H i g h e r c o n f i d e n c e a n d b e t t e r p e r fo rm a n c e w e re n e g a -

t i v e l y c o r r e la t e d w i t h b e l i e f in s i m p l e k n o w l e d g e . P a t h a n a l y si s a l s o s u g g e s t e d

t h a t e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l b e l i e f s m a y h a v e a n i n d i r e c t e f f e c t o n a c a d e m i c p e r fo rm a n c e ,

a s b e l i e f a b o u t k n o w l e d g e m a y a f f e c t st u d y s t r a te g i e s.

S c h o m m e r h a s c o n d u c t e d s e v e ra l o t h e r r e l a t e d s t u d i e s o n e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l

b e l ie f s . R e s u l t s o f a s t u d y o f j u n i o r c o l l e g e a n d u n i v e r s i t y s tu d e n t s i n d i c a t e d

d i f f e r e n c e s o n a l l f o u r d i m e n s i o n s , w i t h u n i v e r s i ty s t u d e n ts m o re l i k e ly t o b e l i e v e

in f ixed ab i l i ty and jun ior co l lege s tuden ts m ore l ike ly to be l i eve in s imple

k n o w l e d g e , c e r t a in k n o w l e d g e , a n d q u i c k l ea rn i n g (S c h o m m e r , 1 9 9 3 a) . A s t u d y

o f e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l b e l i e f s o f h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r e w e re n o

di f fe re nce s be tw een g i f t ed s tuden ts and o the rs in n in th g rade , bu t tha t by the end

of h igh school , g i f t ed s tuden ts were l e s s l ike ly than o the rs to be l i eve in s imple

k n o w l e d g e a n d q u i c k l e a rn i n g (S c h o m m e r D u n n e l l , 1 99 4) . D i f f e r e n c e s i n

b e l i e f s d u r i n g h i g h s c h o o l y e a r s w e re t h e fo c u s o f a c ro s s - se c t i o n a l s t u d y t h a t

i n d i c a te d a l i n e ar t r e n d i n a l l e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l b e l i e f s e x c e p t f i x e d a b i l i t y f ro m

freshm an to sen ior yea r . In the sam e s tudy , ep i s temo logica l be l i e fs a lso pred ic ted

G P A , a n d g e n d e r d i f f e r e n c e s w e re fo u n d i n t w o d i m e n s i o n s , w i t h f e m a l e s l e s s

l ike ly to be l i eve in f ixed ab i l i ty o r qu ick l ea rn ing (Sc hom me r , 1993b) . In a s tudy

o f a d u l ts , e d u c a t i o n p r e d i c t e d s im p l e a n d c e r t a i n k n o w l e d g e ; t h e m o re e x p o s u re

t o e d u c a t i o n , t h e l e s s l i k e l y i n d i v i d u a l s w e re t o s u b s c r i b e t o t h e s e b e l i e f s

(S c h o m m e r , 1 9 9 2 ). R e c e n t w o rk o n t h e d o m a i n i n d e p e n d e n c e o f b e li e f s i n d i c a te d

tha t ep i s temologica l be l i e fs a re modera te ly s imi la r ac ross soc ia l s c ience and

m a t h e m a t i c s (S c h o m m e r W a l k e r, 1 99 5) .

iscussion

S c h o m m e r ' s c e n t r a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s h a v e b e e n i n t h r e e a r ea s : ( a ) s u g g e s ti n g t h a t

e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l b e l i e f s m a y b e a s y s t e m o f d i m e n s i o n s t h a t a r e r e la t i v e l y in d e p e n -

d e n t o f o n e a n o t h e r , ( b ) i n i ti a ti n g a n e m p i r i c a l i n v e s t i g a ti o n o f t h e s t u d y o f s e v e ra l

proposed d imens ions , and (c ) in i t i a t ing an impor tan t and ins igh t fu l l ine o f re -

sea rch tha t links ep i s temo logica l be l i e fs to i ssues o f acade mic c la s s ro om lea rn ing

a n d p e r fo rm a n c e . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , th e r e ar e s o m e c o n c e p t u a l an d m e a s u re m e n t

i s sues tha t remain unreso lved in th i s mode l .

C o n c e p t u a l l y , t h e t h e o re t i c a l r a t i o n a l e fo r t h e fo u r d i m e n s i o n s i s s o m e w h a t

p ro b l e m a t i c . T w o o f t h e f a c t o r s , S i m p l e K n o w l e d g e a n d C e r t a i n K n o w l e d g e ,

a p p e a r c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e o t h e r e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l m o d e l s a n d t h e o r i e s w e h a v e

re v i e w e d h e re . F i x e d A b i l i t y , h o w e v e r , s e e m s w e l l o u t s i d e t h e c o n s t ru c t o f

ep i s tem olog ica l be l i e fs , and i t i s no t surpr i sing tha t wh i le i t con t inu es to appea r a s

a f a c t o r i t d o e s n o t f o l l o w t h e p a t t e rn s o f o t h e r d i m e n s i o n s o r a p p e a r t o b e a u s e fu l

p r e d i c t o r i n S c h o m m e r ' s r e s e a r c h . T h i s s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n i n t e rp r e t e d a s e v i -

d e n c e t h a t t h e d i m e n s i o n s o p e ra t e i n d e p e n d e n t l y ; i n f a c t, i t m a y b e i n d i c a t i v e o f

t h e l ac k o f r e l a ti o n b e t w e e n F i x e d A b i l it y a n d t h e o t h e r d im e n s i o n s . A s c o n c e i v e d

108




by Dwe c k a nd Le gge t t ( 1988) , t he i de a tha t a n ind iv idua l ho lds e i t he r a n e n t i t y

v i e w o r a n inc r e me n ta l v i e w o f a b il i ty i s pa r t o f on e ' s imp l i c i t t he o r y o f i n t e ll i -

ge nc e . The se be l i e f s a bou t a b i l i t y c a n ha ve mo t iva t iona l powe r , a s t he y l e a d to

e i the r pe r f o r ma nc e o r ma s t e r y goa l s . V ie ws o f i n t e l l i ge nc e , howe ve r , ha ve no t

typ ic a l ly be e n though t o f a s pa r t o f t he c ons t r uc t o f e p i s t e molog ic a l be l i e f s ,

t houg h the y m a y be ind i r e c t ly r e l a t e d to l e a r n ing in t ha t the y m o t iva t e goa l c ho ic e

a nd thus a f f e c t t he a c a de mic b e ha v io r t ha t ensue s . I t s e e ms to u s t ha t f i xe d a b i l it y

be l i e f s c onc e r n the na tu r e o f i n t e l l i ge nc e a s a pe r sona l , p s yc ho log ic a l t ra i t o f a n

ind iv idua l . As suc h , i t i s no t c l e a r ly a d ime ns io n r e ga r d ing the na tu r e o f know l -

e dge a s a ge ne r a l e p i s t e molog ic a l a nd ph i lo soph ic a l que s t ion . A l though be l i e f s

a bou t t he na tu r e o f knowle dge a nd the na tu r e o f i n t e l l i ge nc e o r a b i l i t y ma y be

c o r r e l a t e d w i th on e a no the r , t he y a r e s e pa r a te c ons t r uc t s , and i t s e e ms m or e u se f u l

a nd the o r e t i c a l ly f r u i tf u l t o ke e p the m se pa r at e .

T h e d i m e n s i o n q u i c k l e a rn i n g i s a ls o p r o b l e m a t i c f r o m a n a tu r e o f k n o w l e d g e

pe r spe c t ive . It s e e ms tha t qu i c k l e a r n ing i s a pe r c e p t ion o f t he d i f f i c u l ty o f t he t a sk

o f l e a r n ing a nd a ge ne r a l e xp e c t a t i on o r goa l r e ga r d ing l e a r n ing . A l though be l i e fs

a bou t l e a r n ing a r e p r oba b ly r e l a t e d to be l i e f s a bou t knowle dge , t he y c a n be

d i s t ingu i she d c on c e p tua l ly . A be l i e f a bou t wha t k now le dge i s a nd how i t c a n be

d e s c r ib e d i s n o t th e s a m e a s a b e l i e f a b o u t h o w q u i c k l y o n e m i g h t g o a b o u t

l e a r n ing . A l though the y ma y be c o r r e l a t e d , i t s e e ms use f u l t o s e pa r a t e qu ic k

l e a r n ing be l i e f s f r om be l i e f s a bou t t he c e r t a in ty o r a bso lu t e na tu r e o f know le dge .

Th e ide a o f qu i c k l e a rn ing m a y a l so be r e l a t e d to imp l i c i t the o r i e s o f i n t e l l ige nc e

a nd a b i li t y . A s tude n t w ho th inks t ha t a b il i ty i s f i xe d m a y b e l i ke ly t o be l i e ve tha t

l e a rn ing the n t a ke s p l a c e qu ic k ly o r n o t a t a ll, a s a c on se que nc e o f one ' s a b i l it y .

As no te d e a r l i e r , i n some o f S c homme r ' s s tud i e s t he subse t o f i t e ms de f ine d a s

I nna te Ab i l i t y ha s l oa de d on the f a c to r Qu ic k Le a r n ing . B e l i e f s a bou t whe the r

l e ar n in g i s q u i c k m a y p r e d ic t c o m p r e h e n s i o n a n d p e r f o r m a n c e , b u t t h is d o e s n o t

m e a n i t i s a n e p is t e m o l o g i c a l b e l ie f a b o u t t h e n a tu r e o f k n o w l e d g e o r h o w

kno wle d ge i s j u s t i fi e d .

S c h o m m e r ' s f i ft h h y p o t h e s i z e d d i m e n s i o n , s o u r c e o f k n o w l e d g e , h a s y e t t o b e

e m pi r i c a l ly va lida t e d a s a f a c to r in he r s tud i e s . S t a t e d in t he na ive pe r spe c t ive a s

Om nisc i e n t Au tho r i t y , th i s d im e ns ion i s c onc e p tu a l i z e d a s a c on t inuu m tha t

r a n g e s f r o m t h e b e l i e f t h at k n o w l e d g e i s h a n d e d d o w n f r o m a u t h o r it y t o t h e b e l i e f

tha t it is de r ive d f r om r e a son . Tw o subse t s we r e wr i t t e n f o r t h i s d im e ns ion : D on ' t

C r i t i c iz e Au tho r i t y ( s a mple i te m: P e o p le wh o c ha l l e nge a u tho r i t y a r e ove r c o n f i -

d e n t ) a n d D e p e n d o n A u t h o r i ty ( s a m p l e i te m : H o w m u c h a p e r s o n g et s o u t o f

s c h o o l d e p e n d s o n t h e q u al it y o f th e t e a c h e r ) . S o u r c e o f k n o w l e d g e m a y b e m o r e

c om ple x a nd m u l t i d ime ns iona l t ha n th is wou ld ind i c a te , i nc lud ing no t on ly v i e ws

of a u tho r i t y bu t t he r o l e o f t he s e l f a s knowe r , a s sugge s t e d by B e le nky e t a l .

(1986) .

I n t e r ms o f t he me a su r e me n t i s sue s , c ons t r uc t va l id i ty i s sue s r e ga r d ing the

c on te n t r e p r e se n ta t ive ne s s a nd c on te n t r e l e va nc e ( s ee M e ss i c k , 1989) o f the i t e ms

p l a g u e m u c h o f S c h o m m e r ' s e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l b e l i e f s i n s t r u m e n t . A n u m b e r o f

i t e ms a r e va gue r e mna n t s o f pe r sona l i t y me a su r e me n t w i th que s t iona b le r e l -

e va nc e , un l ike ly to s e r ve w e l l a s ve r y p r e c i se ind i c a to r s o f be l i e fs a bou t k now l -

e d g e . F o r e x a m p l e , s k e p t ic i sm a b o u t t h e v a l u e o f s e l f -h e l p b o o k s m i g h t n o t b e t h e

be s t i nd i c a to r t ha t one doe s no t be l i e ve in t he a b i l i t y t o l e a r n how to l e a r n ( t he

subse t o f w h ic h i t i s a pa rt ) , muc h l e s s i nd i c a t ive o f be l i e f in f i xe d a b i l i ty . The s e

109



ofer and Pintrich

i t e m s m a y i n t r o d u c e a r a t h e r h i g h d e g r e e o f c o n s t r u c t - i r r e l e v a n t v a r i a n c e i n t h e

i n s tr u m e n t . I n g e n e r a l , a c a re f u l e x a m i n a t i o n o f th e s p e c i f i c i te m s d o e s n o t l e a d

t o c o n f i d e n t ju d g m e n t s t h a t t h e i te m s a r e g o o d r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o r s a m p l e s o f th e

c o n t e n t d o m a i n o f e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l b e l ie f s (M e s s i c k , 1 9 9 5 ). F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e

p h r a s i n g o f it e m s s e l e c t e d f r o m o t h e r s o u r c e s v a r i e s i n a w a y t h a t m a k e s i t d if f ic u l t

t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t h e r e s p o n d e n t i s r e f e r r in g t o p e r s o n a l l y h e l d e p i s t e m o l o g i -

c a l b e l ie f s o r p e r c e p t i o n s o f o t h e r s ' g e n e r a l i z e d b e l i e f s . T h e i t e m s i n c l u d e f i r s t-

p e r s o n s t e m s ( I o f t e n w o n d e r h o w m y t e a c h e r r e a l l y k n o w s ) a s w e l l a s t h o s e

p h r a s e d i n s e c o n d - p e r s o n f o r m a t ( Y o u s h o u ld e v a l u a t e th e a c c u r a c y o f i n f o rm a -

t io n i n a t e x t b o o k i f y o u a r e f a m i l ia r w i t h t h e t o p i c ) a n d t h i rd - p e r s o n f o r m a t

( N o t h i n g i s c e r t a i n b u t d e a t h a n d t a x e s ) .

A s m e n t i o n e d p r e v i o u s l y , t h e a b s e n c e o f c o n f i r m a t o r y f a c t o r a n a l y s i s o n t h e

fu l l s la t e o f 63 i t em s , no t j us t t he subse t o f it ems , a l so r a i ses do ubt s abou t t he

e v i d e n c e p r e s e n t e d f o r th e s u b s t a n t i v e v a l i d i ty o f t h e q u e s t i o n n a i re . I t i s n o t c l e a r

f r o m t h e f a c t o r a n a l y s e s w h e t h e r t h e f u ll s e t o f 6 3 i t e m s w o u l d a c t u a l ly l o a d o n t o

t h e f o u r o r f i v e p r o p o s e d f a c t o r s b e c a u s e n o i t e m a n a l y s i s h a s b e e n r e p o r t e d , o n l y

f a c t o r a n a l y s e s o f th e a p r i o r i s u b s e t s o f i te m s . F u r t h e r m o r e , g i v e n t h a t t h e i t e m s

i n t h e s u b s e t s h a v e n o t b e e n e m p i r i c a l l y v e r i f i e d b y S c b o m m e r a n d t h a t t h e

c r e d i b i l i t y o f t h e f a c t o r s t h u s r e s t s o n t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h t h e s u b s e t s l o a d a s

v a r i a b l e s , it is o f s e r io u s c o n c e r n t h a t fo r t w o o f th e f a c t o r s , Q u i c k L e a r n i n g a n d

C e r t a i n K n o w l e d g e , o n l y o n e s u b s e t h a s c o n s i s t e n t l y l o a d e d a c r o s s m u l t i p l e

s t u d ie s . I n o n e r e c e n t s t u d y b y Q i a n a n d A l v e r m a n n ( 1 9 9 5 ) , a n a t t e m p t t o f a c t o r

a n a l y z e t h e i te m s l e d t o a th r e e - f a c t o r m o d e l , w i t h s im p l e a n d c e r ta i n k n o w l e d g e

c o m b i n e d a n d t h e r e d u c t i o n o f t h e q u e s ti o n n a i r e t o 3 2 i t e m s ( t h o s e w i t h a f a c t o r

load ing grea t e r t han . 30) .

M e a s u r i n g e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l b e l i e fs in p a p e r - a n d - p e n c i l q u e s t i o n n a i r e f o r m a t i s

a n a t t r a c ti v e a n d e x p e d i e n t a l t e r n a t i v e to i n t e r v i e w s a n d h a s m a d e i t p o s s i b l e f o r

S c h o m m e r a n d o t h e r s ( e . g . , ( D u n k l e , S c h r a w , B e n d i x e n , & G r o s s k o p f , 1 9 9 4 ) t o

p u r s u e m u l t i p l e s t u d i e s th a t i d e n ti f y th e r e l a ti o n b e t w e e n b e l i e f s a b o u t k n o w l e d g e

a n d o t h e r c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s e s a n d a c t u a l l e a r n i n g . T h i s i s a v e r y i m p o r t a n t

c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e f i e ld b y S c h o m m e r a n d a n i m p o r t a n t a r e a f o r f u t u r e re s e a r c ~ .

H o w e v e r , c o n s i d e r a b l e q u e s t i o n s r e m a i n a b o u t t h i s a p p r o a c h , a s w e l l a s a b o u t t hi s

p a r ti c u la r u s e o f s u r v e y m e t h o d o l o g y . A l t h o u g h e a c h o f t h e d i m e n s i o n s i s c o n c e p -

t u a l i z e d a s a c o n t i n u u m , i t m a y b e d i f f i c u l t t o a s s u m e t h a t a c o n t i n u u m o f

e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l b e l i e f s c a n b e r e p r e s e n t e d o r m e a s u r e d b y s i m p l y s ta t in g e x t r e m e

p o s i t io n s a n d r e g i s t e ri n g d e g r e e s o f a g r e e m e n t . M o r e r e c e n t ly , S c h o m m e r h a s

b e g u n t o o u t l i n e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t b e l i e f s m a y b e b e t t e r r e p r e s e n t e d a s a f r e -

q u e n c y d i s t ri b u t i o n , b u t t h e r e is n o e m p i r i c a l s u b s t a n t i a t i o n o f t h is a s y e t

( S c h o m m e r , 1 9 9 4 a , 1 9 9 4 b ) .

I n p r o p o s i n g t h a t e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l b e l i e f s ar e a s y s t e m o f m o r e o r l e s s i n d e p e n -

d e n t d i m e n s i o n s , S c h o m m e r c l a i m s t h a t l e a r n e r s c o u l d b e s o p h i s t i c a t e d i n s o m e

be l i e f s bu t no t i n o the r s . The ques t i on s t i l l r emains r ega rd ing t he ex t en t t o which

t h e s e d i m e n s i o n s a r e i n d e p e n d e n t a n d w h e t h e r t h e r e m i g h t b e r e a s o n t o e x p e c t

s o m e c o v a r i a n c e a m o n g d i m e n s i o n s , e v e n i f n o t th e s t ru c t u ra l a l i g n m e n t p r e d i c t e d

b y s t a g e t h e o r y . G i v e n t h e s t r en g t h o f p r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h o n e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l

d e v e l o p m e n t , m o r e e v i d e n c e i s n e e d e d t o i d e n t i fy t h e r a n g e o f d i m e n s i o n s a n d t o

t e s t t h e i r i n d e p e n d e n c e t h a n e x i s t s i n S c h o m m e r ' s s t u d i e s t o d a t e .

11




T h e o r e t ic a l a n d M e t h o d o l o g i c a l I s su e s f o r

F u t u r e R e s e a r c h o n p i s t em o l o g i c a i T h e o r i e s

A c r o s s t h e v a r i o u s m o d e l s o f w h a t i n d iv i d u a ls t h i n k t h a t k n o w l e d g e is a n d h o w

o n e c o m e s t o k n o w a r e n u m e r o u s t h e o re t ic a l a n d m e t h o d o l o g i c a l is s ue s . W e h a v e

org an ize d the m into ni_ne_9...ggneral i ssues . F i r . s t~, the ge ner al def ini t io n o f the

c ons t r uc t va r i e s a c r o s s t he fi e ld , a s do t he bounda r i e s . S e c ond , t he r e ha s a l s o be e n

a l a c k o f c onc e p t ua l c l a r i ty a bou t t he e l e m e n t s o r d i m e ns i ons t ha t c ons t i t u t e

i nd i v i dua l e p i s t e m o l og i c a i t he o r i e s o r be l i e f s . T h i r d , a l t hough s om e r e s e a r c he r s

a g r e e th a t v i e w s a b o u t k n o w l e d g e p r o g r e s s i n d e v e l o p m e n t a l s e q u e n c e ( K i n g

K i t c he ne r , 1994; P e r r y , 1970 ), t he p r op os e d s t a ge s va r y s om e w h a t a c r o s s m ode l s .

O t h e r s h a v e q u e s t i o n e d a d e v e l o p m e n t a l s t ag e c o n c e p t u a l iz a t io n a n d h a v e p o s i te d

d i m e n s i o n s t h a t o p e r a t e m o r e o r l e s s i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f o n e a n o t h e r ( S c h o m m e r ,

1994b ) . A f ou r t h i s s ue c onc e r ns how e p i s t e m o i og i c a l be l i e f s m i gh t be r e l a t e d t o

o t he r a s pe c t s o f c ogn i t i ve de ve l op m e n t , a ge , a nd e duc a t ion . A f i f th i s sue c onc e r n s

t he m e c h a n i s m s b y w h i c h i n d i v i d u al s a c q u i r e a n d c h a n g e t h e ir p e r s p e c t iv e s o n

know i ng . T he m a j o r i t y o f e x i s t i ng r e s e a r c h ha s be e n w i t h c o l l e ge s tude n t s , a nd w e

kn ow l i tt le abo ut the or ig ins of these ideas or the i r ea r ly in f luen ces . A s ix th i s sue

c onc e r ns t he dom a i n s pe c i f i c i t y - ge ne r a l i t y i ss ue . A g r ow i ng bod y o f li t e ra t u r e ha s

a l s o a r i s e n a bou t d i s c i p l i ne - s pe c i f ic be l i e f s ( L a m pe r t , 1990 ; M t e t w a G a r o f a l o ,

1989 ; Ro t h Ro yc h oud hur y , 1994 ; S c hoe n f e l d , 1983 , 1988 , 1992 ; S t odo l s ky ,

Sa lk , G la es sne r , 1991 ) , bu t li t tl e has been do ne to a s ses s the in t e rac t ion of these

be l i e f s w i th m or e ge ne r a l e p i s t e m o l og i c a l be li e f s, no r t o r e s o l ve b r oa de r is s ue s o f

dom a i n s pe c i f i c i t y i n e p i s t e m o l og i c a l be l i e f s . T he s e ve n t h i s s ue r e vo l ve s a r ound

t he r e l a t i ons be t w e e n e p i s t e m o l og i c a l be l i e f s a nd i nd i v i dua l s ' c ogn i t i on , m o t i va -

t ion , a nd l e a r n i ng . T he e i gh t h i s s ue c onc e r ns t he na t u r e o f ge nde r , e t hn i c , a nd

c u l t u ra l d i f f e r e nc e s a s c on t e x t. F i na l l y , the r e a r e m e t hod o l og i c a l i s s ue s t ha t ne e d

t o be a dd r e s s e d . E a c h o f t he s e i s s ue s w i l l be d i s c us s e d i n m or e de t a i l be l ow .

onstruct Definition

D e f i n i ng t he c ons t r uc t ba s e d on e x i s t i ng r e s e a r c h i s p r ob l e m a t i c , a s t he r e a r e

d i s c r e pa nc i e s i n na m i ng t he c ons t r uc t a s w e l l a s in de f i n i ng t he c ons t r uc t , t o t he

e x t e n t t ha t i t i s s om e t i m e s unc l e a r t o w ha t de g r e e r e s e a r c he r s a r e d i s c us s i ng t he

s a m e i n t e l le c t ua l t e r ri t o r y . T he r e a r e th r e e ge ne r a l i s s ue s r e ga r d i ng t he de f i n i t i on

o f t he c ons t r uc t . F i r s t, t he r e a r e d i f f e r e nc e s i n t he l a be l i ng o f t he c on s t r uc t t ha t

r e f l e c t d i f f e r e n t the o r e t i c a l a s s um pt i ons a bou t t he na t u r e o f the c ons t r uc t . S e c o nd ,

t he r e a r e d i s a g r e e m e n t s a bou t t he bounda r i e s o f t he c ons t r uc t i n t e r m s o f w ha t i s

i nc l ude d o r e xc l ude d a s pa r t o f t he c ons t r uc t . F i na l l y , t he na t u r e o f t he r e l a t ions

be t w e e n e p i s t e m o l og i c a l t h i nk i ng a nd ge ne r a l t h i nk i ng a nd r e a s on i ng v a r i e s i n t he

d i f f e r e n t m o de l s . W e d i s c us s e a c h o f t he s e th r e e i s s ue s in m or e de t a i l be l ow .

I n t e r m s o f t he f i r s t i s s ue , e a c h o f t he m ode l s de s c r i be s t he c ons t r uc t w i t h a

d i f f e r e n t l a be l t ha t s i gn i f i e s d i f f e r e n t t he o r e t i c a l a s s um pt i ons a bou t bo t h t he

na t u r e o f t he c ons t r uc t a nd i t s f unc t i on . Re s e a r c he r s va r y i n a pp r oa c h i ng t he

c ons t r uc t a s ( a ) a c og n i t i ve de v e l op m e n t a l s t r uc t u r e, ( b ) a s e t o f be l i e f s, a t t it ude s ,

o r a s s um pt i ons t ha t a f f e c t c ogn i t i ve p r oc e s s e s , o r ( c ) a c ogn i t i ve p r oc e s s i t s e l f .

Epistemological development ( Bo ye s Ch a nd l e r , 1992; P e r r y , 1981 ) i m p l i e s t ha t

t he s e i de a s ar e pa r t o f a s tr uc t u r a ll y c ohe r e n t , l og i c a l l y s e que nc e d de v e l op m e n t a l

p r o c e s s . T h e w o r k o f K i n g a n d K i t c h e n e r ( 1 9 9 4 ) a n d t h e i r c o l l e a g u e s p r o p o s e s



Ho fer and Pintrich

that thei r ep i s t emolog ica l assum pt ions are o r g a n i z e d a s c o g n i t iv e d e v e l o p m e n t a l

s t ru c t u re s . A l t h o u g h t h e s e m o d e l s r e c o g n i z e d i f f e re n t c o m p o n e n t s o f e p i s t e m o -

l o g i c a l t h i n k in g , t h e c o g n i t i v e s t r u c tu r e s a n d t h e a c c o m p a n y i n g g e n e r a l l e v e l s o r

s t a g e s p r o p o s e d i n t h e m o d e l s i m p l y t h a t t h e c o m p o n e n t s a r e n o t s e p a r a b l e o r

o r t h o g o n a l d i m e n s i o n s .

O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , ep i s t emolog ica l s tandards o r attitudes, t h e t e r m s f a v o r e d b y

R y a n ( 1 9 8 4 a , 1 9 8 4 b ) , a n d epis temological bel ief s , the t e r m u s e d b y S c h o m m e r

( 1 9 9 4 a ) , a r e n o t o r g a n i z e d i n t o s t a g e s o r l e v e l s , a n d t h e d i f f e r e n t b e l i e f s o r

a t ti tu d e s c a n b e o r t h o g o n a l a n d c a n s h o w v a r i a t io n w i t h i n i n d i v i d u a l s t h a t is n o t

o r g a n i z e d i n a s t a g e l i k e s t ru c t u re . I n a d d i ti o n , a t t it u d e s a n d b e l i e fs m a y c o n n o t e

a p e r s o n a l c o n v i c t i o n o r s i m p l y a n u n v e r i f i e d o p i n i o n , n o t a r e a s o n e d c o g n i t i v e

s t ru c t u re . Y e t a n o t h e r c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n o f t h e c o n s t r u c t h a s b e e n t h a t o f episte-

mo log ica l sO le ( M a r t i n , S i l v a , N e w m a n , & T h a y e r , 1 9 9 4 ) , s u g g e s t e d a s a m o r e

t r a i t l i ke cons t ruc t t ha t r epresen t s a s t ab l e i nd iv idua l d i f f e r ence i n be l i e f s about

e p i s t e m o l o g y .

Bel iefs h a s b e e n a p a r t i c u l a r l y s l i p p e r y t e r m i n t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e ,

t h o u g h a n u m b e r o f i n d i v i d u a l s h a v e a t t e m p t e d t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e l i e f s f r o m a t t i -

t u d e s , t y p i c a l ly a r g u i n g t h a t a tt it u d e s a r e m o r e a f f e c t i v e a n d b e l i e f s m o r e c o g n i -

t iv e ( F i s h b e i n & A j z e n , 1 9 7 5 ). R i c h a r d s o n ( 1 9 9 6 ) o f f e r s a d e f in i t io n o f b e li e f s

c l a i m e d t o b e c o n g r u e n t a c r o s s a n t h r o p o l o g y , s o c i al p s y c h o l o g y , a n d p h i l o s o p h y :

B e l i e f s a r e t h o u g h t o f as p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y - h e l d u n d e r s ta n d i n g s , p r e m i s e s o r p r o p o -

s i ti o n s a b o u t t h e w o r l d t h a t ar e th o u g h t t o b e t r u e ( p . 4 ) . F e n s t e r m a c h e r ( 1 9 9 4 )

h a s p r e s s e d f o r g r e a t e r c o n c e p t u a l c l a r i t y i n t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n bel ief s a n d

knowledge , t e r m s t h a t r e c e n t l y h a v e b e e n u s e d s o m e w h a t i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y i n t h e

t e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n l it e ra t u re . H e m a k e s t h e d i s ti n c ti o n t h a t k n o w l e d g e h a s h i g h e r

e p i s t e m i c s t a tu s t h a n b e l ie f s , a n d t h a t k n o w l e d g e h a s j u s t if i a b l e , s u p p o r t a b l e

c l a i m s . I n t h e c o n t e x t o f e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l m o d e l s , t h is d i s ti n c ti o n w o u l d b e a p p l i -

c a b l e t o m o d e l s t h a t f o c u s o n s t u d e n t s ' r e a s o n i n g a n d ju s t i f ic a t i o n f o r t h e i r

ep i s t emolog i ca i t h ink ing ( e . g . , K ing & Ki t chener , 1994; Pe r ry , 1981) , i n con t r as t

t o m o d e l s t h at d e s c r ib e s t u d e n t s ' e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l b e li e f s a s re l a t iv e l y u n e x a m i n e d

b e l i e f s o r a s s u m p t i o n s ( e . g . , S c h o m m e r , 1 9 9 4 b ) .

B e s i d e s t h e i ss u e o f f o r m , t h e s e c o n d i s s u e c o n c e r n s t h e c o n t e n t o f in d i v i d u a l s '

e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l b e l i e f s a n d t h in k i n g . T a b l e 2 d i s p l a y s a s u m m a r y o f t h e d if f e r e n t

c o n s t r u c t s f r o m t h e v a r i o u s t h e o r i e s a n d m o d e l s . T a b l e 2 w a s d e v e l o p e d b y

c o m p a r i n g a n d c o n t r a s t in g t h e d i f fe r e n t a s p e c t s o f t h e th e o r i e s a n d m o d e l s a n d

c a t e g o r i z i n g t h e s e f e a t u r e s i n t o a g e n e r a l f r a m e w o r k . A c r o s s t h o s e w h o s e w o r k

h a s b e e n r e v i e w e d , t h e r e s e e m s to b e s o m e a g r e e m e n t a b o u t i d e a s t h a t c l u s t e r a s

t w o c o r e s e ts o f c o n c e r n s: t h e n a t u r e o f k n o w l e d g e a n d t h e n a t u r e o r p r o c e s s o f

k n o w i n g , a l t h o u g h n o t a ll o f th e m o d e l s r e v i e w e d d e a l f u l ly w i t h b o t h ( s ee T a b l e

2 ) . T h e s e t w o g e n e r a l e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l d i m e n s i o n s h a v e a l s o b e e n p o i n t e d o u t b y

F e n s t e r m a c h e r ( 1 9 9 4 ) i n hi s r e v i e w o f t h e n a tu r e o f k n o w l e d g e i n r e s e a r c h o n

t each ing .

T h e r e i s l e s s a g r e e m e n t i n t h e e x i s t i n g l i t e r a t u r e o n w h e t h e r b e l i e f s a b o u t

l ea rn ing , i n t e l l i gence , an d t each ing a r e a l so a pa r t o f th i s te r r a in . A s can be see n

in T a b l e 2 , s o m e o f t h e m o d e l s w e h a v e r e v i e w e d h a v e i n c l u d e d t h e s e c o n s t r u c t s

i n t h e i r r e s e a r c h o n e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l b e l i e f s , a l t h o u g h a l l t h e m o d e l s e x c l u d e

b e l i e f s a b o u t in t e l li g e n c e e x c e p t fo r S c h o m m e r ' s . T h e i n c lu s i o n o f l e a r n i n g a n d

p e d a g o g i c a l c o n c e r n s m a y h a v e s t e m m e d f r o m t he e a r ly f o c u s o f in q u ir y , w h i c h

112



TABLE 2

Components from exist ing m odels of epistemological belie f~ and thinking

Core dimensions of Peripheral beliefs about learning, instruc tion,

epistemological theories and intelligence

Nature of Nature of Nature of learning Nature of

Researcher s) knowledge knowing and instruction intelli gence

Perry

Certainty of knowledge Source of knowledge

Absolute ~-~ Contextual Authorities ~ Self

Relativism

Belenky et al.

Baxter Magolda

Certainty of knowledge

Absolute ~ Contextual

Source of knowledge

Received ~-~

Constructed

Outside the sel f ~-~ Self

as maker of meaning

Source of knowledge

Reliance on authority

Self

Justification fo r

knowing

Received or mastery

Evidence judged in

context

Role of learner

Evaluation of learning

Role of peers

Role of instructor



T A B L E 2

continued)

Core d imen sions of Periph era l be l iefs about learn ing , inst ruct ion ,

e p i s t e mo l o g i c a l t h e o r i e s a n d i n t e l li g e n c e

Na t u re o f Na t u re o f Na t u re o f l e a rn in g Na t u re o f

Researcher(s) know ledge know ing and inst ruct ion in te l l igence

Ki n g Ki t c h e n e r

Ce rtain ty f knowledge: Justification for

Certa in , r igh t /wrong

knowing:

~-~ Uncerta in , contex tual Kno wledg e requi res no

just i f ica t ion ~-~

Kn o wl e d g e i s

const ructed , and

j u d g me n t s a re c r i t i c a l l y

reevaluated

Ku h n

Simplicity of

knowledge:

Simp le ~-~ com plex

Source of knowledge:

R e l i a n c e o n a u t h o r i t y

K n o w e r a s

c o n s t ru c t o r o f me a n i n g

Certain~ o f knowledge:

Ab so l u t e , r i g h t / wro n g

a n swe rs ~ Kn o w l e d g e

evaluated on re la t ive

me r i t s

Justification f or

knowing:

Ac c e p t a n c e o f f a c t s ,

u n e x a mi n e d e x p e r t i s e

Ev a l u a t io n o f

e x p e r t i s e

Source of knowledge:

Experts ~-~ Expe rts

cri t ica l ly evaluated



T A B L E 2 continued)

C o re d i me n s i o n s o f Pe r i p h e ra l b e l i e f s a b o u t l e a rn in g , i n s t ru ct i o n ,

e p i s t e mo l o g i c a l t h e o ri e s a n d i n t e l l ig e n c e

N a t u re o f N a t u re o f N a t u re o f l e a rn i n g N a t u re o f

R e se a rc h e r s ) k n o w l e d g e k n o w i n g a n d i n s t ru c ti o n i n t e l l ig e n c e

S c h o m m e r Certainty of knowledge: Source of knowledge: Q u i c k l e a rn i n g In n a t e a b i l i t y

A b so l u t e ~ Te n t a t iv e H a n d e d d o w n f ro m

a n d e v o l v i n g a u t h o r it y ~ D e r i v e d

f ro m re a so n

Simplicity of

knowledge:

I so l a t e d , u n a mb i g u o u s

bi t s ~ In terre la ted

c o n c e p t s



o fe r a n d P in t r ic h

w a s o n c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s ' u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f th e i r e d u c a t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s , a n d th e

f a c t t h a t P e r ry c a s t a w i d e n e t i n h is a t t e m p t to u n d e r s t a n d s t u d e n t p e r c e p t i o n s o f

a p l u r a l i s t i c u n i v e r s i t y . H e m e n t i o n s e p i s t e m o l o g y a s a p a r t o f h i s s c h e m e o f

i n t e l le c t u a l a n d e t h ic a l d e v e l o p m e n t , w h i c h i s s e e n a s e n c o m p a s s i n g t h e w a y s

i n w h i c h s t u d e n t s m a k e m e a n i n g o f th e i r e x p e r i e n c e s .

T h o s e w h o b u i l t o n P e r r y ' s w o r k a n d a t t e m p t e d t o d e s i g n w r i t t e n m e a n s o f

a s s e s s m e n t o f th e P e r r y s c h e m e o f t e n v e e r e d f r o m a f o c u s o n t h e e p i s te m o l o g i c a l .

F o r e x a m p l e , th e L e a r n i n g E n v i r o n m e n t P r e f e r e n c e s ( L E P ; M o o r e , 1 9 8 9 ) a n d t h e

M e a s u r e o f E p i s t e m o l o g i c a l R e f l e c ti o n ( M E R ; B a x t e r M a g o l d a , 1 99 2; B a x t e r

M a g o l d a & P o r te r fi e ld , 1 9 85 ), c o m m o n l y u s e d m e a s u r e s o f t h e P e rr y s c h e m e ,

s e e m t o c o n f o u n d p e r c e p t io n s o f e d u c a ti o n a l e x p e r i e n c e w i t h e p i s te m o l o g y . O n l y

o n e q u e s t i o n s e t i n t h e M E R , w h i c h a s k s w h e t h e r o n e i n s t r u c t o r c a n b e m o r e

c o r r e c t t h a n a n o t h e r i f t h e y g i v e d i f f e r e n t e x p l a n a t i o n s , m i g h t b e c o n s t r u e d a s

e x p l i c i t l y e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l , a l t h o u g h t h e i n s t r u m e n t i s i d e n t i f i e d a s a n e p i s t e m o -

l o g i c a l a s s e s s m e n t to o l . A m o r e t y p i c a l q u e s t i o n i s D o y o u p r e f e r c la s s e s in

w h i c h t h e s tu d e n t s d o a l o t o f t a lk i n g o r w h e r e s t u d e n t s d o n ' t t a l k v e r y m u c h ?

S i m i l a r ly , t h e L E P , m o r e a c c u r a t e l y n a m e d , i s a c h e c k l i s t o f e d u c a t io n a l p r e f e r -

e n c e s f o r le a r n i n g a n d i n s tr u c t io n a l s t y le s . A l th o u g h t h e s e i n s t ru m e n t s w e r e

d e s i g n e d t o m e a s u r e a s p e c t s o f P e r r y ' s m o d e l , a c a re f u l re v i e w o f P e r r y ' s p o s i -

t io n s d o e s n o t s h o w t h e s e i s s u e s o f c l a s s r o o m l e a r n in g a n d t e a c h i n g a s p a r t o f t h e

o r i g i n a l s c h e m e . A c c o r d i n g l y , w e h a v e n o t li s te d i s su e s o f c l a s s r o o m l e a r n i n g a n d

t e a c h i n g ( s u c h a s r o l e o f i n s tr u c t o r, r o l e o f p e e r s , c l a s s r o o m a t m o s p h e r e , g r a d i n g

a n d e v a l u a t i o n ) i n T a b l e 2 a s p a r t o f P e r r y ' s m o d e l .

I t i s no t c l ea r i f be l i e f s about l ea rn ing , i n t e l l i gence , and t each ing shou ld be

c o n s i d e r e d a s c en t r a l c o m p o n e n t s o f e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l b e l ie f s . O n o n e h a n d , t h e y

d o n o t e x p l i c i tl y d e a l w i th t h e n a tu r e o f k n o w l e d g e o r k n o w i n g i n t e r m s o f h o w

k n o w l e d g e i s d e f i n e d a n d j u s t i fi e d a s m o s t p h i l o s o p h i c a l a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l

t r e a t m e n t s h a v e d e f i n e d t h i s d o m a i n . A s s h o w n i n T a b l e 2 , t h e y a r e n o t r e p r e -

s e n t e d i n a ll th e m o d e l s t o th e s a m e e x t e n t a s b e l i e f s a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f k n o w l -

e d g e a n d k n o w i n g . I n t e rm s o f c o n c e p t u a l c l a r it y , it s e e m s t o u s t h a t t h e d o m a i n

o f e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l b e l i e f s s h o u l d b e l i m i t e d t o i n d i v i d u a l s ' b e l i e f s a b o u t k n o w l -

e d g e a s w e l l a s r e a s o n i n g a n d j u s ti f i c a ti o n p r o c e s s e s r e g a r d i n g k n o w l e d g e . O n t h e

o t h e r h a n d , b e l i e f s a b o u t l e a r n i n g a n d t e a c h i n g a r e r e l a t e d t o h o w k n o w l e d g e i s

a c q u i r e d , a n d i n t e r m s o f th e p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e a l it y o f th e n e t w o r k o f i n d i v i d u a l s '

b e l i e f s , b e l i e f s a b o u t l e a r n i n g , te a c h i n g , a n d k n o w l e d g e a r e p r o b a b l y i n t e r tw i n e d .

A t h i rd c o n f o u n d i n g i n th e d e f i n i ti o n o f t h e c o n s t r u c t c o n c e r n s t h e d i f f e r e n c e s

b e t w e e n e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t t he p r o c e s s o f k n o w i n g a n d g e n e r a l

t h i n k i n g a n d r e a s o n i n g p r o c e s s e s , s u c h a s a r g u m e n t a t i o n s k i l l s a n d i n d u c t i v e

r e a s o n i n g . B e c a u s e t h i n k i n g a n d r e a s o n i n g p r o c e s s e s , s u c h a s fo r m s o f a r g u m e n t

( D . K u h n , 1 99 1 ) a n d r e a s o n i n g a b o u t i l l -s t ru c t u r e d p r o b l e m s ( K i n g & K i t c h e n e r ,

1 9 9 4 ) , e l i c i t e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l a s s u m p t i o n s , i t h a s b e e n m e a n i n g f u l t o s t u d y t h e m

t o g e t h e r , b u t t h e y c a n b e s e p a r a t e d c o n c e p t u a l l y . I n f a c t , b y d i s t i n g u i s h i n g b e -

t w e e n e p i s t e m o i o g i c a l b e l i e f s a n d t h i n k i n g a n d r e a s o n i n g p r o c e s s e s , g r e a t e r c l a r -

i t y c a n b e a c h i e v e d a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s e c o n s t r u c t s a s w e l l a s t h e r e l a t i o n s

b e t w e e n t h e m .

E p i s t e m o l o g i c a l t h i n k i n g i s d e s c r i b e d a s a c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s , a s i n e p i s t e m i c

c o g n i t i o n ( K i t c h e n e r , 1 9 8 3 ) o r e p i s t e m i c r e f l e c t i o n ( B a x t e r M a g o l d a , 1 9 9 2 ) , o r

s i m p l y a s w a y s o f k n o w i n g ( B e l e n k y e t a l. , 1 9 8 6 ), w h i c h i n v o l v e t h e w a y s i n

116




wh ic h ind iv idua l s th ink a bou t t he p r oc e s s o f know ing . As sh ow n in Ta b le 2 , t he

d i f f e r e n t m ode l s ha v e inc lude d the na tu r e o f know ing , w h ic h invo lve s be l ie f s

a bou t t he sou r c e o f knowle dge , r a ng ing f r om a r e l i a nc e on e xpe r t s t o p r ov ide

know le dge to m or e s e l f - c ons t r uc t ive p r oc e s se s . A se c on d a spe c t o f t he na tu r e o f

k n o w i n g i n v o l v e s th e r o l e o f e v i d e n c e a n d t h e p r o c e s s e s o f j u s t if y i n g k n o w l e d g e .

The se p r oc e s se s a r e u sua l ly a s sum e d to be c ogn i t i ve p r oc e s se s o f a h ighe r l e ve l

tha n s imp le i nduc t ive r e a son ing o r ge ne r a l c r i t i c a l t h ink ing . K i t c he ne r ( 1983)

sugge s t s t ha t e p i s te m olog ic a l c ogn i t i on is t o be d i s ti ngu i she d f r o m bo th c ogn i t i on

a nd m e ta c ogn i t i on , a nd tha t e p i s t e m ic c ogn i t i on i s a t h i r d - o r de r mon i to r ing p r o -

c e s s o f t he e p i s t e mic na tu r e o f p r ob le ms . W i lk in son a nd S c hwa r t z ( 1987) a l so

spe a k o f e p i s t e molog ic a l o r i e n t a t i on a s a h ighe r - o r de r p r oc e s s t ha t gu ide s c ogn i -

t i ve p r oc e s se s . Th i s d i s t i nc t ion be twe e n th ink ing a bou t how kno wle dge i s ge ne r -

a t e d a nd ju s t i f i e d in c omp a r i son to m or e sp e c i f ic i nduc t ive r e a son ing a nd th ink ing

is impor tan t to ma in ta in in fu ture re sea rch .

G iv e n th i s a na lys i s o f t he t h r ee i s sue s r e ga r d ing the d e f in i t ion o f t he c ons t r uc t

o f e p i s t e molog ic a l be l ie f s , we p r opo se tha t t he c on te n t o f t he c ons t r uc t o f e p i s t e -

mo log ic a l be l ie f s be l im i t e d to i nd iv idua l s ' be l i e f s a bou t t he na tu r e o f know le dge

a nd the p r oc e s se s o f knowing . W e r e c og n iz e t ha t be l i e f s a bou t l e a r n ing , i n te l li -

ge nc e , a nd t e a c h ing a r e r e l a t e d to e p i s t e m olog ic a l be l i e f s a nd tha t ge ne r a l t h ink -

ing a nd r e a son ing p r oc e s se s a r e a l so r e l a t e d to e p i s t e molog ic a l t h ink ing . How-

e ve r , we th ink tha t t h i s de l imi t a t i on o f t he c ons t r uc t w i l l p r ov ide c l a r i t y t o t he

r e se a r c h a nd the o r i z ing in t he fi e ld a nd l e a d to mo r e p r og r e s s i n ou r unde r s t a nd ing

o f t he s t ruc tu r e a nd f unc t ion o f e p i s t e molog ic a l be l i e f s t ha n mo r e g loba l a nd

inc lus ive de f in i t ions .

I n t e r ms o f t he f o r m o r s t r uc tu r e o f e p i s t e molog ic a l be l i e f s , we p r opose tha t

i n d i v id u a l s ' b e l i e f s a b o u t k n o w l e d g e a n d t h e p r o c e s s o f k n o w i n g b e c o n s i d e r e d a s

pe r sona l t heor ies Thi s p r oposa l i s i n l i ne w i th t he c onc e p tua l c ha nge l i t e r a tu r e

( C a r e y , 1985 ; Vo sn ia dou B r e w e r , 1994 ; W e l lma n Ge lm a n , 1992) a s we l l a s

the r e se a r c h on the o r y o f mind ( W e l lma n , 1990) wh ic h sugge s t s t ha t i nd iv idua l s '

knowle dge in a doma in i s s t r uc tu r e d in wa ys a na logous to how the o r i e s a r e

s t r uc tu r e d in s c i e nc e . As in t he c onc e p tua l c ha nge l i t e r a tu r e , t h i s p r oposa l t o

r e p r e se n t e p i s t e mo log ic a l be l i e f s a nd th ink ing a s a pe r sona l t he o r y tha t a n ind i -

v i d ua l h o l d s s e e m s t o b e a g o o d c o m p r o m i s e b e t w e e n t h e o v e r l y g e n e ra l s t a g e

mo de l s t ha t do no t a l l ow f o r w i th in - s t a ge va r i a t i on in t he s t r uc tu r e o f be l i e f s ( i .e . ,

t he p r ob le m o f ho r i z on ta l de c a l a ge ) a nd mo de l s t ha t sugge s t t ha t e p i s t e m olog ic a l

be l i e f s a nd th ink ing c a n be o r tho gona l d ime ns ion s a nd do no t ne c e s sa r i l y ha ve to

c o h e r e i n t o s o m e m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e s t ru c tu r e .

I t r e ma ins t o be s e e n e mpi r i c a l ly i f i nd iv idua l s ' p e r sona l ly he ld e p i s t e molog ic a l

be l i e f s a nd th ink ing c a n be s t be c ha r a c t e r i z e d a s a t he o r y . Howe ve r , W e l lma n

( 1990) sugge s t s t h r e e c r i t e r i a f o r c ons ide r ing a body o f knowle dge a s a t he o r y .

F i rs t , W e l ima n no te s t ha t a the o r y shou ld ha v e som e c ohe r e nc e a mo ng i t s c ons t i -

t u t i ve i de as a nd c on c e p t s . A t one e nd o f a c on t inuu m o f c oh e r e nc e is d i s c r e t e f a c ts

a nd ide a s t ha t a r e no t w e l l c onne c t e d . A t t he o the r e nd i s a f o r m a l t he o r y , suc h a s

a s c i e n ti f ic t he o r y w i th t he o r e m s a nd p r inc ip le s , wh ic h p r ov ide s a c oh e r e nc e to t he

i d ea s a n d c o n c e p ts . A s a b o d y o f k n o w l e d g e a p p r o a c h e s t h e t h e o r y e n d o f th e

c on t inuum , the i de a s a nd c onc e p t s be c om e mo r e in t e r c onne c te d , a nd ind iv idua l

c onc e p t s a r e de f ine d in t e r ms o f the i r r el a t ions w i th o the r i de as a nd c onc e p t s i n t he

doma in . G ive n the p r e v ious r e se a r c h on e p i s t e molog ic a l be l i e f s a nd th ink ing

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Ho fer and Pintrich

r e v i e w e d h e r e , i t a p p e a r s t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s ' b e l i e fs a b o u t k n o w l e d g e a n d h o w t h e y

t h i n k a b o u t k n o w l e d g e a r e i n t e r c o n n e c t e d i n c o m p l e x a n d c o h e r e n t w a y s . A s a n

e x a m i n a t i o n o f T a b l e 2 s h o w s , t h e d i ff e r e n t a s p e c t s o f b e l i e f s a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f

k n o w l e d g e a n d p r o c e s s o f t h i n k i n g a r e i n te r r e la t e d i n a w a y t h a t c o u l d b e c o n s i d -

e r e d t h e o r y - l i k e . O f c o u r s e , w e a r e n o t s u g g e s t i n g t h a t in d i v i d u a l s h a v e a f o r m a l

e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l t h e o r y a s w o u l d a p r o f e s s i o n a l p h i l o s o p h e r , b u t r a th e r t h a t in d i -

v i d u a l s ' i d e a s a b o u t k n o w l e d g e a r e t o w a r d s t h e th e o r y e n d o f t h e c o n t i n u u m a n d

are no t j us t d i sc r e t e , unre l a t ed b i t s o f know ledge .

W e l l m a n ' s ( 1 9 9 0 ) s e c o n d c r it e r io n f o r c o n s id e r i n g a b o d y o f k n o w l e d g e a s a

t h e o r y i s th a t i t m a k e s o m e o n t o l o g i c a l d i s t i n c ti o n s b e t w e e n c e r t a in e n t i ti e s a n d

p r o c e s s e s i n th e d o m a i n . T h a t i s , t h e t h e o r y h e l p s t o s p e c i f y w h a t i s i n th e d o m a i n

a n d h o w t h e o b j e c t s in t h e d o m a i n a r e t o b e c a t e g o r i z e d . A s c a n b e s e e n i n T a b l e

2 , t h e d i f f e r e n t m o d e l s a l l s e e m t o m a k e s o m e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e n a t u r e o f

k n o w l e d g e a n d t h e p r o c e s s o f k n o w i n g . I n a d d i ti o n , t h e m o d e l s d i s t in g u i s h

b e t w e e n t h e c e r t a in t y o f k n o w l e d g e a n d t h e s o u r c e o f k n o w l e d g e . T h e s e d i s t in c -

t i o n s d o s e e m t o h a v e i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r i n d i v i d u a l s ' t h i n k i n g . F o r e x a m p l e , f r o m

t h e r e s e a rc h w e h a v e r e v i e w e d , i t d o e s a p p e a r th a t if a n i n d i v id u a l m a k e s a n

o n t o l o g i c a l c o m m i t m e n t t o a p a r t i c u l a r s t a n c e r e g a r d i n g t h e c e rt a i n t y o f k n o w l -

edge ( i . e . , abso lu t i s t ve r sus r e l a t i v i s t i c ) , t hen t hey wi l l pe rce ive and t h ink about

t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e i n a c e r t a i n m a n n e r . T h i s s u p p o r t s t h a t i d e a t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s '

e p i s t e m o i o g i c a l b e l i e f s c a n f u n c t i o n a s a th e o r y w h i c h c a n g u i d e t h e i r su b s e q u e n t

th ink ing as i n o the r t heory-dr iven p rocesses ( e . g . , s c i en t i f i c t h ink ing as t heory-

dr iven) .

T h e t h ir d c r i te r i o n s u g g e s t e d b y W e l l m a n ( 1 9 9 0 ) i n v o l v e s th e i d e a t h a t a t h e o r y

p r o v i d e s a c a u s a l -e x p l a n a t o r y f r a m e w o r k f o r t he p h e n o m e n a i n th e d o m a i n . F o r

e x a m p l e , i t a p p e a r s t h a t i n d i v id u a l s d o h a v e n a i v e t h e o r ie s i n t h e d o m a i n s o f

b i o l o g y , p h y s i c s , a n d p s y c h o l o g y a n d t h a t th e s e n a i v e t h e o r ie s d o i n c l u d e v a r i o u s

c a u s a l -e x p l a n a t o r y fr a m e w o r k s f o r th e p h e n o m e n a i n t h o se d o m a i n s ( s e e W e l l m a n

& G elm an , 1992). I t i s no t c l ea r i f t h i s is the case wi th ep i s t em olog i ca l be l i e f s ,

a l t h o u g h i t m a y b e t h a t a s p e c t s o f t h e n a t u re o f k n o w l e d g e c a n a c t a s c o n s t ra i n t s

o n t h e p r o c e s s e s o f k n o w i n g . F o r e x a m p l e , i f o n e b e l i e v e s t h a t k n o w l e d g e i s

a b s o l u t e , t h e n i t m a k e s s e n s e t h a t t h e s o u r c e o f k n o w l e d g e w o u l d b e a u t h o r i t y

f ig u r e s . T h i s m a y n o t b e a s t ro n g e x e m p l a r o f a c a u s a l- e x p l a n a t o ry f r a m e w o r k ,

a n d c e r t a i n l y m o r e e m p i r i c a l re s e a r c h i s n e e d e d t o te s t o u r p r o p o s a l t h a t e p i s t e m o -

log i ca l be l i e f s can bes t be r eprese n t ed as t heor i e s . A l tho ugh i t s eem s l i ke ly tha t the

f i r s t two c r i t e r i a can be app l i ed t o ep i s t em olog i ca l be l i e f s a s t heor ie s , i t is no t c l ea r

i f t h e c a u s a l - e x p l a n a t o r y f r a m e w o r k c r i t e r i o n i s a p p l i c a b l e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , w e

t h in k t h a t c o n c e p t u a l i z in g e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l b e l i e f s a n d t h i n k in g i n te r m s o f in d i -

v i d u a l s ' t h e o r i e s a b o u t t h e n a tu r e o f k n o w l e d g e a n d p r o c e s s e s o f t h in k i n g w i ll b e

he lpfu l i n c l a r i fy ing and de f in ing t he cons t ruc t .

~ - O i m e n s i o n s

A s n o t e d i n T a b l e 2 , p e r s o n a l e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l t h e o r i e s ar e m a d e u p o f m u l t i p l e

d i m e n s i o n s . T h e s e d i m e n s i o n s a p p e a r e x p l i c i t l y i n s o m e o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a l

m o d e l s ( B a x t e r M a g o l d a , 1 9 9 2; K i n g & K i t c h e n e r , 1 9 9 4 ) a n d m u s t b e i n f e r re d in

o the r s (D . K uhn , 1991; Pe r ry , 1970) , bu t a l l t he mod e l s i nc lude con t en t r e l a t ed to

t h e n a tu r e o f k n o w l e d g e a n d t h e p r o c e s s e s o f k n o w i n g . T h e s p e c i f i c c o n t e n t o f

t h e s e d i m e n s i o n s v a r i e s s o m e w h a t a c r o s s th e d i f fe r e n t m o d e l s , a n d a n a t t e m p t w i l l

118




b e m a d e h e r e t o i d e n t i f y c o m m o n e l e m e n t s w i t h i n t h e p r o p o s e d c o n s t r u c t o f

epistemological theories.

W h e n w e e l i m i n a t e t h o s e d i m e n s i o n s t h at r e la t e e x p l ic -

i tl y to e duc a t i ona l e xpe r i e nc e o r t o l e a r n ing r a t he r t ha n kn ow i ng ( e .g . , role o f the

instructor in B a x t e r M a g o l d a ' s m o d e l o r quick learning in S c h o m m e r ' s m o d e l)

a nd t hos e t ha t ar e no t re p r e s e n t e d i n o t he r m ode l s e xc e p t one

e.g.,fixed ability

in

S c h o m m e r ' s m o d e l ) , t h e r e m a i n i n g d i m e n s i o n s c a n b e c l u s t e r e d u n d e r t h e t w o

a r e a s i de n t if i e d e a r li e r , be l ie f s a bou t t he na t u r e o f kn ow l e dge a nd t he na t u r e o r

p r o c e s s o f k n o w i n g ( s e e T a b l e 2 ).

W e p r opos e t ha t t he s e t w o ge ne r a l a r e a s r e p r e s e n t t he c o r e s t r uc t u r e o f i nd i -

v i dua l s ' e p i s t e m o l og i c a l t he o r i e s . W i t h i n t he s e t w o ge ne r a l a r e a s o f na t u r e o f

k n o w l e d g e a n d n a tu r e o f k n o w i n g , w e s u g g e s t t h a t t h e re a r e t w o d i m e n s i o n s e a c h ,

p r ov i d i ng f o u r d i m e ns i o ns o f e p i s t e m o l og i c a l the o r i e s. A s s how n i n the i t a li c i z e d

he a d i ngs i n the c e l l s o f T a b l e 2 , unde r nature o f knowledge w e s ugge s t t ha t t he re

a r e t w o d i m e ns i ons :

certainty o f knowledge

a n d

simplicity o f knowledge.

W i t h i n

t he a r e a o f nature of knowing w e p r o p o s e t w o o t h e r d i m e n s i o n s : source o f

knowledge

a n d

justification fo r knowing. The

f o u r d i m e n s i o n s w e h a v e i n c l u d e d

a r e r e p r e s e n t e d i n m os t o f t he m o de l s s u m m a r i z e d i n T a b l e 2 . I n a dd it i on , t he

a s p e c ts w e h a v e e x c l u d e d a r e n o t r e p r e s e n te d in m a n y o f th e m o d e l s , a n d s o m e o f

t hos e a s pe c t s a r e le s s c l e a r l y e p i s t e m o l og i c a l in na t u r e . W e hy po t h e s i z e t ha t t he s e

f ou r d i m e n s i ons s hou l d be c o ns i de r e d t he c o r e o f a n ind i v i dua l ' s t he o r y , w h i l e t he

o t he r be l i e f s a bou t l e a r n ing , t e a c h i ng , a nd i n t e l l i ge nc e m a y be r e l a t e d t o t he c o r e

d i m e ns i ons bu t a r e pe r i phe r a l t o a n i nd i v i dua l ' s t he o r y , a na l ogous t o t he d i s t i nc -

t ion b e t w e e n c o r e a nd p e r i phe r a l i de a s i n the c onc e p t ua l c ha n ge l it e r at u r e ( P i n tr ic h ,

M a r x , Bo y l e , 1993) . O f c ou r s e , t h is m ode l o f f ou r d i m e ns i on s w il l ne e d to be

e xp l i c i t ly t e s t e d i n e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h .

I t m a y be t ha t t he m or e pe r i phe r a l i de a s a bou t l e a r n i ng a nd t e a c h i ng a r e

d e v e l o p m e n t a l p r e c u r so r s t o th e c o r e i d e a s a b o u t e p i s te m o l o g y . T h e r e s e a r c h w e

ha ve r e v i e w e d s ugge s t s t ha t e p i s t e m o l og i c a l t h i nk i ng i s r e l a t i ve l y l a t e - de ve l op -

i ng , ye t c h i l d r e n ha v e a f a i r a m oun t o f e a r l y e xpe r i e n c e w i t h l e a r n i ng a nd t e a c h i ng

s i tua t i ons in hom e , s c hoo l , a nd c om m un i t y se t ti ngs . A c c o r d i n g l y , e p i s t e m o l og i c a l

t he o r i e s a re no t f r a m e w or k t he o r i e s i n the s e ns e t ha t c h i l d r e n ' s t he o r i e s o f b i o l -

o g y , p h y s i c s, a n d p s y c h o l o g y a r e a s s u m e d t o b e in t h e c o g n i t iv e d e v e l o p m e n t a l

l it e r a tu r e ( W e l l m a n , 1990 ; W e l l m a n G e l m a n , 1992 ). H o w e ve r , c ons i de r i ng t he

f o u r d i m e n s i o n s t o b e a s p e c t s o f a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s p e r s o n a l th e o r y o f e p i s t e m o l o g y

doe s s ugge s t t ha t t he d i m e ns i ons a r e r e l a t e d t o e a c h o t he r i n c ohe r e n t a nd i n t e r -

n a l ly c o n s i s t en t w a y s , d o m a k e s o m e i m p o r t a n t d is ti n c ti o n s a b o u t k n o w l e d g e , a n d

m a y p r o v i d e a c a u s a l - e x p l a n a t o r y f r a m e w o r k f o r th i n k in g a b o u t k n o w l e d g e .

W e t u r n n o w t o a d e s cr i p ti o n o f th e f o u r d i m e n s i o n s .

Nature o f Knowledge

W h a t o n e b e l i e v e s k n o w l e d g e i s u n d e rl ie s m o s t o f t h e m o d e l s p r e s e n t e d . I n t h e

d e v e l o p m e n t a l s c h e m e s , t h is i s v ie w e d a s a p r o g r e s s i v e u n d e r s ta n d i n g t h at m o v e s

f r om t he v i e w o f know l e dge a s a bs o l u t e t o a r e l a t i v i s t i c v i e w a nd t he n t o a

c on t e x t ua l , c ons t r uc t i v i st s ta nc e . I n S c ho m m e r ' s f a c t o r a na l y s i s, na t u r e o f kno w l -

e d g e i s c a p t u r e d i n t h e f a c t o r s S i m p l e K n o w l e d g e a n d C e r t a i n K n o w l e d g e . T h e

v a r i o u s a s p e c ts o f t h e n a tu r e o f k n o w l e d g e c a n b e d e f i n e d f u r t h e r a lo n g t w o

d i m e ns i ons ( s e e T a b l e 2 ) :

Certainty o f knowledge. T h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h o n e s e e s k n o w l e d g e a s f i x e d o r

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Hofer and Pintrich

m o r e f lu i d a p p e a r s t h r o u g h o u t t h e r e s e a r c h , a g a i n w i t h d e v e l o p m e n t a l i s t s li k e l y t o

s e e t h i s a s a c o n t i n u u m t h a t c h a n g e s o v e r t i m e , m o v i n g f r o m a f i x e d t o a m o r e

f lu id v i ew. At l ower l eve l s , abso lu t e t ru th ex i s t s w i th ce r t a in ty . A t h igher l eve l s ,

k n o w l e d g e i s t e n t a t i v e a n d e v o l v i n g . O p e n n e s s t o n e w i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s a k e y

e l e m e n t o f K i n g a n d K i t c h e n e r ' s ( 1 9 9 4 ) h i g h e s t s t a g e o f r e fl e c t i v e j u d g m e n t , a n d

D . K u h n ( 1 9 9 1 ) s p e a k s o f e v a l u a t i v e e p i s te m o l o g i s t s ( th e h i g h e s t l e v e l ) a s o p e n

t o th e p o s s i b i l it y t h a t th e i r t h e o ri e s m a y b e m o d i f i e d b y g e n u i n e i n t e rc h a n g e .

Simplicity o f knowledge A s c o n c e p t u a li z e d b y S c h o m m e r , k n o w l e d g e i s v i e w e d

o n a c o n t i n u u m a s a n a c c u m u l a t i o n o f f a c t s o r a s h i g h l y i n t e r re l a te d c o n c e p t s .

W i t h i n o t h e r s c h e m e s , t h e l o w e r - l e v e l v i e w o f k n o w l e d g e i s a s d i sc r e te , c o n c r e t e ,

k n o w a b l e f a c ts ; a t h i g h e r l e v e l s i n d i v id u a l s s e e k n o w l e d g e a s r e l at i v e , c o n t i n g e n t ,

a n d c o n t e x t u a l .

Nature o f Knowing

B e l i e f s a b o u t th e p r o c e s s b y w h i c h o n e c o m e s t o k n o w h a v e b e e n a c e n tr a l p a r t

o f t h e s t u d y o f e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t . T h i s i n c l u d e s b e l i e f s a b o u t t h e

s o u r c e o f k n o w l e d g e a n d t h e j u s t i fi c a t io n f o r k n o w i n g , w h i c h i n c l u d e s e v a l u a t i o n

o f e v i d e n c e , t h e r o l e o f a u t h o r i ty , a n d t h e p r o c e s s o f j u s t i fi c a t i o n ( s e e T a b l e 2 ).

Source of knowledge A t l o w e r l e v e l s o f m o s t o f t h e m o d e l s , k n o w l e d g e

o r i g i n a t e s o u t s id e t h e s e l f a n d r e s i d e s i n e x t e r n a l a u t h o r it y , f r o m w h o m it m a y b e

t r a n s m i t t e d . T h e e v o l v i n g c o n c e p t i o n o f s e l f a s k n o w e r , w i t h t h e a b i l i t y t o c o n -

s t r u c t k n o w l e d g e i n i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h o t h e r s , i s a d e v e l o p m e n t a l t u r n i n g p o i n t o f

m o s t m o d e l s r e v i e w e d . P e r r y ( 1 9 7 0 ) d e s c r i b e d t h i s a w a r e n e s s a s o n e o f t h e sh i f ts

in hi s m o d e l , w h e n t h e p e rs o n , p r e v io u s l y a h o l d e r o f m e a n i n g , b e c o m e s a m a k e r

o f m e a n i n g ( p . 8 7 ). H e s p e a k s o f a r e b i r t h i n t h o s e w h o e x p e r i e n c e i n

t h e m s e l v e s t h e o r ig i n o f m e a n i n g s, w h i c h t h e y h a d p r e v i o u s l y e x p e c t e d t o c o m e

t o t h e m f r o m o u t s i d e ( p . 9 2 ). S i m i l a r l y , K i n g a n d K i t c h e n e r (1 9 9 4 ) d e s c r i b e a

s h i ft in th e a c t i o n o f k n o w i n g i n t h e h i g h e r s t a g e s , w i th t h e k n o w e r m o v i n g f r o m

s p e c t a t o r t o a c t i v e c o n s t r u c t o r o f m e a n i n g . B e l e n k y e t a l . ( 1 9 8 6 ) p r o v i d e d t h e

m o s t e x t e n s i v e e l a b o r a ti o n o n t he i s s u e o f s o u r c e o f k n o w l e d g e , w h i c h b e c a m e t h e

f o c al p o in t i n th e i r st u d y o f h o w w o m e n c o m e t o k n o w . B a x t e r M a g o l d a ( 1 9 9 2 )

d e s c r i b e s a n e v o l u t i o n i n k n o w i n g t h a t f o c u s e s o n s h i ft s in t h e r o l e o f le a r n e r , th e

r o l e o f p e e r s , a n d t h e r o le o f i n st r u ct o r . S c h o m m e r ( 1 9 9 0 , 1 9 9 4 b ) h a s p o s t u l a t e d

s o u r c e o f k n o w l e d g e a s a fi f th d i m e n s i o n i n h e r t h e o r y o f e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l b e l ie f s ,

a l t h o u g h i t s e x i s t e n c e h a s n o t b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d e m p i r i c a l l y . S h e h a s a t t e m p t e d

t o m e a s u r e s o u r c e i n a m o r e l i m i t e d f a s h io n , f o c u s i n g o n b e l i e f s a b o u t a u th o r i ty .

Justification for knowing T h i s d i m e n s i o n i n c l u d e s h o w i n d i v i d u a l s e v a l u a t e

k n o w l e d g e c l a i m s , i n c l u d i n g t h e u s e o f e v i d e n c e , t h e u s e t h e y m a k e o f a u t h o ri t y

a n d e x p e r t is e , a n d t h e i r e v a l u a t i o n o f e x p e r ts . A s i n d i v i d u a ls l e a rn t o e v a l u a t e

e v i d e n c e a n d t o s u b s t a n t ia t e a n d ju s t i f y t h e i r b e li e f s, t h e y m o v e t h r o u g h a c o n -

t i n u u m o f d u a l is t ic b e l i e f s to t h e m u l t ip l i st ic a c c e p t a n c e o f o p i n i o n s t o r e a s o n e d

jus t i f i ca t i on fo r be l i e f s .

Developmental Progression and Stage Issues

M o s t o f th o s e w h o h a v e s tu d i e d e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l b e l ie f s h a v e c o n c l u d e d t h a t

t h e re i s s o m e d e v e l o p m e n t a l p r o g r e s si o n o f t h e se b e l i e fs i n th e m o v e m e n t to

a d u l t h o o d , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r t h o s e w h o e x p e r i e n c e a c o l l e g e e d u c a t i o n . K i n g a n d

K i t c h e n e r , w i th r e s u l t s f r o m 1 5 y e a r s o f b o t h c r o s s - s e c ti o n a l a n d l o n g i tu d i n a l

120




s tud ie s , ma ke the s t r onge s t c l a ims , s t a t i ng tha t t he s e que nc e in t he i r mode l

cons is t s o f s tages , wi th an invar ian t , h ie ra rch ica l sequence tha t i s s t ruc tura l ly

in t eg r a t ed . O the r s, a s K ur f i s s (1988) no te s , ha ve c hose n to u se t he t e r ms position

and

perspective

r a the r t ha n a c c e p t t he de t e r min i s t i c , i n t e g r a t ive a s sumpt ions o f

s t age m ode l s , ye t mos t p r e se n t a h ie r a r c h i c a l s e que nc e w i th de v e lopm e n ta l imp l i -

c a t ions ( s e e Ta b le 1 ). I n sp i t e o f t he va r ious a pp r oa c he s , me thodo log ie s , s a mple s ,

a nd de s igns , t he r e is a g r e e m e n t a c r os s s tud i e s a s t o t he ge ne r a l t re nd o f de ve lop -

me n t . W i th in t he se m ode l s i t a ppe a r s t ha t t he v i e w o f know le dge i s t r a ns f o r me d

f r om on e in wh ic h kn ow le dge i s r igh t o r wr on g to a pos i ti on o f r e l a ti v i sm a nd the n

to a pos i t ion in w h ic h ind iv idua l s a r e a c t ive c ons t r uc to r s o f m e a n ing , a b l e t o m a ke

judgme n t s a nd c ommi tme n t s i n a r e l a t i v i s t i c c on te x t .

Da nne f e r ( 1984) no te s t ha t de ve lopme n ta l t he o r i e s ma y f a l l i n to t he t r a p o f

o n t o g e n e t i c r e d u c t i o n i s m - - t h e p r a c t i c e o f t r e a t i n g s o c i a l l y p r o d u c e d a n d p a t -

t e r ne d phe no m e na a s r oo te d in t he cha r a c t e r is t i c s o f the i nd iv idua l o r ga n i sm .

A l t h o u g h P i a g e ti a n t h e o r y a n d m o s t o f t h e e p i st e m o l o g i c a l s c h e m e s c o v e r e d h e r e

ha ve p r e sume d a n in t e r a c t ion i s t mode l , t he s tudy o f e p i s t e molog ic a l be l i e f s ha s

t r e a te d the m a s i nd iv idua l c ogn i t i ve c ons tr uc t s . No s tud ies t o da t e ha ve a t t e m p te d

to look a t be l i e f s i n a mor e s i t ua t e d f a sh ion , a l t hough R o th a nd R oyc houdhur y

( 1994) go so fa r a s to sugge s t t ha t i t migh t be mor e a pp r op r i a t e to spe a k o f

e p i s t e mo log ic a l pos i t ions o n ly in spe c i f i c c on te x t s r a the r t ha n a s d e sc r ip to r s o f a n

ind iv idu a l ' s v i e ws in ge ne r a l ( p . 17 ). M or e r e se a r c h i s ne e de d to e xa m ine the

c on te x tua l na tu r e o f e p i s t e mo log ic a l t he o r ie s . M or e ov e r , t he r e is a ne e d f o r c r o s s -

c u l tu r a l re s e a rc h o n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f e p i s te m o l o g i c a l t h e o ri e s. T h e c o m m o n

d e v e l o p m e n t a l e n d p o i n t o f m o s t o f t h e m o d e l s o f e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t

m a y be a soc i a l l y c ons t r uc t e d a r t if a c t o f W e s te r n s c hoo l ing a nd c u l tu r e ( M oor e ,

1994). As P i a ge t i an r e se a r c h a nd the o r y wa s c r i t ic i z e d f o r a s sum ing a n inhe r e n t

a n d l o g i c a l e n d p o i n t o f d e v e l o p m e n t b a s e d o n W e s t e r n c u l t u r e ( L a b o r a t o r y o f

C o m p a r a t iv e H u m a n C o g n i t io n , 1 9 8 3) , re s e a rc h o n e p i s t em o l o g i c a l th e o r i e s m u s t

a vo id th i s s a me p r ob le m, a l t hou gh the r e has be e n l i tt l e cross-cultural r e se a r c h to

date .

~ Relation to Cognitive Developm ent Ag e an d Education

The r e a r e a numbe r o f i s sue s i n how e p i s t e molog ic a l de ve lopme n t r e l a t e s t o

c o g n i t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t a n d w h e t h e r p a r ti c u la r l e v el s o f d e v e l o p m e n t o r s e ts o f

be l i ef s ha ve c ogn i t i ve a n te c e de n ts . O the r de ve lopme n ta l mode l s , suc h a s K oh lbe r g ' s

( 1 9 7 l ) s c h e m e o f m o r a l d e v e l o p m e n t , h a v e p r e s u m e d a c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n

e th i c al a nd in t e l l ec tua l j udgm e n t . K oh lb e r g c l a ime d tha t h is s t a ge s o f mor a l

judgme n t we r e bo th pa r a l l e l a nd i somor ph ic t o P i a ge t ' s s t a ge s . A l though suc h

o n e - o n - o n e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n c o g n i t i v e an d e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t

migh t be un l ike ly , c e r t a in i n t e l l e c tua l p r e c ond i t i ons migh t be ne c e s sa r y bu t no t

su f f i c ie n t f o r c e rt a in t ype s o f e p i s t e molog ic a l be l i ef s to b e pos s ib l e . Us ing P ia g e t ' s

s t a ge s a s a he u r i s t i c , f o r e xa mple , i t s e e ms tha t a c onc r e t e knowe r migh t ha ve

d i f f i c u l ty v i e wing knowle dge in c ons t r uc t iv i s t t e r ms , a nd tha t c e r t a in t ype s o f

a bs t ra c t f o r ma l r e a son ing wou ld be ne c e s sa r y f o r a ny o f the h ighe r - o r de r a s sump-

t ions a bou t know le dge ( I nhe lde r & P ia ge t, 1958). K ing ( 1977) a dmin i s t e r e d bo th

the R e f l e c t ive Judgm e n t I n t e r v i e w a nd t a sks t ha t a s se s se d f o r m a l ope r a t ions t o

h igh sc h oo l j un io r s , c o l l e ge jun io r s , a nd g r a dua te s tude n t s a nd f ou nd tha t a l t hough

9 1 % h a d a c h i e v e d f o r m a l o p e r at io n s , r e f le c t iv e j u d g m e n t s c o re s r a n g e d f r o m

121



ofer and Pintrich

S t a g e 2 t o S t a g e 7 , w i t h e x t r e m e l y l o w c o r r e l a t io n s b e t w e e n fo rm a l o p e ra t io n s a n d

re f l e c t iv e j u d g m e n t . H o w e v e r , i t w a s n o t p o s s i b le t o t e s t w h e t h e r f o rm a l o p e ra -

t io n s w e re a n e c e s s a ry b u t n o t s u f f i ci e n t c o n d i t io n fo r h i g h e r s t a g e s o f r e f le c t i v e

j u d g m e n t , g i v e n t h e l a c k o f v a r i a b i l i t y i n t h e s a m p l e a s a s s e s s e d b y fo rm a l

opera t ions t a sks .

I t is a ls o p l a u s ib l e , a s m a n y h a v e s u g g e s t e d (C o m m o n s , R i c h a rd s , & A rm o n ,

1 98 4; C o m m o n s , S i n n o t t , R i c h ard s , & A rm o n , 1 9 8 9 ), th a t th e r e a re h i g h e r -o rd e r

s t a g e s o f t h i n k i n g i n l a t e a d o l e s c e n c e a n d a d u l t h o o d w h i c h t r a n s c e n d fo rm a l

o p e ra t i o n s . D i a l e c t i c a l t h i n k i n g a s p ro p o s e d b y B a s s e c h e s (1 9 8 0 , 1 9 8 4 ) , f o r

e x a m p l e , m i g h t p ro v i d e a m o re s u f f i c ie n t c o n d i t i o n fo r t h e h i g h e r -o rd e r p ro c e s s e s

inheren t in us ing re la t iv i s t ic ep i s temolog ica l be l i e fs (Bena ck & Basse ches , 1989) .

M o re r e s e a r c h i s n e e d e d t o d e f i n e b o t h t h e s e u p p e r s t a g e s o f i n t el l ec t u a l d e v e l o p -

ment and the i r re la t ion to ep i s temologica l theor ie s .

T h e re i s c l e a r ly a p o s i t i v e r e la t io n b e t w e e n b o t h a g e a n d e d u c a t i o n a n d e p i s te -

m o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t , b u t i t i s u n c l e a r w h e re t h e p ro c e s s o f e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l

u n d e r s t a n d i n g b e g i n s , a s f e w s t u d i e s e x i s t b e l o w c o l l e g e l e v e l , a n d f e w e r y e t

be low h igh scho ol . I t s eems u n l ike ly tha t mos t f i r s t -yea r co l lege s tuden ts spen t

t h e i r p r e v i o u s a c a d e m i c y e a r s a s d u a li st s , a n i n f e r e n c e m a n y h a v e m a d e i n r e a d i n g

the s tud ies o f co l lege s tuden t deve lopm ent . On e p laus ib le exp lan a t ion is tha t such

d e v e l o p m e n t i s r e c u r s i v e . B o y e s a n d C h a n d l e r ( 1 9 9 2 ) , u s i n g a fo u r - s t a g e m o d e l

b a s e d o n t h e w o rk o f P e r ry , K i t c h e n e r a n d K i n g , K u h n , a n d o t h e r s , f o u n d a ll

e p i s t e m i c l e v e l s r e p re s e n t e d a m o n g t h e h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n ts i n t h e i r st u d y . T h e y

s p e c u l a t e t h a t s t u d i e s o f c o l l e g e -a g e s t u d e n t s i n d i c a t i n g o n l y o r p r e d o m i n a t e l y

l o w e r - l e v e l e p i s te m i c l e v e l s m a y s u g g e s t a s e c o n d p a s s t h ro u g h t h e d e v e l o p m e n -

ta l l eve l s dur ing th i s t ime . I t i s a l so poss ib le tha t ind iv idu a l s m ay re t rea t to s a fe r ,

m o re e s t a b l i s h e d p o s i t i o n s w h e n i n n e w e n v i ro n m e n t s a n d t h a t t h e r e m a y b e

a f f e c t i v e i s s u e s i n v o l v e d , s u c h a s t h e e f f e c t s o f a n x i e t y a n d n e g a t i v e f e e l i n g s

as soc ia ted wi th cha l lenges to s t rongly he ld ideas . More longi tud ina l s tud ies a re

needed , pa r t i cu la r ly those tha t track s tudents ' ep i s temo logica l deve lo pm ent th rough

t h e e d u c a t io n a l t r a n s it i o n f ro m m i d d l e s c h o o l t o h ig h s c h o o l a n d f ro m h i g h s c h o o l

to co l lege .

O u t s i d e o f P i a g e t ' s o r i g i n a l w o rk o n g e n e t i c e p i s t e m o l o g y i n c h i ld r e n , w h i c h

w a s a d m i t te d l y b ro a d e r in s c o p e , y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n ' s e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l b e l ie f s h a v e

rece ived v e ry l i tt l e a t t en t ion , pe rhaps in pa r t becau se the s tud ies o f co l lege

s t u d e n ts s e e m t o s u g g e s t th a t n o t m u c h c o u l d h a v e h a p p e n e d p r i o r t o t h a t p e ri o d .

In o n e s t u d y , K u h n d e m o n s t r a t e d d i f f i c u l t y i n i d e n t i fy i n g p r e - e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l

awareness in p readolescen t s (D. Kuhn e t a l . , 1988) . Mans f ie ld and Cl inchy

(1985) , in an unpu bl i shed s tudy o f 4 - , 7 - , and 10-yea r -o lds and you ng adul t s ,

c a t e g o r i z e d i n d i v i d u a l r e s p o n s e s r e g a rd i n g j u s t i fi c a t i o n s fo r t r u th a n d s u g g e s t e d a

d e v e l o p m e n t a l s e q u e n c e t h a t m o v e d f ro m a b s o l u t i s m i n e a r l y c h i l d h o o d t o w a rd

a n a c c e p t a n c e o f s u b j e c ti v i ty .

A r e c e n t h y p o t h e s i s (M o n t g o m e ry , 1 9 9 2 ) is th a t c h il d r e n d o h a v e b e l i e f s a b o u t

k n o w i n g a n d k n o w l e d g e a n d t h a t t h e s e a re p a r t o f t h e ir t h e o ry o f m i n d (W e l l m a n ,

1990). M on tgo m ery sugges t s tha t inves t iga t ion of these be l i e fs in ch i ld ren f i t

w i t h i n d e v e l o p m e n t a l s t ud i e s o f f o l k e p i s t e m o l o g y . A l s o , f r o m th e p e r s p e c t i v e

o f r e s e a r c h o n t h e o ry o f m i n d , a s tu d y o f p e r s o n a l c h a n g e s i n w o r l d v i e w o v e r a 3 -

to 4 -y ea r pe r iod ind ica tes tha t the pe r iod of ea r ly ado lesc ence t i e s in wi th the onse t

o f e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l r e a s o n i n g (R e i c h , O s e r , & V a l e n t in , 1 9 9 4 ).

122



Epistemolog ical The ories

W e k n o w v e r y l i tt le a b o u t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f b e l i e fs a b o u t k n o w l e d g e a f te r

c o l l e ge o r t he soc ioc u l tu ra l c on te x t f o r t he i r de v e lopm e n t ou t s ide a c a de m ic p r o -

g r a ms . B e le n ky e t al. ( 1986) i nc lude d a popu la t ion e ng a ge d in non f o r ma l e duc a -

t i ona l e xpe r i e nc e s a s pa r en t s , bu t t he d i r e c t i n f lue nc e o f t he se e xp e r i e nc e s wa s no t

the in t e n t o f t he study . Kuh n ( 1991) f oun d tha t he r s a mple o f e xpe rt s wh o w e r e

t r a ine d in g r a dua te ph i lo so phy p r og r a ms we r e m os t l i ke ly t o e v ide nc e the h ighe r

e p i s t e mic pos i t ions a nd the r e f o r e t he sk i ll s o f a rgum e n t . K ing a nd K i t c h e ne r

( 1994) de mons t r a t e d tha t uppe r - l e ve l doc to r a l s tude n t s e v ide nc e d the h ighe r

s t age s o f r e fl e c t ive j udgm e n t . T h i s i s no t su r p r i s ing g ive n the c o r r e spo nde n c e

be twe e n g r a dua te e du c a t ion a nd the h igh ly r a t i ona l, ob j e c t ive , i n t e ll e c tua l sk i ll s o f

a r gum e n t a nd jud gm e n t t ha t t he se stud ie s m e a su r e . I t wo u ld be va lua b le t o

ide n t i f y a nd a s se s s a du l t popu la t ions i n wor k se t ti ngs t o l e a r n mo r e a bo u t e p i s t e-

m o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t i n to m i d d l e a n d l at e a d u l th o o d , w h e t h e r o t h e r d e v e l o p -

me n ta l pa t t e rn s e x i s t, a nd how soc ioc u l tu ra l c on te x t me d ia t e s suc h de ve lopm e n t .

._~ Acquis i t ion and Change

L i t t le e m p i r ic a l e v i d e n c e e x i st s f o r h o w i d ea s a b o u t k n o w l e d g e a n d k n o w i n g

b e c o m e p a r t o f o n e ' s c o g n i t i v e m a k e u p . W i t h i n t h e m o d e l s t h a t p u r p o r t t o b e

de ve lopme n ta l , some in t e r a c t ion i s t me c ha n i sm i s p r e sume d to be ope r a t iona l .

F r o m a P i a g e t i a n p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e t r i g g e r f o r c h a n g e w o u l d b e s o m e f o r m o f

c ogn i t i ve d i s e qu i l ib r ium, l e a d ing to a s s imi l a t i on o r a c c om m oda t ion . P e r r y ( 1970)

de sc r ibe d the mo t iva t ion f o r de ve lopme n t a s a n in t e r a c t ion be twe e n inna t e mo-

t ive s t owa r d a u tonomy a nd e nv i r onme n ta l suppor t a nd c ons t r a in t s .

G ive n the s a mple popu la t ions o f mos t s tud i e s , i t i s no t su r p r i s ing tha t t he

e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r e ss f o r c h a n g e o f t e n s e e m s t o c o m e f r o m e d u c a ti o n a l e n c o u n t e r s ,

a l t hough e xa c t ly how th i s ha ppe ns ne e ds muc h mor e a t t e n t ion . B e le nky e t a l .

( 1986) i nc lude d no nc o l l e ge w om e n in t he i r s tudy , bu t the l imi t a ti ons o f p r ima r i ly

s ing le i n t e r v i e ws ma de i t d i f f i c u l t t o ga in muc h o f a s e nse o f wha t s e e me d to

p r ompt c ha nge in e p i s t e molog ic a l t he o r i e s . The y spe c u la t e on the powe r f u l im-

pa c t o f pa r e n tho od a s i n i t ia t i ng a n e p i s t e mo log ic a l r e vo lu t ion in m a ny o f t he

w o m e n t h e y i n t e rv i e w e d , an d s p e a k m o r e b r o a d l y o f t h e fa c t th a t w o m e n w e r e

p r o m p t e d t o c h an g e b y e n c o u n t e r i n g s i tu a t io n s i n w h i c h o l d w a y s o f k n o w i n g

we r e c ha l l e nge d . F o r some wome n in t he i r b r oa de r s a mple , t r a ns i t i ons ha d oc -

cur red in the re turn to school ing .

A l though the r e i s li t tl e e mp i r i c a l e v ide n c e f o r p r e c i se ly wh a t f o s t e r s e p i s t e mo-

log ic a l de v e lop m e n t o r how e p i s t e mo log ic a l be l i e f s a r e a l te r e d , num e r ous sugge s -

t io n s h a v e b e e n m a d e f o r p r o m o t i n g t h e p r o g r e s s i o n d e s c ri b e d i n m o s t o f t h e

sc he m e s r e v i e we d , t yp i c a l ly a long the l ine s o f c ha l l e ng ing the e x i s t i ng ide a s by

p r e se n t ing ide a s o ne l e ve l h ighe r t o f o s t e r c ogn i t i ve c on f l i c t a nd r e s t r uc tu r ing . I n

th is s e nse , t he mo de l s ba s i c a lly p r opose a d i s e qu i l ib r a t i on me c ha n i sm f o r c ha nge

in e p i s t e molog ic a l be l i e f s . Th i s i s s imi l a r t o t he a r gume n t s i n t he c onc e p tua l

c ha nge l i t e r a tu r e r e ga r d ing the c ond i t i ons f o r c onc e p tua l c ha nge . The se c ond i -

t i ons inc lude the f o l lowing : I nd iv idua l s m us t be d i s sa ti s f ie d w i th e x i s t ing be l i e f s ,

mus t f i nd the a l t e r na tive s i n t e ll i g ib l e a nd use f u l , a nd mus t s e e a wa y to c onn e c t

ne w be l i e f s w i th e a r l i e r c onc e p t ions . P in t r i c h , Ma r x , a nd B oy le ( 1993) ha ve

p r opo se d tha t t h i s mode l o f c onc e p tua l c ha nge m a y be l imi t e d be c a use i t doe s no t

c ons ide r mo t iva t iona l a nd c on te x tu a l fa c to r s. F u tu r e r e se a r c h on the me c h a n i sm s

of e p i s t e mo log ic a l t he o r y c ha nge shou ld e xa m ine no t on ly c ogn i t i ve a nd e qu i l i-

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H ofer and P intrich

b r a t i o n m e c h a n i s m s f o r c h a n g e , b u t a l s o th e m o t i v a t i o n a l m e c h a n i s m s t h a t c a n

c o n s t r a i n o r f a c i l i t a t e s u c h c h a n g e s . M o r e o v e r , t h e c o n t e x t u a l f a c t o r s t h a t c a n

c o n s t r a i n o r p r o m p t c h a n g e n e e d t o b e c o n s i d e r e d , g i v e n t h a t m o s t o f t h e e x t a n t

r e s e a r c h h a s e x a m i n e d i n d i v i d u a l s ' b e l i e f s o n l y i n a re l a t iv e l y d e c o n t e x t u a l i z e d

m a n n e r .

F o r e x a m p l e , o n e i m p o r t a n t a v e n u e f o r e x p l o r a t i o n i s t o d e v e l o p a d e e p e r

u n d e r s ta n d i n g o f h o w b e l ie f s a re c o m m u n i c a t e d i n t h e c l a s s ro o m e n v i r o n m e n t .

T h i s s e e m s f a r m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d t h a n s o m e o f t h e c u r r e n t r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s

w o u l d s u g g e s t . S c h o m m e r ( 1 9 9 0 ) s u g g e s t s t h a t t e a c h e r s c a n in f o r m c h il d r e n in

g r a d e s c h o o l t h a t k n o w l e d g e i s i n t e g ra t e d , t h a t p r i o r k n o w l e d g e s h o u l d b e a c -

c e s s e d , a n d t h a t m a n y ti m e s t h e re i s m o r e th a n o n e r ig h t a n s w e r ( p p . 5 0 3 - 5 0 4 ) .

E v e n in c a s e s w h e r e t e a c h e r s m a y t h i n k th e y a r e c o m m u n i c a t i n g a m o r e c o n s t r u c -

t i v e w a y o f k n o w i n g , a c t u a l p r a c t i c e s m a y c o n t r a d i c t t h i s . S c h o e n f e l d ' s ( 1 9 8 8 )

o b s e r v a t i o n s o f w e l l m e a n i n g t e a c h e r s i n h i g h s c h o o l m a t h e m a t i c s c la s s e s le d h i m

t o c o n c l u d e t h a t s t u d e n ts d e v e l o p e d p e r s p e c t i v e s r e g a r d i n g th e n a tu r e o f m a t h -

e m a t i c s t h a t w e r e n o t o n l y i n a c c u r a t e , b u t w e r e l i k e ly t o i m p e d e t h e i r a c q u i s it i o n

a n d u s e o f o t h e r m a t h e m a t i c a l k n o w l e d g e ( p . 14 4). A l t h o u g h t e a c h e r s m i g h t t a lk

a b o u t w a n t i n g s t u d e n t s t o t h i n k a b o u t m a t h e m a t i c s a n d t o u n d e r s t a n d i t , t h e

c l a s s r o o m s t r u c t u r e p r o v i d e d r e i n f o r c e m e n t f o r m e m o r i z a t i o n a n d t h e r e w a r d

s t ruc tu re p ro m ote d i t ( p . 161) .

I d e n t i fi c a t io n o f t h e v a r i o u s i n s t r u c ti o n a l e l e m e n t s t h a t c a r r y e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l

i m p a c t is e s se n t i a l a n d m a y r e q u i r e o b s e r v a t i o n a l a n d e t h n o g r a p h i c s tu d i e s. T h e s e

e l e m e n t s m i g h t i n c l u d e t h e n a t u r e o f ta s k s b o t h i n a n d o u t o f c l a s s, t e s ti n g a n d

o t h e r e v a l u a t i o n p r a c t ic e s , p a t t e rn s o f t e a c h e r a n d s t u d e n t t a lk , c l a s s r o o m s t ru c -

t u r e , t h e p h y s i c a l a r r a n g e m e n t o f t h e c l a s s r o o m , r e w a r d s y s t e m s , a n d t e x t b o o k

o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d l a n g u a g e . W e a l s o n e e d t o k n o w m o r e a b o u t t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n o f

t e a c h e r s ' e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l t h e o r ie s ( L y o n s , 1 9 9 0) a n d t h o s e o f st u d e n ts . A s o c i o -

c u l tu r al a p p r o a c h t h a t e m p l o y s m u l t ip l e m e t h o d s m a y b e n e e d e d t o p u r s u e t h e s e

issues .

A soc iocu l tu ra l v i ew of l ea rn ing (Cole , 1992; N ew m an , Gr i f f i n , & Cole , 1989;

V y g o t s k y , 1 9 6 2 ; W e r t s c h , 1 9 9 1; W e r t s c h & S a m m a r c o , 1 9 8 5 ) w o u l d s h i ft t h e

f o c u s o f s t u d y a w a y f r o m u n i v e r s a l m e c h a n i s m s i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l , p r o m i n e n t i n

t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a l m o d e l s , t o t h e p o s s ib i l it y o f t h e s i tu a t e d a n d c o n t e x t u a l n a t u r e

o f e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l t h e o r ie s . T h e n o t i o n t h a t t h e ro l e o f t h e s tu d e n t i s t o b e c o m e

p a r t o f a c o m m u n i t y o f p r a c t ic e ( L a v e , 1 98 8; L a v e & W e n g e r , 1 9 9 1) h a s f o s t e r e d

a r e c o n c e p t u a l i z a t io n o f s c h o o l i n g a s a c o g n i t i v e a p p r e n t i c e s h i p i n w h i c h s t u d e n ts

a r e s o c i a l i z e d t o t h e v a l u e s a n d b e l i e f s o f t h e a c a d e m i c e n t e r p r is e . E n c u i t u r a ti o n

t o t he d i s c ip l i n e , h o w e v e r , m a y g o a w r y w h e n t h e b e l i e fs t h a t a r e s it u a t e d in t h e

c l as s roo m a re no t t hose t ha t f ac i li t a t e fu r the r l ea rn ing or i n t e res ts i n t he d i sc ip l i ne ,

a s h a s b e e n n o t e d a s c o m m o n p l a c e in th e f ie l d o f m a t h e m a t i c s ( S c h o e n f e l d , 1 9 8 8 ).

I n m u c h t h e s a m e m a n n e r , e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l t h e o r ie s m a y d e v e l o p a s t h e in d i v i d u a l

m o v e s t h r o u g h d i f f e r e n t s c h o o l i n g a n d d i s c i p l i n a r y c o n t e x t s .

[0 Do m ain Speci fic ity Versus D om ain Generali ty

T h e r e h a s b e e n a s t r o n g s h i f t i n c o g n i t i v e p s y c h o l o g y a w a y f r o m g e n e r a l

m e c h a n i s m s t o w a r d d o m a i n - s p e c if i c d e s c r ip t io n s o f i n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s i n g ( C e c i ,

1989; S t e rnb erg , 1989) , fos t e red i n pa r t i cu l a r by s tud i es o f d i f f e ren ces i n t he

c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s e s o f n o v i c e s a n d e x p e r t s (C h i , H u t c h i n s o n , & R o b i n , 1 98 9).

124




De v e lopm e n ta l p sy c ho lo gy ha s ta ke n a pa r a l le l t u rn , pa r t ic u l a r ly in ne o - P ia ge t i a n

the o r i e s o f c h i ld de ve lopm e n t , wh ic h a r ose , i n pa rt , in r e sponse to t he une v e nne ss

in de ve lopme n ta l l e ve l obse r ve d a c r os s doma ins ( C a se , 1992) . The P ia ge t i a n

e xp la na t ion f o r d i f f e r e nc e s a c r os s t he se doma ins ha s be e n tha t o f ho r i z on ta l

de c a l a ge , t he l ag in ope r a t ions o r p r oc e s se s a c r os s t a sks o r do ma ins . T h i s e xp la -

na t ion ha s no t be e n sa t i s fa c to r y f o r m os t r e se a r c he r s a nd p r ob a b ly on ly r e p r e se n t s

a de sc r ip t ion o f dom a in o r c on te n t a r e a d i f f e re nc e s i n t h ink ing , n o t a n e xp la na t ion .

A r e l e va n t e xa m ple o f ho r i z on ta l de c a l a ge is a s tudy by de L i s i a nd S ta ud t ( 1980) ,

w h o f o u n d a r e l a ti o n b e t w e e n a c a d e m i c m a j o r a n d p e r f o r m a n c e o n t h re e d i f f er e n t

t a sks u se d to a s se s s f o r m a l ope r a t ions i n c o l l e ge s tude n t s u s ing a w i th in - sub je c t

de s ign . P hys i c s ma jo r s we r e m uc h m or e l i ke ly t o d i sp l a y f o r ma l ope r a t ions on the

pe ndu lum p r ob le m in c on t r a s t to f o r m a l ope r a t iona l t a sks t ha t re f l e c t e d l it e r a r y o r

soc i a l s c i e nc e c on te n t . I n t he s a me ma nne r , Eng l i sh ma jo r s a nd soc i a l s c i e nc e

ma jo r s f o r t he mos t pa r t on ly sho we d f o r ma l ope r a t ions on the t a sks t ha t r e f l e c t e d

t h e i r d o m a i n o f e x p e r t i s e . T h e r o l e o f d o m a i n d i f f e r e n c e s i n e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l

th ink ing ha s no t be e n e x p lo r e d in mu c h de t a il .

O f c o u r s e , t h e m e a n i n g a n d b o u n d a r y o f d o m a i n i s p r ob le ma t i c . A le xa nde r

( 1 9 9 2 ) d e s c r i b e s d o m a i n k n o w l e d g e b r o a d l y a s i n d i v i d u a l k n o w l e d g e a b o u t a

pa r t i c u l a r f i e ld o f s tudy , e nc ompa ss ing de c l a r a t i ve , p r oc e dur a l , a nd c ond i t i ona l

k n o w i n g . S h e m a k e s t h e c a s e th a t t he d i f f e re n c e b e t w e e n d o m a i n k n o w l e d g e a n d

d i sc ip l ine knowle dge i s a t t he i nd iv idua l l e ve l , de pe nde n t on the e x t e ns ive ne s s

a nd o r ga n iz a t ion o f know le dge . A le xa nd e r g ive s t he e xa m ple t ha t a t h i rd g r a d e r ' s

l imi t e d uno r ga n iz e d c onc e p t ion o f b io logy r e nde r s i t a doma in , wh i l e a me d ic a l

s tude n t s ' kno wle d ge o f b io lo gy i s a t the d i s c ip l ina r y l e ve l. H ow e ve r , i n mos t

s tud ie s o f e p i s t e molog ic a l be l i e f s , d o m a i n i s o f t e n u se d in t e r c ha nge a b ly w i th

academic d isc ip l ine a l though P e r r y ( 1970) , i n a f oo tno te i n h i s o r ig ina l s tudy ,

no te d d om a ins o f i n t e re s t a s a c a de mic , e x t r a c u r r i c u l a r , i n t e rpe r sona l , voc a t iona l ,

a nd r e l ig ious . Th e se a r e c l e a r ly d i f f e re n t f r om t r a d i t i ona l d i s c ip l ina ry dom a ins ,

a n d t h e re m a y b e l o w e r l e v el s o f d o m a i n k n o w l e d g e b a s e d o n a ct u a l c o n t e n t

k n o w l e d g e , g i v e n A l e x a n d e r ' s a r g u m e n t .

I n a ny e ve n t , t he i s sue o f doma in spe c i f i c i t y ha s ha d on ly ma r g ina l a t t e n t ion

wi th in t he e p i s t e molog ic a l mode l s c r i t i que d e a r l i e r . Th i s i s pa r t i a l l y due to t he

c o g n i t i v e d e v e lo p m e n t a l h e ri ta g e o f m a n y o f t h e m o d e l s t h at h a v e a s a n u n d e r l y -

ing p r e sumpt ion tha t e p i s t e molog ic a l be l i e f s a nd th ink ing a r e ge ne r a l a nd t r a n -

s c e n d d o m a i n b o u n d a r i e s. S c h o m m e r r ec e n t ly t e st e d th e a s s u m p t io n o f d o m a i n

inde pe nde nc e in e p i s t e molog ic a l be l i e f s a nd c onc lude d tha t t he ma jo r i t y o f c o l -

l e ge s tude n t s showe d a mode r a t e ly c ons i s t e n t l e ve l o f e p i s t e molog ic a l be l i e f s

a c ro s s d o m a i n s ( S c h o m m e r & W a l k er , 1 99 5). T h e m e t h o d u s e d w a s s i m p l y t o a sk

s tude n t s t o ke e p a pa r t i c u l a r doma in in mind a s t he y c omple t e d a s e l f - r e po r t

i n s t rum e n t a nd the n to ha ve the m r a t e s e ve r a l d i s c ip l ine s . D i sc ip l ina r y d i f f e r e nc e s

w e r e f o u n d i n o n l y o n e s t u d y o f re f l ec t i v e j u d g m e n t c i t e d b y K i n g a n d K i t c h e n e r

( 1994) , i n wh ic h soc i al s c i e nc e g r a dua te s tude n t s we r e h ig he r i n e p i s t e mic r e a son -

ing tha n those i n ma the ma t i c a l s c i e nc e s , e ve n w i th GR E sc o r e s pa r t i a l e d ou t , a

d i f f e r e nc e tha t ma y r e f l e c t e m pha se s i n d i s c ip l ina r y t r a in ing .

S te r nbe r g ( 1989) ha s sugge s t e d tha t t he i s sue o f doma in spe c i f i c i t y ve r sus

dom a in ge ne r a l i t y i n c ogn i t ion i s a fa l s e d i c ho to m y a nd tha t t he de sc r ip t ions a r e

no t oppo se d bu t c omp le m e n ta r y , ope r a t ing in a n in t e r a c tive f a sh ion . D e ve lo p -

me n t ha s e l e me n t s t ha t a r e bo th doma in ge ne r a l a nd doma in spe c i f i c , a nd the

125



o fe r a n d P in t ri c h

q u e s t i o n b e c o m e s o n e o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g w h i c h e l e m e n t s a r e w h i c h " ( p . 1 1 7). T h i s

m ay b e a f ru it fu l l ine o f r e sea rch i n the a r ea o f ep i s t e m olog i ca l be l i e f s , a s a

g r o w i n g b o d y o f l it e r at u r e a d d r e s s e s b e l i e fs a b o u t k n o w l e d g e w i t h i n p a r t ic u l a r

d i s c i p l i n e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e m a t h a n d s c i e n c e a r e a s ( B u e r k , 1 9 8 5 ; C a r e y &

S m i t h , 1 9 9 3 ; D o n a l d , 1 9 8 6 , 1 9 9 0 ; K i n g , 1 9 7 7 ; L a m p e r t , 1 9 9 0 ; R o t h &

Ro ych oud hu ry , 1994; Schoen fe ld , 1983 , 1988; S tod o l sk y e t a l ., 1991) . Th i s

d i s c i p l i n a r y o r d o m a i n p e r s p e c t i v e h a s y e t t o b e w e l l i n t e g r a t e d w i t h t h e m o r e

d o m a i n - g e n e r a l r e s e a r c h o n e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t . U s i n g t h e i d e a o f

e p i s t e m o i o g i c a l t h i n k i n g a s t h e o r y - l ik e , i t is p o s s i b l e t h a t b o t h g e n e r a l i z e d b e l i e fs

a b o u t k n o w l e d g e a n d t h o s e s p e c i f ic to d o m a i n s e x i s t i n a n i n t e rc o n n e c t e d n e t w o r k

o f i d e a s . H o w e v e r , m u c h m o r e r e s e a r c h i s n e e d e d t o e x p l o r e t h e n a t u r e o f t h i s

n e t w o r k a n d t o d e t e r m i n e w h i c h o f t h e d i m e n s i o n s o f e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l t h e o r ie s a r e

d o m a i n s p e c i f i c a n d w h i c h a r e d o m a i n g e n e r a l .

T h e r e a r e , h o w e v e r , s o m e h i n t s f r o m t h e w o r k o n d i s c i p l i n a r y b e l i e f s t h a t

s u g g e s t h o w e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l t h e o r ie s m i g h t v a r y a s a fu n c t i o n o f d i s c ip l i n e s a n d

d o m a i n s . F o r e x a m p l e , m a n y s t u d e n t s b e l i e v e t h a t m a t h e m a t i c s is a s s o c i a te d w i t h

ce r t a in ty an d ge t t i ng the r i gh t answ er qu i ck ly and t ha t t he teach er i s t he a rb i t e r o r

s o u r c e o f k n o w l e d g e ( L a m p e r t , 1 99 0). S c h o e n f e l d ( 1 9 9 2 ) h a s c r e a t e d a li st o f

t yp i ca l s t uden t be l i e f s about t he na tu re o f ma themat i c s , such as t he be l i e f s t ha t a

m a t h p r o b l e m h a s o n e a n d o n l y o n e r i g h t a n s w e r , t h a t it i s i m p o r t a n t to b e a b l e t o

g e t t h e a n s w e r q u i c k l y , t h a t t h e r e is o n l y o n e w a y t o s o l v e a n y m a t h p r o b l e m , t h a t

m a t h i s a s o l i ta r y a c t i v i ty d o n e b y i n d i v i d u a l s i n i s o la t io n , a n d t h a t m a t h e m a t i c s

l ea rned i n school has l i t t l e va lue i n t he r ea l wor ld . Wi th in a b roader s t udy of

a t t i t udes and be l i e f s about l ea rn ing math and soc i a l s t ud i es , S todo l sky e t a l .

( 1 99 ) h a v e t a p p e d n a i v e v i e w s o f d i s c ip l i n a r y d i f f e r e n c e s a m o n g f i ft h g r a d e r s ,

w h i c h t h e y s u s p e c t a r i s e f r o m g e n e r a l i n s t r u c t i o n a l p a t t e r n s a t t h e e l e m e n t a r y

s c h o o l l e v e l . M a t h a p p e a r e d m o r e f i x e d a n d i m m u t a b l e t o t h e s tu d e n t s , a n d s o c i a l

s t u d i e s l e s s s h a r p l y d e f i n e d . T h e s e d a t a c a n b e i n t e r p r e t e d i n t e r m s o f t h e f o u r

d i m e n s i o n s o f e p i s t e m o l o g i c a i t h e o ri e s . T h e y s u g g e s t th a t s tu d e n t s w o u l d b e l i e v e

t h a t th e c e r t a i n t y o f k n o w l e d g e i s h i g h i n m a t h e m a t i c s a n d t h a t th e s i m p l i c i t y

d i m e n s i o n i s a l s o h i g h g i v e n t h e c o m m o n b e l i e f t h a t t h e r e is o n l y o n e w a y t o s o l v e

a p r o b l e m . T h e d a t a a l s o s u g g e s t t h a t i n te r m s o f th e n a t u r e o f k n o w i n g , t h e s o u r c e

i s t h e t e a c h e r o r s o m e t h i n g e x t e r n a l t o t h e le a r n e r, a n d j u s t if i c a t io n o f k n o w l e d g e

a l s o c o m e s f r o m t h e t e a c h e r o r t h e f i e l d .

T h e r e h a s a l s o b e e n a b o d y o f w o r k a d d r e s s i n g e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l b e l i e f s i n t h e

sc i ences . In one sm al l s tudy , i n t e rv i ew s wi th co l l ege s t uden t s enro l l ed i n i n t roduc-

t o r y p h y s i c s s u g g e s t e d e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l b e l i e f s i n t h r e e a r e a s : b e l i e f s a b o u t t h e

s t ru c t u r e o f p h y s i c s k n o w l e d g e , b e l i e f s a b o u t t h e c o n t e n t o f p h y s i c s k n o w l e d g e ,

a n d b e l i e f s a b o u t l e a r n i n g p h y s i c s ( H a m m e r , 1 9 9 4 ) . R o t h a n d R o y c h o u d h u r y

( 1 9 9 4 ) e x a m i n e d w h a t t h e y c a l l e d e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l c o m m i t m e n t i n h i g h s c h o o l

p h y s i c s s t u d e n t s a n d i d e n ti f ie d d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n c o n s t r u c t iv i s t a n d o b j e c t i v i s t

b e l i e f s , t h e l a tt e r o f w h i c h w a s p r e d o m i n a n t i n s p i t e o f a c u r r ic u l u m t h a t e m p h a -

s i z e d t h e f o r m e r . T h e y t a g o b j e c t i v i s m a s t h e d e f a u l t e p i s t e m o l o g y f o r t h o s e i n

W e s t e r n s c h o o l i n g , a p a t t e r n w h i c h c o u l d c h a n g e a s b r o a d e r p e d a g o g i c a l p r a c t i c e s

a r e a lt e r e d b y a n e m p h a s i s o n c o n s t r u c t iv i s t t ea c h i n g . C a r e y a n d S m i t h ( 1 9 9 3 ) a l s o

d i s c u s s t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s o f t e a c h i n g a c o n s t r u c t i v i s t a p p r o a c h t o s c i e n c e , w h i c h

a p p e a r s t o b e a t o d d s w i th t h e c o m m o n s e n s e e p i s te m o l o g y o f s e v e n th g r a d e

s tuden t s . I n bo th t hese s t ud i es , m os t s t uden t s had a m ore r ea l i s t o r ob j ec t i v i s t v i ew

126




of t he na tu re o f know le dge tha t sugge s t e d tha t the y v i e w k now le dg e in s c i e nc e a s

c e r t a in , a nd tha t w h i l e s c i e nc e ma y no t ne c e s sa r i l y be s imp le , t he r e a r e d i s c r e t e

f a c ts t o be kn ow n tha t a r e no t pe r c e ive d a s r e l a t i ve o r c on te x tua l . I n t e r ms o f the

na tu r e o f know ing , t he se f i nd ings a l so sug ge s t t ha t s tude n t s ' v i e w o f s c ie nc e i s

de pe n de n t on a u tho r i t y f o r j u s t i fi c a t ion . O f c ou r se , mo s t o f t he se s tud ie s i n m a th

a nd sc i e nc e ha v e no t u se d w i th in - sub je c t de s igns , so i t i s no t pos s ib l e t o s e pa r a t e

ou t ge ne r a l a ge - de ve lopme n ta l d i f f e r e nc e s a nd doma in d i f f e r e nc e s . The r e i s a

ne e d f o r mo r e r e se a rc h tha t u se s w i th in - sub je c t de s igns t o t a p s tude n t s ' e p i s t e m o-

logica l theor ies ac ross d i f fe ren t domains .

R e se a r c h on doma in d i f f e r e nc e s i s c ompl i c a t e d by the f a c t t ha t a c a de mic

d i sc ip l ine s do ha ve d i f f e r ing knowle dge s t r uc tu r e s a nd e p i s t e molog ic a l a s sump-

t ions, a nd th is ne e ds t o be c ons ide r e d w i th in th i s wor k ( Dona ld , 1995 ; S c hwa b ,

1964, 1978) . Def in ing charac te r i s t ic s of the d isc ip l ines inc lude the c r i te r ia and

va l ida tion p r oc e s se s u se d to de t e r mine know le dge ( Dona ld , 1986). F o r e xa mple ,

f a c u lt y m e m b e r s i n E n g l is h l a n g u a g e a n d l i t er a tu r e r e ly m o r e o n p e e r j u d g m e n t

a nd l e s s on e mpi r i c a l e v ide nc e tha n those i n e i t he r na tu r a l o r soc i a l s c i e nc e s

( Dona ld , 1990). D i sc ip l ine - spe c i f i c wa ys o f know ing a nd r e a son ing h a ve be e n

f ound a m ong the t e a c h ing p r a c t i c e s a nd goa l s o f h igh sc ho o l te a c he r s ( La nge r ,

1994). Do na ld ( 199 0) sugge s t s f u r the r s tudy o f the de t e r min ing c ha r a c t e r is t i c s o f

the d i s c ip l ine s a nd how the se m igh t i n t e r se c t w i th i n s t r uc t ion a nd s tude n t l e a r n -

ing . W ha t r e ma ins f o r c on t inue d s tudy i s how e p i s t e molog ic a l a s sumpt ions a nd

pa t t e r ns o f r e a son ing migh t d i f f e r a c r os s f i e ld s a s i nd iv idua l s a dva nc e in t he i r

p r o f e s s ions . Exp e r t - nov ic e s tud ie s a t mu l t i p l e l e ve ls o f p r o f e ss iona l de ve lo pm e n t

wi th in a nd a c r os s d i s c ip line s c ou ld p r ove u se f u l i n t h is a r e a .

7 Relations to Motivation and Cognition

T h e m o s t r e c e n t b o d y o f w o r k o n e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l b e l ie f s h a s b e e n t h e e x p l o -

r a t ion o f t he l i nka ge s be tw e e n the se be l i e f s a nd m o t iva t ion , l ea r n ing , c ogn i t i on ,

a n d a c a d e m i c p e r f o r m a n c e (H o f e r , 1 9 9 4 ; R y a n , 1 9 8 4b ; S c h o m m e r , 1 9 9 3b ;

Sc ho m m er e t a l ., 1992; Schu tz e t a l., 1993). P e r ry (1981) had sp ecula ted on the

c onne c t ion , sugge s t ing tha t r e v i s ions i n s tude n t no t ions o f knowle dge wou ld be

l ike ly t o l e a d to c ha nge s i n s tudy ing s t r a t eg i e s , r esu l t ing f r o m c h a nge s i n l e a r n ing

a nd c ogn i t i on . As r e v i e w e d e a r li e r, R ya n ( 1984b) i n i ti a t ed e mp i r i c a l wor k in t h i s

a r e a, hypo the s i z in g a c ha nge in i n f o r ma t ion p r oc e s s ing s t r a te g i e s tha t wou ld c o m e

a bou t a s a r e su lt o f the mo ve m e n t f r om du a l i sm to r e l a t iv i sm, a nd ide n t i f y ing a

c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l l e v e l a n d c o m p r e h e n s i o n , a s m e a s u r e d b y

B loom' s t a xonomy ( B loom e t a l . , 1956 ) .

R y a n ' s w o r k w a s e l a b o r a t e d b y S c h o m m e r in a s e r i es o f c o r re l a ti o n a l s tu d i es

tha t ha ve e xp lo r e d the r e la t i on be twe e n e p i s t e m olog ic a l be l i e f s, s t r at e gy use , a nd

a c a d e m i c p e r f o rm a n c e . T y p i c a l l y s tu d e n ts h a v e c o m p l e t e d t h e 6 3 - i t e m L i k e r t-

s c a le que s t ionna i r e on e p i s t e mo log ic a l be l ie f s , t he n pe r f o r m e d a s e t o f t asks t o

a s ses s c om pr e he n s ion in e i t he r re a d ing o r s t at is t ic s . I n o ne s tudy pa r t i c ipa n ts a l so

c omple t e d a s tudy s t r a t e gy inve n to r y . S t a t i s t i c a l c o r r e l a t i ons ha ve be e n f ound

be tw e e n pa r t i c u l a r d ime n s ions o f e p i s t e mo log ic a l be l i e f s a nd p e r f o r ma nc e . I n the

in it ia l s tudy ( S c ho m m e r , 1990) , t he fi nd ings we r e t ha t be l i e f i n qu ic k l e a r n ing

p r e d ic t e d ove r s imp l i f i e d c onc lus ions , poo r pe r f o r m a nc e on the m a s t e r y t es t s, a nd

ove r c on f id e nc e in te s t pe r f o r ma nc e . B e l i e f in c e r t a in kno wle d ge p r e d ic t e d ina p -

p r op r i a t e ly a bso lu t e c onc lus ions ( p . 498 ) . I n a l a t e r s tudy ( S c h om m e r e t al .,

127



ofer and P in tr ich

1 9 9 2 ) h i g h e r c o n f i d e n c e a n d b e t t e r p e r f o r m a n c e w e r e n e g a t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h

b e l i e f in s i m p l e k n o w l e d g e . S c h o m m e r u s e d a p a t h a n a l y s i s m o d e l t o s u g g e s t th a t

e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l b e l i e f s m a y h a v e a n in d i r e c t e f f e c t o n a c a d e m i c p e r f o r m a n c e , a s

b e l i e f a b o u t k n o w l e d g e m a y a f f e c t s t u d y s t r a t e g i e s ( S c h o m m e r , 1 9 9 3 b ) .

I n th i s w a y , e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l t h e o r ie s m a y f u n c t i o n a s a s t a n d a r d o r g o a l a g a i n s t

w h i c h t o c o m p a r e c o m p r e h e n s i o n o r l e ar n in g . F o r e x a m p l e , i f o n e b e l ie v e s t h at

k n o w l e d g e i s s i m p l e , th e n t h e r e i s n o r e a s o n t o a t te m p t t o u s e d e e p e r p r o c e s s i n g

s t r a te g i e s s u c h a s e la b o r a t i o n ; s i m p l e m e m o r i z a t i o n w i l l s u f f ic e . R e s e a r c h i n s e l f-

r e g u l a t e d l e a r n in g ( Z i m m e r m a n , 1 9 9 4) s u g g e s t s th a t l e a rn e r s m u s t h a v e a g o a l o r

c r i t e r i a aga ins t which t o a s ses s t he i r p rogress o r l ea rn ing . Th i s goa l s e rves t o

i n it ia t e o r s t o p v a r i o u s s e l f - r e g u l a t o r y p r o c e s s e s , s u c h a s t h e u s e o f c o g n i t i v e o r

m e t a c o g n i t i v e c o n t r o l s t r at e g i e s ( B u t l e r W i n n e , 1 9 9 5 ), T h e s e g o a l s a r e u s u a l l y

c o n c e p t u a l i z e d a s p e r s o n a l g o a l s , b u t e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l t h e o r i e s m a y p r o v i d e a n -

o t h e r t y p e o f g o a l t h at g u i d e s s e l f -r e g u l a t e d l e a rn i n g . T h e r e i s a n e e d f o r m o r e

r e s e a r c h t o e x a m i n e t h i s p o s s i b il i ty . E p i s t e m o l o g i c a l b e l i e f s m a y a l s o c o n t r i b u te

t o c o n c e p t u a l c h a n g e l e a r n in g (Q i a n A l v e r m a n n , 1 9 9 5 ), a n o t h e r a r e a f o r f u r t h e r

e x p l o r a t i o n .

E p i s t e m o l o g i c a l t h e o r i e s m a y r e l a t e t o m o t i v a t i o n a s w e l l a s c o g n i t i o n . S t u -

d e n t s ' m o t i v a t io n a l o r i e n t a ti o n h a s b e e n l i n k e d to c o g n i t i v e e n g a g e m e n t a n d s e l f -

r e g u l a t io n i n th e c l a s s r o o m , a n d b o t h s e l f - e f f ic a c y a n d i n tr in s i c v a l u e h a v e b e e n

cor re l a t ed w i th use o f cogni t i ve s t r a t eg i es , s e l f- r egu l a t ed l ea rn ing , and pe r s i s t en ce

(P in t r i ch De Gro ot , 1990) . Sch oen fe ld (1992) c l a ims t ha t be l i e f s abo ut m a th-

e m a t i c s s h a p e b e h a v i o r i n w a y s t h a t h a v e p o w e r f u l a n d o f t e n n e g a t i v e c o n s e -

q u e n c e s . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e b e l i e f t h a t t h o s e w h o r e a l l y u n d e r s t a n d m a t h s h o u l d b e

a b le t o w o r k a n y a s s i g n e d p r o b l e m q u i c k ly m a y i m p e d e m o t i v a ti o n t o p e rs i st w i th

d i f f i c u l t p r o b l e m s , a l t h o u g h c o n t i n u e d e f f o r t m a y h a v e l e d t o s u c c e s s . G o a l

o r i e n t a t io n m a y a l s o b e a f u n c t i o n o f b e li e f s a b o u t t h e d i s c ip l in e s , v a r y i n g a c r o s s

sub j ec t ma t t e r s (S todo l sky e t a l . , 1991) .

T w o e x p l o r a t o r y s t u d i e s h a v e m a d e a t t e m p t s t o l i n k e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l b e l i e f s

w i t h m o t i v a t i o n a n d c o g n i t io n . I n o n e u n p u b l i s h e d c o r r e l a ti o n a l s t u d y ( S c h u t z e t

a l ., 1993) co l l eg e s t uden t s w ere a sked t o r e spond to s i x i t ems se l ec t ed f ro m Per ry

( 1 9 7 0 ) a s e i t h e r tr u e o r f a l se a n d t o e x p l a i n t h e i r a n s w e r s ; r e s p o n s e s w e r e c o d e d

a c c o r d i n g t o a c o n d e n s e d v e r s i o n o f D . K u h n ' s ( 1 9 9 1 ) s c h e m e a s e i t h e r a b s o l u t is t

o r m u l t ip l i s t- e v a l u a t i st , I n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t s t u d e n t m o t i v a t i o n a n d l e a r n in g s t ra t -

e g i e s w a s o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h p a r t i c i p a n t c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e M o t i v a t e d S t r a te g i e s f o r

L e a r n i n g Q u e s t i o n n a i r e ( M S L Q ; P i n tr ic h , S m i t h , G a r c i a , M c K e a c h i e , 1 99 3).

S t u d en t s w h o a d o p t e d a m o r e s o p h i s ti c a te d p e r s p e c t iv e t o w a r d k n o w l e d g e w e r e

m o r e l i k e l y t o a d o p t a m a s t e r y g o a l t o l e a r n i n g a n d t o e n g a g e m a t e r i a l m o r e

d e e p l y . I n a n o t h e r u n p u b l i s h e d s t u d y o f c o l le g e s t u d e n t s e n r o l l e d i n f i rs t - y e a r

c a l c u lu s , H o f e r ( 1 9 9 4 ) f o u n d a p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t io n b e t w e e n s o p h i s t ic a t i o n o f

e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l b e l ie f s , a s m e a s u r e d b y a n a d a p t a ti o n o f S c h o e n f e l d ' s ( 1 9 9 2 )

t y p i c a l b e l i e f s a b o u t m a t h e m a t i c s , a n d i n t r i n s i c m o t i v a t i o n , s e l f - e f f i c a c y , s e l f -

r e g u l a t i o n , a n d a c a d e m i c p e r f o r m a n c e .

M o r e w o r k o f t h i s t y p e i s n e e d e d t o b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d h o w e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l

t h e o r i e s m a y h i n d e r o r e n h a n c e a c a d e m i c p e r f o r m a n c e in th e i r e f f e c t o n s t r a t e g y

c h o i c e a n d s t u d e n t m o t i v a t i o n . B a s e d o n t h e v e r y l i m i te d s t u d i e s to d a t e , it a p p e a r s

t h a t th e o r i e s a b o u t k n o w l e d g e m a y b e a c t i v a t e d b y a v a r i e t y o f a c a d e m i c t a sk s .

T h e s e t h e o r i e s t h e n i n f l u e n c e h o w i n d i v i d u a l s a p p r o a c h t h e s e t a s k s i n t e r m s o f

128



Epis temological Theories

the i r mot iva t ion and cogni t ion . I t i s a l so p laus ib le tha t the s t ruc ture of these

a c a de m ic t a sks , ov e r time , sha pe s e p i s t e m olog ic a l t he o r i e s , wh ic h a r e t he n d i f f i-

c u l t t o c ha nge . F o r e xa mple , s tude n t s who a r e g ive n mu l t i p l e - c ho ic e t e s t s c om-

p o s e d o f l o w - le v e l it e m s m a y c o m e t o v i e w k n o w l e d g e a s a c o l l ec t i o n o f f a c ts a n d

le a rn to s tudy f o r te s ts by u s ing m e m or i z a t ion a nd r e he a r sa l s t ra t e g ie s . M ov ing to

a c la s s whe r e h ighe r - l e ve l p r oc e s se s a r e e xp e c t e d m a y r e qu i r e no t on ly a c ha nge

in s t r a t egy use , bu t a c h a nge in e p i s t e mo log ic a l t he o r ie s .

W e k now l it t le a bou t t he m a l l e a b i li t y o f e p i s te m olog ic a l t he o r i e s o r t he d i s c o r -

da nc e s tude n t s m a y e x pe r i e nc e be twe e n the i r the o r i e s a nd the t ype o f c l a s s room

e nv i r onm e n t s a nd ta sks t he y e nc oun te r . An e xp lo r a to r y unpub l i she d s tudy o f two

approaches to ca lcu lus ins t ruc t ion , one convent iona l ( lec tures , t r ad i t iona l tex ts ,

e t c . ) a nd one m or e c ons t r uc t iv i s t ( sma l l g r oup w or k , t e x t w i th w or d p r ob le m s a nd

wi th no a nswe r s p r ov ide d , e t c .) i nd i c a t e d tha t a t the e nd o f t he t e r m s tude n t s i n the

c ons t r uc t iv i s t s e c t ions e v ide nc e d mor e soph i s t i c a t e d be l i e f s a bou t ma the ma t i c s

( Hof e r , 1994) . W ha t w e do no t know i s whe the r t he se be l i e f c ha nge s a r e e ndur ing

o r whe the r some s tude n t s a r e s imp ly a da p ta b le . W e a l so do no t know wha t t he

a f f e c t ive i s sue s a r e t ha t a c c om pa ny the se c ha nge s . P r e l imina r y qua l i t a t i ve e v i -

de nc e f r om the s a m e p r og r a m sugge s t s pe r sona l r es i s t a nc e f r om bo th s tude n t s a nd

ins t ruc to r s to t he i de a tha t c o l l e ge c a l c u lus i n s t r uc t ion c ou ld be a pp r oa c h e d in t h is

wa y . S uc h r e s i s t a nc e o f t e n t a ke s t he f o r m o f B u t t h i s i sn ' t

m a t h "

S ome su r r e n -

de r ing o f e x i s ti ng be l i e fs a bou t wha t ma th i s a nd how k now ing oc c u r s i n ma th

se e ms ne c e s sa r y f o r s tude n t s t o suc c e e d in t he c ou r se . I n h i s d i s cus s ion o f be l i e fs

a bou t ma the ma t i c s , S c hoe n f e ld ( 1985) spe c u la t e s t ha t wh i l e t he be ha v io r o f

r e a s o n i n g p ra c t ic e s m a y a p p e a r p u r e l y c o g n i t iv e , s u c h b e h a v i o r m a y h a v e a n

a f f e c t ive c om pon e n t a nd tha t i t i s i n t h i s s e nse t ha t t he i ssue o f b e l i e f s t raddles

the a f f e c t ive a nd c ogn i t i ve dom a ins ( p . 155) . M or e qua l i ta t i ve s tud ie s , bo th

in t e r v i e ws a nd obse r va t ions , a r e ne e de d to unde r s t a nd the dyna mic s by wh ic h

e p i s t e mo log ic a l t he o r ie s a r e c om m unic a t e d in a va r i e ty o f c l a s s r oom s , t he a f f e c -

t i ve d im e ns ions o f t he se t he o r i e s , t he p r oc e s s o f t he o r y c ha nge , h ow ind iv idua l s

o r ga n iz e t he o r i e s , a nd how the se a f f e c t mo t iva t ion , s t r a t e gy use , c ogn i t i on , a nd

a c a d e m i c p e r f o rm a n c e .

~ G e n d e r , E t h n i c it y , a n d C u l t u r e a s C o n t e x t s

Ge nde r i s sue s r e ma in a sub je c t wo r th a tt e n t ion . W e ha ve a p ione e r ing s tudy o f

m e n o n l y ( P e rr y , 1 9 70 ), a c o m p a r a b l e s t u d y o f w o m e n t h at d es c r ib e s w o m e n ' s

wa ys o f kno win g ( B e le nk y e t a l. , 1986), one that f i nds ge nd e r - r e l a t e d pa t t e r n s

( B a x te r M a go lda , 1992), a nd o the r s tha t e i t he r ha ve f ound n o d i f f e r e nc e s o r a re

inc onc lus ive ( K ing & K i t c he ne r , 1994; D . Kuhn , 1991). W e ne e d m or e s tud ie s o f

bo th ge nde r s t ha t e xp lo r e t he po te n t i a l ge nde r - r e l a t e d pa t t e rn s i n e p i s t e molog ic a l

the o r i es . M or e im por t a n t ly , t he r e i s a pa uc i ty o f s tud i es t ha t i nc o r po r a t e mino r i t y

popu la t ions o r e xa mine c r os s - c u l tu r a l d i f f e r e nc e s , wh ic h me a ns tha t e x i s t i ng

the o r y i s ba se d l a r ge ly on f ind ings f r om a ma in ly W hi t e , we l l e duc a t e d U .S .

popu la t ion . M or e ove r , we ne e d s tud ie s t ha t as se ss t he w i th in - g r oup va r i a b i li t y o f

ind iv idua l s w i th t he d i f f e r e n t ge nd e r a nd e thn ic g r oups , r a the r t ha n a s sum ing a

p r io r i tha t t he g r oup d i f f e r e nc e s c a p tu r e t he impo r t a n t va r i a nc e . F ina l ly , we ne e d

the o r e t ic a l a c c oun t s f o r why the r e ma y be g e nde r o r e thn ic o r c u l tu r a l d i f f e r e nc e s

in e p i s t e mo log ic a l t he o r i e s ( B e ta nc o ur t & L ope z , 1993; Gr a ha m, 1994; P o r t e r ,

1996). F o r e xa m ple , i t m a y b e tha t th ink ing o f ge nde r a nd e thn ic i t y a s d i f f e re n t

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c o n t e x t s o f d e v e l o p m e n t , j u s t a s d i f f e r e n t c u lt u r e s p ro v i d e d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t s ,

would be more benef ic ia l fo r recen t e f for t s in th i s a rea . In th i s approach , gender

a n d e t h n i c i t y c o u l d b e c o n c e p t u a l i z e d a s p ro v i d i n g d i f f e r i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s ,

a f fo rd a n c e s , a n d c o n s t r a i n t s o n d e v e l o p m e n t , r a t h e r t h an a s p e r s o n a l c h a ra c t e r is -

t ic s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l t h a t n e e d t o b e e x a m i n e d o r c o n t ro l l e d fo r in r e s e a r c h ( s e e

Por te r , 1996) .

C ro s s - c u l t u r al s t u d ie s o f e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l t h e o r i e s a p p e a r n o n e x i s t e n t , a n d e x -

i s t i n g f r a m e w o rk s b a s e d o n U . S . s t u d e n t s a m p l e s a r e u n d o u b t e d l y s h a p e d b y

und er ly ing cu l tu ra l be l i e fs. The fo rma l abs trac t reasoning tha t i s a ha l lmark of the

h i g h e r s t a g es o f m o s t s c h e m e s h a s b e e n n o t e d a s c h a ra c te r i s ti c o f W e s t e rn - s t y l e d

schooled cu l tu res (Bide l l & F ischer , 1992) and may be l e s s p reva len t in o the rs .

E x i s t in g e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l m o d e l s p o s i t a m o v e m e n t t o w a rd i n c r e a s e d i n d i v i d u a l -

i sm o f t h o u g h t a n d a f r e e d o m f ro m t h e d i c t a t e s o f a u t h o r it y . I t is p o s s i b l e t h a t in

a more c o l lec t iv i s t cu l tu re in which the v iew o f s e l f has in te r ind iv idua l imp l ica -

t i o n s , p e r s o n a l t h e o r i e s o f k n o w l e d g e a n d k n o w i n g c o u l d e v o l v e t o w a rd a n

a c c e p t a n c e o f c o n s e n s u s , n o t a r e l i a n c e o n i n d e p e n d e n t t h in k i n g (T r i a n d is , 1 9 8 9 ;

Tr iand is , Bontempo, Vi l l a rea l , Asa i , & Lucca , 1988) . This , in tu rn , might have

impl ica t ions fo r c rea t iv i ty and sc ien t i f i c d i scovery . In add i t ion , the degree to

w h i c h s c h o o l i n g c u r r e n t l y fo s t e rs t h e s e p a ra t e k n o w i n g d e s c r i b e d b y B e l e n k y e t

a l. ( 1 9 8 6 ) m i g h t b e a W e s t e rn p h e n o m e n o n t i e d u p w i t h n o t i o n s o f t h e s e p ara t e,

b o u n d e d s e l f (M a rk u s & K i t a y a m a , 1 99 1) .

Cross -c u l tu ra l s tud ies might a l so h igh l igh t o the r d imens io ns o f the cons t ruc t .

F o r e x a m p l e , t h e

purpose

o f k n o w l e d g e i s n o t c u r r e n t l y d i s c u s s e d a s a p a r t o f

e x i s t in g m o d e l s , y e t t h e r e m a y b e c ro s s -n a t i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s in h o w s t u d e n ts c o m e

t o v i e w t h e ro l e o f k n o w l e d g e a n d t h e e x t e n t to w h i c h i t a p p e a r s t o h a v e o n l y

prac t i ca l , u t i l it a r i an purpo ses . Em phas i s o n theory bu i ld ing ra the r than ins t rum en-

ta l i sm might va ry ac ross cu l tu res ; c lea r ly i t va r ie s ac ross d i sc ip l ines and wi th in

s u b a re as o f d i s c ip l in e s . F u r t h e r s t u d y o f d i s c ip l i n a ry w a y s o f k n o w i n g , a s w e l l a s

the ex ten t to which d i sc ip l ines a re themse lves cu l tu res , a l so mer i t s re sea rch

a t ten t ion .

~ M ethodological Issues

T h e s t u d y o f e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l b e l i e f s h a s a d v a n c e d t h ro u g h t h e e x t r a o rd i n a ry

d i l i g e n c e o f a s m a l l n u m b e r o f r e s e a r c h e r s c o m m i t t e d to i d e n t i fy i n g a n i m p o r t a n t

b u t e l u s i v e b e l i e f s y s t e m . E p i s t e m o l o g i c a l t h e o r i e s d o n o t y i e l d t h e m s e l v e s u p

re a d i l y a n d m a y b e b e s t c a p t u r e d a s a b y -p ro d u c t o f c e r t a i n t y p e s o f r e a s o n i n g

(King & Ki tchen er , 1994; D. Kuhn , 1991). Th e d i f f i cu l ty wi th th i s approach ,

h o w e v e r , i s th a t t h e i n t e rv i e w e r p r e d e t e rm i n e s t h e f r a m e w o rk . W h e n a n i n te r -

v i e w e r a s ks , f o r e x a m p l e , I f y o u w e re t r y i n g t o c o n v i n c e s o m e o n e e ls e t h a t y o u r

v iew i s r igh t , wha t

evidence

w o u l d y o u g i v e to tr y to s h o w t h i s ? (D . K u h n , 1 99 1,

p . 2 9 9 ) o r a s k s fo r j u s t i fi c a t i o n o f a p o i n t o f v i e w (K i n g & K i t c h e n e r , 1 9 9 4 ),

r e s p o n d e n t s c o m p l y w i t h in a f r a m e w o rk o f e v i d e n c e a n d ju s t i fi c a t io n . I f t h is i s t h e

spec i f i c domain of in te res t , th i s i s ha rd ly prob lemat ic . On the o the r hand , by

f r a m i n g t h e q u e s t i o n i n t e rm s o f e v i d e n c e a n d j u s t i fi c a t io n , t h e i n t e rv i e w e r m a y

l e a d t h e r e s p o n d e n t t o fo c u s o n t h e s e d i m e n s i o n s t o t h e e x c l u s i o n o f o t h e r m o re

p e r s o n a l l y s a l ie n t d i m e n s i o n s .

F o r t h is r e a s o n , o t h e r s h a v e a rg u e d t h a t a p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l f o rm o f i n q u i ry i s

e s s e n ti a l t o t h e n a t u r e o f s t u d y i n g d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h is s o r t. P e r ry (1 9 7 0 ) a n d

130



pisternologica l Theo ries

B e le nky e t a l. ( 1986) c ho se th i s a pp r oa c h , s e e k ing to he a r how ind iv idua l s wou ld

s t r uc tu r e t he i r t hough t s a nd f r a m e the i r e xpe r i e n c e s a nd pe r c e p t ions o f knowing .

N o t o n l y d id P e r r y a s k o p e n - e n d e d q u e s ti o n s ( W o u l d y o u l ik e t o s a y w h a t h a s

s tood ou t f o r you du r ing the ye a r ? ) , bu t h i s i n t e r v i e ws we r e a lmos t c omple t e ly

uns t r uc tu r e d , wh ic h m a y ha v e be e n n o t a h igh ly in t e n tiona l r e se a r c h s t ra t e gy bu t ,

a s M oo r e ( 1991 ) no t es , a r e su l t o f t he l ac k o f spe c i f i c f oc us o f the s tudy . B e le nk y

e t a l . ( 1986) t ook a some wha t mor e s t r uc tu r e d a pp r oa c h , c ombin ing the ope n -

e nde d que s t ions w i th m or e f oc use d one s , p lu s u s ing a p r oduc t ion t a sk .

T h e m o r e o p e n - e n d e d a p p r o a c h t o i n t er v i ew i n g m a y h a v e b e e n m o s t f r u it fu l a t

t he i n it ia l s t age s o f t he wo r k , a s i n a ny f i e ld . A t th i s po in t i n t he de ve lopm e n t o f

mode l s o f e p i s t e molog ic a l t he o r i e s , howe ve r , i t s e e ms to ma ke se nse t o de ve lop

m or e p r e c i se m e a ns o f p r ob ing e p i s t e molog ic a l a s sumpt ions , a s s e ve r a l ha ve do ne

( B a x te r Ma go ida , 1992 ; K ing & K i t c he ne r , 1994; D . Kuhn , 1991). W i th in t he

m os t r e c e n t i n t e r v i e w s tud ie s , t he s t r uc tu re ha s b e e n to p r ov ide pa r t ic ipa n t s w i th

i l l- s t ruc tu r e d p r ob le m s a nd to a s ses s t he i r r e a son ing a nd u nde r ly in g e p i s t e molog i -

c a l a s sumpt ions . One o f t he c e n t r a l p r ob le ms w i th t he i n t e r v i e w a pp r oa c h ha s

be e n r e p l ic a b i l it y . I n sp i t e o f t he va s t i n t e re s t i n w om e n ' s wa y s o f kno win g , i t

doe s no t a ppe a r t ha t wor k o f t ha t ma gn i tude ha s be e n r e pe a t e d , e i the r w i th a no the r

f e m a le s a mp le o r , e qua l ly imp or t a n t , w i th a mixe d - ge n de r de s ign . Th e R e f l e c t ive

Judg m e n t I n t e r v i e w , wh ic h ha s ha d the w ide s t u se , is a va i l a b l e on ly t o t hose who

rece ive t r a in ing and ce r t i f ica t ion .

C os t , t ime , a nd c omple x i ty o f i n t e r p r e t a t i on ha ve l e d s e ve r a l r e se a r c he r s t o

d e v e l o p p a p e r - a n d - p e n c i l m e t h o d s f o r a s s e s s i n g e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t

a n d e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l be l ie f s. M o s t o f t h e s e h a v e b e e n b a s e d o n P e r r y ' s s c h e m e ,

a l th o u g h K i n g a n d K i t c h e n e r a r e c u r re n t l y at w o r k o n t h e R e f l e c ti v e T h i n k i n g

Appr a i sa l , a wr i t t e n ve r s ion o f t he R e f l e c t ive Judgme n t I n t e r v i e w , wh ic h w i l l

m a ke l a r ge - sca l e a s se s sme n t o f t he i r m ode l pos s ib l e f o r t he fi r s t time .

W r i tt e n i n s t ru m e n t s d e s i g n e d f o r i d e n t i f y in g P e r r y ' s p o s i ti o n s h a v e i n c l u d e d

t h e M e a s u r e o f In t e ll e ct u a l D e v e l o p m e n t ( M I D ) , t h e L e a r n i n g E n v i r o n m e n t P r e f -

e r e n c e s (L E P ) , a n d t h e M e a s u r e o f E p i s te m o l o g i c a l R e f l e c ti o n (M E R ) . T h e M I D

is a p r oduc t ion - t a sk in s t rum e n t w i th an e s sa y s t e m f oc us in g on s tude n t s ' c onc e p -

t i ons o f kno w le dge a n d l e a r n ing . ( S tude n t s a r e a ske d to de sc r ibe t he be s t c ou r se

t h e y h a v e t a k e n o r t h e i d ea l l ea r n in g e n v i r o n m e n t . ) T h e M I D m u s t b e s c o r e d b y

t r a ine d ra t e rs , wh o a s se ss t he e s sa y on P os i t i ons 2 t h r oug h 5 o f the P e r r y s c he m e ,

a s s ign ing a t h r e e - d ig i t num be r t ha t re f l e c t s t he dom ina n t a nd subdo m ina n t pos i -

t ions . I n t e r r a te r r e li a b i l it y ha s be e n r e p o r t e d a s r a ng ing f r om the . 40s f o r a bso lu t e

a g r e e m e n t t o the . 90s f o r a g r e e m e n t w i th in one th i r d o f a pos i t ion , a nd c o r r e l a ti ons

wi th i n t e r v i e ws ha ve be e n r e po r t e d in t he . 70s ( Moor e , 1991) . Moor e a l so p r o -

v ide s e x t e ns ive r e po r t i ng on va l id i ty i s sue s o f t he MI D. No s ign i f i c a n t ge nde r

d i f f e r e nc e s ha ve be e n r e f l e c t e d in M I D r a tings . As a me a su r e o f in t e l l ec tua l

de ve lopme n t i n t he c o l l e ge ye a r s , t he MI D wou ld a ppe a r t o ha ve f ound l i t t l e

e v ide n c e o f c ha ng e in e p i s t e molog ic a l be l i e f s a c r os s t he popu la t ions a s se s se d f o r

i ts no r m ing da ta , w i th a s l i gh t ly upwa r d , bu t ve r y f l a t t r e nd f r om 18- t o 21 - ye a r -

o ld s. The M ER , de s igne d by B a x te r M a go lda ( 1992 ; B a x te r Ma g o lda & P or t e r fi e ld ,

1985 ; M oor e , 1991) i s s imi l a r to t he MI D a nd p r ov ide s e s sa y s t e m s in s ix a re a s

r e l a te d to c l a s s r oom l e a rn ing .

Th e LEP , a r e c ogn i t i on - t a sk in s t r ume n t w i th f o r c e d - c ho ic e i t e ms , wa s de s igne d

a s a m or e ob je c t ive m e a ns o f a s se s sing the P e r r y s c he m e a nd wa s c on s t r uc t e d

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ofer and Pintrich

f r o m a r e v i e w o f M I D e s s a y s . I t a p p e a r s t o h a v e a s u r p r i s i n g l y l o w c o r r e l a t i o n

wi t h t h e M I D , h o w e v e r , r e p o r t e d as . 3 6 ( M o o r e , 1 9 9 1 ). Ad d i t i o n a l in f o r m a t i o n o n

r e l ia b i l it y a n d v a l i d i t y o f th e L E P a p p e a r i n t wo e x t e n s i v e r e v i e ws ( M o o r e , 1 98 9,

1991). T he L EP does no t r equ i r e t r a ined r a te r s and thus i s access ib le to a l a rge r

n u m b e r o f r e s ea r c h e r s , a l t h o u g h g i v e n t h e c e i li n g e f f e c t o f a s s e ss i n g o n l y u p t o

Le ve l 5 , i t i s no t l ike ly to be o f use in s tud ies o f g r adua te s tudents o r we l l educ a ted

a d u lt s. M o o r e ( 1 9 9 1 ) c o n c l u d e s t h a t f o r m e a s u r e m e n t o f t h e P e r r y p o s i ti o n s , th e

M I D a n d M E R a r e th e o n l y a c c e p t a b le a lt e rn a t i v e s t o in - d e p t h i n t e r v ie ws b e -

c a u s e t h e y a l l o w t h e s t u d e n t t o g e n e r a t e h i s o r h e r o wn t h i n k i n g a n d m e a n i n g -

making , r a the r than r eac t ing to fo r ced -cho ice i t ems (wh ich es sen t ia l ly r e f lec t the

ins t rume nt au th or ' s me aning -mak ing , no t the s tude nt ' s ) ( p . 12).

S c h o m m e r ' s m e a s u r e o f e p i s te m o l o g i c a l b e l i ef s , a 6 3 - i te m q u e s t i o n n a i r e d e -

sc r ibed in de ta i l ea rl i e r , is a se l f - repor t ins t rume nt which doe s no t a l low r e spon -

d e n t s t o m a k e t h e i r o w n m e a n i n g , b u t i t d o e s p r o v i d e a r e l a t iv e l y e f fi c i e n t m e t h o d

f o r c o l le c t i n g d a ta o n l a rg e n u m b e r s o f s t u d e n ts . As s u c h A t h a s p r o v i d e d a m e a n s

for s tudying cor r e la t ion s be tw een ep is temo logica l be l ie f , /and cogni t ion and lea rn-

i n g . Ho we v e r , i t ta p s o n l y l i m i t ed a s p e c t s o f e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l b e l i e f s a n d r e l ie s o n

v e r y b r o a d l y s t a t e d i te m s , s o m e o f wh i c h m a y n o t b e m o s t r e p r e s e n t a ti v e o f th e

dom ain . F ina l ly , a l though i t i s used in f ac tor ana ly t ic s tud ies , the in te rna l f ac tor

s t ruc ture o f the ac tua l 63 i t ems has no t been em pi r ica lly demons t r a ted by Sch om mer ,

a n d o n e r e c e n t s t u d y s u g g e s t s a t h r e e - f a c t o r m o d e l b a s e d o n o n l y 3 2 o f t h e o r ig i n a l

i t ems (Qian & A lverm ann , 1995) . I n sp i te o f th i s , use o f the ins t rum ent i s g row ing ,

and i t o f f e r s a means of conduc t ing la rge - sca le quant i t a t ive as sessments .

E x i s t i n g m e t h o d s b a s e d o n e i t h e r i n t e r v i e ws , p r o d u c t i o n t a s k s , o r q u e s t i o n -

na i r es do l i t tl e to t e l l us ho w ep is tem olog ica l theor ies ac tua l ly ope ra te to in f luenc e

s t u d e n t l e a rn i n g . T h e p r e ss t o c o l l e c t s u c h e v i d e n c e m a y i n c r e a s e a s th e h i g h e r

e d u c a t i o n a s s e s s m e n t m o v e m e n t g a t h e r s f o r c e ; m a n y i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e c u r r e n t l y

wo r k i n g o n n e w m e t h o d s o f c o l l e c t i n g e v i d e n c e o f t h e e f fe c t o f c o l l e g e o n s t u d e n t

in te l l ec tua l deve lo pm ent (Ewel l , 1991). Re sea rcher s in ten t on be t te r under s tand -

i n g e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t a n d i ts r e la t i o n t o l e a rn i n g m a y w a n t t o g a t h e r

more na tura l i s t i c ev idence wi th h igher eco log ica l va l id i ty , pe rhaps us ing c r i t i ca l

i n c i d e n t te c h n i q u e s i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o wi n g c l a ss e s , u s i n g s t im u l a t e d r e c a l l f r o m

v i d e o t a p e s o r a u d i o t a p e s , o r c o n d u c t i n g e x i t i n t e r v i e ws a f t e r e x a m s . Ob s e r v a -

t i o n a l m e a s u r e s a l s o n e e d d e v e l o p m e n t i n o r d e r t o u n d e r s ta n d t h e r o l e o f c la s s -

r o o m c o n t e x t a n d i ts i n f l u e n c e o n e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l t h e o ri e s .

A c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r o f o t h e r m e t h o d o l o g i c a l is s u es r e m a i n , b e y o n d t h o s e o f

ins t rumenta t ion . Mos t s tud ies have se lec ted a pa r t i cu la r age group for s tudy ,

u s u a l ly d e f i n e d b y a c a d e m i c g r o u p i n g a n d m o s t o f t e n c o l l e g e s tu d e n ts . We k n o w

l i t t l e a b o u t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a l p r o g r e s s i o n o f e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l t h e o r i e s a c r o s s

educa t iona l s e t t ings and wha t the ep i s temologica l i s sues might be in ind iv idua ls

m a k i n g t h e t r a n s it i o n f r o m m i d d l e s c h o o l t o h i g h s c h o o l , o r f r o m h i g h s c h o o l t o

c o l l e g e , o r f r o m c o l l e g e t o wo r k . I n t e r m s o f d e v e l o p m e n t , t h e s e t r a n s i t i o n a l

p e r i o d s m a y r e p r e s e n t a ti m e w h e n d e v e l o p m e n t i s m o r e d is c o n t i n u o u s a n d m a y

p r o v i d e a u n i q u e w i n d o w o n g r o w t h a n d c h a n g e ( s e e W i g f ie l d , E c c l e s, & P i n t r ic h ,

1996) . Resea rch a t these t r ans i t iona l pe r iods cou ld prov ide a good oppor tun i ty to

e x a m i n e b o t h i n d i v i d u a l c o g n i t i v e - d e v e l o p m e n t a l f a c t o rs a s we l l a s c o n t e x t u a l

o p p o r t u n i t i e s a n d c o n s t r a in t s t h a t i n f l u e n c e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f p e r s o n a l e p i s t e -

m o l o g i c a l t h e o r i e s .

132




onc lu s i on s

As ou r d is c us s ion o f t he n ine is sue s shows , t he r e a r e a nu m be r o f impor t a n t

c onc e p tua l a nd me thodo log ic a l i s sue s t o be r e so lve d in f u tu r e r e se a r c h . W e

be l i e ve tha t one o f t he mo s t imp or t a n t is sue s i s t he de f in i t i on a nd de l ine a t ion o f

the c ons t r uc t o f e p i s t e molog ic a l be l i e f s a nd th ink ing . W e ha ve p r opose d the

c o n s t r u c t o f e p i st e m o l o g i c al t h e o r i es c o m p o s e d o f t h e f o u r d i m e n s i o n s o f c e r -

t a in ty o f knowle dg e , s im p l i c it y o f knowle d ge , so u r c e o f know le dge , a nd ju s t i f i -

c a t ion f o r know ing a s a wa y to he lp c l a r i f y the r e se a r c h a nd th ink ing in th i s a r ea .

A l though we a r e no t dua li s ts o r a bso lu t i st s a nd d o no t be l i e ve the r e is one c o r r e c t

a nswe r , we d o hope tha t ou r d i s c us s ion o f t h is i s sue a nd ou r a t te mp t a t de f in ing

a nd de l ine a t ing the c ons t r uc t w i ll p r ov ide a ba se f o r c onse nsu s a nd a s t imu lus f o r

f u tu r e c onve r sa t ions a bou t e p i s t e molog ic a l t h ink ing .

A t t he s a me t ime , we a r e a wa r e t ha t c u r r e n t sh i f t s i n e duc a t iona l t h ink ing

towa r d a c ons t r uc t iv i s t a pp r oa c h w i l l undoub te d ly c on t inu e to a f f e c t r e se a r c h in

th is a r e a , a s w i l l f o r mu la t ions o f f e min i s t e p i s t e m ology ( e. g ., A lc o f f & P o t t e r ,

1992; B le ie r , 1986; R ige r , 1992) and fem inis t pe da go gy (L ew is , 1993) , a s we l l a s

c u r r e n t c ha nge s i n t he e p i s t e m ology o f e duc a t iona l r e se a r c h ( G r e e n e , 1994).

T h e s e m o v e m e n t s m a y c h a n g e n o t o n l y t h e a p p r o a ch t o re s e a r ch b u t w h a t w e f i n d

a bou t how pe op le be l i e ve the y know. P e r r y ( 1970) c om pa r e d the sh i ft in wor ldv ie w

to re la t iv ism as pa ra l le l on an ind iv idu a l leve l to pa rad ig m sh i f t s in sc ience (T . S .

Kuhn , 1962). P i a ge t no t e d tha t on toge ne s i s , o r i nd iv idua l de ve lopm e n t , r e c a p itu -

l a te d soc ioge ne s i s , o r c o l le c t ive de v e lop m e n t ( G insbu r g & Opp e r , 1969) . W e m a y

f ind s imi l a r pa r a ll e l s i n t h is p e r iod be tw e e n c o ns t r uc t iv i sm a t the i nd iv idua l l e ve l ,

wh ic h i s de sc r ibe d a s the h ighe r i n t e g r a t e d e p i s t e molog ic a l l e ve l in t he s c he m e o f

B e le n ky e t a l. ( 1986) , f o r e xa m ple , a nd a c o ns t r uc t iv is t , soc ioc u l tu r a l a pp r oa c h to

kno wle d ge bu i ld ing in t he d i s c ip l ine s ( B e r e i t e r, 1994) . In a ny c a se , t he e xa m ina -

t i on o f t he de ve lopme n t o f e p i s t e molog ic a l t he o r i e s w i l l he lp u s t o unde r s t a nd

s tude n t s ' a nd t e a c he r s ' be l i e f s a bou t know le dge a nd the i r t h ink ing a bou t know l -

e dge . Th i s i n f o r ma t ion w i l l t he n he lp u s be t t e r unde r s t a nd the t e a c h ing a nd

le a rn ing p r oc e s se s i n c l a s s room s .

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u t h o r s

BA RBA RA K. HO FER i s a doc tora l candidate , Combined P rogram in Educa t ion and

P s y c h o l o g y , Un i v e r s i t y o f M i c h i g a n , 1 4 0 0 S E B , An n A r b o r , M I 4 8 1 0 9 ;

[email protected]. She specia l izes in epis temologicai development , motivat ion,

adolescent developm ent , and cul ture and cogni t ion.

PAU L R. P INTR ICH i s Associa te P rofes sor and A ssoc ia te Di r ec tor , Com bined P ro-

gram in Educat ion and Psych ology , Un ivers i ty of Michigan, Ann A rbor , M 14810 9;

pintr [email protected]. He specializes in motivation and self-regulated learning, and

adolescent d evelop me nt and schooling.

Rece ived June 26, 1995

Revis ion received June i l , 1996

Accepted September 5, 1996

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