essentials of animal physiology.........[leah1289]......vrg
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Copyright ยฉ 2007, 2001, 1988, 1977 New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers
Published by New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers
All rights reserved.
No part of this ebook may be reproduced in any form, by photostat, microfilm,
xerography, or any other means, or incorporated into any information retrievalsystem, electronic or mechanical, without the written permission of the publisher.
All inquiries should be emailed to [email protected]
ISBN : 978-81-224-2429-4
PUBLISHING FOR ONE WORLD
NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS
4835/24, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi - 110002
Visit us at www.newagepublishers.com
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Region containingmicrotubules and microfibrils
Pinocytoticvesicles
Golgiapparatus
Centrosomes
Secretionvacuole
Ribosomes
attached toreticulumEndoplasmicreticulum
Cytoplasmicmatrix
Mitochondrian
Plasma membrane
Nuclearmembrane
Phospholipidstorage granule
neutral lipidstorage granule
Lysosome
Nucleus
Nucleolus
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(a)
Water
Hydrocarbon chain
Polar head (hydrophilic)
Hydrocarbon phase(b)
Water Water
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(a)Danielli and Davson
1935
(c)Robertson1961/1965
(b)Davson and Daneilli
1943
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Hydrophilicarea
lntegralprotein
Peripheralprotein
Phospholipidbilayer
Hydrophilicarea
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Ribosomes
Matrix
Membranes
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Granule
Forming pole
Pores
Cisternae
Inter-cisternalstructure
Secreting pole
Vesicles
Ribosomes
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Plasma membrane
Secretoryvesicle
Cisternae
Endoplasmicreticular vesicles
Endoplasmicreticular
R
v
iv
iii
ii
i
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Nuclear envelope
Endoplasmic reticulum
Plasma membrane
Golgi apparatus
Lysosome
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Phagosome Autophagic vacuole
Early autolysosomeEarly phagolysosome
Phagolysosome(digestive vacuole)
Residual body
Autolysosome
Proteases Proteins
Nucleases and related enzymes Nucleic acids
PolysaccharidesGlycosidasesOrganic linked sulphatesAryl sulfatases
LipidsLipases phospholipases
Phosphata ses Organic linked phosphates
(a)
(b)
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Inner wall
Outer wall Crista
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O2
Complex 1V
Complex III
Complex IISuccinate
NADH
Complex I
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O
C
CH
CH
N
HUracil
HN
C
C
CโCH3
CH
N
O
HN
C
CH
CH
N
C
C
NH2
PYRIMIDINES
PURINES
NH2
C
C
C
C
C
NN
NNH
H
Adenine
H
H
H N2
OH
C
C
C
C
C
C
N
N
H Guanine
HThymine
NH
Cytosine
N
O O
O
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C H
CC
CCN
N
N
N
N
T o c h
a i n
H
HO
H
H
H
H
B
HN H
C
CC
C OGuanine
o c h a
i n
Cytosine
T o c h
a i n
H
CN
CC
C C
N
N
H
H
N
N
HHC
C
CC
C
NN
H
H H
H
O
O
Adenine
T o c h a
i n
Thymine
N
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mRNA
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Glucose Sucrose Starch
+
more
Fructose Maltose Dextrin
+
more
+
more
Fructose Maltose Glycogen
+
more
Cellulose
Monosaccharides(one sugar compounds)
Disaccharides(two sugar compounds)
Polysaccharides(many sugar compounds)
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C
H
C
CH2OH
HO
C
H
C
H
C
H
H O
C
H
OH
C
HO
C
H
H
C
OH
C
H
C
OH
O
H
C
CH2OH
HO
C
H
C
HO OH
H
OH
C
H
O
CH2OH
H
H
HO
H O
H O
D-glucose D-galactose D-fructose
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H R
C
HH
CN
OH
O
C
H
CH
O
O
HH
H
C
H
CN
O
O
HH
H
Acetic acid Amino acetic acid (Glycine)
H C
C
H
C
OH
O
H
H
H
H C
C
H
C
H
HH
N
H
H C
C
H
C
NH2
H
H
C
H
C
H
H C
H
H
C
NH2
C
H
H C
H
H
C
NH2
C
H
H C
H
H
OH
O
OH
O
OH
O
OH
O
OH
O
Propionic acid -amino-propionicacid (alanine)
-amino-propionic
acid ( -alanine)
or or or
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C
OH
C
O
R
C H
OH
C
O
R
H NH2 NH2
C
OH
O
H C
H
NH2
C
H
C
H
H C
NH2
HOH
O
C C
H
H C3 C
NH2
H
H C3
OH
O
C C
H
H C3 C
NH2
H
H C3
C
H
H
OH
O
C C
H
H C3 C
NH2
H
C
H
CH3
H
OH
O
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C C
H
C
NH2
H
OH
H
OH
O
C
H
C
NH2
H
C
H
OHH
H C
OH
O
C
OH
O
C
H
C
NH2
H
S
H
C
H
C
NH2
S
H
H
C
OH
O
C
OH
O
C
H
C
NH2
H
C
H
HS
H
CH3
C
H
H C
NH2
H
C
H
NH2 H
C
H
H
C
H
H
OH
O
C
C C
H
H C
NH2
H
C
H
NH2 H
C
H
OH
C
H
H
OH
O
C C
H
H C
NH2
H
C
H
H
C
H
HNCHN
NH2 H
OH
O
NH
CH
N NH2
CH C CH2 CH CHOOH
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C C
H
H C
NH2
H
HOOC
OH
O
C C
H
O C
NH2
C
H
NH2 H
OH
O
C C
H
H C
H
COOH
C
H
NH2
H
OH
O
C C
H
C
NH2
C
H
NH2 H
C
H
H
O
OH
O
C C
H
C
H
NH2H
HO
OH
O
C C
H
C
H
NH2H
OH
O
N
CH NH2
H
C CH2 CH COOH
H C2 CH
N
H
H C2 CH2
C
OH
O
H C2 CH
HO HC CH2
N
H
C
OH
O
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NH2 โ C โ C โ OH + NH โ C โ Cโ OH2
R1 O R2 O
H H
NH2 โ C โ C โ N โ C โ C โ OH + H O2
R1 O R2 O
H H
H
(C )OH
O
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CH2 CH2
CH2 CH
C
O
CH
N
HC
O
C
O
N
H
CH
O
C
H
NN O
O
CH โ CH โ R2
COOH
CH โ CH โ R2
N
H
O
C
O
C
H
N
CH
H
NH2
N
H
CH
CH
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COOH
Fe
NH2
(a) (b)
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H
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
O
C OH
CH โ (CH ) โCOOH3 2 16Stearic acid (saturated) C H O18 36 2
H
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
C
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
O
C OH
H 2C โ (CH ) โCH2 7Oleic acid (monounsaturated) C H O18 34 2
H
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
C
H
C
H
H
C
H
C
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
O
C OH
Linoleic acid (polyunsaturated) C H O18 32 2
HC โ (CH ) โCHOOH2 7
HCโ(CH ) โCH2 4 3
HCโCH โCH2
HOOCโ(CH ) โCH2 7
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CH2 OH H OOC โ R
CH OH H OOC โ R
CH2 OH H OOC โ R
CH2 โ OOC โ R
CH โ OOC โ R
CH2 โ OOC โ R
+ 3H O2
One mol. glycerol Three molesof fatty acid
One mol. of triglyceride
+
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CH .O.CO.C H2 17 35
CH.O.CO.C H17 35 + 3NaOH CHOH + 3C H COONa 1 7 35
CH .O.CO.C H2 17 35
CH OH2
CH OH2
Tristerin Glycerol Sodium stearate
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A B
DC
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H C โ O โ C โ R2 1
O
O
H C โ O โ C โ R2 2O
H C โ O โ P โ OH2
OH
H C โ O โ C โ R2 1
O
O
HC โ O โ C โ R2O
H C โ O โ P โ O โ CH CH2 2 32โ โN (CH )+
3
O โ
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H C โ O โ C โ R2 1
O
O
HC โ O โ C โ R2O
H C โ C โ P โ O โ CH CH N2 2 2 3H
O โ
+
H C โ O โ C โ R2 1
O
O
HC โ O โ C โ R2O
H C โ O โ P โ O โ CH CH NH2 2 3
O โ
+
COOH
H C โ O โ C โ R2 1
O
O
HC โ O โ C โ R2
O
H C โ O โ P โ O โ C2
OH
C
C
C
C
OH
HH
HOHC
H
OH
OHH
OH
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H C โ O โ C H = โ R2 1CH
O
HC โ O โ C โ R2
O
H C โ O โ P โ O โ CH CH NH2 2 2 3
O โ
+
Structure of plasmalogen (phosphatidal ethanolamine)
CH (CH ) CH=CH3 2 12
HO โ CH
H N โ CH2
CH OH2
CH (CH ) CH=CH3 2 12
H โ CHO
R โ C โ N โ CHH
CH โ O โ P โ O โ CH2 2
O
O โ CH N (CH )2 3 3+
Sphingosine Sphingomyelins
O
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O = C โ
HO โ C
HO โ C
H โ C โ
HO โ C โ H
CH OH2
O
LโAscorbic acid (reduced form)
O = C โ
HC โ
CHOH
CH OH2
O
LโDehydroascorbic acid (oxidized form)
O = C
O = C
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NH2
CH2N
H C3
โ N+C1
โCH3
(CH )22
S
N
OHโโ
โ
โ โ
Thiamine
H
OH
CCH2
H
OH
C
H
OH
C CH2OH
N NCH3
CH3O
NNH
O
Riboflavin
COH
N
Nicotinic acid
O
N
CH OH2
CH OH2
HO
CH3
CH OH2
CH2
HO
CH3
CH OH2 H O
CH3
NH2
Pyridoxine Pyridoxamine Pyridoxal
CH
O
N N
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HOC
H
H CH3
C
H
OH
C
O
C
H
N
H
H
C
H
H
C COOH
Pantothenic acid
CH3
HN NH
HC CH
H C2 CH โ CH2 โ CH โ CH โ CH โ COOH2 2 2
S Biotin
C
O
C
COOH
CHNH
CH2
COOH
O
NH CH2
N N
N N
OH
NH2
Glutamicacid
Pter yl (pteroic acid)o
p-Aminobenzoic acid Pteridine
Folic Acid (Folacin)
CH2
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CH3CH3
N โ CH+
2โCH OH2
CH3Choline
OH
H
HO
H OH
H
OH
H
OH
H OH
H
Inositol
CH2
CHโ(CH ) โCOOH2 4
SโS
CH2
CH2
CHโ(CH ) โCOOH2 4CH
SH
SH
Lipoic acid (reduced fo m)r
Lipoic acid (oxidized form)
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CH3 CH3
CH3
โCH=CHโC=CHโCH=CHโC=CHโCH OH2
CH3 CH3
Vitamin A1
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O CH3
HO
(CH )2 3 C
H
CH3
(CH )2 3 C
H
CH3
(CH )2 3 C
H
CH3
CH3
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O CH3
HO
(CH )2 3 C
H
CH3
(CH )2 3
CH3
CH3 H2
CH3
C
CH3
(CH )2 3 C
CH3
CH3
H H
-Tocopherol 5,7,8, โ Trimethyltocol
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CH3
CH โCH= CโCH (CH โCH โCHโCH ) H2 2 2 2 2 3=
CH3 CH3
O
O
Vitamin K1
CH3
O
O
(2โmethylโ1, 4โnaphthoquinoneVitamin K ;(menadione)3
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H O2
H O2
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(Ox: oxidized)
(red: reduced)
Zn Cu++
Zn++
Cu
B oxA red
A ox B red
or
G = โ10 kcal/mole
G = +10 kcal/moleADP + PiATP
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NH2
N
N
N
N
CHAdenine
H
P P P
O O O
O O O CH2
H
OH OH
O โ
O โ
O โ
O โ
HD-Ribose
H H
O
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
CO + 2NH2 3+ 13800 calories
E n e r g y
Enzyme catalysed reaction
H Catalysed reaction+
Uncatalysed reaction
UreaH O2
Reaction coordinate
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ATP ADP + Pi
Enzyme B(Product)A
(Substrate)
ATP ADP
EnzymeB
(Phosphorylatedsubstrate)
A
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Fe++Oxidation
Reduction
Fe+++
+ e โ
Muscle contraction
ADP+Pi
Nerve conduction
Glucose absorption
Protein synthesis
Energyrequiringreaction
Energyyielding
ATP
Oxidation of glucose
Fatty acid oxidation
Oxidation of amino acids
Photosynthesis
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COOH
C
NAD NADH + H+
O
CH
(Pyruvate)3
(Acetyl CoA)
O CO + CoA C CH2 3
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FP
+2H
2H
FPH2
NADH + H+
NAD
FP
FPH2
NADPH + H+ +
NADP
FP
FPH2
ATP
A-H22e
NAD
NADH2
2e 2e
FADH2
FAD
quinone
hydro-quinone
ADP + P CoenzymeQ
ADP +
2e 2e 2e 2e 2e
2 Fe2+
cyt. b
2 Fe3+
2 Fe2+
2 Fe3+
2 Fe3+
2 Fe2+
2 Fe3+
2 Fe2+
H O2
1/2O2
cyt. c cyt. a cyt. a3
A
Reducedsubstrate
P ADP + P
ATP ATP
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AH2 NAD
A(Substrate)
FP(Flavoprotein)
FP-H2
NADH+
H+
Flavin H2 Flavin
Coenzyme Q
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-
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(1 mole)
glucose
ATP ADP
gl ucose 6-phosphate fructose 1, 6-diphosphate
(2 moles)
3-phospho-glycoraldehyde
(2 moles)3-phosphoglyceric
acid
(2 moles)1, 3-diphosphoglyceric
acid
(2 moles)2-phosphoglyceric
acid
(2 moles)phosphoenol pyruvate
(2 moles)pyruvate
2ATP 2ADP
H O2
2NAD.H2 2NAD 2P
2ADP ATP
ATP ADP
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2
1
103
4
5
67
8
9
Pyruvic acid
NAD
CoA
CO2CoA
3ATP NADH2
CoAAcetyl
Oxaloaceticacid
-ketoglutaric
acid
Citric acid3ATP NADH2
NAD
Malic acid
H O2
Fumaric acid
2ATP FADH2
FAD
Succinic acidCoA
GTP
1ATP
GDP
Pi H O2
Succinylacid
NADH2
3ATP
NADCoA
CO2
CO2
Oxalosuccinic acid
3ATP
NAD
NADPH2
Isocitricacid
CITRIC ACID CYCLE
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-
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CONH2
NH2
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k
k
1
2
k
k
3
4
B
A
V2
C
SKmO
V2
V
Vmax
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Energy contentof reactants
Enzyme lowers energy barrierso that E < EA A
E
(withoutheat orenzyme)
A E (with heat)A
E (with enzyme)A
Products6CO + 6H O2 2
Gยฐ
ReactantsC H O + 6O6 12 6 2
Heat raises energycontent of reactants
so that E < EA A
Progress of reaction
U
V|
W|
U
V|
W|
U
V
||
W
||
U
V
||||
W
||||
HeatingThis difference equals
(E โ EA A) since heating
raises the energy contentof the products as wellas that of the reactants
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E S E + S Complex
Non essentialresidues
Structuralresidues
Catalytic residues
Active site
Binding residues
Active site
Enzyme
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Enzyme concentration
V e l o c i t y o f
r e a c t i o n
O
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Optimum pH
O Low pH High
V e l o c i t y o f
r e a c t i o n
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1/V
โ 1/Km
O
+ Inhibitor
No inhibitor
1/v
1/(S)
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EI
ES
EIS EI + PE
E + P
+ I
+ S
+ I
+ S
M o r e
i n h i b i
t o r
I n h i b i
t o r
N o i n h
i b i t o r
1/V
1/Vmax
โ1/Km
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20
40
60
80
100
20 40 60 80 100
(1)
(2)
0
Allosteric enzyme
Vmax
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-
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A
B
C
D
E
P
E1
E2
E3
E4
E5
S u b s t r a t e
A c t i v a t i o n
F e e d b a c k
I nh i b i t i on
Initial substrate
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-
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-
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-
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-
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NH2
R. CH โ 2H
COOH
NH
R. C
COOA
O
R. C + NH3
COOH
H O2
amino acid imino acid keto acid
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