essentials of animal physiology.........[leah1289]......vrg

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    Copyright ยฉ 2007, 2001, 1988, 1977 New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers

    Published by New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers

    All rights reserved.

    No part of this ebook may be reproduced in any form, by photostat, microfilm,

    xerography, or any other means, or incorporated into any information retrievalsystem, electronic or mechanical, without the written permission of the publisher.

     All inquiries should be emailed to [email protected]

    ISBN : 978-81-224-2429-4

    PUBLISHING FOR ONE WORLD

    NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS

    4835/24, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi - 110002

    Visit us at www.newagepublishers.com

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    Region containingmicrotubules and microfibrils

    Pinocytoticvesicles

    Golgiapparatus

    Centrosomes

    Secretionvacuole

    Ribosomes

    attached toreticulumEndoplasmicreticulum

    Cytoplasmicmatrix

    Mitochondrian

    Plasma membrane

    Nuclearmembrane

    Phospholipidstorage granule

    neutral lipidstorage granule

    Lysosome

    Nucleus

    Nucleolus

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    (a)

    Water

    Hydrocarbon chain

    Polar head (hydrophilic)

    Hydrocarbon phase(b)

    Water Water

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    (a)Danielli and Davson

    1935

    (c)Robertson1961/1965

    (b)Davson and Daneilli

    1943

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    Hydrophilicarea

    lntegralprotein

    Peripheralprotein

    Phospholipidbilayer

    Hydrophilicarea

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    Ribosomes

    Matrix

    Membranes

     

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    Granule

    Forming pole

    Pores

    Cisternae

    Inter-cisternalstructure

    Secreting pole

    Vesicles

    Ribosomes

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    Plasma membrane

    Secretoryvesicle

    Cisternae

    Endoplasmicreticular vesicles

    Endoplasmicreticular

    R

    v

    iv

    iii

    ii

    i

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    Nuclear envelope

    Endoplasmic reticulum

    Plasma membrane

    Golgi apparatus

    Lysosome

        

        

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    Phagosome   Autophagic vacuole

    Early autolysosomeEarly phagolysosome

    Phagolysosome(digestive vacuole)

    Residual body

    Autolysosome

    Proteases   Proteins

    Nucleases and related enzymes   Nucleic acids

    PolysaccharidesGlycosidasesOrganic linked sulphatesAryl sulfatases

    LipidsLipases phospholipases

    Phosphata ses Organic linked phosphates

    (a)

    (b)

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    Inner wall

    Outer wall Crista

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    O2

    Complex 1V

    Complex III

    Complex IISuccinate

    NADH

    Complex I

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    O

    C

    CH

    CH

    N

    HUracil

    HN

    C

    C

    Cโ€”CH3

    CH

    N

    O

    HN

    C

    CH

    CH

    N

    C

    C

    NH2

    PYRIMIDINES

    PURINES

    NH2

    C

    C

    C

    C

    C

    NN

    NNH

    H

    Adenine

    H

    H

    H N2

    OH

    C

    C

    C

    C

    C

    C

    N

    N

    H   Guanine

    HThymine

    NH

    Cytosine

    N

    O O

    O

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    C H

    CC

    CCN

    N

    N

    N

    N

    T    o  c   h   

    a   i    n  

    H

    HO

    H

    H

    H

    H

    B

    HN   H

    C

    CC

    C   OGuanine

     o c  h a

      i  n

    Cytosine

    T    o  c   h   

    a   i    n  

    H

    CN

    CC

    C C

    N

    N

    H

    H

    N

    N

    HHC

    C

    CC

    C

    NN

    H

    H H

    H

    O

    O

    Adenine

      T o c  h a

     i n

    Thymine

    N

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    mRNA

     

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    Glucose Sucrose Starch

    +

    more

    Fructose Maltose Dextrin

    +

    more

    +

    more

    Fructose   Maltose   Glycogen

    +

    more

    Cellulose

    Monosaccharides(one sugar compounds)

    Disaccharides(two sugar compounds)

    Polysaccharides(many sugar compounds)

     

     

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    C

    H

    C

    CH2OH

    HO

    C

    H

    C

    H

    C

    H

         H     O

    C

    H

    OH

    C

    HO

    C

    H

    H

    C

    OH

    C

    H

    C

    OH

    O

    H

    C

    CH2OH

    HO

    C

    H

    C

    HO   OH

    H

    OH

    C

    H

    O

    CH2OH

    H

    H

    HO

         H     O

         H     O

    D-glucose D-galactose D-fructose

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    H   R

    C

    HH

    CN

    OH

    O

    C

    H

    CH

    O

    O

    HH

    H

    C

    H

    CN

    O

    O

    HH

    H

     Acetic acid Amino acetic acid (Glycine)

     

     

     

    H C

    C

    H

    C

    OH

    O

    H

    H

    H

    H C

    C

    H

    C

    H

    HH

    N

    H

    H C

    C

    H

    C

    NH2

    H

    H

    C

    H

    C

    H

    H C

    H

    H

    C

    NH2

    C

    H

    H C

    H

    H

    C

    NH2

    C

    H

    H C

    H

    H

    OH

    O

    OH

    O

    OH

    O

    OH

    O

    OH

    O

     Propionic acid    -amino-propionicacid (alanine)

    -amino-propionic

    acid ( -alanine)

    or or or  

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    C

    OH

    C

    O

    R

    C   H

    OH

    C

    O

    R

    H   NH2   NH2

     

    C

    OH

    O

    H C

    H

    NH2

    C

    H

    C

    H

    H C

    NH2

    HOH

    O

    C C

    H

    H C3   C

    NH2

    H

    H C3

    OH

    O

    C C

    H

    H C3   C

    NH2

    H

    H C3

    C

    H

    H

    OH

    O

    C   C

    H

    H C3   C

    NH2

    H

    C

    H

    CH3

    H

    OH

    O

     

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    C   C

    H

    C

    NH2

    H

    OH

    H

    OH

    O

    C

    H

    C

    NH2

    H

    C

    H

    OHH

    H   C

    OH

    O

    C

    OH

    O

    C

    H

    C

    NH2

    H

    S

    H

    C

    H

    C

    NH2

    S

    H

    H

    C

    OH

    O

    C

    OH

    O

    C

    H

    C

    NH2

    H

    C

    H

    HS

    H

    CH3

    C

    H

    H   C

    NH2

    H

    C

    H

    NH2   H

    C

    H

    H

    C

    H

    H

    OH

    O

    C

    C   C

    H

    H   C

    NH2

    H

    C

    H

    NH2   H

    C

    H

    OH

    C

    H

    H

    OH

    O

    C C

    H

    H   C

    NH2

    H

    C

    H

    H

    C

    H

    HNCHN

    NH2   H

    OH

    O

     

    NH

    CH

    N   NH2

    CH   C CH2   CH CHOOH

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    C C

    H

    H   C

    NH2

    H

    HOOC

    OH

    O

    C C

    H

    O C

    NH2

    C

    H

    NH2   H

    OH

    O

    C C

    H

    H   C

    H

    COOH

    C

    H

    NH2

    H

    OH

    O

    C   C

    H

    C

    NH2

    C

    H

    NH2   H

    C

    H

    H

    O

    OH

    O

    C   C

    H

    C

    H

    NH2H

    HO

    OH

    O

    C   C

    H

    C

    H

    NH2H

    OH

    O

    N

    CH   NH2

    H

    C   CH2   CH COOH

    H C2   CH

    N

    H

    H C2   CH2

    C

    OH

    O

    H C2   CH

    HO HC CH2

    N

    H

    C

    OH

    O

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    NH2 โ€” C โ€” C โ€” OH + NH โ€” C โ€” Cโ€” OH2

    R1   O R2   O

    H H

    NH2 โ€” C โ€” C โ€” N โ€” C โ€” C โ€” OH + H O2

    R1   O R2   O

    H H

    H

    (C )OH

     

     

     

     

     

     

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    CH2   CH2

    CH2   CH

    C

    O

    CH

    N

    HC

    O

    C

    O

    N

    H

    CH

    O

    C

    H

    NN   O

    O

    CH โ€” CH โ€” R2

    COOH

    CH โ€” CH โ€” R2

    N

    H

    O

    C

    O

    C

    H

    N

    CH

    H

    NH2

    N

    H

    CH

    CH

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    COOH

    Fe

    NH2

    (a) (b)

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    H

    H

    H

    C

    H

    H

    C

    H

    H

    C

    H

    H

    C

    H

    H

    C

    H

    H

    C

    H

    H

    C

    H

    H

    C

    H

    H

    C

    H

    H

    C

    H

    H

    C

    H

    H

    C

    H

    H

    C

    H

    H

    C

    H

    H

    C

    H

    H

    C

    H

    H

    C

    O

    C   OH

    CH โ€“ (CH ) โ€“COOH3 2 16Stearic acid (saturated) C H O18 36 2

    H

    H

    H

    C

    H

    H

    C

    H

    H

    C

    H

    H

    C

    H

    H

    C

    H

    H

    C

    H

    H

    C

    H

    H

    C

    H

    C

    H

    C

    H

    H

    C

    H

    H

    C

    H

    H

    C

    H

    H

    C

    H

    H

    C

    H

    H

    C

    H

    H

    C

    O

    C   OH

    H 2C โ€“ (CH ) โ€“CH2 7Oleic acid (monounsaturated) C H O18 34 2

    H

    H

    H

    C

    H

    H

    C

    H

    H

    C

    H

    H

    C

    H

    H

    C

    H

    C

    H

    C

    H

    H

    C

    H

    C

    H

    C

    H

    H

    C

    H

    H

    C

    H

    H

    C

    H

    H

    C

    H

    H

    C

    H

    H

    C

    H

    H

    C

    O

    C   OH

    Linoleic acid (polyunsaturated) C H O18 32 2

    HC โ€“ (CH ) โ€“CHOOH2 7

    HCโ€“(CH ) โ€“CH2 4 3

    HCโ€“CH โ€“CH2

    HOOCโ€“(CH ) โ€“CH2 7

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    CH2   OH H OOC โ€” R

    CH OH H OOC โ€” R

    CH2   OH H OOC โ€” R

    CH2 โ€” OOC โ€” R

    CH โ€” OOC โ€” R

    CH2 โ€” OOC โ€” R

    + 3H O2

    One mol. glycerol Three molesof fatty acid 

    One mol. of  triglyceride

    +

     

     

     

       

       

     

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    CH .O.CO.C H2 17 35

    CH.O.CO.C H17 35 + 3NaOH CHOH + 3C H COONa 1 7 35

    CH .O.CO.C H2 17 35

    CH OH2

    CH OH2

    Tristerin Glycerol Sodium stearate

     

     

     

     

              

     

     

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    A   B

    DC

     

     

       

     

     

     

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    H C โ€” O โ€” C โ€” R2 1

    O

    O

    H C โ€” O โ€” C โ€” R2 2O

    H C โ€” O โ€” P โ€” OH2

    OH

         

     

     

     

       

    H C โ€” O โ€” C โ€” R2 1

    O

    O

    HC โ€” O โ€” C โ€” R2O

    H C โ€” O โ€” P โ€” O โ€” CH CH2 2 32โ€” โ€”N (CH )+

    3

    O โ€“

     

         

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    H C โ€” O โ€” C โ€” R2 1

    O

    O

    HC โ€” O โ€” C โ€” R2O

    H C โ€” C โ€” P โ€” O โ€” CH CH N2 2 2 3H

    O โ€“

    +

     

    H C โ€” O โ€” C โ€” R2 1

    O

    O

    HC โ€” O โ€” C โ€” R2O

    H C โ€” O โ€” P โ€” O โ€” CH CH NH2 2 3

    O โ€“

    +

    COOH

     

    H C โ€” O โ€” C โ€” R2 1

    O

    O

    HC โ€” O โ€” C โ€” R2

    O

    H C โ€” O โ€” P โ€” O โ€” C2

    OH

    C

    C

    C

    C

    OH

    HH

    HOHC

    H

    OH

    OHH

    OH

     

       

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    H C โ€” O โ€” C H = โ€” R2 1CH

    O

    HC โ€” O โ€” C โ€” R2

    O

    H C โ€” O โ€” P โ€” O โ€” CH CH NH2 2 2 3

    O โ€“

    +

    Structure of plasmalogen (phosphatidal ethanolamine)

     

     

    CH (CH ) CH=CH3 2 12

    HO โ€” CH

    H N โ€” CH2

    CH OH2

    CH (CH ) CH=CH3 2 12

    H โ€” CHO

    R โ€” C โ€” N โ€” CHH

    CH โ€” O โ€” P โ€” O โ€” CH2 2

    O

    O โ€“ CH N (CH )2 3 3+

    Sphingosine Sphingomyelins

    O

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    O = C โ€”

    HO โ€” C

    HO โ€” C

    H โ€” C โ€”

    HO โ€” C โ€” H

    CH OH2

    O

     Lโ€“Ascorbic acid (reduced form)

    O = C โ€”

    HC โ€”

    CHOH

    CH OH2

    O

     Lโ€“Dehydroascorbic acid (oxidized form)

    O = C

    O = C

       

     

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    NH2

    CH2N

    H C3

    โ€” N+C1

     โ€“CH3

    (CH )22

    S

    N

    OHโ€”โ€”

    โ€”

    โ€” โ€”

    Thiamine

     

     

    H

    OH

    CCH2

    H

    OH

    C

    H

    OH

    C   CH2OH

    N   NCH3

    CH3O

    NNH

    O

    Riboflavin

          

     

    COH

    N

    Nicotinic acid

    O

     

     

    N

    CH OH2

    CH OH2

    HO

    CH3

    CH OH2

    CH2

    HO

    CH3

    CH OH2      H     O

    CH3

    NH2

    Pyridoxine Pyridoxamine Pyridoxal

    CH

    O

    N N

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    HOC

    H

    H   CH3

    C

    H

    OH

    C

    O

    C

    H

    N

    H

    H

    C

    H

    H

    C COOH

     Pantothenic acid 

    CH3

       

      

    HN NH

    HC CH

    H C2   CH โ€“ CH2 โ€“ CH โ€“ CH โ€“ CH โ€“ COOH2 2 2

    S Biotin

    C

    O

     

     

    C

    COOH

    CHNH

    CH2

    COOH

    O

    NH CH2

    N   N

    N  N

    OH

    NH2

    Glutamicacid

    Pter yl (pteroic acid)o

    p-Aminobenzoic acid   Pteridine

    Folic Acid (Folacin)

    CH2

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    CH3CH3

    N โ€” CH+

    2โ€”CH OH2

    CH3Choline

    OH

    H

    HO

    H   OH

    H

    OH

    H

    OH

    H   OH

    H

    Inositol

     

    CH2

    CHโ€”(CH ) โ€”COOH2 4

    Sโ€”S

    CH2

    CH2

    CHโ€”(CH ) โ€”COOH2 4CH

    SH

    SH

    Lipoic acid (reduced fo m)r

    Lipoic acid (oxidized form)

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    CH3   CH3

    CH3

    โ€”CH=CHโ€”C=CHโ€”CH=CHโ€”C=CHโ€”CH OH2

    CH3   CH3

    Vitamin A1

       

     

         

     

     

     

       

       

     

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    O CH3

    HO

    (CH )2 3   C

    H

    CH3

    (CH )2 3   C

    H

    CH3

    (CH )2 3   C

    H

    CH3

    CH3

     

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    O   CH3

    HO

    (CH )2 3   C

    H

    CH3

    (CH )2 3

    CH3

    CH3   H2

    CH3

    C

    CH3

    (CH )2 3   C

    CH3

    CH3

    H H

    -Tocopherol 5,7,8, โ€“ Trimethyltocol

     

     

     

     

       

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    CH3

    CH โ€”CH= Cโ€”CH (CH โ€”CH โ€”CHโ€”CH ) H2 2 2 2 2 3=

    CH3   CH3

    O

    O

    Vitamin K1

     

       

     

     

     

     

     

    CH3

    O

    O

    (2โ€“methylโ€“1, 4โ€“naphthoquinoneVitamin K ;(menadione)3

      

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    H O2

    H O2

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    (Ox: oxidized)

    (red: reduced)

    Zn   Cu++

    Zn++

    Cu

    B oxA red

    A ox   B red

    or

     

     

    G = โ€“10 kcal/mole

    G = +10 kcal/moleADP + PiATP

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    NH2

    N

    N

    N

    N

    CHAdenine

    H

    P P   P

    O O O

    O O O CH2

    H

    OH OH

    O โ€“

    O โ€“

    O โ€“

    O โ€“

    HD-Ribose

    H H

    O

    Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

    CO + 2NH2 3+ 13800 calories

          E    n    e     r    g      y  

    Enzyme catalysed reaction

    H Catalysed reaction+

    Uncatalysed reaction

    UreaH O2

    Reaction coordinate

     

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    ATP ADP + Pi

    Enzyme B(Product)A

    (Substrate)

    ATP ADP

    EnzymeB

    (Phosphorylatedsubstrate)

    A

     

     

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    Fe++Oxidation

    Reduction

    Fe+++

    + e โ€“

     

     

             

      

     

             

       

      

     

     

    Muscle contraction

    ADP+Pi

    Nerve conduction

    Glucose absorption

    Protein synthesis

    Energyrequiringreaction

    Energyyielding

    ATP

    Oxidation of glucose

    Fatty acid oxidation

    Oxidation of amino acids

    Photosynthesis

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    COOH

    C

    NAD   NADH + H+

    O

    CH

    (Pyruvate)3

    (Acetyl CoA)

    O   CO + CoA C CH2 3

     

         

         

              

         

     

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    FP

    +2H

    2H

    FPH2

       

     

    NADH + H+

    NAD

    FP

    FPH2

    NADPH + H+   +

    NADP

    FP

    FPH2

     

    ATP

    A-H22e

    NAD

    NADH2

    2e 2e

    FADH2

    FAD

    quinone

    hydro-quinone

    ADP +   P   CoenzymeQ

    ADP +

    2e 2e 2e 2e 2e

    2 Fe2+

    cyt. b

    2 Fe3+

    2 Fe2+

    2 Fe3+

    2 Fe3+

    2 Fe2+

    2 Fe3+

    2 Fe2+

    H O2

    1/2O2

    cyt. c cyt. a cyt. a3

    A

    Reducedsubstrate

    P   ADP +   P

    ATP ATP

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    AH2   NAD

    A(Substrate)

    FP(Flavoprotein)

    FP-H2

    NADH+

    H+

     

      

     

         

     

    Flavin H2   Flavin

    Coenzyme Q

     

             

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    (1 mole)

    glucose

    ATP   ADP

    gl ucose 6-phosphate fructose 1, 6-diphosphate

    (2 moles)

    3-phospho-glycoraldehyde

    (2 moles)3-phosphoglyceric

    acid

    (2 moles)1, 3-diphosphoglyceric

    acid

    (2 moles)2-phosphoglyceric

    acid

    (2 moles)phosphoenol pyruvate

    (2 moles)pyruvate

    2ATP 2ADP

    H O2

    2NAD.H2   2NAD  2P

    2ADP ATP

    ATP   ADP

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    2

    1

    103

    4

    5

    67

    8

    9

    Pyruvic acid

    NAD

    CoA

    CO2CoA

    3ATP   NADH2

    CoAAcetyl

    Oxaloaceticacid

    -ketoglutaric

    acid

    Citric acid3ATP   NADH2

    NAD

    Malic acid

    H O2

    Fumaric acid

    2ATP FADH2

    FAD

    Succinic acidCoA

    GTP

    1ATP

    GDP

    Pi   H O2

    Succinylacid

    NADH2

    3ATP

    NADCoA

    CO2

    CO2

    Oxalosuccinic acid

    3ATP

    NAD

    NADPH2

    Isocitricacid

    CITRIC ACID CYCLE

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    CONH2

    NH2 

              

      

     

     

      

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    1

    2

     

    3

    4

     

     

     

     

       

      

      

       

     

    B

    A

    V2

    C

    SKmO

    V2

    V

    Vmax

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    Energy contentof reactants

    Enzyme lowers energy barrierso that E < EA A

    E

    (withoutheat orenzyme)

    A   E (with heat)A

    E (with enzyme)A

    Products6CO + 6H O2 2

    Gยฐ

    ReactantsC H O + 6O6 12 6 2

    Heat raises energycontent of reactants

    so that E < EA A

    Progress of reaction

    U

    V|

    W|

    U

    V|

    W|

    U

    V

    ||

    W

    ||

    U

    V

    ||||

    W

    ||||

    HeatingThis difference equals

    (E โ€“ EA   A) since heating

    raises the energy contentof the products as wellas that of the reactants

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    E S   E + S Complex

     

    Non essentialresidues

    Structuralresidues

    Catalytic residues

    Active site

    Binding residues

    Active site

    Enzyme

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    Enzyme concentration

         V     e      l    o     c      i     t     y      o      f

         r    e     a     c      t      i    o     n

    O

     

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    Optimum pH

    O Low pH High

         V     e      l    o     c      i     t     y      o      f

         r    e     a     c      t      i    o     n

     

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    1/V

     โ€“ 1/Km

    O

    + Inhibitor

    No inhibitor

    1/v

    1/(S)

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    EI

    ES

    EIS EI + PE

    E + P

    + I

    + S

    + I

    + S

     

            

     

      M o  r e

     i  n  h  i  b  i

      t o  r

       I  n   h  i   b  i

      t o  r

      N o i n  h

     i  b i t o r

    1/V

    1/Vmax

     โ€“1/Km

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    20

    40

    60

    80

    100

    20 40 60 80 100

    (1)

    (2)

    0

    Allosteric enzyme

    Vmax

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    A

    B

    C

    D

    E

    P

    E1

    E2

    E3

    E4

    E5

         S     u      b     s      t     r    a      t     e 

          A    c      t      i    v     a      t      i    o     n

    F  e  e  d   b   a  c k  

    I    nh  i     b  i     t   i     on

    Initial substrate

     

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    NH2

    R. CH  โ€“ 2H

    COOH

    NH

    R. C

    COOA

    O

    R. C   + NH3

    COOH

    H O2

    amino acid imino acid keto acid

     

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