Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences BA European Studies Style Sheet 2011/2012

ES Style Sheet

ES Style Sheet

BA European Studies

2

CONTENTS

Preface 3 1. Format 4

1.1 General features 4 1.2 Order of components 4

2. Mechanics 6

2.1 Spelling 6 2.2 Punctuation 6 2.3 Numbers 10 2.4 Italics (or underlining) 10 2.5 Quotations 10 2.6 Abbreviation 11 2.7 Capitalisation 11

3. Documentation 13

3.1 In-text references 13 3.2 List of References 14 3.3 APA guidelines 15 3.4 Footnotes or Endnotes 18 3.5 Abbreviations used in notes 19

4. Plagiarism 20

4.1 Copying your own work? 21 4.2 SafeAssign 22 4.3 An Example 22

Annex A: SafeAssign Report 25 Annex B: Title page 30 References 31

ES Style Sheet

BA European Studies

3

PREFACE

This style sheet describes the house style used in the Bachelor European Studies of the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences of Maastricht University. It lists all the relevant rules with regard to the format, mechanics, and documentation of the writing that students do as part of their coursework. A style sheet is meant to ensure the formal consistency of the writing produced in a given context or community. As such, it has a purely pragmatic function: it is more convenient to process and evaluate papers that all rely on the same principles of, for example, spelling, punctuation, and acknowledging sources. Working with a style sheet also contributes to improving the consistency of the formal features of a single text. Furthermore, it familiarises student writers with a fixed set of rules and conventions that experienced writers who are active in the same discourse or academic discipline rely on. Finally, the uniformity that results from working with a style sheet reduces the chance of misunderstandings and miscommunications. It is perfectly acceptable, for instance, to use abbreviations in footnotes, but agreement on which abbreviations ought to be used or when to use them can only raise the transparency of a footnote’s meaning. For these various reasons students are required to use the faculty’s house style in all writing they do as part of their coursework. This style sheet is divided into four sections: format, mechanics, documentation, and plagiarism. It also includes two annexes: an example of a SafeAssign report and an example of a title page.

ES Style Sheet

BA European Studies

4

1. FORMAT

1.1 General features

All writing that is turned in must be typed and carefully proofread (for spelling and other errors) and meet the following formal standards: paper size and colour: use A4 and white paper only print: for environmental reasons, double-sided printing is preferred, though

one-sided printed papers are accepted line spacing: 1.5 throughout (except quotations and footnotes or endnotes); lettering: 12-point (except footnotes or endnotes;) margins: leave 1 inch at the top and bottom and on both sides of the main text hyphenation: turn off your word processor’s automatic hyphenation feature justification: do not justify the lines of your paper at the right margin indention: indent the first line of each new paragraph one-half inch from the left

margin, except the first paragraph of your paper or after a blank line; indent set-off quotations as a whole one inch from the left margin

page numbers: use Arabic numerals for numbering all pages consecutively, except the title page (and, if applicable, the contents page and the page with list of illustrations). Put the page number preferably at the centre of the top or the bottom of the page. If your paper has a preface of more than one page, use Roman numerals for the page numbers of the preface.

1.2 Order of components

Typically, a short paper consists of a title page and the main text, but a longer research paper also consists of a table of contents and a list of references, and, if applicable, a foreword (preface) and a list of illustrations. These various components should be arranged in the following order: title page. Always use a title page. Type the title horizontally centred,

approximately 2 inches from the top. Use capitals for the first and last word and all other main words. You may use bold typeface, but no underlining or italics (the latter should only be used in the title if it contains a foreign word). If there is also a subtitle, use a colon to separate title and subtitle. Do not add a footnote reference to your title (use the first or last sentence of your paper if you need a footnote for explaining or acknowledging). In the lower right-hand corner of the title page you list the following items: your name, your I.D. number, pigeonhole number (and if relevant group number), date, name of the assignment, draft version (first, second, final). Put your supervisor’s name in the lower left-hand corner. (cf. Title page Annex B).

preface. The preface contains relevant introductory remarks and/or acknowledgments. In most cases a preface is redundant, while a long preface

ES Style Sheet

BA European Studies

5

may seem pretentious; however, if you need more than one page, use small Roman numerals for page numbering.

contents. Use a separate page for listing the “Contents”. This page is not numbered. It contains a listing of all parts of the text, except the title page and the contents page; (b) the title of each chapter and/or other formal part of the main text; (c) the number of the first page of each part and/or chapter. For a short paper a table of contents is not necessary.

illustrations. If illustrations are used they should be listed on a separate page, called “Illustrations”. This page is not numbered and follows the “Contents” page. It contains the following information: (a) the number of each illustration, (b) the caption (summarised), and (c) the number of the page on which the illustration is found. The caption contains the following information: (1) name artist, (2) title, (3) year, (4) description and commentary (if applicable), and (5) source.

main text. The main text consists of an introduction, body, and conclusion. Be sure to use well-organised paragraphs and generally avoid very brief or very long paragraphs. Especially in longer essays a set of interrelated paragraphs should be presented as a chapter or a (sub)section thereof; in short essays (sub)sectioning should be avoided. Chapters and sections have numbers and/or headings. Each chapter begins on a separate page, but sections or subsections do not have to be numbered and they do not need to begin on a new page. If it seems useful to number sections and subsections, use Arabic numerals (example: 1.1 refers to the first section of Chapter 1; 1.1.2 refers the second subsection of section 1 of Chapter 1). If the section or chapter has a heading, the number is first followed by a space and then the title, of which the first and last word and all other main words are capitalised. Separate heading from subsequent text by a line spacing of 1.5. Separate text from subsequent title or heading by a line spacing of two times 1.5.

references. At the end a listing of all the sources used, called “References,” is added. If it seems relevant to classify primary and secondary sources, consult your supervisor. The list consists of complete bibliographic entries of all sources used in both the main text and the footnotes or endnotes. The list should be arranged alphabetically, starting with the author’s last name. The entries listed all follow the APA style (see below).

To give you an idea of the format you are expected to adhere to, the text on plagiarism (Section 4) is formatted according to the European Studies and faculty’s house style. For a sample of what a title page should look like, see Annex B.

ES Style Sheet

BA European Studies

6

2. MECHANICS

2.1 Spelling

The spelling used in your research paper should be consistent throughout, except in quotations, which must retain the spelling of the original. Of course, there are different ways of spelling English correctly. The most widely practiced in the world is US spelling, but in Europe UK spelling is perhaps more prominent. The differences between these systems are minor, though, while over the years the various systems tend to become more alike. Moreover, even within a single spelling system a word may have variant spellings. What is most relevant, then, is that your spelling be consistent. Rely on a good dictionary (Oxford for UK English, Webster’s Collegiate for US English), and always use a spelling checker. 2.2 Punctuation

The main role of punctuation is to ensure the clarity and readability of writing. Punctuation marks clarify the sentence structure and can also affect the tone or meaning of a sentence. Their improper usage may cause misunderstandings and suggests a lack of control or sophistication on the writer’s part. As a rule, you must use punctuation in a consistent manner. The usage of periods, question marks, and exclamation points is obvious in most cases. A period indicates the end of a sentence and is also used in abbreviations. A question mark is indicative of a question the writer articulates, but an indirect question must be ended with a period rather than a question mark. An exclamation point follows a word group or sentence that expresses exceptional feeling or deserves special emphasis; it is, in fact, rarely used in research papers. By contrast, commas are a crucial element in academic writing, while other punctuation marks – semicolons, colons, apostrophes, quotation marks, dashes, parentheses, brackets, ellipsis marks, and hyphens – are important as well. 2.2.1 Commas The comma is a major tool for helping readers. Not using commas, or misplacing them, can complicate their understanding of an entire sentence. Because proper comma usage is so important in English, one section of the “Guidelines for Academic Writing” from the Maastricht University Language Centre is specifically devoted to it (cf. “Punctuation guide”).

ES Style Sheet

BA European Studies

7

2.2.2 Semicolons The semicolon is used to separate major sentence elements of equal grammatical rank. Use a semicolon: between closely related independent clauses not joined by a coordinating

conjunction like and, but, or, for, nor, so, yet. (example: The EU is an ambiguous political institution; it lacks democratically elected leadership).

when independent clauses have been joined with a conjunctive adverb (e.g. however, nevertheless, therefore, moreover) or a transitional expression such as for example or in fact (example: I have read many studies about the EU democratic deficit; however, I never understood why it is such an important issue.). To use merely a comma in these instances creates an error known as comma splice.

between items in a series containing internal punctuation (example: Present at the conference were Sandra Johnson, a European Convention member; Peter Barrett, a professor of European Studies; and Lucia Pavese, a European Council member).

2.2.3 Colons The colon is primarily used to call attention to the words that follow it. It must be preceded by a full independent clause. Use a colon: after an independent clause to direct attention to a list (example: The first

European Union consisted of six countries: France, Belgium, Italy, Germany, Luxemburg, and the Netherlands).

after an independent clause to direct attention to an appositive (a noun or noun phrase that renames a nearby noun) (example: Two of the original member states vetoed the new directive: Belgium and Luxemburg).

after an independent clause to direct attention to a quotation (example: In a recent interview the party leader said: “We favour a more active government”).

between independent clauses if the second summarises or explains the first (example: This we are forced to conclude: The EU must be expanded).

2.2.4 Apostrophes Use an apostrophe: to indicate that a noun is possessive (example: Only a minority of the European

Parliament was present at today’s meeting). If the noun is singular and ends in –s, add’s, but if the noun is plural and ends in –s, add only an apostrophe (example: Most members’ feelings on this issue are predictable).

to indicate joint possession (example: What is France and Belgium’s view on this issue?) or individual possession (example: Germany’s and Belgium’s views on this issue could not have been more different.) In the first example the assumption is that the two countries hold the same view.

ES Style Sheet

BA European Studies

8

to pluralise numbers, words mentioned as words, and abbreviations (example: You must ask to see their student I.D.’s. Or: We have heard enough maybe’s from the Commission).

it is common to use references to specific decades without apostrophe (cf. the 1960s, the 1850s).

2.2.5 Quotation Marks Use quotation marks: to enclose direct quotations that are integrated in the text. (example: In a recent

interview the party leader said that he favoured “a more active government.”). around titles of articles, poems, short stories, songs, television and radio

programs, and chapters or subdivisions of books. to set off words as words (italics is also allowed here) (example: The meaning of

“integration” is obvious.). use single quotation marks to enclose a quotation within a quotation. (example:

The chairman told us that “the party leadership told him ‘to step down’ and that indeed he planned to do so.”

do not use quotation marks for indirect quotations or to express irony or detachment.

periods and commas must be placed inside quotation marks; colons and semicolons must be placed outside quotation marks; and question marks and exclamation points must be put inside quotation marks unless they apply to the sentence as a whole.

2.2.6 Dashes Dashes (-- or, preferably: –, thus not: -) should be used sparingly. Their application may contribute to a sentence’s clarity or a more varied sentence structure, but in many cases commas do just as well. Use a pair of dashes: to set off parenthetical material that deserves emphasis (example: Everything

that went wrong – from the policy’s initial design to its implementation – was blamed on the lack of cooperation from local governments).

to set off an appositive that contains commas (example: In Brussels the basic needs of people – food, clothing, and housing – are much more expensive than in some other European capitals).

use a single dash to introduce words that summarise a preceding series or to prepare for a list, a restatement, an amplification, or a dramatic shift in tone or thought (example: Young and committed, clever and pragmatic, ardent and humorous – the star of the European Parliament’s new representative from Poland is rising quickly. Or: The new commissioner from the Netherlands is polite, motivated, well-educated, internationally oriented – and a failure).

ES Style Sheet

BA European Studies

9

2.2.7 Parentheses Use parentheses: to enclose supplemental material, a minor digression, or an afterthought

(example: After the new policy’s outlining, planning, and drafting (all standard procedures), the vote was a mere formality). Do not overuse parentheses for these purposes.

to enclose letters or numbers labelling items in a series (example: She is (a) a good writer, (b) a skilled communicator, and (c) and excellent manager).

to refer to a source (see below). 2.2.8 Brackets Use brackets [ ] only in direct quotations: to enclose any words or phrases that you insert for the sake of the quotation’s

clarity or to fit the quotation into your own text smoothly (example: He argued that “the goal [of integration] is to increase the security and political stability of Europe”).

the Latin word sic in brackets indicates that an error in a quoted sentence appears in the original source (example: He argued that the goal of integration is “to increase the security and political [sic] stability of Europe”).

2.2.9 Ellipsis mark The ellipsis mark consists of three spaced . . . periods (not: (…) or: …). Use it: to indicate that you have deleted material from an otherwise word-for-word

quotation. This can be useful in cases where you only need part of a quotation as evidence or illustration (example: He argued that “the goal of integration is to increase . . . the political stability of Europe”).

the ellipsis mark should normally not be used at the end or beginning of a quotation; nor should it be enclosed in parentheses.

2.2.10 Hyphen Consult a dictionary on how to treat a compound word. It will tell you whether to treat a compound word as a hyphenated compound (water-repellent), one word (waterproof), or two words (water table). If the compound word is not in the dictionary treat it as two words. Use a hyphen to connect two or more words functioning together as an adjective

before a noun (example: The new Agriculture Commissioner is not a well-known figure).

Hyphenate the written form of fractions and of compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine (example: Two-thirds of the Polish population voted in favour of their country’s accession to the EU).

ES Style Sheet

BA European Studies

10

Use the hyphen with the prefixes all-, ex-, self- and with the suffix -elect. (example: Mistrust of European politics is all-pervasive in some member states. Or: She is the first president-elect of the EU).

The hyphen is used in some words to avoid ambiguity or to separate awkward double letters (example: There is a strikingly anti-intellectual attitude in Brussels).

2.3 Numbers

Spell out numbers of one or two words. Use figures for numbers that require more than two words to spell out (unless the numbers form the beginning of a sentence).

The use of numbers is acceptable in dates, addresses, percentages, fractions, decimals, scores, statistics and other numerical results, exact amounts of money, divisions of books, pages, identification numbers, and in references to time.

Use historical dates in a consistent manner. Some examples: 16 August 1993, September 1900, the 1980s, the thirties, from 1970 to 1975, 200 B.C., A.D. 500. Spell out references to centuries or parts thereof. Examples: the eighteenth century, the mid-nineteenth century, a late-nineteenth-century development, in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, early-twenty-first-century EU politics.

In consecutive page numbers used in references, numbers of three figures or more are abbreviated according to the logic implied in the following examples: pp. 21-28, pp. 87-167, pp. 345-46, pp. 200-10, pp. 330-460, pp. 1008-74,

pp. 12345-47, pp. 12345-447. 2.4 Italics (or underlining)

Use italics for: the titles of books, journals, plays, films, long poems, works of visual art,

newspapers, pamphlets, magazines, and musical compositions (example: The Abduction of Europa is a famous painting), but not for the names of authors, titles of articles or chapters.

foreign words in English sentences (example: The German Bundeskanzler won the elections for the second time).

words, letters, and numbers mentioned as themselves (example: As a concept, integration is quite vague.) (Quotation marks are also allowed here).

emphasis, but only sparingly (example: I really enjoy being in the European Studies Program).

2.5 Quotations

Quotations must be copied accurately and correspond to the original in words, spelling, and internal punctuation. Each adjustment needs to be accounted for explicitly. Avoid dropping quotations into the text without warning; instead,

ES Style Sheet

BA European Studies

11

provide clear signal phrases, usually including the author’s name, to prepare readers for the source. Use phrases like: according to Prodi, as Prodi has noted, Prodi points out that, as Prodi claims. The first word of a quotation that is a full sentence needs to be capitalised (even if this is not the case in the original).

Quotations of one, two, or three lines must be incorporated into the main text between quotation marks. E.g.: The author signals that “Schengen is about enlightened self-interest” (Van Es, 1991, p. 57).

Quotations of four lines or more must be set off from the main text by an extra line spacing of 1.5 and indention (one inch or ten spaces from the left margin). Within the quoted block use a line spacing of 1. Because these features already mark the words as quoted, quotation marks are not necessary anymore. (cf. example below in Annex A).

Two useful marks of punctuation, the ellipsis mark and brackets, allow you to keep quoted material to a minimum and to integrate it smoothly into your text (see above).

2.6 Abbreviation

Abbreviations must be used sparingly in formal writing, but the following categories of abbreviations are common: titles immediately before and after proper names (like Mr., Mrs., Dr., Prof., Jr.,

M.D.) names of well-known organisations or countries, especially when used frequently

in a particular context. Consider, for instance, EU, UN, USA, IBM, UNESCO, and CIA. Note that the letters of these abbreviations are not followed by periods

generally accepted abbreviations like A.D. (Latin anno Domini, “after Christ” precedes the date), B.C. (before Christ, follows the date), a.m., and p.m.

Latin abbreviations like cf. (compare), e.g. (for example), etc. (and so forth), NB (note well), and i.e. (that is) are only used in comments in parentheses or in notes (see below, under Documentation); in formal writing only use the appropriate English phrases.

2.7 Capitalisation

The following words must be capitalised: the first word of a sentence. the first word of a quoted sentence unless it is blended into the sentence that

introduces it (cf. In a recent issue of European Studies a German professor wrote, “The EU is on the verge of meeting entirely new cultural challenges.” And: In a recent issue of European Studies a German professor wrote that “the EU is on the verge of meeting entirely new cultural challenges”).

proper nouns and words derived from them. Months, days, and holidays are treated as proper nouns; the seasons and numbers of days of the month are not.

ES Style Sheet

BA European Studies

12

(example: The next EU summit will take place in early spring, on the second of April).

titles of persons only when used as part of a proper name (example: I was asked a question by Prof. Johnson. And: I was asked a question by the professor).

the first, last, and all major words in titles and subtitles of works like books, articles, and movies when they are mentioned in the main text (cf. The End of the Opera, “Europe: A History of a Symbolic Quest”).

abbreviations for departments, major policies, organisations, corporations, and so on (cf. EU, CAP, UN.)

do not capitalise the first word after a colon unless it begins an independent clause, in which case capitalisation is optional (example: The European integration effort divides people into two groups: staunch believers and radical sceptics. And: This we are forced to conclude: The [or the] EU must be expanded).

ES Style Sheet

BA European Studies

13

3. DOCUMENTATION

Research papers are always in part based on information borrowed from sources. This specific borrowed information must be carefully acknowledged, not just with regard to texts, but also when copying tables and graphs, or when using other scholars data to present your own tables, graphs, etc. (see, also, Section 4 on plagiarism). Traditionally, academic writers mainly relied on a set of footnotes or endnotes for acknowledging their sources. Today, most disciplines rely on the so-called “author-year” (or author-date) system. This system consists of a bibliography, a list comprising all sources that are used in a particular paper, and parenthetical in-text references to this particular list. 3.1 In-text references

It is crucial that in-text references are clear, correct, and concise. In-text references generally consist of three elements at most: last name(s) of the author(s), year of publication, and page number(s). Moreover, a comma follows each of the elements. This information allows readers to identify the correct source(s) in the list of references at the end of the text. The complete bibliographic information of a source is only provided once: in the list of references, rather than in the main text or in footnotes or endnotes. A characteristic in-text reference directly following the quotation of a source is structured as follows:

The author thus argues that “citizenship . . . is one of the defining characteristics of a state” (Shore, 2000, p. 83).

Alternatively, the quotation and reference can be formatted as follows:

As Shore (2000) argues in his recent work on cultural politics in the European Union, “citizenship . . . is one of the defining characteristics of a state” (p. 83).

A single in-text reference may contain references to multiple sources: (Delors, 1988, p. 16; Delors, 1990, p. 67; Dehaene, 1994, pp. 104-06). In-text references to internet sources take the same form as regular references: (author, year) or (author, year, page number); avoid including the entire internet address in your running text! A reference to a source retrieved from the internet (or drawn from a newspaper) with no author mentioned takes the form of a short title instead of the author, e.g. (“Study finds”, 1982) would be the appropriate form to refer to an anonymous article titled: Study finds free care used more. (1982, April). APA Monitor, p. 14. A reference to a specific passage of a source retrieved from the internet with no page number mentioned takes the form of a subtitle or section number where the passage is found instead of the page number.

ES Style Sheet

BA European Studies

14

It is not necessary to acknowledge each and every piece of information in a text; well-known quotations or established scientific views, for instance, are considered common knowledge and do not need to be acknowledged. In all other cases sources must be acknowledged in an in-text reference, but this reference does not always need to include an author’s name, year, and page. For example: when you summarise or paraphrase someone’s overall argument, it is perfectly

acceptable to refer to that source in general, without specifying a particular page (Delors, 1988).

when you refer to a brief poem or to an alphabetically arranged source (like an encyclopedia), you do not need to indicate line numbers or page numbers.

various consecutive citations from the same source have to be acknowledged only once, after the final citation from that source.

if the next in-text reference refers to another page of the same source, only the page number needs to be given. When, for example, the in-text reference to (Delors, 1988, p. 14) is followed by the in-text reference to (p. 78), the reader knows that you refer to the same source. If the next reference is to (1982, p. 25), this means that the reference is to another source from the same author.

the first time you refer to sources with 3-6 authors, all names must be mentioned, while consecutive references to the same source will only mention the first name and then add et al. (De Groot et al., 1987). Sources of more than 6 authors are always referred to by the first authors name plus et al.

in case of a corporation as author, the full name of the corporation and the abbreviation between brackets need to be spelled out in the first reference (American Psychological Association [APA], 1987); in consecutive references only the abbreviation is used (APA, 1987).

For more detailed information on in-text reference, see the APA Manual (University Library), or carefully check a recently published book or article that relies on the APA style.

Tables, graphs, etc. need to be numbered and references should be included below them, if applicable. When directly copying from other scholars’ work, references should be included in a similar way as other in-text references, e.g. (Delors, 1988, p. 16). When using others scholars’ data to draft your own table or graph, this should be acknowledged too, for example: Based on Delors (1988, p. 16). If you are not sure what this would look like, have a look at some books or journal articles for examples.

3.2 List of References

A research paper ends with an alphabetical list of sources, called “Bibliography,” “Works Cited,” “References,” or some other similar designation. There are several common systems for putting together the entries on the list, the two major ones being the MLA style, mostly used in the humanities, and the APA style, widely used in many disciplines, including the social sciences. One convention of the APA style,

ES Style Sheet

BA European Studies

15

on which we rely in this program, is to call the list of sources “References.” A basic entry has the following general structure: book: Author’s or editor’s name, date of publication, book title, publication information (place and publisher). article: Author’s name, date of publication, article title, journal title, publication information (volume, issue, page numbers). Specific examples can be found below under “APA guidelines”. Notice that your entries need to follow these guidelines exactly. (For formatting your bibliography you can also make use of the Endnote program.) 3.3 APA guidelines

Examples of references to books Book, 1 author

Hall, J. A. (1986). States in history. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Book, 2 authors

Cole, J., & Cole, F. (1997). A geography of the European Union. London/New York: Routledge.

Book, 2-6 authors

Davignon, E., Ersbøll, N., Lamers, K., Martin, D., Noël, E., & Vibert, F. (1995). What future for the European Commission? Brussels: Philip Morris Institute.

NB In case of more than six authors only the first six names are mentioned, followed by ‘et al.’ (e.g. see below under journals). Book, corporation as author

American Psychological Association (2001). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association. (5th, rev. ed.). Washington DC: American Psychological Association.

Edited book

Graham, B. (Ed.). (1998). Modern Europe. Place, culture, identity. London: Arnold. Edited book, 2 editors

Wilson, K., & Dussen, J. van der (Eds.). (1993). The history of the idea of Europe. London: The Open University.

ES Style Sheet

BA European Studies

16

Article or chapter in an edited book

Nederveen Pieterse, J. (1994). Unpacking the West. How European is Europe? In A. Rattensi & S. Westwood (Eds.), Racism, modernity and identity on the western front (pp. 129-149). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Chapter in a book

Clark, K. (1969). Heroic materialism. In Civilisation (pp. 321-47). New York: Harper.

English translation of a book

Luria, A. R. (1969). The mind of a mnemonist (L. Solotaroff, Trans.). New York: Avon Books. (Original work published 1965).

Article in an encyclopedia

Bergmann, P. G. (1993). Relativity. In The new encyclopedia Britannica (Vol. 26, pp. 501-508). Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica.

Examples of references to periodicals Journal article, 1 author:

Moravscik, A. (1991). Negotiating the single European Act. National interests and conventional statecraft in the European Community. International Organization, 45, 651-688.

Journal article, 2 authors:

Sandholtz, W., & Zysman, W. J. (1992). Recasting the European bargain. World Politics, 41, 95-128.

NB In these examples the numbers 41 and 45 (like the journals’ titles in italics) refer to the “volume” (number of years since the journal’s first year of publication). Since most journals make use of continuous pagination (starting with page 1 at the beginning of the year and numbering through), there is no need to indicate the number of the specific issue an article comes from. If a journal does start numbering pages every new issue again (some journals occuring every week, two weeks, once a month, or quarterly), the issue number must be added (between parentheses) directly following the volume number. Journal article, more than 6 authors, journal paginated by issue:

ES Style Sheet

BA European Studies

17

Lengacher, C., Bennett, M., Gonzales, L., Cox, C., Shons, A., Reington, D., et al. (1998). Psychoneuroimmunology and immune system link for stress, depression, health behaviors, and breast cancer. Alternative Health Care Practitioner, 4(2), 1-14.

Magazine article:

Kundera, M. (1984, April). The tragedy of central Europe. New York Review of Books, pp. 69-75.

Newspaper article:

Hofland, H. J. A. (1997, September 24). Som der subculturen. NRC Handelsblad, p. 7.

Newspaper article, no author:

Study finds free care used more. (1982, April). APA Monitor, p. 14. NB The first significant word in the title should be used to alphabetise the work. Archival sources Each archive is organised differently, but citations should be provided in a manner that allows readers to trace your sources. Some archives provide their users with standard guidelines for citing sources from their collection. If you are conducting research in an archive, please be sure to ask if there is a correct way to cite their sources. If not, be sure that your readers understand any abbreviations you may choose to use. When referring to an archival source, the order is as follows: nature of the source including date; archival institution; archival series; inventory number; folio number:

The Schuman Declaration 9 May 1950, Archives of the ministry of foreign affairs Paris, Secretariat general, inv.nr. 57, ff. 3-6.

Letter Robert Schuman to the president of the Council of the Republic’s foreign affairs commission 15 June 1950, Archives of the ministry of foreign affairs Paris, Plaisant papers, inv.nr. 144, f. 48.

Government communication

Commission of the European Communities. (2001). European governance: a white paper. (COM (2001) 428). Brussels: European Commission.

Electronic sources

ES Style Sheet

BA European Studies

18

Electronic source with author and date:

Wiesel, E. (1998). Ohne Schande. Die Zeit. Retrieved August 15, 2000, from http://www.zeit.de/bda/int/zeit/print/199851.wiesel_.html

NB In this example, August 15 is the date you last visited the website, while 1998 is the year of publication of the work. Electronic source, no date:

American Psychological Association (n.d.). General form for electronic references. Retrieved May 5, 2004, from http://www.psychrelig/psyrelpr.html

Electronic source, no author, no date:

Gender and society (n.d.) Retrieved January 9, 2004, from http://www.trinity.edu/~mkearl/gender.html

N.B Make use of the first significant word in the title to alphabetise the work.

Note that e-journals are not the same as online journals. Whereas the latter should be included as electronic sources, the former should be included as periodicals. E-journals are essentially electronic versions of hardcopy journals.

Unpublished paper presented at a meeting

Hendriks, R., Bal, R., and Bijker, W.E. (2003, September). Beyond the species barrier; the Health Council of the Netherlands and the construction of objectivity. Paper presented at the WTMC/NERDI workshop ‘Objects of objectivity’, Amsterdam.

Visual source

Green, A. B. (producer), & Brown, C. D. (Director). (1991). The joys of inconsistency [videotape]. Tiburon, CA: Vader.

3.4 Footnotes or Endnotes

In addition to a list of sources and in-text references, a research paper commonly contains a set of notes. A distinction can be made between explanatory notes and reference notes. Additional information or explanation regarding a particular issue is generally put in a note to avoid breaking up the flow of the main argument or to provide more background to an issue. Most research papers have a set of explanatory notes. However, reference notes have basically become redundant after the

ES Style Sheet

BA European Studies

19

introduction of the author-year system of documentation. You only use a note to refer to a source if for some reason in-text reference would break up the flow of the main text too much, or in combination with explanatory information. A second major distinction involves endnotes versus footnotes. The latter are generally used if the total number of notes is limited and they tend to be not very long. Endnotes are preferable if there are many notes and/or they tend to be extensive. In general it is best to be selective about using notes. It is not required to explain everything in detail. Notes are numbered consecutively. Only use Arabic numerals, not followed by a period. The in-text reference to the note is in superscript, always right after a punctuation mark – except in the case of a colon, semicolon, and dash – and right after a quotation (never after the author’s name or colon that announces the quotation). Most word processors have an automatic note system. Use a line spacing of 1 both in notes and between notes. Use an 11-point lettering. 3.5 Abbreviations used in notes

Notes have to be as concise as possible, which is why standard abbreviations are frequently used. There are a number of commonly used abbreviations in notes and documentation: anon. anonymous cf. Latin confer, “compare” Ch. Chapter Diss. Dissertation Ed., Eds. Editor(s) e.g. Latin exempli gratia, “for example” etc. Latin et cetera, “and so forth,” “and so on” et al. Latin et alii, “and others” fig., figs. figure(s) ibid. Latin ibidem, “in the same place,” i.e. the source of which the

title is cited in the preceding note i.e. Latin id est, “that is” illus. illustration, illustrator, illustrated by ms., mss. manuscript(s) n., nn. note(s) (e.g., “p. 56, n. 2”) n.d. no date of publication n.p. no place of publication; no publisher NB Latin nota bene, “note well” No. (or no.) number op. cit. Latin opere citato, “in the cited work” p., pp. page(s) rev. ed. revised edition vol., vols. volume(s) UP University Press

ES Style Sheet

BA European Studies

20

4. PLAGIARISM1

plagiarism: 1. The action or practice of taking someone else's work, idea,

etc., and passing it off as one's own; literary theft. 2. A particular idea,

piece of writing, design, etc., which has been plagiarised; an act or product

of plagiary.

plagiarise: Originally of writers, later also of composers, artists, etc.: to

take and use as one's own (the thoughts, writings, or inventions of another

person); to copy (literary work or ideas) improperly or without

acknowledgement; (occas.) to pass off as one's own the thoughts or work

of (another).

Oxford English Dictionary Online

The word “plagiarism” is derived from the Latin word “plagiarius”, which literally

means “plunderer”. Just as plundering or looting the possessions of someone else is

unlawful, plundering someone else’s words or ideas is illegal. Put simply, plagiarism

is stealing the intellectual labour performed by others. In the academic community

plagiarism is not only considered a vulgar form of theft, but also seen as an attack on

fundamental academic values. By robbing others of their ideas and subsequently

behaving as if one has generated them on one’s own, the confidence of fellow

students, staff members, professors, and the academic system at large is seriously

undermined. As a matter of principle, members of the academic community

subscribe to a basic code of conduct when it comes to quoting the work of other

scholars or referring to scholarly and other sources.

In order to avoid unintentional plagiarism it is important to know exactly what

plagiarism is. After all, it entails more than just copying some other author’s work

(or parts thereof) and putting your own name under it. Plagiarism is every form of

use of ideas that are derived from an external source and that are not generally

ES Style Sheet

BA European Studies

21

considered as common knowledge, without acknowledging their origin. When

borrowing ideas, it makes no difference whether you literally copy someone else’s

words or whether you put them into your own words. Paraphrasing, rearranging

words or sentences, using the same sequence of ideas or line of reasoning,

summarising paragraphs, repeating specific formulations – these are all strategies for

deriving ideas from others and incorporating them into your own text or argument.

Of course, we produce academic writing precisely because we want to share

our views and findings with other individuals, who may very well be interested in

actively using our knowledge in their own writing. It is even expected that we as

academic writers make generous use of the work of others, for in many cases it will

serve as excellent support for our own findings, especially if the sources we rely on

are widely seen as authoritative. But this basic academic principle of striving to

integrate our knowledge with that of others – as a crucial element of our common

effort to contribute to a better and more advanced intellectual knowledge community

– can only be effective if we always account for the source of specific information

with as much care and detail as possible. After all, only then will we enable others to

check information, to see whether sources are quoted correctly, or to find out if

certain interpretations are justified or, in effect, contribute to a new understanding.

4.1 Copying your own work?

Each of your papers written during your studies should be an individually and

independently written academic piece of work. To avoid plagiarism make sure not

to copy and paste from any of your previous work – your previous work is part of

the SafeAssign database (see below) and copying it is likely to it being marked as

plagiarism in SafeAssign reports and will be treated accordingly. You are invited

to make use of primary sources of the preceding semester(s) and of secondary

sources from the European Studies curriculum, and you can study topics you have

worked on before. Nevertheless, you should always approach your topic and

material from a new angle and develop an original argument. For more

information, please consult Article 20 of the Teaching and Examination

1 This section is formatted according to the European Studies and faculty’s house style.

ES Style Sheet

BA European Studies

22

Regulations of the Bachelor European Studies (ELEUM > My FASoS > Rules

and Regulations > Teaching and Examination Regulations).

4.2 SafeAssign

In order to check student’s papers on plagiarism, the Faculty of Arts and Social

Sciences makes use of SafeAssign – a software programme that allows for the

comparison of written work of students with a data-base of available sources on

the internet and other students’ work. An example of a so-called safe assignment

report is included in Annex A. In such a report suspected parts of the paper’s text

are underlined and a percentage of matching with existing sources is given. A list

of matching sources is given on top of the report; the codes that are inserted in the

paper’s text refer back to these sources. Note that matching percentages as such

are neutral: a proper quote – making use of quotation marks and referencing –

also gives a matching percentage.

4.3 An Example

In order to avoid unintentional plagiarism, it is useful to keep in mind the following

rule of thumb: If you have specific knowledge or opinions about a topic prior to

reading a particular source on that topic and writing about it, you do not have to

account for this source. When in doubt, always refer to your source. The following

example should clarify the difference between proper and improper use of ideas and

phrases from other authors. Assume that you have read the following brief passage

in a 1991 study by the Dutch author Andrée van Es, entitled Schengen, of de nieuwe

deling van Europa (Schengen, or the new division of Europe; Amsterdam: Van

Gennep).

Schengen is enlightened self-interest. It is an attempt to protect Europe against chaos and poverty. But the price is high. Schengen shifts the balance of power between government and citizens in favor of government. Those who believe that these regulations can stop migratory movements will have a rude awakening. After all, the basic challenge will be how to enforce these regulations. (Van Es, 1991, p. 57).

ES Style Sheet

BA European Studies

23

This information might be used in various ways in an essay about the argument

presented by Van Es. One possible version reads as follows:

In the wake of debates about the control of migratory movements and the ensuing sharpening of regulations, as formulated, for instance, in the Schengen agreement, the power balance between citizens and government has shifted too much in favor of the latter. People accepted this out of a sense of enlightened self-interest. But recent debates about asylum policies support our thesis that those who believe that Europe can be protected against the chaos and poverty that is found elsewhere in the world will have a rude awakening. A further shifting of the balance of power will be seen as inevitable to enforce the regulations.

This is an unambiguous case of plagiarism. Not only did the author borrow specific

ideas from Van Es, but also did he use some of the exact same formulations without

reference to the source. Moreover, the author does as if these ideas are the author’s

own views (“support our thesis …”).

A second version reads as follows:

In the wake of debates about the control of migratory movements and the ensuing sharpening of regulations, as formulated, for instance, in the Schengen agreement, the power balance between citizens and government has shifted too much in favor of the latter. People accepted this out of a sense of enlightened self-interest. But recent debates about asylum policies demonstrate that those who believe that Europe can be protected against the chaos and poverty that is found elsewhere in the world will have a rude awakening. A further shifting of the balance of power will be seen as inevitable to enforce the regulations.

This is plagiarism as well. The author uses a number of ideas and some literal

phrases without making any reference to Andrée van Es or the book from which

these ideas and phrases are borrowed. Thus the author pretends as if these ideas are

more less facts that are unchallenged by anyone and that thus count as general

knowledge, while in reality, they are the individual views of Van Es. A more

acceptable way of using this particular source is the following:

In the fall of 1998, the parliamentary commission in charge fiercely debated the issue of additional regulations to “dam”, as it is called, the “growing

ES Style Sheet

BA European Studies

24

influx” of asylum seekers. These debates confirmed the views of Andrée van Es, who, in response to the decision process about Schengen, already warned for citizens’ blind trust in the potential of new regulations and strong government to curb the migratory influx. “Schengen is about enlightened self-interest,” she writes. “It is an attempt to protect Europe against chaos and poverty. But the price is high.” (Van Es, 1991, p. 57) After all, as van Es argues, in order to enforce the new regulations a constant shifting of the balance of power between government and citizens in favor of the former will turn out to be inevitable.

In this last version the author accounts for the ideas and formulations presented

through a direct reference to their source. In order to support his own view, the

author relies on Van Es as an authority and by making a very specific source

reference he allows the reader to trace whether this interpretation of van Es’s

views is correct and whether her words are quoted correctly.

ES Style Sheet

BA European Studies

25

ANNEX A: SAFEASSIGN REPORT

The example below concerns the paper of an ES student that was considered

suspect by his/her supervisor. The safe assignment check did not yield an

especially high match with existing sources. On closer scrutiny, however, much of

the underlined text seems to be directly derived from internet sources with codes

50 and 56. Other sources were used and copied without proper quoting and

referencing. Safe assignment cannot replace human judgement, but it can usefully

assist a supervisor in making the case of plagiarism.

SafeAssignment Report

Report Information

Author: Xxxxx Assignment: Xxxxx

Title: Xxxxx Submitted: Xxxxx

Matching: 18%

Paper ID: Xxxxx

Suspected Sources

[50]http://se1.isn.ch/serviceengine/FileContent?serviceID=PublishingHouse&fileid=9A8DFCB0-2844-E216-52C0

[56]http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p253269_index.html

[136]http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20030101faessay10223/philip-h-gordon/bridging-the-atlantic-divide.html

[276]http://lists.topica.com/lists/nato1/read/message.html?sort=d&mid=904407162 [320]http://opencrs.cdt.org/document/RL31956 [325]http://jsis.washington.edu/euc/448%20Brussels%20syllabus%20Summer%202007.pdf [329]Another student's paper: [333]http://history.uchicago.edu/graduate/orals/Cumings-InternationalHistory.pdf [343]http://www.g7.utoronto.ca/citations.html [357]Another student's paper:

Paper Text

[Title paper removed]

Introduction (…)

ES Style Sheet

BA European Studies

26

Theoretical Basis

The importance of NATO since 1989.

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was founded in1949 to provide a system of collective security for itsmembers and to guarantee stability in the North Atlantic region by preventing the apparent threat of Soviet militarypower. When the Soviet Union collapsed and the Cold War ended in 1991, NATO found itself faced with an identitycrisis. For the next decade, NATO had to deal with a threat that is entirely different from the one that theorganization was created to deal with.

The importance of NATO has been questioned over the years (Lindberg, Serfaty, 2005, p.181) and as aconsequence the mission in Afghanistan is therefore very important for NATO's to show its importance andeffectiveness. With the Cold War about a decade past, and with many years of wars against WMDs and terrorists, NATO has never been so critical (Lindberg, 2005).

Before we take a look at the historical outline of the transatlantic relation since the end of the Cold War, this nextsection will analyze the importance of NATO through a period of a changing international environment. This sectionwill show that NATO has been able to stay significant due to common fundamental values explained by realism andthe varieties of cooperative behavior possible within a decentralized system such as NATO explained by neoliberals.

Two categories of realism are recognized by Snyder. These classifications are that or “neorealism” as opposed toclassical realism and a more precise category which is “structural realism. [ 50 ; 67%] Structural realism has two varieties, three of “offensive realism” and several different types of “ defensive realism”(Snyder, 2002 p.149-150).

The explanation why bigger states support NATO is explained through offensive realism. [ 50 ; 66%] This is because great powers maximize their relative power and become the hegemony i n the system (Mearsheimer, 2001p. 20-21). In addition, Snyder supports Mearsheimer's argument by stating that “with the incentives and thecapabilities” they will feel in control. In addition, weak or ambiguous commitments in some circumstances enhancea states bargaining position within an alliance to minimize its fears of `entrapment' by making it unclear whether astate will support its allies or not (Snyder, 2002). [ 50 ; 76%] Offensive realism originated from an idealist argument that the lack of institutions or the lack of effective institutions which can extract power and form astructured hierarchy in the international system provides the incentives for states to maximize their power. Therefore, less sufficient states or members of the EU support NATO which increases their power and can guaranteesurvival (Schroeder , 1995, Mearsheimer, 2001). [ 56 ; 82%] The reason NATO continues its importance is because its members are obtaining not all but some of what they need to protect of their national interests. In an era of tough security against predictable military threats, member states want autonomy. However, offensive powerthey need NATO to influence events far from their capitals but close to their national political goals (Mearsheimer, 2001).

[ 50 ; 75%] A weak point in the argumentation is that they are based on historical paradigms and they do not takeinto account the new political formations, international organizations and institutions, such as the EU, which have a significant impact on the way, states pursue their interests. The EU has changed the nature power and decision-making for some states, constraining the exercise of power (Ikenberry, 2001).

[ 50 ; 84%] On the other hand “ defensive realism ” , “ structural realism ” or “ neo-realism ” tries to explain the modern structure of the world and recognizes the role of institutions as the force of power by bigger states (Waltz,1979). The main focus of a state is not to maximize its strength but to maintain its power (Snyder, 2002p. 152).States seeking to balance against external military capabilities or threats is the most commonly accepted view ofwhy states form alliances. Traditional balance of power theory emphasized the role of alliances in balancing against military capabilities. More recent work stresses the role of threats, which are state intentions in addition to thedistribution of military capabilities, as affecting state decisions to ally for balancing purposes. [ 56 ; 78%] (Walt, the Origins of Alliances).

[ 50 ; 91%] In addition there is the binding hypothesis which is also used by neo-realists and argue s that “weaker states “bind” themselves to the institutions because they achieve greater voice within it” (Grieco, 1996). [ 50 ; 67%] It explains why middle to small scale states have compatible regimes or common economic interests withinNATO when at the same time they are part of a high institutionalization like Europe.

[ 50 ; 79%] Rosecrance divides realism into specific realism (Kaplan, 1984, Morgenthau, 1948, Waltz, 1979) andgeneralist realism (Axelrod, 1997, Powell, 1999). [ 50 ; 64%] Rosecrance states that specific realism is based “on conflict and material power capabilities conjoined with balancing of power”. [ 50 ; 80%] However, for generalist realism he claims that it “is a much broader and inclusive notion of realism that involves no necessary balance ofpower” (Rosecrance , 2001 p. 135). In addition he observes recent generalist theory and neo-liberal theory. The neoliberal theory is focused on the neorealist's underestimation of "the varieties of cooperative behavior possiblewithin a decentralized system such as NATO. Both theories, however, consider the state and its interests as thecentral subject of analysis; Neoliberalism may have a wider conception of what those state interests are. [ 50 ; 71%] Rosecrance also explain the main difference between generalists and neoliberal institutionalist in the way

ES Style Sheet

BA European Studies

27

they explain the strengthening of intern ational organization. The neoliberal institutionalist theory argues that the states voluntary join and cooperate within the institution. On the other hand, the generalists while argue that“bandwagoning” explains better the joining of smaller states to institutions and their function (Rosecrance, 2001 p. 140 -1, Gruber, 2000, Schweller, 1994). Within NATO there is said to a collective commitment for security anddefense this would mean states join voluntarily on behave of this collective consensus. [ 50 ; 92%] Others realists argue that in the modern world political formations go beyond “balancing” and “bandwagoning” and there are morestrategies such as “bonding”, “binding”, “buffering” in the globalized world (Chong, 2003).

[ 50 ; 71%] Institutionalists tend to agree more on the way international organizations function and theimportance of the organizations. Gourevitch states that “. [ 50 ; 82%] commitment to an institution requires a belief that it will bring benefits that outweigh the costs of membership” (Goure vitch, 1999 p. 141). [ 56 ; 100%] NATO provides autonomy in two primary ways: it negotiates relocation of technology for improved enforcement of security and it grants legitimacy for offensive military operations. [ 56 ; 78%] It has also been said that the power struggle among NATO allies is fueled by members trying to use the alliance in different ways in order to obtain theirpreferred interests from the others at the lowest price possible. What is interesting in Gourevitch's analysis is that he inserts the subjective perception of each state. [ 50 ; 68%] This way he argues that because of this perception plays a role to its behavior within every framework of an international organization. NATO is a poolof individual states and different interests affecting its behavior and at the same time keeping it balances. [ 50 ; 100%] As Moravscik puts it the strategy of an actor is complex; [ 50 ; 91%] “societal ideas, interests, and institutions influence state behavior by shaping state preferences” (Moravscik 1997: 513).

In Sum, NATO has kept its importance through the willingness of states to keep their membership and protect theircommon interests next to their individual interests. NATO is still a functional organization which gives members asource of control in a world of chaos. NATO has given cooperation and reconstruction to the international order(Cooper, 2003). The clear advantage of the significance of NATO will be later explained in case study of the missionin Afghanistan. To put the theoretical basis into context we will now look at the historical overview of the EU-US cooperation since 1989.

Historical Overview

Divergence EU-US after 1989

During the Cold War the United States saw Europe as one of its main priorities. In addition, Europe was the main focus of the US confrontation with the Soviet Union. Therefore, for Europe, America was its guardian and protector,enabling it to emerge from the negative effects of war and providing it with the confidence which was needed toovercome the severe differences that had produced two world wars within three decades. (Lindberg, p. 41)However, security expectations and priorities started to shift between the United States and Europe during the ColdWar. Once the Cold War had come to an end, the necessity to integrate U.S and European foreign policy diminished. America's and Europe's immediate concerns increasingly diverged (Lindberg, p. 41). As the Soviet Union was nolonger a threat, both Europe and the United States had to find new security priorities. This however, did not go on the basis of transatlantic cooperation. Because of the loss of the main threat the balance of power system no longerworked and there was no clear focus anymore for the international security policy (Cooper, 2003). The Cold war ended the EU-US shared threat perceptions and their sharing interests in maintaining a Eurocentric security focus. A“creeping divergence of strategic interest” evolved which led to different security expectations and priorities acrossthe Atlantic (Mackenstein & Marsh, 2005).

After the Cold war there was a period of searching for anew reality in the field of foreign security for both Europeand the United States. The old balance of power system had fallen apart and there was no longer the threat of the Warsaw pact. The instability in Russia and in the Balkans led to increasing disunity and chaos in the internationalenvironment (Cooper, 2003). The impact of the end of the Cold war on the international system put the Americanunilateral security policy in question as to whether it could be sustained in the future. In addition, there was anothercontradiction as European unity increased together with disunity and chaos in the world. The changing internationalenvironment needed to review its transnational cooperation, and whether this should be a multipolar or a unipolar international system (Cooper, 2003).

As a consequence, NATO had to stand up and face this new reality of security and chaos especially in the Balkans.Although there were no disagreements on the final goals of foreign security policy, there were major differences inhow these goals should be reached. Symmetric conflict and bipolarity had come to an end. As a consequence, anera had begun of asymmetric conflicts between regions, religions, rebels and terrorist groups. Due to the conflicts complexities, made civilization and order uncontrollable (Cooper, 2003). Because civilization and order are based oncontrol of violence, chaos is inevitable when there is no order or civilization (Cooper, 2003). There was a loss of control on how to handle the arising chaos in a globalized world. In addition, there were many concerns on howtransnational cooperation should work. Also, European capabilities of handling the chaotic international environmentwere put into question. European integration increased and the European Union developed itself into a post-modern/ post-sovereign model. In confrontation with the US, concerns of whether the EU can effectively tacklemajor international challenges without the US have been important ever since the end of the Cold war. Cooper'sconcept of the EU as a post-modern post- sovereign model believes that it adds another dimension to internationalsecurity such as civilian power. However, the US believes that the EU lacks military strength which determines

ES Style Sheet

BA European Studies

28

power (Cooper, 2003). The diverging priorities after the Cold war made the transnational cooperation complex butnot necessarily less important. The fundamental interests were there, distorted by different values and a different perception of the world and international issues (Cooper, 2003).

September 11: A significant turning point.

The EU has been constantly criticized over the last decade, starting with the end of the Cold War up to the “high-sounding language” (Hill, 2004) of the Treaty of Maastricht. However, 11 September 2001 seemed to be aparticularly significant exposure of the EUs weaknesses. As a consequence, re-emphasizing the importance of the very instrument the EU does not command, that of organized violence (Hill, 2004). Transatlantic divergence was at its peak as the EU started to focus mostly on further internal integration and enlargement. This point in time hasalso been seen as America's strategic shift away from Europe (Gordon, 2003). The American perspective included Europe as a crucial partner in U.S efforts to defeat this new terrorist threat. However, this would only work underthe circumstances that Europe would support the fundamental course of action that Washington had inmind(Gordon, 2003). The change on policy grounds that had taken place is that Europe was no longer the object ofAmerican policy but that Europe had been given a supporting role. After September 11 the US returned to a moretraditional, military focused security perspective while the EU and different member states continued to articulate understanding of security policy mainly focused on diplomacy. A split between the “big Five” occurred as soon asmilitary support to fight Al Qaeda was needed (Hill, 2004). Both the Franco-German and the Anglo-Spanish-Italian axes wished to mobilize the EU in their favor, and argued that their own position on Iraq was the best way ofpromoting Europe's long-term role in the world (Hill, 2004). However, for all the anti-Americanism that is present in different parts of Western Europe, and widespread opposition to right-wing Republicanism, democratic Europeans had not forgotten about the American sacrifices in two world wars. Western European countries know which sidethey are on in any conflict between pluralism and theocracy (Hill, 2004).

[ 136 ; 72%] Today, Europeans frequently accuse the United States of a one-dimensional approach to foreign policy that reduces everything to the military portion of the war on terrorism (Cooper, 2003). Americans, on the other hand, accuse Europe of being unwilling to support U.S. [ 136 ; 87%] efforts to deal with hostile states such as Iraq or Afghanistan. However, after the attacks the outrage showed by European governments was in everyrespect genuine. By the end of 12 September, apparently acting on a British suggestion, members of NATO hadalready invoked Article V of the Treaty to declare their full support for the United States, if and when it could beshown that the attacks had been directed from abroad (Hill, 2004). By 2 October this was proven and the commitment had been declared operational (Deighton, 2002, pp. 119-20). Even though, there had been concerns about immediate cooperation, the fact that NATO members, 11 of them also in the EU, were willing to make such a fearless commitment showed that the EU was capable of performing under such high pressure and take securitymeasures effectively (Hill, 2004). In addition, the EU's spokesmen had made formal statements within 36 hoursafter the attacks. Including, President Prodi, by Javier Solana, the High Representative, the President of theEuropean Parliament, the two external relations Commissioners, and the General Affairs Council, after a meetingattended by everyone except the Portuguese Foreign Minister (Hill,2004). Conceivably most significant was the Javier Solana's straightforward statement: `the European Union stands firmly and fully behind the United States' –even if some Americans thought later that the operative word here was `behind' (Hill, 2004 p. 146).

Although the fundamental notions of “support” and “cooperation” had been justified, the way to handle the counteraction became a major issue of divergence. Because the United States started a range of increasingly controversialcounter-measures, matters became more complicated (Hill, 2004). Even though, in the early days of the crisis,ideological tensions with the Bush administration, and particularly differences over the environment andinternational law, were set aside, these tensions developed quickly again as the war against terrorism continued(Hill, 2004).

U.S. [ 136 ; 86%] - European differences on matters of policy and global strategy or governance are certainlynothing new (Hill, 2004). [ 136 ; 78%] What is remarkable today is that many significant observers are starting to conclude that the fundamental cultural and structural basis for a transatlantic alliance is diverging. [ 136 ; 96%] “Author Francis Fukuyama, in 1990 was declaring the triumph of common Euro-American values and institutions to be the "end of history," now speaks of the "deep differences" within the Euro-Atlantic community and asserts that the current U.S.-European rift is "not just a transitory problem." Jeffrey Gedmin, director of the Aspen InstituteBerlin -- once a bastion of Atlanticism -- talks about Europe's "pathology" regarding the use of force and argues thatU.S. [ 136 ; 100%] and European views of security are now so different that "the old Alliance holds little promiseof figuring prominently in U.S. [ 136 ; 70%] global strategic thinking." Columnist Charles Krauthammer has not been alone in asserting that NATO -- once the centerpiece of the transatlantic alliance -- is dead” (Gordon, 2003).

As had been mentioned above, transatlantic discord, however, is nothing new. Due to different norms and cultural values, Europe and the United States view the international environment in a different way (Cooper, 2003). Europehas been “A pool of common values and interest which is embedded within a larger system of international relations subject to its own dynamics of action”(Smith, M 2005). Not to mention, the impact two world wars have had onEurope, causing it to act more cautious using preferably civilian power instead of militarily action.

The shifting foreign-policy priorities and potential differences that do arise are accentuated by the diverging ways inwhich Americans and Europeans perceive the way in which they should achieve these common goals. Considering

ES Style Sheet

BA European Studies

29

the fact that there are policy differences, does this necessarily mean that the EU and US relations are diverging as well, or are they coming closer together? When looking at the developments in Afghanistan since September 11,significantly the US and EU are coming closer to one another as military and civilian power. Although their different mindsets might have been present, the United States and Europe have maintained basic unity of purpose inAfghanistan. Their desire to stabilize the country to prevent the return of a terrorist state has led to an ongoing“general” consensus.

Case Study of Afghanistan: A Test of the Transatlantic Alliance.(…)

4.1 Different Viewsin Afghanistan.(…)

Conclusion (…)

References: (…)

©2007 Blackboard Inc. All rights reserved.

ES Style Sheet

BA European Studies

30

ANNEX B: TITLE PAGE

THE CHALLENGE OF EUROPEAN INTEGRATION Supervisor: Kim Holland Dr. R Hendriks ID 0176910

Pigeonhole 121 Date: 31-01-05 Paper Dossier I Final Version

ES Style Sheet

BA European Studies

31

REFERENCES

American Psychological Association (2001). Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (5th, rev. ed.). Washington DC: APA.